governance of climate change policy a case study of south africa

• Open access
• Published: 19 March 2019

Climate change adaptation in South Africa: a case study on the role of the health sector

• Matthew F. Chersich   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4320-9168 1 &
• Caradee Y. Wright 2  

Globalization and Health volume  15 , Article number:  22 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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Globally, the response to climate change is gradually gaining momentum as the impacts of climate change unfold. In South Africa, it is increasingly apparent that delays in responding to climate change over the past decades have jeopardized human life and livelihoods. While slow progress with mitigation, especially in the energy sector, has garnered much attention, focus is now shifting to developing plans and systems to adapt to the impacts of climate change.

We applied systematic review methods to assess progress with climate change adaptation in the health sector in South Africa. This case study provides useful lessons which could be applied in other countries in the African region, or globally. We reviewed the literature indexed in PubMed and Web of Science, together with relevant grey literature. We included articles describing adaptation interventions to reduce the impact of climate change on health in South Africa. All study designs were eligible. Data from included articles and grey literature were summed thematically.

Of the 820 publications screened, 21 were included, together with an additional xx papers. Very few studies presented findings of an intervention or used high-quality research designs. Several policy frameworks for climate change have been developed at national and local government levels. These, however, pay little attention to health concerns and the specific needs of vulnerable groups. Systems for forecasting extreme weather, and tracking malaria and other infections appear well established. Yet, there is little evidence about the country’s preparedness for extreme weather events, or the ability of the already strained health system to respond to these events. Seemingly, few adaptation measures have taken place in occupational and other settings. To date, little attention has been given to climate change in training curricula for health workers.

Conclusions

Overall, the volume and quality of research is disappointing, and disproportionate to the threat posed by climate change in South Africa. This is surprising given that the requisite expertise for policy advocacy, identifying effective interventions and implementing systems-based approaches rests within the health sector. More effective use of data, a traditional strength of health professionals, could support adaptation and promote accountability of the state. With increased health-sector leadership, climate change could be reframed as predominately a health issue, one necessitating an urgent, adequately-resourced response. Such a shift in South Africa, but also beyond the country, may play a key role in accelerating climate change adaptation and mitigation.

The impacts of global changes in climate are rapidly escalating in South Africa. Unless concerted action is taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, temperatures may rise by more than 4 °C over the southern African interior by 2100, and by more than 6 °C over the western, central and northern parts of South Africa [ 1 , 2 ]. Extreme weather events are the most noticeable effects to date, especially the drought in the Western Cape and wildfires, but rises in vector- and waterborne diseases are also gaining prominence. Global warming, which manifests as climate variability, has already been implicated in increased transmission of malaria, Rift Valley Fever, schistosomiasis, cholera and other diarrheal pathogens, and Avian influenza in the country [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Studies have documented the considerable impact of high ambient temperatures on mortality in the country, with mortality rises of 0.9% per 1 °C above certain thresholds, and considerably higher levels in the elderly and young children [ 11 , 12 ]. Food security is under threat, with, for example, crop yields likely to decline in several provinces, with concomitant loss of livestock [ 13 ]. Moreover, any negative impacts of climate change on the country’s economy will have major implications for people’s access to food, which is largely contingent on affordability. Food access is already tenuous given the existing levels of poverty and as ownership of arable land is highly inequitable, reflecting the particular history of the country [ 14 ].

The impact of rises in temperature are especially marked in occupational settings, particularly in the mining, agriculture and outdoor service sectors [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Impacts, including measurable mortality effects, are heightened in those living in informal settlements, where houses are often constructed of sheets of corrugated iron [ 18 , 19 , 20 ]. In addition, heat increments are pronounced in many schools and health facilities as these have not been constructed to withstand current and future temperature levels [ 21 , 22 ]. Importantly, all the impacts of climate change affect mental health, in a nation where already one sixth of the population have a mental health disorder [ 23 ].

While climate mitigation efforts, especially a reduction in carbon-based power production, have garnered much attention, focus is shifting to more direct, and shorter or ‘near’ term actions to counter the impacts of climate change [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. These actions – commonly called adaptation measures – range from building the resilience of the population and health system, to preparing for health impacts of extreme weather events and to reducing the effects of incremental rises in heat in the workplace and other settings [ 27 ].

Most importantly, the effectiveness of adaptation pivots on reducing levels of poverty and inequities, especially in women and other vulnerable groups. Simply put: if an individual’s or household’s socio-economic status is robust, they will have a greater ability to withstand shocks induced by climate change. In South Africa, however, about a quarter of the population are unemployed and over half live below the poverty line [ 28 ]. Poverty reduction initiatives, such as the highly successful social grants system [ 29 ], thus lie at the heart of health adaptation. These initiatives already reach 17.5 million vulnerable people in South Africa [ 30 ], could be further extended to counter balance the disproportionate effects of climate change on vulnerable groups [ 31 ]. Equally, having a resilient health system is central to effective climate change adaptation.

While health professionals can play a critical role in advocating for stronger mitigation efforts such as a shift from brown to green energy (the government envisages that in 2030, still two thirds of energy production in the country will be coal-based [ 32 ]), the contribution of the health sector mostly centres around climate change adaptation. Several features of an effective health-sector adaptation response bear mention [ 33 ]. Firstly, national- and local-level policy frameworks and plans are required, supported by adequate resources. In particular, emergency incident response plans are needed for events such as heat waves, wildfires, floods, extreme water scarcity and infectious disease outbreaks [ 34 ]. These response plans set out the procedures to follow in the case of such events and the responsibilities of different actors. Secondly, communication is a key component of adaptation strategies, targeting a wide range of audiences, and using social and other media. Long-term communications strategies, such as “Heat education” campaigns, can raise awareness of the health risks of heat waves, and help prepare individuals and communities to self-manage their responses to increased heat [ 35 ]. Then, more short-term response communication is needed when an actual extreme weather event is forecast, making the public aware of an impending period of risk and what steps are needed to ameliorate that risk. Thirdly, the effectiveness of adaptation interventions rests on the strength of data systems and surveillance. Aside from providing warnings of extreme weather events, heightened surveillance is required of diseases associated with environmental factors, together with concerted efforts to systematically document the effectiveness of adaptation responses and to identify opportunities for improving services.

There is clearly a real opportunity to bring the credible voice and considerable resources of the health sector to bear on climate change policies and programmes [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. It is important to assess the extent to which this is occurring and gaps in this response. Some reviews have examined this issue in South Africa [ 39 , 40 , 41 ], but none have done so recently, or employed systematic review methodology. This study fills that gap and presents lessons from the response in South Africa that might be applied in other countries and, indeed, globally [ 42 ]. In recent decades, South Africa has played a leading role in tackling public health issues affecting the African region, especially in the HIV field. The country has the potential, drawing on its research and programme expertise, to play a similar role in climate change adaptation, galvanising action in other parts of the continent. Thus, while the impacts of climate are somewhat unique to each country and even within different parts of a country, lessons drawn from this case study may provide useful insights for other countries in the region.

The paper is divided into two thematic areas. The first covers policy frameworks relating to climate change adaptation, as well as data monitoring and surveillance of climate change adaptation in the country. The second reviews the level of preparedness and actions already taken for extreme weather events, rises in temperature and infectious disease outbreaks. Topics indirectly related to health, such as food security, are not addressed in the paper, though remain of key importance.

Review methods

We systematically reviewed literature indexed in PubMed (Medline) and Web of Science for articles that address climate change adaptation in South Africa. Full details and the PRISMA Flow Chart are described elsewhere [ 43 ]. The Pubmed search strategy included free text terms and controlled vocabulary terms (MeSH codes), specifically: (((((“South Africa”[MeSH]) OR (“South Africa”[Title/Abstract]) OR (“Southern Africa*”[Title/Abstract]))) AND “last 10 years”[PDat])) AND (((“global warming”[Title/Abstract] OR “global warming”[MeSH] OR climatic*[Title/Abstract] OR “climate change”[Title/Abstract] OR “climate change”[MeSH] OR “Desert Climate”[MeSH] OR “El Nino-Southern Oscillation”[MeSH] OR Microclimate[MeSH] OR “Tropical Climate”[MeSH])). This strategy was translated into a Web of Science search.

In total, 820 titles and abstracts were screened by a single reviewer after removal of 34 duplicate items. To be included, articles had to describe adaptation interventions to reduce the impact of climate change on health in South Africa. All study designs were eligible and no time limits were imposed. We excluded articles that were not in English ( n  = 3), only covered animals or plants ( n  = 345), were not on South Africa ( n  = 273), were unrelated to health ( n  = 57) or to climate change ( n  = 56), or were only on climate change impact ( n  = 34) or mitigation ( n  = 31). In total, we screened 86 full text articles for eligibility, 21 of which were included (Fig.  1 ). We also included literature located through searches of article references (one additional paper) or through targeted internet searches. Thereafter, we extracted data on the characteristics of the included articles, including their study design and outcome measures (Table  1 ). In analysis, we grouped studies on similar topics and, where possible, attempted to highlight commonalities or differences between the study findings. Policy documents were located by searching the website of the National Department of Environmental Affairs ( https://www.environment.gov.za ) and the National Department of Health ( http://www.health.gov.za/ ), and by asking experts familiar with these policies in South Africa.

PRISMA Flow Diagram for Review of health-related adaptation to Climate Change in South Africa

Engagement of the health sector in climate change policies, planning and data systems

We located 14 journal articles on health sector engagement. With these limited number of records, results are presented as a narrative, rather than as a comparison of findings in different parts of the country or across population groups. We first discuss national and local policies and practices, and then turn to assess the climate and health monitoring systems in the country.

In recent years, the national government has developed a series of documents covering key legislative and strategic aspects of adaptation. In 2018, the government released a draft of the National Climate Change Response White Paper which sets out the different ways in which climate change considerations can be integrated within all sectors, including health. This document updates the 2011 White Paper on this topic. More recently, the draft National Climate Change Bill was made available for comment [ 24 ]. Little reference is made to human health and scanty detail is provided on actual implementation of the policies. Additionally, in 2017, the second draft of the South African National Adaptation Strategy was made open for public comment [ 25 ]. This is a ten-year plan, which describes key strategic areas, with measurable outcomes. The strategy acts as a reference point for all climate change adaptation efforts in South Africa, providing overarching guidance across the various sectors of the economy. As such, it seeks to ensure that different levels of government and the private sector integrate and reflect climate change adaptation. The implementation priorities for health are listed as water and sanitation, early warning systems for effective public health interventions during extreme weather events, and occupational health.

While national policies set the stage for lower levels of government and funding prioritisation, much of the actual planning for climate change adaptation occurs at the provincial and local government level. Most importantly, each local area government is charged with developing an Integrated Development Plan every five years, involving many sectors, including health [ 44 ]. Health implications of climate change are mentioned in some of these plans, but not all [ 45 , 46 , 47 ]. A survey of Environmental Health Practitioners ( n  = 48), who are at the forefront of implementing these plans, provides insights of the degree to which climate change priorities have been incorporated within these plans [ 48 ]. Though almost all felt that they should play a supportive or leading role in addressing climate change, only half had a budget allocated for climate change and health-related work, and only a third had ever participated in climate change-related projects. Another study involving fieldwork in a range of settings in South Africa reported that, for climate change adaptation plans to be successful, local communities need to be more involved in their design and implementation [ 49 ]. A further study in eThekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal Province noted that few climate change advocates had emerged among local politicians and civil servants, and that decisions made at the local government level seldom took climate change issues into account [ 50 ]. A case study of the Integrated Development Plan in the same municipality examined the working relations between the local government, civil society and private sector actors on climate change initiatives, forming a ‘network governance’ structure [ 51 ]. Having a ‘network’ helped local government shift from ruling by regulations and authority, to a ‘softer approach’, one that ‘enabled’ solutions to climate challenges. For their part, however, the private sector found it challenging to incorporate climate-sensitive actions into their modus operandi and may require financial incentives to adopt mitigation and adaptation measures. Concerns remain that the private sector - and indeed the public sector – view environmental issues as constraints to profit and development, rather than as contributors [ 50 ].

While it appears that national and local policy and planning frameworks can influence programmes and funding allocations, at least to some extent, their impact needs to be monitored closely, using appropriate indicators. These data can help decision-makers to identify programmatic areas to target, researchers to analyse and benchmark programme performance, and civil society and communities to gauge service provision in their area. The growing and shifting burden of climate-sensitive diseases, however, means that the district- and national-level indicators currently used for monitoring disease and service provision may be less relevant in this new era.

A review in 2014 emphasized the need for developing new tools for incorporating data from climate monitoring systems, for example temperature and rainfall, into Demographic Health Information Systems (DHIS) in South Africa, and vice versa [ 39 ]. The tremendous potential of integrated weather-health data is, however, constrained by differences in spatial, temporal and quality of these respective data sources. While weather data are recorded hourly and in small geographical units, [ 52 , 53 ] health data are often only available in monthly units and at district level. Analysing climate data at those resolutions results in a considerable loss of information and thus predictive ability. Challenges in collecting health data – often paper-based – means that these data are often of poorer quality than climate data, though deficiencies in climate data are not uncommon in South Africa [ 12 ]. Despite these limitations, combining climate and health data can assist with seasonal forecasting, and early warning systems for infectious diseases and other climate-related conditions.

The Infectious Diseases Early Warning System project (iDEWS) project, involving Southern African and Japanese researchers, aims to advance all these efforts, and to develop early warning system for a wide range of infectious diseases, based on climate predictions [ 54 ]. Such applications have been developed to support malaria programming in the country [ 55 ], where temporal patterns in temperature, rainfall and sea surface temperature can forecast changes in malaria incidence and the geographical expansion of disease outbreaks [ 3 , 56 , 57 ]. Further, as shown in a study in Cape Town, close monitoring of ambient temperature, can predict spikes in incidence of diarrhoeal disease, allowing health services to prepare for rises in admissions and outpatient visits [ 9 ]. Similarly, another study across several provinces noted that anomalous high rainfall precedes outbreaks of Rift Valley fever by one month and that this finding can be used to forewarn epidemics in affected areas of the country [ 58 ].

In addition to applications around infectious diseases, health and climate data are analysed in multiple-risk systems, such as the South African Risk and Vulnerability Atlas (SARVA) [ 59 ]. This spatial database allow for visualisation of the drivers, exposures, vulnerabilities, risks and hazards across different locations. SARVA provides more than just data outputs, however, and has developed a range of practical climate services for the agriculture sector, for example. Additionally, Heat–Health Warning Systems in the country, based on increasingly sophisticated meteorological systems, have long lead-times, and can alert decision-makers and the public of forthcoming extreme heat events, triggering a graded set of pre-specified actions [ 52 , 60 ].

While adaptation is classically defined as the ability to deal with change, it also encompasses the capacity to learn from it. Doing so requires investments in research and analytical systems, especially among public health practitioners. Of concern, a collaboration across several countries, including South Africa, noted that climate change and environmental health, in general, have not been mainstreamed within curricula at medical schools [ 61 ]. The group noted that, given the limited capacity in this area, international assistance maybe required to develop curricula and teaching materials. Other studies in have documented considerable gaps in knowledge on climate change among university students across disciplines and the limited ability of these future leaders to engage with others on the topic [ 62 , 63 ]. Overall, the research outputs by South Africa scientists on climate change has grown (around 600 academic publications in 2015), but only 3%, or about 20, of these publications make reference to health [ 64 ]. Of more concern, a report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change group, using a narrower search strategy, located only about 20 papers related to climate change and health in the whole of Africa in 2017, constituting well under 10% of the total 300 such papers worldwide [ 65 ]. Reviews have also noted that little interdisciplinary work between meteorology and health has been done [ 66 ]. But, perhaps most importantly, research investigating the performance of interventions to reduce the health impacts of climate change are largely absent [ 40 , 67 ].

Response to extreme weather events and gradual increments in temperature

We located only 8 studies applicable to this section of the review, limiting our ability to provide a comprehensive analysis on the topic at hand. This section covers disaster preparedness and responses, including of the health system, and the population groups, occupations and housing types most vulnerable to heat exposure.

The government of South Africa has developed Disaster Management Frameworks and a National Disaster Management Centre, [ 25 , 68 ] whose responsibilities include directing the country’s responses to disasters and strengthening cooperation amongst different stakeholders. There are, however, concerns that disaster risk reduction systems operate in isolation from other climate change adaptation initiatives in the country, rather than drawing on the strengths of each group [ 69 ]. While there are robust ‘Heat Health’ warning systems in the country, it appears that actual action plans or responses to heat waves require further development [ 35 , 70 ]. Some steps have been taken to develop these systems in local government areas and the private sector. A case study examining preparedness for flooding in the city of Johannesburg provides useful examples of potential synergies between the health and other sectors, but also notes considerable political barriers to cross-sectoral actions [ 71 ]. Another example of preparedness was noted in a report by a mining company that operates in several parts of the country. The company had developed substantial information, communication and technology capacity for risk assessments, and warning systems for flooding and other climate-related disasters [ 72 ].

Efforts to prepare the health system for extreme weather events or infectious disease outbreaks are hampered by weaknesses in health systems, especially in human resources for health in South Africa [ 28 ]. The recent experiences with the Listeriosis outbreak, the largest and longest lasting epidemic documented worldwide to date, brought these concerns to the fore, in particular the country’s ability to mount a swift and systematic response to disease outbreaks [ 73 ]. There were major challenges in collecting data on patient outcomes during the epidemic, for example, where the mortality status was unknown for as many as 30% of affected patients [ 74 ]. This outbreak and recent extreme weather events present many opportunities for learning. It seems, however, that these learning opportunities are often missed. A review of the responses to droughts in the country over the past century found that there have been few attempts to learn from previous droughts, and that responses to each event were largely developed de novo, rather than shaped by long-term planning and lessons from previous similar events [ 75 ].

Several populations groups and geographical areas in South Africa are especially vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The Draft National Adaptation Strategy in 2017 and the White Paper of 2011, which presented the South African Government’s strategic vision for an effective climate change response mentions the importance of placing women and other vulnerable groups at the centre of adaptation actions. These documents, however, do not expand on this concept and no evidence was located on the differential effectiveness of adaptation interventions among women in the country, and efforts to specifically tailor adaptation measures accordingly [ 31 ]. This is concerning as many of the health and social burdens in the country are underscored by harmful gender norms, with, for example, the country has one of the highest rates of sexual violence worldwide and a very gendered HIV epidemic [ 76 ]. Few studies were located on adaption in occupational settings, many of which may become ‘moderate to high risk’ workplaces as temperatures rise [ 15 ]. A study in Johannesburg and Upington (where daily maximum temperatures may exceed 40 °C) found that outdoor workers experienced a range of heat-related effects [ 17 ]. These include sunburn, sleeplessness, irritability and exhaustion, leading to difficulty in maintaining work levels and output during very hot weather. Aside from commencing work earlier, during the cooler part of the day, no measures had been taken to protect the workers, who believed that sunglasses, wide-brimmed hats and easier access to drinking water would improve their comfort and productivity. In the mining sector in South Africa, several studies have reported that workers’ comfort and productivity can be raised with interventions such as ventilation cooling [ 77 , 78 , 79 ]. Of note, insulation within many hospital buildings has been found wanting, but little had been done to address the problem [ 80 ]. Some hospitals have taken steps to increase use of natural ventilation to adapt to temperature increases and as part of efforts to curb use of air conditioning [ 81 ]. Natural ventilation also reduces transmission of multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis, important as the country has one of the highest rates of tuberculosis worldwide [ 82 ].

Improvements in specific types of housing, especially in informal settlements, could reduce the considerable heat-health impacts of these structures, which include mortality [ 18 , 19 ]. We identified several studies on urban health in South Africa, but these did not extend to documenting the health benefits of energy efficient buildings, green spaces, public transport, car-free zones and active transport [ 71 , 83 , 84 ]. Further, many school classrooms in the country are constructed of prefabricated asbestos sheeting and corrugated iron roofs or made from converted shipping containers. A study in several parts of Johannesburg showed that heat-related symptoms are common in these structures [ 21 ]. The authors postulate that improving these structures would increase comfort for scholars and could raise educational outcomes.

The review sums the body of evidence on climate change adaptation in South Africa. We note that some steps have been taken to develop a multi-pronged strategy that cuts across health and other disciplines, and that helps adapt to the already substantial and future impacts of climate change in the country [ 42 , 85 ]. Such steps are being supported by efforts to build the resilience of vulnerable groups, who have limited ability to adapt to droughts, flooding, changes in biomes and other events [ 84 ]. While key policy frameworks are in place, it is difficult to gauge whether these have been actualized at national and local level. Increased efforts to include civil society advocates, local communities and the private sector may accelerate progress with policy implementation. In South Africa, highly-detailed data are available on weather conditions at very fine spatial and temporal resolution. Health data generally have lower resolution and quality. Additional spatial and temporal disaggregation of health information could provide invaluable data, for example, to help identify critical heat-stress thresholds in different settings and to monitor the effectiveness of action response plans. In the meantime, more evaluations, including ‘dry runs’ are needed of the health aspects of emergency response plans to extreme weather events [ 60 ]. Gaps were also noted in research infrastructure and in efforts to reduce heat exposures in some housing types and occupational settings.

The case study presented here provides useful perspectives for other countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Most especially, the findings could feed into the work of the Clim-HEALTH Africa network, which aims to share expertise, and to inform climate-sensitive policies and planning across the region [ 86 ]. While the network has already supported the development of several adaptation plans, the evidence presented here may contribute to future iterations of these plans and other network initiatives.

Strategies for extreme events – and indeed for all interventions related to climate change – need to be informed by an analysis of the implications for those living in poverty, migrants, women and children, among other groups. We noted little evidence of specific ‘targeting’ of adaptation responses to vulnerable groups. There may, for example, be benefits to specifically targeting women, as opposed to men, in early warning systems and disaster reduction plans. This approach is supported by evidence that, as with many other social interventions, it is most effective to distribute relief kits and house building grants to women [ 87 ]. In tandem with other adaptation initiatives and targeting, the overall functioning of the health system needs to be fortified, though there is much uncertainty about how this might be done [ 88 , 89 ]. The goal is to ensure that health facilities remain operational during extreme weather events, serve as places of refuge and support, and can summon the additional capacity required to deal with the impacts of extreme events. An external evaluation of the recent response to the Listeriosis outbreak might identify important lessons for improving the response to future outbreaks or extreme weather events. Potential links between climate change and that outbreak as well as future outbreaks also warrant investigation [ 73 ]. The health sector is also responsible for developing and testing heat-health guidelines for specific settings and populations, such as guidelines for sports events, which stipulate the temperature thresholds at which different sport activities should be cancelled.

Going forward, there are many opportunities to strengthen data monitoring and surveillance systems on climate and health. The Lancet Countdown has developed indicators to monitor national-level progress on climate change in the health sector [ 90 ]. Six of these pertain to adaptation and correspond broadly to the sections of this paper: 1. National adaptation plans for health; 2. City-level climate change risk assessments; 3. Detection and early warning of, preparedness for, and response to health emergencies; 4. Climate information services for health; 5. National assessment of vulnerability, impacts and adaptation for health; and 6. Climate-resilient health infrastructure. This paper suggests that additional work is required in each of these areas in South Africa. These indicators – and the full Lancet Countdown framework – could be used to benchmark the country’s progress against other nations and to pinpoint the specific areas requiring attention [ 91 ]. Monitoring data could be used to produce annual estimates of the burden of disease and health costs that would be averted by more vigorous climate change mitigation or adaptation efforts [ 92 ]. Such disease prediction models have been used with great effect in the HIV epidemic [ 93 ], where they generated considerable pressure on the government and international donors to prioritise actions and resource allocations accordingly. Additionally, given the vulnerabilities of food security to climate change in South Africa, close monitoring is needed of under-nutrition, agriculture and marine productivity [ 14 , 94 ].

An adequate adaptation response is contingent on the progressive accrual of robust evidence. This, in turn, depends on earmarked funding for research on climate change and health, agile and responsive research systems and, indeed, an adequate number of capacitated researchers. Given the growing attention paid to this field, high-quality evidence with compelling findings could rapidly foment policy changes. Moreover, if the quality and volume of research were raised, it will become possible to make evidence-based national policies, as in other health fields. The health sector in South Africa, with its considerable research capacity, is well placed to lead such efforts. To achieve this, however, researchers in other health fields, such as HIV, for example, would need to take on projects on climate change. As a first step, it may be useful to convene consultations of experts in health, the environment and related fields to develop broad plans for taking advantage of opportunities for cross-learning and action. Some targeted research funding for joint health and environmental projects on climate change could have a considerable impact. The iDEWS project offers an important example of such an initiative [ 54 ]. In the long run, research in this field could be sustained by allocating more time to climate change topics in training programmes for health workers and public health practitioners.

While the review highlights some important findings, the limited number of papers located suggests that the country has some way to go to fulfilling its potential leadership role on the continent, and indeed globally. One area that health practitioners in South Africa could lead on is the promotion of a ‘meat tax’, given their pioneering work on the ‘sugar tax’ [ 95 ]. Curbing the intake of ruminant meat is a key climate change mitigation strategy and would lower cancer risks, among other health benefits [ 96 ]. This is important in South Africa, where an estimated total of 875,000 tons of beef are consumed annually [ 97 ], producing 648 gigagrams of methane [ 98 ]. The principal arguments for a sugar tax – and indeed for tobacco and alcohol taxes – hold for ruminant meat: harm to self and others, and the considerable cost burdens on broader society [ 99 ]. In this case, the harms are mediated through environmental destruction, a change in climate and cancer, amongst others [ 95 ]. Such policies are, however, likely to be vigorously opposed by the meat industry in South Africa, and public health and environmental and social justice experts in the country will need to rally together [ 26 ]. Bringing together the complementary skills of these experts has the potential for powerful synergies and for drawing additional researchers into the climate change and health arena. Similarly, broadening the scope of climate change adaptation to encompass existing programmes that have an indirect impact on climate change adaptation would also increase the number of climate adaption workers. This would also assist in mainstreaming climate change into existing health programmes, and highlight additional ways that the health sector has successfully responded to the problem. Increased attention to these successes might demonstrate the extent to which the sector is leading the field and its potential contribution to overall adaptation efforts in the country.

The study has some limitations. The limited number of papers included in the review ( n  = 22) and the heterogeneous nature of the evidence constrained our ability to draw overall conclusions about the adaption response to date. Likely many additional studies on the topic are published in grey literature sources or unpublished and would thus not be in our search. Moreover, the search would not have located studies of interventions by the health sector that indirectly reduce the impact of climate change, but have not been framed as such. These intervention may include socio-economic initiatives that build financial resilience of households, improvements in housing and control of infectious diseases.

In fact, explicitly framing existing programmes that have an indirect impact on climate change adaptation as contributing to climate change adaptation.

The review highlights several important gaps in adaptation practices. While policy and planning frameworks for climate change at national, provincial and local level do make mention of health priorities, the health sector does not yet appear to be viewed as an essential platform for adaption measures, and health concerns appear to be accorded low priority. We did, however, note several important examples of health sector involvement in adaptation initiatives within local area government and in occupational settings. Importantly, there have been few rigorous evaluations of the effectiveness of actual interventions on climate adaptation for the health sector; most studies are descriptive in nature. Perhaps the largest knowledge gap is evidence around the effectiveness of disaster management systems and the level of preparedness of these systems for extreme weather events. The lack of studies on that and other topics may reflect the nascent nature of the field and that the priority given to climate-sensitive conditions in training for health workers and public health practitioners has not reflected the present and future burden of these conditions.

Clearly, interventions targeting the direct impacts of climate change need to occur in tandem with actions to shore up the resilience of the population and health system. Many health sector initiatives targeting those areas already contribute to climate adaptation, albeit indirectly so. Highlighting the successes of these initiatives and explicitly framing them as part of climate adaptation could mainstream climate change into existing programmes and provide examples of the ways in which the country is already successfully responding to the problem. Reframing in this manner may generate the leadership and momentum necessary for making rapid advances in this field.

Indeed, increased health sector leadership and lobbying may prove pivotal in advancing the adaptation field per se. The explicit framing of climate change adaptation and mitigation as critical to protecting the health of the nation may secure a more vigorous policy and programmatic response by government, and strengthen the engagement of civil society and communities [ 36 ]. Health could be placed firmly at the centre of policies for climate change adaptation and mitigation. Equally, effective leadership would mainstream climate change considerations into all policies for health [ 37 ]. High-quality research, involving a range of disciplines and backed by local and international funding, could go a long way to securing these changes.

While the country has led the way globally in HIV and several other arenas, it has yet to fully assume a leadership role in this field. With increased focus, the health sector could use its considerable influence to advocate for policy change and improved climate governance: it’s time for health to take a lead.

Abbreviations

Demographic Health Information System

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

Infectious Diseases Early Warning System project

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The heat is on: local government and climate governance in south africa.

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 March 2014

Departing from the fact that climate change poses localized effects, this article critically considers from a legal perspective the role of local authorities in the South African government's response to climate change. A brief review of the relevance of climate mitigation and adaptation is followed by an explanation of what these concepts mean for local government. The article then discusses the extent to which the country's environmental and local government law and policy framework provides for municipalities' participation and involvement in climate governance. The article identifies strengths and weaknesses in relation to the local sphere of government's formal involvement in climate governance vis-à-vis authorities in the provincial and national spheres. It concludes that, as a result of their proximity to the effects of climate change, municipalities have a critically important role to play in the climate governance effort, despite the patchwork of environmental and local government laws and lack of explicit, consolidated policy and legal arrangements to this effect.

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1 Betsill , M and Bulkeley , H “ Transnational networks and global environmental governance: The cities for climate protection program ” ( 2004 ) 48 ( 2 ) International Studies Quarterly 471 CrossRef Google Scholar at 477.

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3 See, among others, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports, available at: < http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data.shtml > (last accessed 25 August 2011) and the International Alliance of Research Universities synthesis report “Climate change: Global risks challenges and decisions” (March 2009), available at: < climatecongress.ku.dk/pdf/synthesisreport > (last accessed 25 August 2011).

4 See Our Common Future Conference Summary Report (2011, Volkswagen Stiftung and Stiftung Mercator GmbH) at 80–111, for example.

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11 For a list of Annex 1 and non-Annex 1 countries, see UNFCCC “Parties and observers”, available at: < http://unfccc.int/parties_and_observers/items/2704.php > (last accessed 15 June 2011). Non-Annex 1 countries are mostly developing countries.

12 Government of the Republic of South Africa National Climate Change Response White Paper (2011), available at: < http://www.pmg.org.za/node/28739 > (last accessed 4 April 2012).

13 See CCR Green Paper , above at note 10 at 4.

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15 See “South Africa Millennium Development Goals country report 2010”, available at: < http://www.statssa.gov.za/news_archive/Docs/MDGR_2010.pdf > (last accessed 23 July 2011). See also CCR Green Paper , above at note 10 at 4–5.

16 Date of commencement 4 February 1997.

17 The Constitution, sec 40. The powers, functions, mandates, operational features of, and division of revenue between, national, provincial and local government are discussed in chapters 5, 6, 7 and 13 of the Constitution.

18 See id, sec 153 and sec B, para 1 of the White Paper on Local Government (9 March 1998) (the LG White Paper ).

19 CDA Boerdery (Edms) Bpk and Others v the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Municipality and Others 2007 (4) SA 276 (SCA) at para 37.

20 Steytler , N and De Visser , J Local Government Law of South Africa ( 2007 , LexisNexis ) at 1 – 23 Google Scholar . The objects, powers and functions of local government post-1996 are constitutionally entrenched in secs 152 and 156 of the Constitution. The case of Leon Joseph and Others v City of Johannesburg and Others CCT 43/09 2009 (ZACC) illustrates that the Constitutional Court regards the post-apartheid municipality to be a responsive “caretaker” at the local level.

21 Steytler , N “ The strangulation of local government ” ( 2008 ) 3 Journal of South African Law 518 Google Scholar . See sec B of the LG White Paper , above at note 18, for a definition and description of the notion of “developmental local government”.

22 Sec B, para 1.4 of the LG White Paper , id (emphasis added).

23 The first conference of the parties of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change was held in March 1995 in Berlin, Germany.

24 ICLEI “Local government climate roadmap”, available at: < http://www.iclei.org/index.php?id=1197 > (last accessed 15 February 2014). Local authorities' involvement in the 17th conference of the parties resulted in the adoption of the Durban Adaptation Charter for Local Governments on 4 December 2011 on the occasion of the “Durban Local Government Convention: Adapting to a Changing Climate” (on file with the authors).

25 Center for Science in the Earth System (The Climate Impacts Group) Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean, University of Washington and King County Preparing for Climate Change: A Guidebook for Local, Regional, and State Governments ( 2007 , The Climate Impacts Group and ICLEI – Local Governments for Sustainability ) at 27 Google Scholar .

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27 UN Earth Summit Agenda 21 adopted at the UN conference on environment and development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.

28 Betsill and Bulkeley “Cities and the multilevel governance”, above at note 26 at 143. See also See UN Habitat Global Report on Human Settlements , above at note 6.

29 This view is supported by, inter alia, the progressive approach of organized local government in South Africa and the initiatives that have already been taken at the local level. See South African Local Government Association (SALGA) Local Government Climate Change Discussion Document (2009). The city governments of Cape Town and Durban have for example initiated and continue to drive local climate projects that go far beyond the vaguely formulated objectives for local government in the national CCR White Paper , above at note 12.

30 Wold , C et al. Climate Change and the Law ( 2010 , LexisNexis ) at 1 – 28 Google Scholar .

31 See National Treasury Department “Reducing green house gas emissions: The carbon tax option” (discussion paper for public comment, December 2010), available at: < http://www.treasury.gov.za/public%20comments/Discussion%20Paper%20Carbon%20Taxes%2081210.pdf > (last accessed 26 August 2011).

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33 Government of the Republic of South Africa “Background information and discussion document to facilitate the climate change policy engagement” (2010) at 4–5.

34 The Constitution, sec 151(3).

35 The scope of local government executive and legislative competence is covered in scheds 4(B) and 5(B) of the Constitution. These exclude additional areas of competence that may in terms of national or provincial law be delegated or assigned to municipalities.

36 Rumsey and King “Climate change”, above at note 14 at 1054–63.

37 UN Habitat Global Report on Human Settlements , above at note 6 at 19–25.

38 Rumsey and King “Climate change”, above at note 14 at 1069–71.

39 Dawson , B and Spannagle , M The Complete Guide to Climate Change ( 2009 , Routledge ) at 278 Google Scholar .

40 S Erens, J Verschuuren and K Bastmeijer “Adaptation to climate change to save biodiversity: Lessons learned from African and European experiences” in Richardson et al (eds) Climate Law and Developing Countries , above at note 2, 206 at 207.

41 ICLEI “CCP campaign”, available at: < http://www.iclei-europe.org/ccp > (last accessed 15 February 2014).

42 See ibid.

43 See also UN Habitat Global Report on Human Settlements , above at note 6 at 26–34.

44 Burnell Climate Change and Democratisation , above at note 7 at 10.

45 See J Lin “Supporting adaptation in developing countries at the national and global level” in Richardson et al (eds) Climate Law and Developing Countries , above at note 2, 127 at 128.

46 See, for example, Erens, Verschuuren and Bastmeijer “Adaptation to climate change”, above at note 40 at 207.

47 Dawson , B and Spannagle , M The Complete Guide to Climate Change ( 2009 , Routledge ) at 2 – 3 Google Scholar .

48 Burnell Climate Change and Democratisation , above at note 7 at 1–47, devotes an entire enquiry to showing how, inter alia, resource-based conflicts and political instability in young African democracies can surface as a consequence of climate change.

49 Including, for example, disasters and their impact on housing, access to water and public and environmental health.

50 Steytler , N and De Visser , J Local Government Law of South Africa ( 2007 , LexisNexis ) at 1-3 – 1-22 Google Scholar .

51 For a recent and insightful discussion on environmental constitutionalism in South Africa and several other jurisdictions, see Boyd , DR The Environmental Rights Revolution: A Global Study of Constitutions, Human Rights and the Environment ( 2011 , UBC Press ) Google Scholar .

52 du Plessis , AA Fulfilment of South Africa's Constitutional Environmental Right in the Local Government Sphere ( 2009 , Wolf Legal Publishers ) at 239 –54 Google Scholar .

53 See, for example, Fuel Retailers Association of Southern Africa v Director General Environmental Management, Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment Mpumalanga Province 2007 10 BLCR 1059 (CC) and, further, Kotzé , LJ “ The judiciary, the environmental right and the quest for sustainability in South Africa: A critical reflection ” 2007 Reciel 298 Google Scholar .

54 The Constitution, sec 24(b)(i) – (iii).

55 See Beyerlin , U and Marauhn , T International Environmental Law ( 2011 , Hart Publishing ) at 159 –71 CrossRef Google Scholar .

56 The Constitution, scheds 4(B) and 5(B); see discussion below. See also id, secs 27, 152 and 153.

57 Importantly, it is also only with respect to local government that sec 24 is repeated in the Constitution, with sec 152(1)(d) stating that one of the objects of local government is to “promote a safe and healthy environment”.

58 Du Plessis , AA “ South Africa's environmental right generously interpreted: A focus on the role of poverty ” 2011 (27) SA Journal of Human Rights (SAJHR) 279 Google Scholar .

59 The Constitution, secs 9–11 and 27(1)(b).

60 See, for example, Mazibuko v The City of Johannesburg 2010 (3) BCLR 239 (CC), Beja v Premier of the Western Cape 2011 (10) BCLR 1077 (WCC) and Joseph v City of Johannesburg 2010 (4) SA 55 (CC).

61 The Constitution, sec 152. See further Steytler , N and Fessha , YT “ Defining local government powers and functions ” ( 2007 ) 124 ( 2 ) South African Law Journal 320 Google Scholar .

62 Id, sec 153(a).

63 Id, sec 156.

64 As listed in id, scheds 4(B) and 5(B).

65 See De Visser , J “ Institutional subsidiarity in the South African Constitution ” ( 2010 ) 1 Stellenbosch Law Review 90 Google Scholar .

66 See scheds 4(A) and 5(A) of the Constitution.

67 See, for example, Maccsand (Pty) Ltd v City of Cape Town and Others 2011 (6) SA 633 (SCA), City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality v Gauteng Development Tribunal and Others 2010 (9) BCLR 859 (CC), Lagoon Bay Lifestyle Estate (Pty) Ltd v Minister of Local Government, Environmental Affairs and Development Planning of the Western Cape and Others [2011] 4 All SA 270 (WCC) and Louw v Swartland Municipality (650/2010) [2011] ZASCA 142 (23 September 2011).

68 Systems Act, secs 73(2)(d) and 4(2)(d).

69 Id, sec 4(2)(i) and (j) read with sec 23(1).

70 Id, sec 23(1) and chap 5.

71 Id, sec 26, sec 15(2) of the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act 39 of 2004 and sec 48 of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 10 of 2004.

72 SALGA Local Government Climate Change , above at note 29 at 49.

73 NEMA, sec 2(1)(a).

74 Id, sec 2(1)(e).

75 Id, secs 2(1)(e)(vii)–(viii).

76 Id, sec 2(4)(b).

77 The “best practicable environmental option” is defined by id, sec 1, as “the option that provides the most benefit or causes the least damage to the environment as a whole, at a cost acceptable to society, in the long term as well as in the short term”.

78 Id, sec 2(4)(c).

79 Adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005.

80 See NEMA, chap 6 and the Constitution, secs 231–33.

81 South Africa follows a partly dualist approach to the incorporation of international law in its jurisdiction.

82 See, for example, “Climate action goes local”, available at: < http://thinkprogress.org/romm/2010/09/15/206730/iclei-think-globally-act-locally-climatel/ > (last accessed 22 September 2011).

83 NEMA, secs 11–16.

84 Id, sec 12(1)(a).

85 Id, sec 35(1).

86 Id, sec 35(3)(a).

87 See generally, Rosenau , JN and Czempiel , E (eds) Governance Without Government: Order and Change in World Politics ( 1992 , Cambridge University Press ) CrossRef Google Scholar .

88 The Constitution, sec 156.

89 NEMA, sec 46.

90 AQA, sec 2(a)(i).

91 Id, sec 16.

92 See id, secs 36–49.

93 Id, sec 39.

94 Birnie , P , Boyle , A and Redgwell , C International Law and the Environment ( 2009 , Oxford University Press ) at 583–84 Google Scholar .

95 Biodiversity Act, sec 44.

96 Id, sec 45.

97 For example: the Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992; the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972; the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, 1979; and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 1973.

98 PAA, sec 38(1)(a).

99 Id, sec 41.

100 ICMA, sec 2(c).

101 Id, sec 49.

102 Waste, Act, sec 12.

103 See Academy of Science of South Africa Towards a Low Carbon City: Focus on Durban ( 2011 , ASSAF ) at 111 –12 Google Scholar .

104 See id at 112.

105 Department of Environmental Affairs “Municipal waste sector plan” (government notice 270) (30 March 2012) Government Gazette 35206 . In the notice the minister expressly states that the plan must be implemented immediately.

106 Kotzé , LJ “ Phiri, the plight of the poor and the perils of climate change: Time to rethink environmental and socio-economic rights in South Africa? ” ( 2010 ) 2 ( 1 ) Journal of Human Rights and the Environment 135 Google Scholar .

107 Reg 3 in GN R 509, Government Gazette of 8 June 2001, read with the WSA.

108 This was recently confirmed by the Constitutional Court in Mazibuko v City of Johannesburg (2009) JDR 1030 (CC).

109 WSA, secs 11–21.

110 Id, sec 11(3).

111 Id, sec 12.

112 Id, sec 13.

113 Academy of Science of South Africa Towards a Low Carbon City , above at note 103 at 109–10.

114 DMA, sec 1.

115 Id, sec 23(4).

116 Id, sec 42(1).

117 Id, secs 51–53.

118 Academy of Science of South Africa Towards a Low Carbon City , above at note 103 at 117–28.

119 The background of the political and policy developments which in recent years have put climate change on the national agenda in South Africa is discussed in more detail in id at 63–77.

120 Above at note 12.

121 Id at 11.

122 Id at 12.

123 Id at 11–12 and 15.

124 Id at 15.

125 Id at 13.

126 Id at 22.

127 Id at 31–32. Both programmes make provision for the direct involvement of local government.

128 Id at 32.

129 See B Never “Who drives change? Comparing the evolution of domestic climate governance in India and South Africa” (German Institute of Global and Area Studies working paper 174) (2011) at 5.

130 CCR White Paper , above at note 12 at 97.

133 See the Constitution, secs 156(4)(a)–(b).

134 CCR White Paper , above at note 12 at 36–37.

135 Id at 39 and 46.

136 Chaps 2 and 7.

137 This should be done in line with the provisions on co-operative governance. See the Constitution and the Intergovernmental Relations Framework Act 13 of 2005, sec 41.

138 The Systems Act, chap 5.

139 Similar to the UK Climate Change Act of 2008, for example. For a discussion of the legal implications of this act, see Macrory , R “ The UK Climate Change Act - Towards a brave new legal world? ” in Backer , IL et al. (eds) Pro Natura ( 2012 , Universiteitsforlaget ) 306 Google Scholar .

140 See Simeon , R and Murray , C “ Multi-sphere governance in South Africa: An interim assessment ” ( 2001 ) 31 ( 4 ) Publius 65 at 66 – 67 CrossRef Google Scholar .

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• Volume 58, Issue 1
• Anél du Plessis and Louis J Kotzé
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021855314000047

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Seizing the moment in South Africa: overcoming climate policy governance challenges

Climate policy has taken a particular hit during a 10-year period of political corruption and uncertainty in South Africa but now the country has a chance to get back on track.

The past 10 years have been a period of turmoil for South Africa , characterised by corruption and, as increasing evidence shows , ‘state capture’ by private interests. The true extent of the situation is only now being slowly revealed.

Nearly every sector has been affected in some way, the impacts rippling through the economy, whether through annual electricity price rises, fuel price inflation, crumbling infrastructure or interference in vital institutions. Perhaps less obvious but just as damaging in the medium to long term is the impact on policymaking and the speed of policy implementation.

Climate change policy is one such area in which these longer-term impacts could resonate. Here we summarise some of the consequences and impacts of these 10 years, described in more depth in our new policy report .

Policy uncertainty over the last 10 years has been damaging for climate action

While South Africa’s previous President, Jacob Zuma, publicly supported climate action in international fora, including the Paris Agreement on climate change, substantive domestic action under his watch was less evident, particularly during the latter half of his presidency. Indeed, this period was characterised by delays, disagreement and divergence in the development and implementation of policies designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions or adapt to climate change impacts.

Zuma’s leadership saw near-annual cabinet minister reshuffles, including, frequently, at critical ministries involved in climate policy design – the Department of Energy and the National Treasury (from which Zuma controversially dismissed minister of finance Nhlanhla Nene in December 2015 in what was dubbed ‘ Nenegate ’). There were also frequent changes to the senior management of critical state-owned enterprises (SoEs) responsible for implementing climate-related policies. For example, the state electricity utility, Eskom, has had 10 chief executive officers, six chairpersons, and multiple other changes at senior management level over the past 10 years.

Leadership changes and interference over the Zuma years introduced much uncertainty around important policies and programmes including the Integrated Resource Plan (IRP), which determines South Africa’s strategy for energy generation. Zuma’s favouring of large-scale nuclear procurement led to the IRP process being side-lined in 2013 as it favoured renewable energy, and then in 2016 it was skewed in nuclear’s favour (this process was also abandoned). In parallel to the political processes around the IRP, the fixation on nuclear extended to Eskom, where the senior management between 2015 and 2017, who were part of the ‘state capture’ project , consistently championed nuclear over other technologies.

These political manipulations led to Eskom refusing to sign purchase agreements with renewable energy providers, effectively stalling the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producers Procurement Programme (REIPPPP) by nearly four years. This was a major blow because the REIPPPP had been South Africa’s largest and most successful greenhouse gas mitigation measure implemented to date and was highly respected internationally.

Policy coordination, continuity and coherence have suffered

While political leadership was distracted and sending mixed signals around energy, there were also often gaps in and neglect of the design and implementation of other prominent climate change policies. The lack of coherence between the carbon tax and carbon budgets is a prime example. The National Treasury and the Department of Environmental Affairs have gone back and forth over their design and alignment for the last five years, causing uncertainty for private sector and state-owned enterprises. Internal disagreements often played out in public consultation forums or announcements, including the annual budget statements.

While the carbon tax was passed into law in May 2019 , these disagreements and questions over alignment for the private sector still exist. The nature of the process has led to mixed and unclear messages from government and increased tension with the private sector, trade unions and civil society around the design and implementation of both policies.

The neglect of climate change in considerations in other key sectors – including industry, waste, agriculture and transport – has also translated into limited action. These sectors have experienced a dearth of substantive climate change related policy development and almost no implementation over the last 10 years. Many of the sector-specific strategies and policies are still in draft form and have been for some time, while other central policies, such as the mandatory reporting of greenhouse gas emissions , were only promulgated in 2017, with the first reporting period in 2018.

These issues are prevalent throughout South Africa’s political discourse and economic structure and are certainly not unique to climate change, but climate is a policy area where constructive interaction between the public and private sector is particularly important for making progress and implementation.

Now is the time to ramp up ambition and implementation

Since Cyril Ramaphosa’s inauguration as President, the signs for climate action have been somewhat more positive. Two of the first actions taken were to restart the REIPPPP and sign the carbon tax into law. However, the hiatus in the REIPPPP and delays to the carbon tax not only set back climate action domestically, but were damaging to South Africa’s investment attractiveness and the country’s international credibility around climate change.

The experiences of the past 10 years cannot be repeated. Meeting the Paris Agreement targets requires all countries to achieve net-zero emissions by around mid-century. South Africa has signed up to these objectives but its current commitments and progress are not consistent or ambitious enough .

With a relatively new president and ministers in critical climate policy roles – including Tito Mboweni (National Treasury), Barbara Creecy (Department of Environmental Affairs), Gwede Mantashe (Department Mineral and Energy) and Pravin Gordhan (Public Enterprises) – this opportunity has to be seized. South Africa can change the narrative around climate action to one of growth and investment, improve the coherence and coordination of relevant policies to unlock these opportunities, and raise ambition in line with Paris.

Progress towards this target will require the provision of clear, credible and long-term direction from government, which supports reducing emissions across all sectors, while managing the transition.  Meeting the Paris targets requires working constructively together across government, private sector and civil society to unlock the immense opportunities action holds.

Governance of climate change policy: A case study of South Africa , by Alina Averchenkova, Kate Elizabeth Gannon and Patrick Curran, is now available to download as a policy report (40pp) and a policy brief (8pp).

The views in this commentary represent those of the authors and are not necessarily those of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment.

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Climate governance and climate policy in africa, a: global climate governance and sustainable development.

Global climate governance was formalized through the UNFCCC in 1992. An outcome of the first earth conference, the emergence of this framework was characterized by shared concerns about the global environment and the need for collaborative efforts to respond to the emerging challenges of Global Environmental Change. The apt title of the 1992 World Summit on Sustainable Development, also referred to as the Rio Earth Summit founding document, “Our Common Future” captured the commonality of the global environmental concerns and the spirit of shared responsibility for the future of the earth. The Rio Principles also reflected and sought to build on the shared concerns. Some of the Rio principles, principally the Precautionary Principle and the Principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibility (CBDR), also became the founding principles of the UNFCCC. 

Since Rio, however, climate governance has increasingly come to be dominated by contestations particularly between developed and developing countries. These contestations are reflected in the struggles over the interpretations of the various provisions of the Convention, the difficulties of constructing binding agreements on many issues such as financing, adaptation, mitigation and technology transfer, and the increasing volatility of subsequent COPs. The impacts of the resultant and rapidly changing global climate governance on Africa needs to be clearly documented, and the implications for the future of African economies and development agendas outlined for policy makers at all levels.

It is important to improve the support that is available to African state and non -state actors in order to enhance the African voice in global climate governance. 2015 will be a particularly significant year for global climate governance, with three key global events taking place during the course of the year. These are the launching of the Sustainable Development Goals, the Hyogo Protocol Summit and the Paris COP 21. The global agreement on SDGs will provide a global articulation of sustainable development in the 21st century. This will clearly overlap with the UNFCCC COP21, Financing for Development and Hyogo Framework (the WCDRR), among other global fora. All of these present concrete opportunities to support the improved integration of African interests into global climate governance.  This work stream seeks to define the practical steps that will be undertaken to encourage sustainable development processes that are mutually reinforcing. These will include:

• Mapping out each process to identify key moments and specific opportunities to improve alignment. ACPC will proactively anticipate how to make best use of the opportunities presented by these global convenings to achieve positive alignment between the process, and enhance African presence and participation by supporting preparatory processes, providing pertinent science based information, and publicizing African positions.
• Aligning the narratives of post-2015 and related processes so that they put forward a shared vision of sustainable development. This will be achieved by summarizing the key objectives of each post 2015 process, identifying its implications for Africa’s sustainable development and delivering these to African policy makers through policy briefs. Newspaper and other articles.
• A key challenge to tracking the impact of governance frameworks is the lack of indicators of progress. ACPC will work towards identifying possible shared measures of progress and ensuring that these are mutually accepted by the main ClimDev partners as well as the beneficiaries of ClimDev (African Governments). ACPC will also support the collection of data that will be useful in improving the implementation of agreed programs and actions. Sharing indicators between different processes can help to improve efficiency in data collection and align implementation efforts.

B: National Climate Policies and Climate Governance

The global climate governance regime has also conditioned the development of national and regional climate governance frameworks in Africa. In particular, many African governments have produced climate policy frameworks such as NAPAs and NAMAs in line with the dictates of the UNFCCC, but have not implemented them in any meaningful ways, or developed national institutional capacities to respond organically to climate change. Some nations have begun to domesticate their climate responses by allocating budgetary and other resources to climate policy and climate proofing many aspects of national development processes.

There is a need to continue supporting climate governance in Africa and ensuring that sustainable development is based on and incorporates climate strategies. To this end, this program will seek to identify opportunities that exist in existing national policy frameworks to integrate climate change into sustainable development policies and actions, support actions that can demonstrate the viability of such opportunities (such as appropriate technology policies, reforming budgetary process to take account of climate change impacts, integration of climate change considerations into major sectoral policies such as agriculture, transport, urban planning, construction and so on. This will be achieved mostly through the identification of opportunities that are available in climate governance frameworks and translating these into policy briefs as well as other publicity materials in conjunction with the communications work stream of ACPC.

On the other hand, the African positions on the post Kyoto climate agreement are still developing in the lead up to the 2015 COP 21. These positions are in many ways a conglomeration of national development interest, and African negotiators and governments will require logistical and substantive content support to project these positions into the global negotiations. The Governance and Policy work stream will, in coordination with the other work streams, support the African participation in COP21. ACPC will also lead the conceptualization, convening and facilitation of the Africa Pavilion at COP 21.

C. Climate Change, Human Security and Social Inclusion

It has been clearly demonstrated that Africa contributes the least to global warming, suffers the most from climate change, and has the least capacity to adapt to climate impacts. Climate change significantly impacts Africa’s development potential, diminishes the livelihood opportunities of the most marginal of its societies, and creates new challenges for social development on the continent. In response to these rapidly evolving challenges, ACPC will in 2015 develop, in conjunction with the social policy division,  a programmatic focus on human security and social inclusion which will seek to improve the understanding of climate impacts on all aspects of social and economic development on the continent, package climate information to inform policy processes, and assist policy makers with the elaboration of climate strategies that seek to mitigate climate impacts and strengthen national and local adaptation initiatives.  A concept note defining specific interventions and strategies will be developed in the first quarter, followed by a series of working papers and policy briefs, and concluded with targeted engagements with policy makers in specific countries to initiate the development of climate strategies.

D: Cross cutting policy and governance issues

The Climate Policy and Governance work-stream will work with the other work-streams to identify emerging policy and governance issues and translating these into programmatic engagement with RECs, African Governments and other consumers of Climate Information.

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Climate change adaptation in South Africa: a case study on the role of the health sector

Affiliations.

• 1 Wits Reproductive Health and HIV Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. [email protected].
• 2 Environment and Health Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council and Department of Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.
• PMID: 30890178
• PMCID: PMC6423888
• DOI: 10.1186/s12992-019-0466-x

Background: Globally, the response to climate change is gradually gaining momentum as the impacts of climate change unfold. In South Africa, it is increasingly apparent that delays in responding to climate change over the past decades have jeopardized human life and livelihoods. While slow progress with mitigation, especially in the energy sector, has garnered much attention, focus is now shifting to developing plans and systems to adapt to the impacts of climate change.

Methods: We applied systematic review methods to assess progress with climate change adaptation in the health sector in South Africa. This case study provides useful lessons which could be applied in other countries in the African region, or globally. We reviewed the literature indexed in PubMed and Web of Science, together with relevant grey literature. We included articles describing adaptation interventions to reduce the impact of climate change on health in South Africa. All study designs were eligible. Data from included articles and grey literature were summed thematically.

Results: Of the 820 publications screened, 21 were included, together with an additional xx papers. Very few studies presented findings of an intervention or used high-quality research designs. Several policy frameworks for climate change have been developed at national and local government levels. These, however, pay little attention to health concerns and the specific needs of vulnerable groups. Systems for forecasting extreme weather, and tracking malaria and other infections appear well established. Yet, there is little evidence about the country's preparedness for extreme weather events, or the ability of the already strained health system to respond to these events. Seemingly, few adaptation measures have taken place in occupational and other settings. To date, little attention has been given to climate change in training curricula for health workers.

Conclusions: Overall, the volume and quality of research is disappointing, and disproportionate to the threat posed by climate change in South Africa. This is surprising given that the requisite expertise for policy advocacy, identifying effective interventions and implementing systems-based approaches rests within the health sector. More effective use of data, a traditional strength of health professionals, could support adaptation and promote accountability of the state. With increased health-sector leadership, climate change could be reframed as predominately a health issue, one necessitating an urgent, adequately-resourced response. Such a shift in South Africa, but also beyond the country, may play a key role in accelerating climate change adaptation and mitigation.

Keywords: Adaptation; Climate change; Extreme weather; Health policy; Health systems; Heat; South Africa.

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The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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PRISMA Flow Diagram for Review…

PRISMA Flow Diagram for Review of health-related adaptation to Climate Change in South…

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Media Coverage of Climate Change in Africa: A Case Study of Nigeria and South Africa

Reuters Institute Fellow's Paper

Evelyn Tagbo, a Nigerian journalist who has worked for BusinessDay and BusinessEye, has written a detailed study of how the print media in two African countries report climate change.

In her study ' Media Coverage of Climate Change in Africa: A Case Study of Nigeria and South Africa ', Evelyn monitored the amount of coverage in two Nigerian newspapers (the Guardian and Vanguard) and in two South African newspapers (the Star and the Mail and Guardian) in two three-month periods in 2009 and 2010. In Nigeria, the two papers published 79 articles on climate change, equivalent to less than 0.1% of the total number of articles published on the online sites of the two newspapers during that period. Likewise, the two South African newspapers published slightly more (96), but this still only represented 0.3% of the total number of articles. She also found that in Africa, the controversies about climate change science in the Western media due to ‘Climategate’ and ‘Himalayagate’ made only a very slight impact on climate change coverage. 

Evelyn concludes that 'the bulk of the publications on the subject even in African newspapers and magazines are culled from foreign institutions and researchers. The problem is that much-needed local angles to the issue are often left out.'

As with all Fellows’ research papers, any opinions expressed are those of the author and not of the Institute.

Image: Germana Giorno

Evelyn Tagbo

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