how to write time in a formal essay

Essay Papers Writing Online

Best practices for including time references in your essay writing.

Time plays a crucial role in writing, adding depth and context to your ideas. However, properly conveying time in an essay requires attention to detail and consistency. Whether you are discussing historical events, comparing timelines, or simply narrating a sequence of events, the way you handle time can significantly impact the clarity and effectiveness of your writing.

In this comprehensive guide, we will explore best practices for writing time in an essay, including how to format dates, express time intervals, and maintain chronological order. By mastering these techniques, you can enhance the precision and coherence of your writing, ensuring that your readers follow your argument with ease and understanding.

Using Consistent Time Format

When writing time in an essay, it is crucial to maintain consistent time format throughout your work. This consistency helps the reader to follow the timeline of events and understand the progression of time in your writing.

One of the key aspects of using consistent time format is to decide on the format you will use for representing time. You can choose between the 12-hour clock and the 24-hour clock, but make sure to stick to your choice throughout the entire essay.

Additionally, it is important to be consistent in how you punctuate and separate the elements of time. For example, if you choose to include the time of day, make sure to use the appropriate punctuation and separations, such as “7:30 AM” or “14:45.”

By using a consistent time format, you can enhance the readability and coherence of your essay, making it easier for the reader to follow the progression of events and time in your writing.

Avoiding Abbreviations in Time References

When writing about time in an essay, it’s important to avoid using abbreviations for time references. Abbreviations like “a.m.” and “p.m.” can sometimes be confusing to readers, especially those who are not familiar with these terms.

Instead of using abbreviations, it is better to write out the time references in full. For example, instead of writing “3 p.m.,” you can write “three o’clock in the afternoon.” This not only makes your writing clearer but also helps to avoid any confusion for your readers.

Additionally, when writing about specific times, it is best to use the 24-hour clock format to avoid any confusion. For example, instead of writing “6:30 p.m.,” you can write “18:30.”

Differentiating Between Time Zones

When writing about time in an essay, it is crucial to differentiate between different time zones to avoid confusion. Using the appropriate time zone is essential for clear communication and accuracy. Here are some best practices to keep in mind:

1. Specify the Time Zone: Always specify the time zone when mentioning a particular time to provide clarity for your readers. For example, if you mention an event happening at 3:00 PM, specify whether it is in Eastern Standard Time (EST), Central Standard Time (CST), Pacific Standard Time (PST), or any other time zone.

2. Convert Time Zones: If you need to convert a time from one time zone to another, make sure to do so accurately. Use reliable sources or online converters to ensure the correct conversion. Double-check your calculations to avoid errors.

3. Be Consistent: When mentioning time zones throughout your essay, be consistent in your usage. Stick to one format and style to maintain coherence and avoid confusion for your readers.

4. Consider Your Audience: Take into account the location of your audience when mentioning time zones. If you have an international audience, consider using Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) or Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) as a reference point to provide a universal frame of reference.

By following these guidelines, you can effectively differentiate between time zones in your essay and ensure clarity and accuracy in your writing.

Integrating Time Markers Naturally

When incorporating time markers in your essay, it is essential to do so seamlessly and naturally. This means that you should avoid simply listing dates or times without any context or relevance to your discussion. Instead, strive to integrate time markers in a way that adds depth and clarity to your writing.

One effective way to integrate time markers naturally is to use them to provide context or establish a timeline for your argument. For example, you might use time markers to show the progression of events or to highlight the significance of a particular moment in history.

Additionally, consider using transitional phrases to smoothly introduce time markers into your writing. Phrases like “In the past,” “Throughout history,” or “In recent years,” can help connect your ideas and make the passage of time feel organic and fluid.

Overall, the key to integrating time markers naturally is to use them strategically and thoughtfully to enhance the coherence and flow of your essay. By carefully weaving time markers into your writing, you can provide readers with a clear sense of the temporal context of your argument and strengthen the overall impact of your work.

Clarifying AM and PM Notations

When writing time in an essay, it is important to clarify whether the time is in the morning (AM) or the afternoon/evening (PM). This distinction is crucial for readers to accurately interpret the time reference.

Here are some best practices for using AM and PM notations:

• Use “AM” to indicate times from midnight to noon.
• Use “PM” to indicate times from noon to midnight.
• Always include a space between the time and the AM or PM notation (e.g., 9:00 AM).
• When indicating noon, use “12:00 PM” to avoid confusion with midnight.
• Avoid using “12:00 AM” to represent midnight; instead, use “12:00 PM”.

By following these guidelines, you can ensure clarity and precision when writing time references in your essays.

Providing Context for Relative Time Expressions

When writing about time in an essay, it is important to provide context for relative time expressions. This helps the reader understand the timeline of events and creates a clear and coherent narrative. One way to provide context is to use transition words and phrases that indicate the order of events, such as “before,” “after,” “during,” and “while.”

Another way to provide context is to use specific dates, years, or time frames to anchor the relative time expressions. For example, instead of saying “recently” or “a long time ago,” specify the time period to give the reader a more concrete understanding of when the events occurred.

By providing context for relative time expressions, you can enhance the clarity and coherence of your writing, making it easier for readers to follow the timeline of events and understand the progression of your ideas.

Checking for Time Accuracy in Quotes

When including quotes in your essay that mention specific times or dates, it is important to ensure that the information is accurate. Misquoting or misrepresenting the time frame can discredit your writing and undermine the credibility of your argument.

Before finalizing a quote that includes time-related details, it is crucial to double-check the accuracy of the information. This can be done by cross-referencing the quote with reliable sources, such as the original text or a reputable publication.

Additionally, it is recommended to verify the context in which the time is mentioned and ensure that it aligns with the overall narrative of your essay. Incorrectly attributing a time frame to a quote can distort the meaning and lead to misinterpretations.

By diligently checking for time accuracy in quotes, you can maintain the integrity of your writing and effectively support your arguments with credible evidence.

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Do I spell out a time in an essay?

When I am writing an essay, do I spell out times? How would I write AM or PM?

How would I write that?

• orthography

6 Answers 6

The latest edition of the Chicago Manual of Style recommends am and pm , with or without periods. They used to be set in small caps, but that's falling out of favour. You shouldn't use these abbreviations with the words morning, afternoon, evening, night, or o’clock.

There is no need to spell out times in an essay, although you might in creative writing or prose.

The important thing is to pick a convention, and be consistent.

According to an article on About.com :

Dates, phone numbers, and time: Use numbers for dates: My birthday is March 16. He was born on Valentines Day, 1975. And use numbers for phone numbers: The phone number for the school is 800-555-6262 And use numbers for time if using a.m. or p.m.: The alarm will sound at 7 p.m. I make my bed at 7 a.m. each morning. But spell out times when using "o'clock" or when the a.m. or p.m. are omitted: The alarm will sound at seven o'clock. I make my bed at seven each morning.

Several conventions exist to abbreviate ante meridiem and post meridiem - with or without periods and with capital or small letters.

11 am, 11 a.m., 11 AM, 11 A.M.

The choice is made based on regional or typographical factors.

"[...] departs at 10:48 P.M." is written in William Strunk Jr. and E.B. White's The Elements of Style .

The correct way to write a precise time when using the acronym of Ante or Post Meridiem is AM or PM in professional writing.

Sources: Common Errors in English Usage The time stamp on your email, mobile phone, digital clock, Microsoft Windows, etc.

• First and foremost let me say "Welcome to EUL." It is a fun place. Or maybe it is a place to have fun. Hey, if it is anything it is a place to talk about whether one should use the word 'fun' as an adjective. Regarding your answer, you are wrong. Of course, you were doomed to err when you answered the question. The correct answer depends on the style the original poster has chosen to adopt. What about the "other" MLA? mlanet.org/publications/style/style_numbers.html And why did your answer not address the previous answers? –  Michael Owen Sartin Commented Dec 15, 2013 at 15:57

“A quarter of/to/till midnight”

“Eleven forty-five in the evening”

Not the answer you're looking for? Browse other questions tagged orthography time or ask your own question .

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How to write time duration correctly

Within a user manual, I need to convey the maximum time period allowed as "365 days 23 hours 59 minutes 59 seconds" - are commas expected between each component? Is the word "and" expected before the last component regardless of the time period name?

• technical-writing
• punctuation
• time-depiction

• 1 Are you following any particular style guides or internal style sheets? Your answer may be in those. –  Goodbye Stack Exchange Commented Oct 18, 2012 at 17:28

3 Answers 3

I would use commas between each component, and use "and" only if the last component is seconds. I learned way back in intermediate school that "and" is only used before fractions (so 10,247 is said "ten thousand, two hundred forty-seven" but 10 7/8 is said "ten and seven-eighths"). I would call seconds the smallest "lay person" time interval — if you're getting into fractions of a second, you've moved beyond regular timekeeping and are now talking science, so it would be formatted differently.

So using your example:

The maximum time period allowed is 365 days, 23 hours, 59 minutes, and 59 seconds, so any longer than that is a problem.

BUT if your time were shorter, it would be written:

The maximum time period allowed is 365 days, 23 hours, 59 minutes, so any longer than that is a problem.

• 1 Not sure about your last sentence. I understand your math approach (fraction), but shouldn't here the linguistic approach be considered? If you see it as an enumeration than an "and" before the last item is the standard way to do it (so not mandatory). Besides that I will never get used to the English habit putting commas before "and" and "or". Even we do not do that (at least not in enumerations). –  John Smithers Commented Oct 18, 2012 at 15:13
• I admit it does sound a little odd, but it also sounds odd to say "ten thousand, two hundred forty-seven" rather than "ten thousand, two hundred and forty-seven." In math, the "and" is a signifier meaning "fraction," so despite the linguistics, I'm sticking with that precedent. –  Lauren-Clear-Monica-Ipsum Commented Oct 18, 2012 at 23:54
• 2 And don't you knock my Oxford comma, dammit. I will fight to the death for the comma before "and." :) –  Lauren-Clear-Monica-Ipsum Commented Oct 18, 2012 at 23:55

I couldn't find explicit guidance in either the Chicago Manual of Style or the Microsoft Style Guide, but what I have observed (and would write naturally) is with commas:

The maximum time period allowed is 365 days, 23 hours, 59 minutes, and 59 seconds.

You might be tempted to write the time in ISO notation (23:59:59), but this is usually used to indicate a point in time , not a duration .

You could also cast it as a limit instead of a duration:

The time period must be less than 366 days.

I sometimes find that the solution to a messy precision problem is to attack it from the other end -- what's the first value you can't use?

• Maybe I am odd here, but I feel off without saying "... and 59 seconds." That is just how I naturally read things like that as you are basically listing off elements of time. –  ggiaquin16 Commented Jul 12, 2017 at 15:36
• 1 @ggiaquin I think you're right, and have edited. Thanks. –  Monica Cellio Commented Jul 12, 2017 at 15:37

You can also use the convention that time periods can be written as digits, like this:

365 days plus 23:59:59 (hrs:min:sec)

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• Frequently Asked

How to Write Time – A.M., P.M., a.m., p.m.

Table of Contents

Let’s discuss the proper way to write time, whether standard, military time or the 24-hour clock. To start, let’s discuss standard 12-hour clock that uses a.m. and p.m. Two commonly seen formats are  4pm  and  4:00pm.  Which is correct?  The answer is: neither!

Both renderings are incorrect. You need to insert periods and a space before the abbreviation , like this:

4 p.m. or 4:00 p.m.

In email, many people seem to be dropping both the periods and the space, but don’t follow the crowd. The prominent style guides do not support that choice. Here is a sampling of recommendations:

The Associated Press Stylebook : 4 p.m.

Microsoft Manual of Style : 4 P.M. (However, Microsoft prefers 24-hour time notations, in which 4 P.M. is 16:00.)

The Chicago Manual of Style  4 p.m. (recommended) Also 4 PM or 4 P.M. (with PM in small capitals)

Garner’s Modern English Usage : 4 p.m. or 4 PM (with PM in small capitals)

The Gregg Reference Manual : 4 p.m. or 4 P.M. (with PM in small capitals)

Whatever style you choose, be consistent. The author’s preference is to always use lowercase letters: 4 p.m.

Omit zeros when the time is on the hour (unless you want to emphasize the time precisely), but include them in a list of varying times like this one:

• 7:00 a.m. Registration
• 7:30 a.m. Breakfast
• 8:00 a.m. Announcements
• 8:15 a.m. Speaker

To make sure you are never doubtful about how to write time, date or any other formatting question, we recommend investing in a style manual.

What do a.m. and p.m. stand for?

While we are on the topic, what do these abbreviations stand for? 

What is Military Time? How Does it Work?

Now let’s discuss how to write military time. Military time is a variation of the 24-hour clock and is a way to talk about time using 24 hours instead of 12 hours. When using the 24-hour clock time, the day begins at 0 hours and ends in 24 hours. 

24-hour clock is widely used across the globe, except in a few countries (notably the United States), which include:

• the Philippines

In the United States, and the countries listed above, we use a 12-hour clock, which splits into two blocks of time: 

• First block: midnight (12:00 a.m.) to noon (12:00 p.m.)
• Second block: noon (12:00 p.m.) to midnight (12:00 a.m.)

24-hour clock time is displayed in four digits, just like a 12-hour digital clock. The first two digits represent the hour, while the last two digits represent the minutes. 

00:00 is pronounced “zero-hundred” and represents midnight, while 1200 is pronounced “twelve-hundred” and represents noon. 

Anything between 00:01 and 11:59 is “a.m.” 

Anything between 12:01 and 23:59 is “p.m.” 

• For example, 0200 (pronounced” zero, two-hundred”) converts into 2 a.m., while 1600 (pronounced “sixteen-hundred”) converts into 4 p.m.

Military time vs. 24-hour clock

There is a slight difference between military time and the 24-hour clock: Military time does not use a separator between the hour (the first two digits) and the minutes (the last two digits).

• Military: 2200
• 24-hour clock: 22:00

Military time pronounces the leading zeros (e.g., 0300 is pronounced “zero three hundred.”)

In military time, the word “thousands” is not used. 1000 can not be pronounced “one thousand.” Instead, it is pronounced one of the following ways:

• “Ten hundred”
• “Ten zero zero”
• “One zero zero”

Who uses the 24-hour clock format?

In the United States, the 24-hour clock is used in various specialist areas, such as:

• Emergency services
• Meteorology

Military time to regular time chart

Military Time- Standard Time

• 0100 – 1:00 AM
• 0200 – 2:00 AM
• 0300 – 3:00 AM
• 0400 – 4:00 AM
• 0500 – 5:00 AM
• 0600 – 6:00 AM
• 0700 – 7:00 AM
• 0800 – 8:00 AM
• 0900 – 9:00 AM
• 1000 – 10:00 AM
• 1100 – 11:00 AM
• 1200 – 12:00 PM || NOON
• 1300 – 1:00 PM
• 1400 – 2:00 PM
• 1500 – 3:00 PM
• 1600 – 4:00 PM
• 1700 – 5:00 PM
• 1800 – 6:00 PM
• 1900 – 7:00 PM
• 2000 – 8:00 PM
• 2100 – 9:00 PM
• 2200 – 10:00 PM
• 2300 – 11:00 PM
• 2400 or 0000 – 12:00 AM || MIDNIGHT

Further reading: Commas in Dates: Writing a Date Correctly , It’s About Time: Clock Time

Great, never thought about it before. Thank you!

I prefer use the 24 hr clock for schedulling, it´s a good option and it´s easier avoid misunderstadings for the people whom just pass a eye in the schedule.

Why dou you think Lynn?

Kind Regards Conrado

I think the 24-hour clock is an excellent idea. I find, though, that many people in the United States prefer a.m. and p.m., particularly if their business does not run 24 hours a day.

My style manual is the American Medical Association’s Manual of Style, which avoids using punctuation in abbreviations (up to and including MD, eg, and ie). It’s one of the hardest things for people to get used to when they start writing at my company. The other hard thing for people to remember is not spelling out numbers unless they start a sentence — even numbers under 10! You can see a brief overview of AMA style here: http://www.docstyles.com/archive/amastat.pdf

Lisa, thanks so much for sharing the information and a resource. It is helpful to know about the differences.

I can understand how new employees struggle with the punctuation and number rules. I am glad you have a style sheet to support the new writers–and the rules.

What about a period of time? If a function runs from 5 p.m. – 7 p.m. Or is it 5 – 7 p.m.?

Actually, in a business context, it is best to ALWAYS use zeros (4:00). Though this rule can “bend” for native speakers, if you are working with internationals, it’s better to have a consistent rule that is applied at all times.

Also, when using the 24-hour clock (a norm for those outside North America), you should use a leading zero to avoid confusion (04:00 rather than 4:00).

Finally, it’s important to avoid being draconian when writing emails. A new register has actually been created for emails: neutral. So there is formal for letters and legal/offical matters, informal for person correspondence and neutral for business email correspondence.

What about if the 4 P.M. is at the end of the sentence? Do you need to put another period?

Sue, one mention of “p.m.” is sufficient when your meaning is obvious.

John, thank you for mentioning international audiences and their needs.

Dyhlon, you need only one period at the end of the sentence. Two periods would be incorrect.

I also write AM and PM without the periods or the spaces. I always thought that writing A.M. or a.m. or P.M. or p.m. was not the correct way of writing that. I guess I am an old stick in the mud, and since I hate change, or newer ways of doing things, I am going to stick with writing AM and PM. It might be wrong, or grammatically incorrect, but it is what I am used to.

Christine, you are not an old stick-in-the-mud. You are on the cutting edge! Only some style manuals have begun to leave out the periods in question. My “Handbook of Business English,” first published in 1914, includes them.

You didn’t know how modern you are.

Is it proper to write: At 4p.m. this afternoon we will be meeting. . . Is it improper to add the word ‘afternoon’ if you have stated that the time is 4 p.m.?

Hi, Ben. It is redundant to write “4 p.m. in the afternoon.” However, “4 p.m. this afternoon” does clarify which afternoon (for example, not tomorrow afternoon).

A better choice is “4 p.m. today.”

Any answer to: “What about a period of time? If a function runs from 5 p.m. – 7 p.m. Or is it 5 – 7 p.m.?”

Hi, Mister Nice Guy. I belatedly answered Sue’s question on May 1, 2010:

One mention of “p.m.” is sufficient when your meaning is obvious.

What is the correct way to write 12 midnight or 12 noon

Is the 12 noon, 12:00p.m. or 12:00 a.m.?

Sally, many reference books recommmend simply “midnight” or “noon.” However, if you are entering that time with a list of other times, use “12 midnight” or “12 noon.” Using the number alone with a.m. or p.m. can be confusing in some contexts, so avoid that approach.

I’ve been searching online for the proper way to list an event day, date and time and came across this blog post. Perhaps you can help? Is the following the correct way:

XYZ panel takes place on Tuesday, September 13, at 11:00 a.m.

Thanks in advance for any clarification!

Hi, Mircalla. Your sentence looks fine. You would also be correct to write “11 a.m.” (without the zeros), especially if you have no other times to list.

Did you notice the time stamps here – capital letters, no punctuation. Now what?

Hi, John. Interesting question! It appears that TypePad, the host for this blog, follows the style of “The Chicago Manual of Style” and “Garner’s Modern American Usage” (see above), more or less.

Dear Lynn, How would I write a time when asking a question?

Example: Are you available at 4p.m.?

Would I have the periods between the “p” and the “m” and then put the question mark?

Your example is almost correct. You need a space between the 4 and the p, like this:

Are you available at 4 p.m.?

How would time zone abbreviations fit into this equation?

Hi, Todd. Search for my post “It’s About Time: Clock Time” in the search box at upper right.

May I say 12:30 noon

Hi, Nina. No, “12:30 noon” is never correct. Noon can only be 12 o’clock–not 12:30.

How do you handle time zones? i.e. 4:00 p.m. CT

Hi, Steve. I prefer to spell out time zones so readers will recognize them. Read more here: http://businesswritingblog.com/business_writing/2006/05/its_about_time_.html

I question the requirement of spaces before the am/pm, for modern practicality uses. Not everyone knows how to use non-breaking spaces, and if that isn’t used, then, particularly on websites and in Email where one cannot guarantee the same fonts, browser width (especially relevnt for fluid layouts, which are coming back into style due to smartphones), etc., the possibility exists of word-wrap causing the time to appear at the end of a line, and the am/pm at the beginning of the next line, like so:

“The fun starts at 7 p.m. and lasts until midnight!”

This cannot happen if you use, for instance, “7pm”.

Of course, the best solution is to just learn to use non-breaking spaces as needed.

Joel, you make an excellent point. I will be interested to see if the writing style guides catch up with your idea.

Thanks for taking the time to share your view.

a.m. and p.m. creates doubt in some contries. i suggest it will be better to use 24 hours clock time.so no doubt is there isn`t it?

Hello, Arvind. I agree that companies who write to people around the globe should consider using the 24-hour clock.

Thanks for commenting.

If you are writing the time range 11:00 a.m. – 1:00 p.m., do you have to include the a.m., or is it okay to write 11:00-1:00 p.m.?

Hello, Patty. It is not acceptable to use p.m. without a.m., as your example does. It would be too confusing for readers.

I can’t find much support for my way of thinking, but using lowercase letters and periods just looks “old school” to me. I’ve worked as a tech writer for more than 30 years (much of it in IT), and it just looks cleaner to omit the periods.

“The upgrade is scheduled for 7:00 am tomorrow.”

“The upgrade is scheduled for 7:00 pm tomorrow.”

I agree that when used in a sentence, the morning designation without periods COULD be read as the word “am,” and yet I don’t worry about this since the context is clear.

That’s my opinion, and I’m stickin’ to it! 🙂

Hi, Kathy. You are correct that reference manuals don’t agree with you, not even “Microsoft Manual of Style,” which was published this year.

I felt the same way about the word “gray.” I wanted to spell it “grey,” the British way, because it looked right to me. But living and working in the US, I decided to give up my preference and use “gray.”

Good luck with your choice.

You would think finding this information would be relatively simple, straight-forward and easy, given the amount of technology at our fingertips. However, I’ve been searching for nearly 15 minutes on this, which is really too much time, and I’m still frustrated. I have the St. Martin’s Guide to Library and Research Documenting, which lists AMA, APA, CBE, and Note-and-Bibliography styles for just about everything, but it also lists abbreviations for time, acronyms, geographical names, and a few other things that are shared amongst all styles. The proper format for time is lower case with periods. It also explains that a.m. is ante meridiem, “before noon” and p.m. is post meridiem, “after noon”. This makes sense as to why the periods are necessary, though I don’t know how consistent it is across all Latin translations like that. For example, “for example” (<--haha!) we use "e.g.", but for "and others" we use "et al." and not "et. al." Anyway, I'm going to go with lower case and periods even though it's a pain. And as for gray/grey- I realize that after I read that, I actually search it every time I write it because I'm never sure. I'm not even sure if I search grey or gray, but since both ways are correct, whichever one I search comes up so I use it and assume it's right. That is probably the reason I never know which is right because they are both right! (I have no idea if that last part made sense or not.) 🙂

Hello, AC. Life is full of complexity, isn’t it?

I am happy to tell you that the “et” in “et al.” has no period because it is not an abbreviation. The phrase when spelled out is “et alia.”

Regarding “grey” and “gray,” “gray” is preferred in the United States. I am not certain which is preferred in other countries.

Thank you for stopping by.

What is the correct order/style when you write a sentence which contains following parts: time, day, month, year, day of the week? What is the correct order of those parts? Thanks!

Zky, here is an example to answer your question:

I will see you on Wednesday, November 28, 2012, at 11 a.m.

I will see you at 11 a.m. on Wednesday, November 28, 2012.

You do not need to include the year if it is obvious and you are not writing a legal document. In both examples above, you would simply delete the year.

Thank you for this great post! My only question is how do I use proper punctuation with the examples shown. If a sentence ends with the time, do I need to insert a period after the “p.m.”?

For example: I have to meet Cathy at 2 p.m.

I assume in this sentence, I would not insert a period after the time because that would look silly (2 p.m..).

However, if I write this same sentence as a question, I would obviously insert a question mark.

Do I have to meet Cathy at 2 p.m.?

Could you please clarify the rule on punctuation when the time is written at the end of a sentence?

Hi, Jared. Both of your examples are correct. The period is not doubled in a declarative sentence, but the period does appear before a question mark.

What is correct? 4:00 p.m. 4:00 PM 4:00p.m. 4:00PM

Marfaret, according to the reference guides I cited above, only 4:00 p.m. is correct.

The first comment to this post, posted on June 06, 2009 at 04:47 AM, and the most recent, December 30, 2012 at 09:46 AM.

Ironically, for over three years the time format for this blog has been: Month Day, Year at 00:00 AM or Month Day, Year at 00:00 PM.

It seems the only .s being used these days are at the end of sentences. My child, at times, avoids them there as well. 🙂 or 🙁

Hi, Randy. Woe is us! (Woe is WE?)

When I get frustrated over a lack of punctuation, I try to remember that I can control only my own behavior, not that of others.

Good luck with your child!

How do you explain 24 hour time?

Hi, Tom. Using a 24-hour clock makes A.M. and P.M. irrelevant.

When you said “explain 24-hour time,” did you have a specific question?

When I proofread printed material at my office, I always make the times conform to the format you have suggested (4:00 a.m.). Recent college graduates I work with accuse me of being from another planet for my preference. Since part of our operation is an AM radio station, I get some mileage out of the need to make 11:20 a.m. look different from 1120 AM. Now, don’t get me started on using periods, instead of hyphens and parenthesis, in phone numbers (like 800.555.1234).

Hi, David. Your reason for using small letters and periods makes perfect sense. I would hope the recent college graduates would understand it.

I take it you hate the periods in phone numbers. I myself prefer hyphens, but that’s another blog post, specifically “How to Format Phone Numbers.” You can find it here: http://businesswritingblog.com/business_writing/2007/01/how_to_format_p.html

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• Abbreviations

How to Use AM and PM

Follow these generally accepted guidelines to use a.m. and p.m. (or AM and PM ) correctly in formal writing:

• Use the abbreviations a.m. and p.m. to indicate exact time.
• Use a.m. to refer to a time of day before noon, and p.m. to speak of a time between noon and midnight.
• Use numerals or figures instead of words to denote time with a.m. and p.m. ( eleven / 8 a.m. ) in formal texts.
• Although both hours and minutes are often presented in formal or official documents, specifying the minutes is optional for whole hours ( 8 a.m. or 8:00 a.m. ).
• In running text, a.m. and p.m. are usually lowercased with periods after the letters of the abbreviations; however, they may also be capitalized ( 8:01 a.m. or 8:01 AM ).
• Avoid using expressions of time like “in the morning” and “at night” with a.m. and p.m. ( 8 a.m. in the morning ).
• Use the words noon and midnight instead of 12 p.m. or 12 a.m.

What do a.m. and p.m. mean?

The abbreviation a.m. , which comes from the Latin ante meridiem ( before midday ), designates the first 12-hour period of the day. The second half of the day takes the abbreviation p.m. , from post meridiem ( after midday ).

• Tumkin wakes up at 6 a.m. everyday. in the morning (before noon)
• The staff break for lunch at 1:15 p.m. in the afternoon (after midday)

When to use and how to write a.m. and p.m. is a matter of style rather than grammar . Discussed here are commonly accepted guidelines.

When to use

Use the abbreviations a.m. and p.m. to emphasize exact time . Specifying the exact time is preferred in formal contexts, such as in official communication.

• Please be present at 10:30 a.m. on Tuesday.
• All goods must leave the warehouse by 2 p.m.
• The deadline to submit the application has been extended to 4:45 p.m.
• The doctor is available from 11:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. on weekdays.

When the exact time is not important, and in informal contexts, such as in everyday speech, the abbreviations a.m. and p.m. are often omitted. In particular, when it is clear which half of the day is being referred to, using these abbreviations may sound unnecessarily formal. Speakers then use phrases like o’clock , half past , and a quarter past , or simply the numbers for time.

• It’s eleven o’clock , and I still haven’t finished my report. Presumably, the listener knows whether the speaker is referring to eleven in the morning or the evening.
• I’ll be done by half past ten .
• We break for lunch at a quarter past one .
• I’ll be there by 2:30 .
• They work from nine to six every day.

Numerals or words?

With the abbreviations a.m. and p.m. , always use numerals or figures instead of words to denote time in formal writing.

• The bell rang at 1 p.m.
• The conference began at 11:30 a.m.
• We have a meeting at 4 p.m. today.
• Please submit your applications by 10 a.m. on Monday.

To show approximate rather than exact time, you may omit a.m. or p.m. , and use words instead of numerals.

• We worked from one to three thirty in the afternoon.

In informal and creative writing, words are often used instead of numerals to show the time.

• Informal: It was just three p.m. but dark outside. Formal: Submit your reports by 3 p.m.
• Informal: We left the coroner’s office at nine PM . Formal: The coroner’s report arrived at 9 PM .

Hours and minutes

In a time reference using a.m. or p.m. , always indicate the hour. Showing minutes is optional. Where exact time is important, such as in official, academic, and technical writing, prefer to show both hours and minutes.

• Class starts at 10 a.m. / 10:00 a.m.
• Class is from 10 to 11 a.m. / 10:00 to 11:00 a.m.
• Anita works from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. / 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m.

If you show minutes for one time reference, show them for all references in that context.

• Poor: Class is from 9:30 a.m. to 1 p.m. Better: Class is from 9:30 a.m. to 1:00 p.m.
• Poor: I’m busy from 2 to 4:00 p.m. today. Better: I’m busy from 2 to 4 p.m. today.

Use of periods and capitals

In general, use lowercase letters with periods after the letters of the abbreviations a.m. and p.m. , particularly in running text. These abbreviations are sometimes capitalized —for example, in signs and notices. The periods are then omitted.

• Our ship sails at 3:15 p.m. on Thursday.
• The local coffee shop is open from 7 a.m. to 9 p.m. every day.
• Open: 7 AM to 9 PM sign outside a coffee shop

Most style manuals , like the Chicago Manual of Style , the AP Stylebook , and the APA Publication Manual , recommend using lowercase letters for a.m. and p.m. , with periods between the letters of these abbreviations.

If a.m. or p.m. appears at the end of a sentence, don’t use two consecutive periods . Use the same period to mark both the abbreviation and the end of the sentence.

• Incorrect: All the clocks stopped at 12:33 a.m.. Correct: All the clocks stopped at 12:33 a.m.

If you do capitalize these abbreviations in running text, prefer to use small capital letters (small caps).

• Our space shuttle leaves at 3:15 PM on Thursday.
• My phone is switched off from 6 PM Friday to 8 AM Monday.

In British usage , periods are sometimes omitted in lowercase abbreviations: Colin drinks tea at 4 pm every day.

Space before AM and PM

Always insert a space after the numerals used to denote the time, regardless of whether you lowercase or capitalize the abbreviations a.m. and p.m.

• From 2 to 3 a.m. every day, Poco practices playing the guitar.
• The Durandians landed in Farley’s garden at 8:33 a.m. last Monday.
• Let’s meet at 9:30 AM on Monday.
• Matinee: 12:30 PM

Noon and midnight

Noon is neither a.m. nor p.m. , since “a.m.” refers to times before noon and “p.m.” to those after. Simply use the words noon and midnight instead of 12 a.m. or 12 p.m. Not only is this correct, it is also less confusing.

• Incorrect: It started raining at 12 p.m. Correct: It started raining at noon .
• Incorrect: All the alarms went off together at 12 a.m. Correct: All the alarms went off together at midnight .

Placing the numeral 12 before noon or midnight is redundant (the time is always 12 on the clock at noon and midnight). Although such usage is common in speech, avoid it in writing.

• It was 12 midnight , but our work wasn’t over yet.
• Measure the length of the shadow at 12 noon .

Expressions of time

Since a.m. and p.m. clearly indicate which part of the day is being referred to, expressions of time like in the morning , this afternoon , and tonight are unnecessary with these time abbreviations. Although such expressions are common in speech, avoid using them with a.m. / p.m. in formal writing.

• Poor: Tumkin’s flight is at 2 p.m. on Sunday afternoon . Better: Tumkin’s flight is at 2 p.m. on Sunday .

Consistency in usage

While writing time of day, don’t mix styles within a single context. Stay consistent in usage with relation to a.m. / p.m. , numerals, and hours and minutes.

• Poor: The bus leaves Butterworth at 9:30 a.m. and reaches Melaka at 4 o’clock . Better: The bus leaves Butterworth at 9:30 a.m. and reaches Melaka at 4:00 p.m. Better: The bus leaves Butterworth at half past nine in the morning and reaches Melaka at four in the afternoon .
• Poor: Farley slept at 1:00 a.m. and woke up at six . Better: Farley slept at 1 a.m. and woke up at 6 a.m. Better: Farley slept at 1:00 a.m. and woke up at 6:00 a.m. Better: Farley slept at one and woke up at six .

Considerations of formality

In formal texts , prefer to use a.m. and p.m. with numerals for time. In informal usage, such as in speech and creative writing, using words can sound more natural.

• Formal: The first shift is from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. Informal: I work from nine to five on weekdays.
• Formal: Departure is at 11:25 a.m. Informal: We leave at eleven twenty-five .
• Formal: The meeting starts at 10:30 a.m. Informal: Is it half past ten already?

In scientific writing, the 24-hour system of time is often used instead of the 12-hour system. On the 24-hour clock, the day is represented by a single 24-hour period instead of two 12-hour periods: 6 a.m. is 06:00, and 6 p.m. is 18:00.

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Use a.m. and p.m. to express and emphasize exact time.

With a.m. and p.m. , use numerals instead of words in formal texts.

Place a period after the letters of the lowercase abbreviations a.m. and p.m.

Expressions of time like in the morning are redundant with a.m. and p.m.

Noon is neither a.m. nor p.m. Simply use the words noon or midnight to refer to 12 on the clock.

Use a consistent style, either words or numerals, to refer to time. In formal and official writing, numerals with a.m. and p.m. are preferred.

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8 Tips to Make Your Writing Sound More Formal

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Here at ProofreadingPal , we get a lot of requests to “elevate tone,” “create a scholarly tone,” and “increase the formality,” and even “help this sound smart.” Truthfully, we cannot make you sound “smart.” There is no substitute for good ideas, but we can (and do) help you elevate your tone and make you sound like a bona fide professional-thinking person. Here are some handy tricks that you can use yourself.

• Avoid colloquial, informal words

I see a surprisingly high number of formal academic/business works that include words that are better left for the water cooler or over a spirited discussion of the merits of Michael Bay movies. Some words to avoid are “totally” (use “completely” instead), “basically” (just avoid it), “impact” (mostly as a verb. You shouldn’t say “that will impact me”), “wicked” (only use this when chatting in online games), and “cool” (this word can mean just about anything. Try to choose a more precise word). In general, avoid all slang words (e.g., rad, YOLO, heaps, guv). If in doubt, see if you could imagine your professor or boss using it. If not, avoid it.

• Proper use of “such as”

In formal writing, never use “like.” It’s probably the most commonly used feature of speech today for certain populations, but avoid it in formal writing. Compare:

Animals, like bears and tigers, are interesting. Animals, such as bears and tigers, are interesting.

See how much more formal the second sounds?

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• Avoid contractions

Contractions such as “can’t,” “didn’t,” and “I’m” are purely a product of verbal speech. We speak in contractions, but the convention is that, for formal, non-fiction writing, we shouldn’t write in them. When writing a formal business letter or an academic essay, forego contractions. It’s easy to use the Word FIND function to seek them out and destroy them.

• Avoid clichés

  Common Formality Mistakes

 This guide wouldn’t be complete without a look at some common practices that people use to make their writing more formal that don’t work. Here are a few practices we end up having to correct time and time again.

5. Don’t use passive voice . Passive voice is wordy, but being formal has nothing to do with wordiness.

• Don’t use thesaurus words you don’t fully understand. Big words don’t make your writing sound more formal, and this can backfire when you pick a word that doesn’t mean what you think it means. Take the sentence, “I saw a red dog walking down the street.” Easy, right? But using too much of a thesaurus might cause you to create: “I consulted a bloodshot mongrel marching down the highway,” which clearly is not what you intended.
• Don’t be wordy.

In all writing, wherever possible, brevity is the soul of wit. (Even I can’t avoid clichés, but at least that’s Shakespeare.) That means, always keep your prose as simple as possible . You may think, “The item that we are discussing could be the solution we are looking for to solve our problem,” sounds better because it’s long, but it’ll just annoy your reader. “That is the solution to our problem,” is better.

• Don’t mangle your sentences with third person.

Some professors still insist their students use third person to make their writing sound more formal, but (and always check with your professor first) style guides such as APA (and us) recommend you use first or second person to prevent passive voice and ambiguous language. Take: “The researcher applied a qualitative approach to the study” for example. Who is the researcher? You or someone else? This is ambiguous. It’s better to say, “I will take a qualitative approach to the study,” and this doesn’t sound any less formal.

Happy writing, and good luck.

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• Writing Tips

How to Write Dates Correctly

• 3-minute read
• 23rd October 2014

There are many different ways to write dates, so knowing which one to use in your work can be difficult. At a basic level, you need to get the format and information correct. But you also need to consider whether the style in which you’ve written the date is appropriate for your document.

Read on, then, for our guide on how to write dates correctly.

Writing Out the Date

In very formal writing, it’s often best to write out the date in full. The most formal version of this may include using an ordinal signifier (‘th’, ‘rd’ or ‘st’) after the date, like this:

The meeting is on the 23 rd of October 2016.

However, in most cases, you can just give a date, month and year:

The meeting is on 23 October 2016.

You would still pronounce this as ‘the 23 rd of October’ in speech, but in writing you can simplify this to make it easier to read.

Moreover, in some situations, you may want to include the day of the week in the date, especially if it has specific connotations (e.g. Friday the 13 th ).

Shorter Form Dates

In less formal writing, a shorter date format can be used. This typically uses only numbers separated by full stops or slashes, with no need to write out the name of the month. Shortening the year is also acceptable as long as it will be clear which year you mean, such as in the following:

You can also write out the date but shorten the month to save space:

• 14 January 2016 → 14 Jan 2016
• 9 October → 9 Oct

Although these options are easy to understand and perfectly acceptable in most writing, they are not typically correct in an academic context.

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Australian vs. American Dates

Another thing to keep in mind is that the date format is different in different places. In Australia , we use a day, month, year format, as shown above.

In America, the month comes first. As such, we can reformat some of the examples above to compare how they’d appear in Australia and America:

As you can see above, we’ve used a comma in the US dates to separate the day and the year, both of which are numbers.

The fact that the day and month are swapped around can lead to confusion, especially if written in number form, so do be aware of this!

The International Date Format

Finally, if you’re sharing information across the world, you may want to use the  international date format (ISO 8601) . This is a standardised format that works across borders, so it is commonly used by government organizations and global businesses. And it always uses the format YYYY-MM-DD, which removes any chance of confusion:

We sent the invoice on 2020-07-10 .

The date above, for example, denotes the 10th of July 2020.

How to Write the Date in Academic Writing

There is no single ‘correct’ way to write the date in an essay, but it’s usually better to use a formal approach. Check your university style guide and see what it recommends. If it doesn’t specify a format, pick one you feel is appropriate and use it consistently throughout your document.

If you would like to have a 500-word sample of your work proofread for free, get in touch with the professionals at Proofed today!

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How to Write the Date in an Essay

• 3-minute read
• 4th February 2016

You probably see the date written down (or displayed on a screen) dozens of times every day. You might even have to write it out yourself if you’re booking an appointment or organising your schedule.

Despite this, most of us give very little thought to how we write the date. In academic writing and other formal contexts , however, it’s important to use a clear and consistent format.

Different Formats

The most important thing to remember when writing the date is that, in the UK and throughout most of the world, we favour a day-month-year format (otherwise known as the little-endian sequence ). This can be presented in numerous ways, including:

• Day + Month (e.g. 21 April)
• Day + Month + Year (e.g., 21 April 2016)
• Numbers Only (e.g. 21/04/2016)

There are also variations to how these can be presented, such as using an ordinal suffix after the day.  These are the letters we’d use if we were writing the number out in full and are often written with a superscript font:

We last spoke on the 21st of April.

The meetings will be held on the 2 nd of February and the 13 th June.

Sometimes, the month in the date can be shortened to save space:

14 January 2012 → 14 Jan. 2012

9 October → 9 Oct.

However, generally in formal writing it’s better to use the longer format for clarity. Likewise, when including a date in an essay you should usually write it out (e.g. 21 April 2016) rather than use the numbers-only style.

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Check Your Style Guide and Be Consistent

Since there are various ways of writing the date, you should always check your university’s style guide to see if a preferred format is specified. If it doesn’t offer any particular advice, simply pick a clear format that suits you and make sure to use it consistently for all dates in your essay.

UK vs. American Dates

The other thing to keep in mind when writing (and reading) dates is how the US date format differs from ours. In America, dates use a month-day-year format, which can lead to problems when they are written out in numbers only as days and months get confused.

The US date format also places a comma between the day and year when both are numbers, as well as omitting superscript letters. The only time you would use superscript letters after the day in the US date format is when writing it out in full as, e.g., the 10 th of September.

You can see a few examples of UK and US dates below:

As you can see, the date ‘07/04/2016’ represents the 7th of April 2016 in the UK, but the same numbers indicate the 4th of July in America! Take care about which format you use when writing for international audiences.

The International Date Format

Finally, if you’re sharing information across the world, you may want to use the  international date format (ISO 8601) . This is a standardized format that works across borders, so it is commonly used by government organizations and global businesses. And it always uses the format YYYY-MM-DD, which removes any chance of confusion:

We sent the invoice on 2020-07-10 .

The date above, for example, denotes the 10th of July 2020.

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How to Write a Formal Essay: Format, Rules, & Example

If you’re a student, you’ve heard about a formal essay: a factual, research-based paper written in 3rd person. Most students have to produce dozens of them during their educational career. 

Writing a formal essay may not be the easiest task. But fear not: our custom-writing team is here to guide you through the process. This article will:

• explain what a formal essay is;
• show how to write it step by step;
• provide you with an essay sample. 

👔 Formal Essay Definition

• ✅ How to Write
• ✍️ Writing Rules
• 🖥️ Essay Format
• 📑 Sample Paper

🔍 References

A formal essay is a well-structured piece of writing with a clear introduction, body, and conclusion. This type of essay often includes cited research, uses an academic tone, and is written in 3rd person. While writing a formal essay, it’s necessary to back up your arguments with factual evidence.

What Is an Informal Essay vs. Formal Essay?

Essays come in two formats: formal and informal (also known as personal .) They differ in terms of style and context. You can choose one of the formats depending on the situation and the type of paper you need to write.

Don’t know how to tell the difference between them? Well, here are some key characteristics of these essay types:

As you can see, these types of writing are almost total opposites. Informal essays are only reserved for creative assignments, which means that most of the papers you write need to be formal.

Our article on creative essays can help you write an informal paper. But how do you craft a perfect formal essay? Keep reading to find out.

✅ How to Write a Formal Essay

Traditionally, a formal essay it’s composed of 3 sections: an introduction, 3 or more body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Let’s examine each part in detail.

Formal Essay Introduction

The introduction is what your essay starts with. Its primary goal is to catch the reader’s attention with a hook, briefly introduce the topic, and lead toward the thesis statement located at the end of the first paragraph.

Here is what you might want to keep in mind while writing the introduction:

If you want some more inspiration for your introduction, check out our article on hooks in writing .

Now on to the thesis statement : the key idea of your essay. When working on it, keep in mind that it should answer the central question in your topic and reflect your essay’s overall structure. your essay’s overall structure.

Suppose your topic is related to the teaching methods involving poetry. In that case, the thesis statement can be like this:

Teaching methods that involve reading and writing poetry in elementary school are beneficial for children as they enhance their capacity for empathy, develop creativity, and help with self-realization.

Formal Essay Body

The next part of an essay is the main body paragraphs. They support the thesis statement with well-developed arguments and explore the topic in-depth. Each body paragraph starts with a topic sentence stating its main point. The length of a paragraph can vary, but the best option is to have between 4 and 7 sentences.

To make the text flow easily, you may use transitional words. Here are some examples:

• after all, 
• for instance, 
• on the one/other hand, 
• initially, 
• as a result.

How to Write a Formal Essay Conclusion

Lastly, every essay needs closure. A good conclusion summarizes the essay’s main ideas, includes a paraphrased thesis, and encourages the readers to think more about the topic.

The structure of a conclusion may change slightly depending on the subject. For instance, it can suggest some solutions to a problem, express an opinion, or give a recommendation. It’s important to remember that the conclusion is a part that emphasizes your essay’s most important points and doesn’t introduce new information.

If you’re curious about writing each essay part, check out our article on 5-paragraph essays .

✍️ Formal Writing Rules

Just like choosing the proper attire to wear to a formal event, we need to use the right words while writing a formal essay. Here are some suggestions that can help you maintain a formal tone in your paper:  

Dos of formal writing

• Pay attention to your vocabulary. The words you will use in a formal essay will likely have a nuanced meaning. Make sure you know exactly what the terms mean, and do your best to sound precise.
• Use punctuation correctly. Here are some of the things to watch out for: Avoid exclamation marks; Use dashes for insertions; Use colons with enumerations; If you’re unsure of whether to use a punctuation mark or not, rewrite the sentence in a way that doesn’t require it.
• Use varied sentence structure. In formal writing, there is always a danger of sounding monotonous. Avoid repeating sentence structures to make your essay more readable.
• Provide references. It’s essential to cite every idea that you borrow. Try to paraphrase quotations from your sources: it will help you avoid plagiarism.

Don’ts of formal writing

• Avoid using pronouns.  With words such as “I,” “me,” “we,” or “us,” an essay becomes wordy. It also makes the author seem less sure of their ideas. If you want to use personal pronouns, try substituting them with words like “the reader,” “viewers,” or “one.”
• Avoid using slang expressions and nonstandard diction. Slang words in a formal essay will make it less appealing to the readers. If you want to be taken seriously, it’s best to avoid those expressions and use proper Standard English.
• Avoid informal tone.  When you write a formal essay, incorporate the language and the expressions you would use while delivering a speech, not the words you use when you casually talk to friends. A formal tone suggests that the author is serious about the topic and respects the audience.
• Avoid passive voice. Passive verbs are hard to read, and they are wordy. Use active voice to sound more straightforward and concise.

Contractions in Formal Writing

A contraction is usually a combination of two words into one, such as “don’t,” “isn’t,” “can’t,” and “wouldn’t.” When you work on a formal essay, it’s essential to be careful about contractions. It’s inappropriate to use them in academic writing, so it’s best to stick to the full variant.

However, there are exceptions to this rule. For instance, when working with direct quotations, it’s essential to reproduce words exactly as they are used in the original. To learn more about it, be sure to check out the University of North Florida’s article on in-text citations .

What to Use Instead of “You” in an Essay

Another common mistake students make is using the “you” and “yours” pronouns to address the readers. This mistake can make the essay overly informal and lead to misinterpretations of the text.

How do you fix it? Our advice is to replace 2nd-person pronouns with the following words:

• individuals,

You can find more formal writing tips in this informative video from Smrt English:

🖥️ Formal Essay Format

Now that we’ve discussed formal essay writing in detail, it’s time to look at the formatting. A formal essay is usually written in MLA or APA formats. If you’re asked to write a paper in one of these formats, you may find the guidelines below helpful:

📑 Formal Essay Example

Here is an excellent sample of a formal essay that uses all the guidelines mentioned in this article. It will help you to produce a perfect paper of your own:

For more information, check out Purdue OWL’s resources on various formatting styles .

Formal Essay Topics

• Stress management techniques
• The effects of coffee 
• Negative effects of technology on children
• Causes and outcomes of organizational conflicts in sports
• Different types of friends
• Same-sex marriages in the United States
• Are early marriages harmful or beneficial?
• How do nutrition and hydration improve athletes’ performance? 
• Is polygamy morally acceptable?
• Different features of sports business
• What characterizes friendship in the age of media?
• Positive and negative effects of tourism on environment in the Caribbean
• How does society treat single parents?
• How does the uninvolved parenting style affect child’s future well-being?
• The role of family relationships in Odyssey
• Financial concepts in sport finance
• Main features of a strong marriage
• The importance of media coverage for sport teams
• Reasons why students choose to get internship
• The role of stadiums in the sports industry
• The multiracial family: the Carters case analysis
• Characteristics of children’s sports
• Crucial factors affecting health fitness 
• How is technology used in hotel management?
• Structure and operational context of Four Seasons
• What are the main qualities of a true friend?
• Different websites that promote rental properties
• The imperative aspects of tourism
• Importance of hotel training 
• What factors determine adolescents’ adjustment after they experience parental divorce? 
• How does tobacco use affect the human body?
• The importance of language and world view for communication
• What makes a combination of reinforcement and punishment in parenting efficient?
• The scientific approach of sports economics
• How does divorce affect children?
• Living on-campus vs. living off-campus when attending university: a comparison
• How does the New Moves program promote a healthy lifestyle? 
• How to be an effective counselor
• Various types of restaurants in Ireland
• Carolina Dog’s characteristics
• Comparison of Monzameon’s The Love Suicides at Amijima and Tartuffe by Moliere
• Comparing homosexual and heterosexual families
• How is family presented in Everyday Use by Alice Walker ?
• In what ways can Anaerobic Threshold be assessed? 
• Is bad parenting a healthcare problem? 
• Why student-athletes should benefit from sports
• Mind-body awareness and its health benefits
• Can punishment boost academic performance?
• Techniques to teach students swimming
• Issues faced by the sports licensing field

Thanks for reading through this guide! We hope that you found it helpful and now have a better idea of how to write an excellent formal essay. Don’t hesitate to share our article with a friend who may need it. Good luck!

Further reading:

• How to Write a Critical Thinking Essay: Examples & Outline
• What Is a Discourse Analysis Essay: Example & Guide
• How to Write a Narrative Essay Outline: Template & Examples
• How to Write a Précis: Definition, Guide, & Examples 

❓ Formal Essay FAQs

It’s best not to use pronouns such as “I,” “my,” “we,” “our,” etc., in a formal essay since it give the paper an informal tone and the text becomes wordy. It also makes the writer seem less sure about their ideas.

It’s better to avoid using parentheses and dashes in formal academic writing. If the information you want to include in the essay is important enough, it should be a part of the sentence. Otherwise, you can simply omit it.

The formal and informal essays differ in style and context. While a formal essay is a piece of well-structured writing that tries to convince the reader by providing arguments, an informal essay has no set structure. It reflects the author’s personal thoughts or opinions.

Starting your sentence with “because” in formal writing is not the best idea. The word “because” is a subordinate conjunction, which means it’s used to join the main clause to a subordinate clause, not to start a sentence.

It’s best to avoid using 1st- and 2nd-person pronouns, slang expressions, nonstandard diction, and contractions in a formal essay. They are primarily used in daily speech and are considered inappropriate in academic writing. 

• Point of View in Academic Writing: St. Louis Community College
• Components of a Good Essay: University of Evansville
• Introductions & Conclusions: University of Arizona Global Campus
• How to Improve Your Academic Writing: University of York
• Nine Basic Ways to Improve Your Style in Academic Writing: University of California, Berkeley
• Academic Writing Style: Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: University of Southern California
• Formal and Informal Style: Northern Illinois University
• Formal Writing: Davenport University: LibGuides
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Writing Style Guide

A variety of different styles may be acceptable for formal invitations. The following style should be used in text for print and electronic communications. Use numbers for times, except for noon and midnight, use a colon to separate hours and minutes and do not use ciphers (double zeros) with whole hours.

• The meeting will be held from 8 to 11:45 a.m.
• Sessions begin at noon, 2:30 and 4 p.m.
• The workshop runs from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m.
• Lowercase a.m. and p.m. and always use periods.
• Lowercase noon and midnight.
• Do not use 12 noon or 12 midnight (redundant). Use noon or midnight.
• Do not use 12 p.m. or 12 a.m. Use noon or midnight.
• Do not use 8 a.m. in the morning (redundant) Use 8 a.m.
• Do not use o’clock with a.m. or p.m.

Do not use dashes

Do not use dashes in place of "to" or "through" or "and" or "until" with times of day or days of the week.

• Use : The meetings are 8 to 11 a.m., Monday through Thursday.
• Not : The meetings are 8-11 a.m., Monday-Thursday.

An n-dash may be used with dates (e.g., July 18–21), and should always be used with dates when both days of the week and dates are included .

• Example : The play runs Monday through Thursday, July 18–21.

When listing a beginning and ending time separated only by the word "to," or when listing a series of times when all times listed are a.m. or p.m., use a.m. or p.m. only once, following the final time listed.

Use : The meeting will be held from 8 to 11 a.m. Not : The meeting will be held from 8 a.m. to 11 a.m. Use : Sessions begin at 8:30, 9:30 and 10:30 a.m. Not : Sessions begin at 8:30 a.m., 9:30 a.m. and 10:30 a.m.

References to midnight can cause confusion. Is midnight Friday at the beginning or at the end of Friday? That’s why insurance policies usually take effect at 12:01 a.m. and why airline schedules list flights at 11:59 p.m. or 12:01 a.m. and not midnight.

In many references, midnight is perfectly acceptable. In the sentence, "The dance will be held from 8 p.m. to midnight Friday," the meaning is clear.

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• How to structure an essay: Templates and tips

How to Structure an Essay | Tips & Templates

Published on September 18, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

The basic structure of an essay always consists of an introduction , a body , and a conclusion . But for many students, the most difficult part of structuring an essay is deciding how to organize information within the body.

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Table of contents

The basics of essay structure, chronological structure, compare-and-contrast structure, problems-methods-solutions structure, signposting to clarify your structure, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about essay structure.

There are two main things to keep in mind when working on your essay structure: making sure to include the right information in each part, and deciding how you’ll organize the information within the body.

Parts of an essay

The three parts that make up all essays are described in the table below.

Order of information

You’ll also have to consider how to present information within the body. There are a few general principles that can guide you here.

The first is that your argument should move from the simplest claim to the most complex . The body of a good argumentative essay often begins with simple and widely accepted claims, and then moves towards more complex and contentious ones.

For example, you might begin by describing a generally accepted philosophical concept, and then apply it to a new topic. The grounding in the general concept will allow the reader to understand your unique application of it.

The second principle is that background information should appear towards the beginning of your essay . General background is presented in the introduction. If you have additional background to present, this information will usually come at the start of the body.

The third principle is that everything in your essay should be relevant to the thesis . Ask yourself whether each piece of information advances your argument or provides necessary background. And make sure that the text clearly expresses each piece of information’s relevance.

The sections below present several organizational templates for essays: the chronological approach, the compare-and-contrast approach, and the problems-methods-solutions approach.

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The chronological approach (sometimes called the cause-and-effect approach) is probably the simplest way to structure an essay. It just means discussing events in the order in which they occurred, discussing how they are related (i.e. the cause and effect involved) as you go.

A chronological approach can be useful when your essay is about a series of events. Don’t rule out other approaches, though—even when the chronological approach is the obvious one, you might be able to bring out more with a different structure.

Explore the tabs below to see a general template and a specific example outline from an essay on the invention of the printing press.

• Thesis statement
• Discussion of event/period
• Consequences
• Importance of topic
• Strong closing statement
• Claim that the printing press marks the end of the Middle Ages
• Background on the low levels of literacy before the printing press
• Thesis statement: The invention of the printing press increased circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation
• High levels of illiteracy in medieval Europe
• Literacy and thus knowledge and education were mainly the domain of religious and political elites
• Consequence: this discouraged political and religious change
• Invention of the printing press in 1440 by Johannes Gutenberg
• Implications of the new technology for book production
• Consequence: Rapid spread of the technology and the printing of the Gutenberg Bible
• Trend for translating the Bible into vernacular languages during the years following the printing press’s invention
• Luther’s own translation of the Bible during the Reformation
• Consequence: The large-scale effects the Reformation would have on religion and politics
• Summarize the history described
• Stress the significance of the printing press to the events of this period

Essays with two or more main subjects are often structured around comparing and contrasting . For example, a literary analysis essay might compare two different texts, and an argumentative essay might compare the strengths of different arguments.

There are two main ways of structuring a compare-and-contrast essay: the alternating method, and the block method.

Alternating

In the alternating method, each paragraph compares your subjects in terms of a specific point of comparison. These points of comparison are therefore what defines each paragraph.

The tabs below show a general template for this structure, and a specific example for an essay comparing and contrasting distance learning with traditional classroom learning.

• Synthesis of arguments
• Topical relevance of distance learning in lockdown
• Increasing prevalence of distance learning over the last decade
• Thesis statement: While distance learning has certain advantages, it introduces multiple new accessibility issues that must be addressed for it to be as effective as classroom learning
• Classroom learning: Ease of identifying difficulties and privately discussing them
• Distance learning: Difficulty of noticing and unobtrusively helping
• Classroom learning: Difficulties accessing the classroom (disability, distance travelled from home)
• Distance learning: Difficulties with online work (lack of tech literacy, unreliable connection, distractions)
• Classroom learning: Tends to encourage personal engagement among students and with teacher, more relaxed social environment
• Distance learning: Greater ability to reach out to teacher privately
• Sum up, emphasize that distance learning introduces more difficulties than it solves
• Stress the importance of addressing issues with distance learning as it becomes increasingly common
• Distance learning may prove to be the future, but it still has a long way to go

In the block method, each subject is covered all in one go, potentially across multiple paragraphs. For example, you might write two paragraphs about your first subject and then two about your second subject, making comparisons back to the first.

The tabs again show a general template, followed by another essay on distance learning, this time with the body structured in blocks.

• Point 1 (compare)
• Point 2 (compare)
• Point 3 (compare)
• Point 4 (compare)
• Advantages: Flexibility, accessibility
• Disadvantages: Discomfort, challenges for those with poor internet or tech literacy
• Advantages: Potential for teacher to discuss issues with a student in a separate private call
• Disadvantages: Difficulty of identifying struggling students and aiding them unobtrusively, lack of personal interaction among students
• Advantages: More accessible to those with low tech literacy, equality of all sharing one learning environment
• Disadvantages: Students must live close enough to attend, commutes may vary, classrooms not always accessible for disabled students
• Advantages: Ease of picking up on signs a student is struggling, more personal interaction among students
• Disadvantages: May be harder for students to approach teacher privately in person to raise issues

An essay that concerns a specific problem (practical or theoretical) may be structured according to the problems-methods-solutions approach.

This is just what it sounds like: You define the problem, characterize a method or theory that may solve it, and finally analyze the problem, using this method or theory to arrive at a solution. If the problem is theoretical, the solution might be the analysis you present in the essay itself; otherwise, you might just present a proposed solution.

The tabs below show a template for this structure and an example outline for an essay about the problem of fake news.

• Introduce the problem
• Provide background
• Describe your approach to solving it
• Define the problem precisely
• Describe why it’s important
• Indicate previous approaches to the problem
• Present your new approach, and why it’s better
• Apply the new method or theory to the problem
• Indicate the solution you arrive at by doing so
• Assess (potential or actual) effectiveness of solution
• Describe the implications
• Problem: The growth of “fake news” online
• Prevalence of polarized/conspiracy-focused news sources online
• Thesis statement: Rather than attempting to stamp out online fake news through social media moderation, an effective approach to combating it must work with educational institutions to improve media literacy
• Definition: Deliberate disinformation designed to spread virally online
• Popularization of the term, growth of the phenomenon
• Previous approaches: Labeling and moderation on social media platforms
• Critique: This approach feeds conspiracies; the real solution is to improve media literacy so users can better identify fake news
• Greater emphasis should be placed on media literacy education in schools
• This allows people to assess news sources independently, rather than just being told which ones to trust
• This is a long-term solution but could be highly effective
• It would require significant organization and investment, but would equip people to judge news sources more effectively
• Rather than trying to contain the spread of fake news, we must teach the next generation not to fall for it

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Signposting means guiding the reader through your essay with language that describes or hints at the structure of what follows.  It can help you clarify your structure for yourself as well as helping your reader follow your ideas.

The essay overview

In longer essays whose body is split into multiple named sections, the introduction often ends with an overview of the rest of the essay. This gives a brief description of the main idea or argument of each section.

The overview allows the reader to immediately understand what will be covered in the essay and in what order. Though it describes what  comes later in the text, it is generally written in the present tense . The following example is from a literary analysis essay on Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein .

Transitions

Transition words and phrases are used throughout all good essays to link together different ideas. They help guide the reader through your text, and an essay that uses them effectively will be much easier to follow.

Various different relationships can be expressed by transition words, as shown in this example.

Because Hitler failed to respond to the British ultimatum, France and the UK declared war on Germany. Although it was an outcome the Allies had hoped to avoid, they were prepared to back up their ultimatum in order to combat the existential threat posed by the Third Reich.

Transition sentences may be included to transition between different paragraphs or sections of an essay. A good transition sentence moves the reader on to the next topic while indicating how it relates to the previous one.

… Distance learning, then, seems to improve accessibility in some ways while representing a step backwards in others.

However , considering the issue of personal interaction among students presents a different picture.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

College essays

• Choosing Essay Topic
• Write a College Essay
• Write a Diversity Essay
• College Essay Format & Structure
• Comparing and Contrasting in an Essay

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The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

An essay isn’t just a loose collection of facts and ideas. Instead, it should be centered on an overarching argument (summarized in your thesis statement ) that every part of the essay relates to.

The way you structure your essay is crucial to presenting your argument coherently. A well-structured essay helps your reader follow the logic of your ideas and understand your overall point.

Comparisons in essays are generally structured in one of two ways:

• The alternating method, where you compare your subjects side by side according to one specific aspect at a time.
• The block method, where you cover each subject separately in its entirety.

It’s also possible to combine both methods, for example by writing a full paragraph on each of your topics and then a final paragraph contrasting the two according to a specific metric.

You should try to follow your outline as you write your essay . However, if your ideas change or it becomes clear that your structure could be better, it’s okay to depart from your essay outline . Just make sure you know why you’re doing so.

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9 Tips to Ace That Timed Essay

Exams are almost upon us, and a familiar sense of foreboding has settled over the campus. One exam element that can be particularly intimidating for some students is the timed essay: an exam question which demands a full essay on a topic that is typically revealed for the first time during the test. While these kinds of questions may seem scary, there are plenty of ways to make them easy for yourself. Read on for tips about how to prepare in advance of the exam and how to approach timed essays before, during, and after the writing process.

While Preparing for the Exam: Become familiar with the course content. If the professor hasn’t told you in advance what a timed essay prompt will be, it can be intimidating to think that you will have to write about a subject you’ve never seen before. However, this thinking process does not reflect the reality of the situation. In fact, even if your teacher hasn’t given you any hints about the essay question, you do know what it will be about: the concepts and ideas you’ve discussed in the course. Therefore, if you take the time to review your notes and ensure you understand everything that was discussed, it should be difficult for the essay question to catch you off guard. As soon as you read the question, relevant course concepts will start popping into your head, and you’ll just have to organize them into a coherent essay. Start planning if you can. Although the situation described above sometimes occurs, it’s also very common for professors to give their students a fairly detailed idea of what an essay question will involve in advance of the test day. (After all, professors want to mark high-quality essays written by well-prepared students!) This heads-up gives you a great chance to prepare for the exam. If you have the time, consider mapping out a possible essay in point form before the day of the exam arrives. Consider practicing writing under time pressure. You’ve probably written dozens of essays before--the only thing that sets a timed essay apart is that it’s timed. Students often struggle to complete the full essay within the time constraints, particularly if they have to write longhand when they’re accustomed to working on the computer. For this reason, it can be helpful to simulate the conditions of a timed exam before the actual day: pick a practice question, find some lined paper, set a stopwatch, and see how you do! Before You Start Writing: Read the question carefully. The most critical part of the essay-writing process actually happens before you write your first word. When you flip to the essay question, make sure you read it as carefully as you can, noting the difference between words such as ‘contrast’ and ‘analyze’ and highlighting any details which the professor specifically instructs you to include. It’s not uncommon for excellent essays to receive low marks because the student answered a question other than the one that was asked. Make a clear and specific plan. Some students react to the time pressure of essay exams by scribbling down their introduction as soon as they’ve read the question and figuring out their points as they go. While it might seem counter-intuitive, taking five or ten minutes before you start writing in order to draw up a plan will be an enormous time saver. Decide on your thesis, the topic of each paragraph, and the arguments which you intend to cover, then jot down some quick point-form notes. This process won’t take long, and, once you complete it, all that’s left will be to expand those notes into a well-organized essay. Without a clear plan, you run the risk of realizing partway through that you’ve drifted off topic or written yourself into a corner, and fixing these mistakes will consume a ton of extra time. Schedule a set time for each paragraph. On the topic of planning, it’s important to sketch out an idea of how long you want to spend on each section of your essay. (If you know the number of paragraphs you’ll need to write ahead of time, you can do this before the exam even starts!) Take note of the amount of time allotted for the exam and split it into reasonably-sized segments, leaving some time at the end for revision if possible. Without a schedule to follow, it’s easy to become too focused on a single paragraph and run out of time to finish the essay. While You’re Writing: Write clearly and double-space. This tip may seem basic, but it’s easy to forget and it can make a big difference. Both these measures won’t just make it easier for the marker to read your paper; they'll also help you write it. If you have time left at the end of the exam for review, having the ability to skim quickly through your work and write revisions in blank spaces will be incredibly helpful.

Keep yourself on schedule.  Remember the paragraph-based schedule we discussed above? It’ll be useless if you don’t do regular check-ins during the exam. Keep an eye on the clock to ensure you’re always on track. If you realize that you’re falling dangerously behind schedule, it might be necessary to cut some arguments or examples you planned to include. Although making these omissions can be painful, it’s better to leave out a few points from one section than to leave out an entire paragraph because you ran out of time. Don’t worry too much about editing and revision before you finish. When composing essays, many students stop and read over each paragraph once they finish it, making sure that it’s well-written and free of errors before advancing to the next one. This approach is entirely logical when there’s no time pressure involved, but it can actually work against you during an exam. Perfecting paragraphs is a time-consuming process, and, if you spend too much time editing before the essay is finished, you might have to rush through the last few sections or leave them out entirely. For this reason, it’s best to focus on producing a complete first draft before you worry about edits and revisions.

After You’ve Finished Writing: Re-read the question and ensure you’ve addressed all parts. The most important part of writing an essay exam is ensuring that you’re answering the question was posed. Even if you made sure you were interpreting everything correctly before you began, you may have forgotten to address a subquestion or integrate an example as you were writing. Before you submit, read the prompt again and make sure your completed essay matches up! Edit if you have time. If you have enough time left over, read your essay again and make corrections. When you’re working under time pressure, it’s easy to make grammar mistakes or produce hard-to-follow sentences; the final few minutes are your chance to clean up those errors. Unless if you finished way ahead of schedule, don’t worry about major revisions like reorganizing the structure of the essay--it’s better to hand in an essay with an imperfect structure than a paper that’s impossible to follow because you had to stop halfway through the revision process.

Remember to have the right perspective. Once you hand your exam to the professor, relax! It’s easy to work yourself up after an essay exam when you didn’t get the chance to read your work over or you feel like your arguments were weak. However, it’s important to keep in mind that your professor understands the circumstances under which the essay was written. They’re fully aware of the time pressure you were dealing with, and they will judge your work far differently than they would judge a typical essay with a deadline set weeks after the assignment date. If you did your best to write a complete, clear, and insightful essay within the time allotted, you should have nothing to worry about. Best of luck during the upcoming exam season!

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• StudySkills@Sheffield
• Academic writing skills
• Academic writing

How to write in an academic style

This page will help you to write in an academic style.

Academic style

Academic writing is defined by conventions rather than rules and so its style varies. 

The point is not for you and your peers to produce identical pieces of writing , but to provide a shared framework of communication that allows specialists within a field to access information, ideas and concepts quickly and easily.

Academic writing uses a more formal register than everyday communication. The following are four important conventions to follow that will help you to hit the right level of formality in your writing:

Use formal language

Academic writing tends to adopt formal language derived from Latinate, rather than Anglo-Saxon roots. This distinction is particularly evident in the use of verbs in academic language.

In general, phrasal verbs are used when speaking (eg in presentations), whilst Latinate verbs are used in academic writing (e.g. essays). Phrasal language is more informal, whilst Latinate verbs sound 'posher' and more formal.

Phrasal verbs tend to come in two parts: they use a verb together with an adverb or preposition.

There is often a one-word equivalent, which usually comes from Latin root, reflecting the origins of formal English among educated Romans and the Church.

Examples include: 

• Carry out = perform
• Talk about = discuss
• Look up to = respect

Why is this useful? Latinate verbs use fewer words, so can help you develop a more concise writing style.

Latinate verbs can also be more specific than their phrasal equivalents, for example, the phrasal verb 'set up' has several Latinate equivalents: 

• Set up a room: I’m going to arrange the room for the meeting.
• Set up an experiment: The experiment was prepared.
• Set up an organisation: The NSPCC was established in 1884.

You may wish to use a mixture of phrasal and Latinate verbs in your writing, and to tailor it to your assignment. For example, if writing a more informal blog post, you may want to use more phrasal language.

Some common examples of academic verb use include:

• Carry out: Perform "The experiment was carried out/performed..."
• Find out: Investigate "The aim of this project is to find out/investigate…"
• Leave out: Omit "Therefore this was left out of/omitted from the analysis..."

Awareness of how and when to use different registers of language can help to improve the level of formality of your writing. 

Avoid contractions and abbreviations

Academic writing tends to avoid the types of contractions and abbreviated language that you might use in other forms of communication.

In some cases, this is obvious, but in other cases, where abbreviations have become commonly used forms of words, it can be more difficult to spot.

For example:

• Cannot: Can’t
• Quotation: Quote
• UK: United Kingdom

However, some commonly used abbreviations or acronyms relating to the discipline will often need to be used to enhance the clarity of your writing and reduce the word count.

In these cases, it is important to use the full form of the abbreviated name or phrase in the first instance, including the abbreviation in parentheses.

• A key role has always been played by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)...
• World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendations state...
• The use of an Electrocardiogram (ECG) is recommended...

Certain extremely commonly used acronyms have become part of common usage and do not require further explanation within a text. For example, AIDS, laser, radar, scuba. 

Write objectively

Academic writing aims to be objective. 

Build a compelling objective case for your ideas using evidence and data.

Secondary sources should be used to build a foundation of background thinking, ideas and theories to support your approach.

All secondary sources (books, journals, webpages, conference presentations, films, audio recordings, etc.) should be referenced using the standard system recommended by your department.

A bibliography of all referenced works should be included at the end of your assignment, ordered alphabetically and formatted using the recommended standard system. 

Primary sources include any information or data that you have found, collected or generated to illustrate your arguments or explore your hypotheses. Primary sources may include texts that you are analysing, survey responses, experimental data, artefacts and much more.

When writing about primary and secondary sources, it is usually better to avoid using the first person ('I' or 'we' forms), as your focus should be on an objective interpretation of that evidence. 

The first person is most commonly used to indicate where you are going beyond an objective analysis to put forward your own informed opinions, for example as part of a discussion section or conclusion. 

Explore the Manchester Phrasebank for ideas on how to express yourself with established academic language.

Manchester Phrasebank  

Book a writing or speaking advisory service appointment for advice and  feedback on your own academic style.

More information Explore our self-study materials on academic vocabulary

• Avoid overusing the first person (I) and use passive forms where possible: "the experiment was conducted..."; "evidence suggests..."; "a sample was taken..."
• Use language without value judgement, such as: fantastic, brilliant, rubbish, interesting, good.
• Avoid using cliched phrases: "a hot topic..."; "the other side of the coin..."; "at the end of the day..."; "the fact of the matter..."; "in the current climate..."
• Make cautious use of strong statements, or avoid the following altogether: extremely, very, really, always, never, a lot, the most, the least.
• Always check department guidelines on the use of first-person forms in your writing.
• How to reference
• How to question information and think critically
• How to structure and plan an essay

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