free will vs determinism essay 16 marker

Free Will Vs Determinism

This essay will delve into the philosophical debate between free will and determinism. It will define each concept and explore the arguments and theories supporting both viewpoints. The piece will discuss the implications of this debate in various fields such as psychology, ethics, and law, and how it shapes our understanding of human behavior and responsibility. PapersOwl offers a variety of free essay examples on the topic of Free Will.

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Do people have a choice with how they live their lives or is all of it already determined for them? There has always been a debate in philosophy between free will and determinism . The issue there is whether humans should be thought of as free to choose their actions and the way they live their lives or whether they are determined by forces beyond their control. Then, if life is already determined for people, should people be held responsible for their actions? Free will and determinism are two different concepts that can be used to explain the world around us.

Free will is the ability to choose between different possible courses of action. Free will is the concept of moral responsibility, right, wrong, and other judgments which apply to actions that are freely chosen. It is also connected with the concepts of advice, persuasion. Traditionally, only actions that are freely willed are seen as deserving credit or blame. There are numerous different concerns about threats to the possibility of free will, by how exactly is it conceived. Some conceive free will to be the capacity to make choices in which the outcome has not been determined by past events.

Determinism on the other hand is the belief that all events are determined completely by previously existing causes. The opposite of determinism is some kind of randomness that just happens without any type of plan. Determinism often goes against free will. If determinism is true then events, including moral choices, are completely determined by previously existing causes. So, the question is should people be held responsible for their actions since it was destined to be that way? To answer that I think that if you were determined to do such things then you should also be held responsible for your actions. Being held responsible for your actions plays a role in moral responsibility. Being morally responsible means that you deserve praise, blame, reward, or punishment for what you have done, so it is one’s moral obligation. This can be compatible with this so-called adequate determinism . Moral responsibility requires determinism , so that we could understand the consequences of our actions.

Free will works with God’s plan because although he may have a plan for you, it is your decision on how you will live that life and what you will make of it. We are freely able to choose our actions and the choices we make that determine our outcomes. When it comes to making decisions people are able to thwart the will of God because God allowed people to be able to choose their own fate and what is right or wrong. When working through these issues I try to make the best decision and hope the best comes from it. We are able to make those decisions, so it is up to you to make the right one.

Regarding free will and determinism . Free will is a human value and determinism is a life plan. Whether it be free will or determinism , there is always a choice ready to be made and the outcomes come from the choices we make. Free will is a part of our human nature and we are able to go on with life and act in certain situations independently and having a determined life, it is already predicted for you. Free will or determinism , we are able to have some choice in how we act and we are free to choose our behaviour, so we are self determined when it comes down to it.  

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Issues and Debates in Psychology (A-Level Revision)

Deb Gajic, CPsychol

Team Leader Examiner (A-Level Psychology)

B.A. (Hons), Social Sciences, Msc, Psychology

Deb Gajic is an experienced educational consultant with a robust history in the education and training field. She brings expertise in Psychology, Training, CPD Provision, Writing, Examining, Tutoring, Coaching, Lecturing, Educational Technology, and Curriculum Development. She holds a Master of Science (MSc) in Psychology from The Open University, a PGCE from Leicester University, and a BA (Hons) 2:1 from Warwick University. She is a Chartered Psychologist (CPsychol) and an Associate Fellow of the British Psychological Society (AFBPsS).

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Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

On This Page:

What do the examiners look for?

• Accurate and detailed knowledge
• Clear, coherent, and focused answers
• Effective use of terminology (use the “technical terms”)

In application questions, examiners look for “effective application to the scenario,” which means that you need to describe the theory and explain the scenario using the theory making the links between the two very clear.

If there is more than one individual in the scenario you must mention all of the characters to get to the top band.

Difference between AS and A level answers

The descriptions follow the same criteria; however, you have to use the issues and debates effectively in your answers. “Effectively” means that it needs to be clearly linked and explained in the context of the answer.

Read the model answers to get a clearer idea of what is needed.

Gender and Culture in Psychology

Gender bias.

Gender bias results when one gender is treated less favorably than the other, often referred to as sexism, and it has a range of consequences, including:

• Scientifically misleading
• Upholding stereotypical assumptions
• Validating sex discrimination

Avoiding gender bias does not mean pretending that men and women are the same.

There are three main types of gender bias:

Alpha bias – this occurs when the differences between men and women are exaggerated. Therefore, stereotypically male and female characteristics may be emphasized.

Beta bias -this occurs when the differences between men and women are minimized. This often happens when findings obtained from men are applied to women without additional validation.

Androcentrism – taking male thinking/behavior as normal, regarding female thinking/behavior as deviant, inferior, abnormal, or ‘other’ when it is different.

Positive Consequences of Gender Bias

Alpha Bias :

• This has led some theorists (Gilligan) to assert the worth and valuation of ‘feminine qualities.’
• This has led to healthy criticism of cultural values that praise certain ‘male’ qualities, such as aggression and individualism, as desirable, adaptive, and universal.

Beta Bias :

• Makes people see men and women as the same, which has led to equal treatment in legal terms and equal access to, for example, education and employment.

Negative Consequences of Gender Bias

• Focus on differences between genders leads to the implication of similarity WITHIN genders. Thus, this ignores the many ways women differ from each other.
• Can sustain prejudices and stereotypes.
• Draws attention away from the differences in power between men and women.
• Is considered an egalitarian approach, but it results in major misrepresentations of both genders.

Consequences of Gender Bias

Kitzinger (1998) argues that questions about sex differences aren’t just scientific questions – they’re also political (women have the same rights as men). So gender differences are distorted to maintain the status quo of male power.

• Women were kept out of male-dominant universities.
• Women were oppressed.
• Women stereotypes (Bowlby).

Feminists argue that although gender differences are minimal or non-existent, they are used against women to maintain male power.

Judgments about an individual women’s ability are made on the basis of average differences between the sexes or biased sex-role stereotypes, and this also had the effect of lowering women’s self-esteem; making them, rather than men, think they have to improve themselves (Tavris, 1993).

Examples of Gender Bias in Research AO3

Kohlberg & moral development.

Kohlberg based his stages of moral development around male moral reasoning and had an all-male sample. He then inappropriately generalized his findings to women ( beta bias ) and also claimed women generally reached the lower level of moral development ( androcentrism ).

Carol Gilligan highlighted the gender bias inherent in Kohlberg’s work and suggested women make moral decisions in a different way than men (care ethic vs. justice ethic).

However, her research is arguably, also (alpha) biased, as male and female moral reasoning is more similar than her work suggests.

Freud & Psychosexual Development

Freud’s ideas are seen as inherently gender biased, but it must be remembered that he was a product of his time. He saw ‘Biology as destiny’ and women’s roles as prescribed & predetermined.

All his theories are androcentric , most obviously: -‘Penis envy’ – women are defined psychologically by the fact that they aren’t men.

But Freud’s ideas had serious consequences/implications. They reinforced stereotypes, e.g., of women’s moral Inferiority, treated deviations from traditional sex-role behavior as pathological (career ambition = penis envy), and are clearly androcentric (phallocentric).

Biomedical Theories of Abnormality

In women, mental illness, especially depression, is much more likely to be explained in terms of neurochemical/hormonal processes rather than other possible explanations, such as social or environmental (e.g., domestic violence, unpaid labor, discrimination).

The old joke ‘Is it your hormones, love?’ is no joke for mentally ill women!

Gender Bias in the Research Process AO1

• Although female psychology students outnumber males, at a senior teaching and research level in universities, men dominate. Men predominate at the senior researcher level.
• The research agenda follows male concerns, female concerns may be marginalized or ignored.
• Most experimental methodologies are based on the standardized treatment of participants. This assumes that men and women respond in the same ways to the experimental situation.
• Women and men might respond differently to the research situation.
• Women and men might be treated differently by researchers.
• Could create artificial differences or mask real ones.
• Publishing bias towards positive results.
• Research that finds gender differences more likely to get published than that which doesn’t.
• Exaggerates the extent of gender differences.

Reducing Gender Bias in Psychology (AO3)

Equal opportunity legislation and feminist psychology have performed the valuable functions of reducing institutionalized gender bias and drawing attention to sources of bias and under-researched areas in psychology like childcare, sexual abuse, dual burden working, and prostitution.

The Feminist perspective

• Re-examining the ‘facts’ about gender.
• View women as normal humans, not deficient men.
• Skepticism towards biological determinism.
• Research agenda focusing on women’s concerns.
• A psychology for women, rather than a psychology of women.

Learning Check AO2

This activity will help you to:

• Identify gender biases in psychological theories
• Discuss the impact of biased research on society
• Critically assess gender-biased theories

Below are two examples of research that could be considered gender biased. Working in pairs or small groups, you need to do the following:

1. Identify aspects of the research that could be considered gender biased

2. Identify and explain the type of gender bias that is present

3. Suggest the impact that these research examples could have on society

You could look, for example, at how the research might uphold or reinforce gender stereotypes or be used to disempower women in society.

The Psychodynamic View of Personality and Moral Development

Freud and many of his followers believed that biological differences between men and women had major consequences for psychological development. In their view, ‘biology is destiny.’

Freud believed that gender divergence begins at the onset of the phallic stage, where the girl realizes that she has no penis, and starts to feel inferiour to boys (penis envy).

Penis envy becomes a major driving force in the girl’s mental life and needs to be successfully sublimated into a desire for a husband and children if it is not to become pathological.

This view of gender divergence in personality development has implications for other aspects of development. For example, Freud’s view of morality was that it was regulated by the superego, which is an internalization of the same-sex parent that regulates behavior through the threat of punishment.

In boys, immoral behavior is regulated through the mechanism of castration anxiety – men obey the rules because of an unconscious fear that their father will take away their penis.

In the Freudian view, the girl has already had to accept her castration as a fait accompli, which raises important questions about the relative moral strength of men and women.

The Biological View of Mental Illness

The biomedical view of mental illness, which approaches behavioral and psychological abnormality as a manifestation of underlying pathological processes on the biological level, dominates the discussion of mental illness.

In the biomedical view , illnesses such as depression can be explained in terms of chemical imbalances causing malfunction in the parts of the brain associated with emotion.

When explaining why twice as many women as men are diagnosed with depression, adherents of the biomedical view tend to suggest that this is due to hormonal differences and point to the existence of, for example, post-natal depression to show how fluctuations in female sex hormones can lead to abnormalities of mood.

Similarly, sex differences in hormonal processes can be used to explain the existence of disorders that are ‘gender bound,’ such as pre-menstrual syndrome.

Culture Bias

Culture can be described as all the knowledge and values shared by a society.

Cultures may differ from one another in many ways, so the findings of psychological research conducted in one culture may not apply directly to another.

General Background

In order to fulfill its aspiration of explaining human thinking and behavior, psychology must address the huge diversity in people around the globe. Each individual’s behavior is shaped by a huge number of factors, including their genes, upbringing, and individual experiences.

At the same time, people are affected by a range of factors that are specific to the cultural group in which they developed and within which they live. Psychologists should always attempt to account for the ways in which culture affects thinking and behavior.

However, this has not always been the case. Psychology is a discipline that evolved within a very specific cultural context.

Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise: – (i) 64% of psychological researchers are from the US; (ii) in some texts, 90% of studies have US Participants; (iii) samples are predominantly white middle class.

Consequently, it has incorporated a particular worldview (that of the industrialized West) into the ways it tries to understand people. This can have consequences. For example:

• Psychologists may overlook the importance of cultural diversity in understanding human behavior, resulting in theories that are scientifically inadequate.
• They may also privilege their own worldview over those that emerge from other cultures, leading to research that either intentionally or unintentionally supports racist and discriminatory practices in the real world.

We will be looking at how cultural bias can affect psychological theories and research studies and the sorts of things psychologists can do to avoid the worst effects of cultural bias.

Types of Theoretical Constructions for Understanding Cultural Bias AO1

An emic construct is one that is applied only to one cultural group, so they vary from place to place (differences between cultures).

An emic approach refers to the investigation of a culture from within the culture itself. This means that research of European society from a European perspective is emic, and African society by African researchers in Africa is also emic. An emic approach is more likely to have ecological validity as the findings are less likely to be distorted or caused by a mismatch between the cultures of the researchers and the culture being investigated.

Cultural bias can occur when a researcher assumes that an emic construct (behavior specific to a single culture) is actually etic (behavior universal to all cultures).

For example, emic constructs are likely to be ignored or misinterpreted as researchers from another culture may not be sensitive to local emics. Their own cultural ‘filters’ may prevent them from detecting them or appreciating their significance.

An etic construct is a theoretical idea that is assumed to apply in all cultural groups. Therefore, etic constructs are considered universal to all people and are factors that hold across all cultures (similarities between cultures).

Etic constructs assume that most human behavior is common to humans but that cultural factors influence the development or display of this behavior.

Cultural bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other.

Making the assumption that behaviors are universal across cultures can lead to imposed etics , where a construct from one culture is applied inappropriately to another. For example, although basic human emotional facial expressions are universal, there can be subtle cultural variations in these.

Bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other.

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism occurs when a researcher assumes that their own culturally specific practices or ideas are ‘natural’ or ‘right’.

The individual uses their own ethnic group to evaluate and make judgments about other individuals from other ethnic groups. Research that is ‘centered’ around one cultural group is called ‘ethnocentric.’

When other cultures are observed to differ from the researcher’s own, they may be regarded in a negative light, e.g., ‘primitive,’ ‘degenerate,’ ‘unsophisticated,’ ‘undeveloped,’ etc.

This becomes racism when other cultures are denigrated, or their traditions are regarded as irrelevant, etc.

The antidote to ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, which is an approach to treating each culture as unique and worthy of study.

Cultural Relativism

Cultural relativism is the principle of regarding the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from the viewpoint of that culture itself.

The principle is sometimes practiced to avoid cultural bias in research, as well as to avoid judging another culture by the standards of one’s own culture. For this reason, cultural relativism has been considered an attempt to avoid ethnocentrism.

Culturally Biased Research AO3

Ainsworth’s strange situation for attachment.

The strange situation procedure is not appropriate for assessing children from non-US or UK populations as it is based on Western childrearing ideals (i.e., ethnocentric).

The original study only used American, middle-class, white, home-reared infants and mothers; therefore, the generalisability of the findings could be questioned, as well as whether this procedure would be valid for other cultures too.

Cultural differences in child-rearing styles make results liable to misinterpretation, e.g., German or Japanese samples.

Takashi (1990) aimed to see whether the strange situation is a valid procedure for cultures other than the original. Takashi found no children in the avoidant-insecure stage.

This could be explained in cultural terms as Japanese children are taught that such behavior is impolite, and they would be actively discouraged from displaying it. Also, because Japanese children experience much less separation, the SSC was more than mildly stressful.

IQ testing and Research (e.g., Eysenck)

An example of an etic approach that produces bias might be the imposition of IQ tests designed within one culture on another culture. If a test is designed to measure a European person’s understanding of what intelligence is , it may not be a valid measurement of the intelligence of people from other continents.

IQ tests developed in the West contain embedded assumptions about intelligence, but what counts as ‘intelligent’ behavior varies from culture to culture.

Non-Westerners may be disadvantaged by such tests – and then viewed as ‘inferior’ when they don’t perform as Westerners do.

Task: Try the Chittling IQ Test

Consequences of Culture Bias AO3

Nobles (1976) argues that western psychology has been a tool of oppression and dominance. Cultural bias has also made it difficult for psychologists to separate the behavior they have observed from the context in which they observed it.

Reducing Culture Bias AO3

Equal opportunity legislation aims to rid psychology of cultural bias and racism, but we must be aware that merely swapping old, overt racism for new, more subtle forms of racism (Howitt and Owusu-Bempah, 1994).

Free Will & Determinism

The free will/determinism debate revolves around the extent to which our behavior is the result of forces over which we have no control or whether people are able to decide for themselves whether to act or behave in a certain way.

Free Will suggests that we all have a choice and can control and choose our own behavior. This approach is all about personal responsibility and plays a central role in Humanist Psychology.

By arguing that humans can make free choices, the free will approach is quite the opposite of the deterministic one. Psychologists who take the free will view suggest that determinism removes freedom and dignity and devalues human behavior.

To a lesser degree, Cognitive Psychology also supports the idea of free will and choice. In reality, although we do have free will, it is constrained by our circumstances and other people. For example, when you go shopping, your choices are constrained by how much money you have.

• It emphasizes the importance of the individual and studying individual differences.
• It fits society’s view of personal responsibility, e.g., if you break the law, you should be punished.
• The idea of self-efficacy is useful in therapies as it makes them more effective.
• Free will is subjective, and some argue it doesn’t exist.
• It is impossible to scientifically test the concept of free will.
• Few people would agree that behavior is always completely under the control of the individual.

Determinism

The determinist approach proposes that all behavior is determined and thus predictable. Some approaches in psychology see the source of this determinism as being outside the individual, a position known as environmental determinism.

Others see it from coming inside, i.e., in the form of unconscious motivation or genetic determinism – biological determinism.

• Environmental (External) Determinism : This is the idea that our behavior is caused by some sort of outside influence, e.g., parental influence.

Skinner (1971) argued that freedom is an illusion. We may think we have free will, but the probability of any behavior occurring is determined by past experiences.

Skinner claimed that free will was an illusion – we think we are free, but this is because we are not aware of how our behavior is determined by reinforcement.

• Biological (Internal) Determinism : Our biological systems, such as the nervous system, govern our behavior.

For example, a high IQ may be related to the IGF2R gene (Chorney et al. 1998).

• Psychic (Internal) Determinism : Freud believed childhood experiences and unconscious motivations governed behavior.

Freud thought that free will was an illusion because he felt that the causes of our behavior are unconscious and still predictable.

There are different levels of determinism.

Hard Determinism

Hard Determinism sees free will as an illusion and believes that every event and action has a cause.

Soft Determinism

Soft Determinism represents a middle ground. People do have a choice, but that choice is constrained by external factors, e.g., Being poor doesn’t make you steal, but it may make you more likely to take that route through desperation.

• Determinism is scientific and allows cause-and-effect relationships to be established.
• It gives plausible explanations for behavior backed up by evidence.
• Determinism is reductionist.
• Does not account for individual differences. By creating general laws of behavior, deterministic psychology underestimates the uniqueness of human beings and their freedom to choose their own destiny.
• Hard determinism suggests criminals cannot be held accountable for their actions. Deterministic explanations for behavior reduce individual responsibility. A person arrested for a violent attack, for example, might plead that they were not responsible for their behavior – it was due to their upbringing, a bang on the head they received earlier in life, recent relationship stresses, or a psychiatric problem. In other words, their behavior was determined.

Essay Question : – Discuss free will & determinism in psychology (16 marks)

Nature & Nurture

The central question is the extent to which our behavior is determined by our biology (nature) and the genes we inherit from our parents versus the influence of environmental factors (nurture) such as home school and friends.

Nature is the view that all our behavior is determined by our biology and our genes. This is not the same as the characteristics you are born with because these may have been determined by your prenatal environment.

In addition, some genetic characteristics only appear later in development as a result of the process of maturation. Supporters of the nature view have been called ‘nativists.’

Evolutionary explanations of human behavior exemplify the nature approach in psychology. The main assumption underlying this approach is that any particular behavior has evolved because of its survival value.

E.g., Bowlby suggested that attachment behaviors are displayed because they ensure the survival of an infant and the perpetuation of the parents’ genes. This survival value is further increased because attachment has implications for later relationship formation, which will ultimately promote successful reproduction.

Evolutionary psychologists assume that behavior is a product of natural selection. Interpersonal attraction can, for example, be explained as a consequence of sexual selection.

Men and women select partners who enhance their productive success, judging this in terms of traits that ‘advertise’ reproductive fitness, such as signs of healthiness (white teeth) or resources.

Physiological psychology is also based on the assumption that behavior can be explained in terms of genetically programmed systems.

• Bowlby’s explanation of attachment does not ignore environmental influences, as is generally true for evolutionary explanations. In the case of attachment theory, Bowlby proposed that infants become most strongly attached to the caregiver who responds most sensitively to the infant’s needs.
• The experience of sensitive caregiving leads a child to develop expectations that others will be equally sensitive so that they tend to form adult relationships that are enduring and trusting.
• The problem of the transgenerational effect. Behavior that appears to be determined by nature (and therefore is used to support this nativist view) may, in fact, be determined by nurture! e.g., if a woman has a poor diet during her pregnancy, her unborn child will suffer.
• This means that the eggs with which each female child is born will also have these negative effects. This can then affect the development of her children a whole generation later.
• This means that a child’s development may, in fact, be determined by their grandmother’s environment (transgenerational effect). This suggests that what may appear to be inherited and inborn is, in fact, caused by the environment and nurture.

Nurture is the opposite view that all behavior is learned and influenced by external factors such as the environment etc. Supports of the nurture view are ‘empiricists’ holding the view that all knowledge is gained through experience.

The behaviorist approach is the clearest example of the nurture position in psychology, which assumes that all behavior is learned through the environment. The best-known example is the social learning explanation of aggression using the Bobo doll.

SLT proposes that much of what we learn is through observation and vicarious reinforcement. E.g., Bandura demonstrated this in his Bobo doll experiments. He found that children who watched an adult role model being rewarded for aggression toward an inflatable doll tended to imitate that behavior when later on their own with a Bobo doll.

This supports the idea that personality is determined by nurture rather than nature. This provides us with a model of how to behave. However, such behavior becomes part of an individual’s behavioral repertoire through direct reinforcement – when behavior is imitated, it receives direct reinforcement (or not).

Another assumption of the nurture approach is that there is a double bind hypothesis that explains schizophrenia. They suggest that schizophrenia develops because children receive contradictory messages from their parents.

• Empirical evidence shows that behavior is learned and can be modified through conditioning.
• Behaviorist accounts are all in terms of learning, but even learning itself has a genetic basis. For example, research has found that mutant flies missing a crucial gene cannot be conditioned (Quinn et al., 1979).

Conclusion (AO3)

Instead of defending extreme nature or nurture views , most psychological researchers are now interested in investigating the ways in which nature and nurture interact. It is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior.

For example, in psychopathology, this means that both a genetic predisposition and an appropriate environmental trigger are required for a mental disorder to develop. Therefore, it makes more sense to say that the difference between two people’s behavior is mostly due to hereditary factors or mostly due to environmental factors.

The Diathesis-stress model of Schizophrenia suggests that although people may inherit a predisposition to Schizophrenia, some sort of environmental stressor is required in order to develop the disease.

This explains why Schizophrenia happens in the late teens or early adulthood, times of considerable upheaval and stress in people’s lives, e.g., leaving home, starting work, forging new relationships, etc.

Essay Question : – Describe & evaluate the nature-nurture debate in psychology (16 marks)

Reductionism & Holism

Holism is often referred to as Gestalt psychology . It argues that behavior cannot be understood in terms of the components that make them up. This is commonly described as ‘the whole being greater than the sum of its parts.’

Psychologists study the whole person to gain an understanding of all the factors that might influence behavior. Holism uses several levels of explanation, including biological, environmental, and social factors.

Holistic approaches include Humanism, Social, and Gestalt psychology and make use of the case study method. Jahoda’s six elements of Optimal Living are an example of a holistic approach to defining abnormality.

Imagine you were asked to make a cake .

If I simply told you that you needed 3 eggs, 75 grams of sugar, and 75 grams of self-raising. Would that be enough information for you to make a sponge cake? What else would you need to know?

In this way, a cake is more than the sum of its parts. Simply putting all the ingredients into a tin and sticking them in the oven would not result in a sponge cake!

• Looks at everything that may impact behavior.
• Does not ignore the complexity of behavior.
• Integrates different components of behavior in order to understand the person as a whole.
• It can be higher in ecological validity.
• Over-complicate behaviors that may have simpler explanations (Occam’s Razor).
• Does not lend itself to the scientific method and empirical testing.
• Makes it hard to determine cause and effect.
• Neglects the importance of biological explanations.
• Almost impossible to study all the factors that influence complex human behaviors

Reductionism

Reductionism is the belief that human behavior can be explained by breaking it down into smaller component parts. Reductionists say that the best way to understand why we behave as we do is to look closely at the very simplest parts that make up our systems and use the simplest explanations to understand how they work.

In psychology, the term is most appropriately applied to biological explanations (e.g., genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones) of complex human behaviors such as schizophrenia, gender, and aggression.

Such reductionist explanations can be legitimately criticized as ignoring psychological, social, and cultural factors.

Cognitive psychology, with its use of the computer analogy, reduces behavior to the level of a machine, mechanistic reductionism.

Behaviorist psychology sees behavior in terms of simple stimulus/response relationships. And finally, the psychodynamic perspective reduces behavior to unconscious motivation and early childhood experiences.

• The use of a reductionist approach to behavior can be a useful one in allowing scientific study to be carried out. The scientific study requires the isolation of variables to make it possible to identify the causes of behavior.
• For example, research into the genetic basis of mental disorders has enabled researchers to identify specific genes believed to be responsible for schizophrenia. This way, a reductionist approach enables the scientific causes of behavior to be identified and advances the possibility of scientific study.
• A reductionist approach to studying mental disorders has led to the development of effective chemical treatments
• The disadvantage is that it can be over-simplistic. Humans and their environments are so complex that the reductionist explanation falls short of giving the whole explanation of the behavior. Thus, it lacks ecological validity
• Does not address larger societal issues e.g., poverty.

Reductionism in psychology is useful, as sometimes the simplest explanation is the best. Physiological approaches do tend to be reductionist, but as long as we bare these limitations in mind.

It is difficult, if not impossible, to take a completely holistic approach to psychology, as human behavior is so complex. Case studies come closest to taking a holistic approach.

Explaining behavior in a reductionist manner is seen as a low-level explanation, whereas more holistic explanations are high-level explanations.

Essay Question : – Discuss holism and reductionism in psychology (16 marks)

Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches

Nomothetic approach.

The Nomothetic approach looks at how our behaviors are similar to each other as human beings. The term “nomothetic” comes from the Greek word “nomos,” meaning “law.”

Psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others. That is to say, in establishing laws or generalizations. Tend to use quantitative methods.

Personality: – A Nomothetic Approach

The psychometric approach to the study of personality compares individuals in terms of traits or dimensions common to everyone. This is a nomothetic approach, and two examples are Hans Eysenck’s type and Raymond Cattell’s 16PF trait theories.

The details of their work need not concern us here. Suffice it to say they both assume that there are a small number of traits that account for the basic structure of all personalities and that individual differences can be measured along these dimensions.

• The nomothetic approach is seen as far more scientific than the idiographic approach, as it takes an evidence-based, objective approach to formulate causal laws.
• This enables us to make predictions about how people are likely to react in certain circumstances, which can be very useful, e.g., Zimbardo’s findings about how prisoners and guards react in a prison environment.
• Predictions can be made about groups, but these may not apply to individuals.
• The approach has been accused of losing sight of the ‘whole person.’

Idiographic Approach

The Idiographic or individual differences approach looks at how our behaviors are different from each other. The term “idiographic” comes from the Greek word “idios” meaning “own” or “private.” Psychologists interested in this aspect of experience want to discover what makes each of us unique. Tend to use qualitative methods.

Personality: – An Idiographic Approach

At the other extreme, Gordon Allport found over 18,000 separate terms describing personal characteristics. Whilst some of these are common traits (that could be investigated nomothetically), the majority, in Allport’s view, referred to more or less unique dispositions based on life experiences peculiar to ourselves.

He argues that they cannot be effectively studied using standardized tests. What is needed is a way of investigating them ideographically.

Carl Rogers, a Humanist psychologist, has developed a method of doing this, a procedure called the “Q-sort.” First, the subject is given a large set of cards with a self-evaluative statement written on each one. For example, “I am friendly” or “I am ambitious,” etc.

The subject is then asked to sort the cards into piles. One pile contains statements that are “most like me,” one statement that is “least like me,” and one or more piles for statements that are in-between.

In a Q-sort, the number of cards can be varied, as can the number of piles and the type of question (e.g., How I am now? How I used to be? How my partner sees me? How I would like to be?) So there are a potentially infinite number of variations.

That, of course, is exactly as it should be for an idiographic psychologist because, in his/her view, there are ultimately as many different personalities as there are people.

• A major strength of the idiographic approach is its focus on the individual. Gordon Allport argues that it is only by knowing the person as a person that we can predict what the person will do in any given situation.
• The idiographic approach is very time-consuming. It takes a lot of time and money to study individuals in depth. If a researcher is using the nomothetic approach, once a questionnaire, psychometric test, or experiment has been designed, data can be collected relatively quickly.

From these examples, we can see that the difference between a nomothetic and an idiographic approach is not just a question of what the psychologist wants to discover but also of the methods used.

Experiments, correlation, psychometric testing, and other quantitative methods are favored from a nomothetic point of view. Case studies, informal interviews, unstructured observation, and other qualitative methods are idiographic.

There are also broad differences between theoretical perspectives. Behaviorist, cognitive and biological psychologists tend to focus on discovering laws or establishing generalizations: – Nomothetic. The humanists are interested in the individual: – Idiographic.

As always, it is best to take a combined approach. Millon & Davis (1996) suggest research should start with a nomothetic approach and once general ‘laws’ have been established, research can then move to a more idiographic approach. Thus, getting the best of both worlds!

Essay Question : – Discuss idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation (16 marks)

Ethical Issues in Psychology & Socially Sensitive Research

There has been an assumption over the years by many psychologists that provided they follow the BPS guidelines when using human participants and that all leave in a similar state of mind to how they turned up, not having been deceived or humiliated, given a debrief, and not having had their confidentiality breached, that there are no ethical concerns with their research.

But consider the following examples :

a) Caughy et al. 1994 found that middle-class children put in daycare at an early age generally score less on cognitive tests than children from similar families reared in the home.

Assuming all guidelines were followed, neither the parents nor the children that participated would have been unduly affected by this research. Nobody would have been deceived, consent would have been obtained, and no harm would have been caused.

However, think of the wider implications of this study when the results are published, particularly for parents of middle-class infants who are considering placing their young charges in daycare or those who recently have!

b)  IQ tests administered to black Americans show that they typically score 15 points below the average white score.

When black Americans are given these tests, they presumably complete them willingly and are in no way harmed as individuals. However, when published, findings of this sort seek to reinforce racial stereotypes and are used to discriminate against the black population in the job market, etc.

Sieber & Stanley (1988) (the main names for Socially Sensitive Research (SSR) outline 4 groups that may be affected by psychological research: It is the first group of people that we are most concerned with!

1) Members of the social group being studied, such as racial or ethnic group. For example, early research on IQ was used to discriminate against US Blacks.

2) Friends and relatives of those taking part in the study, particularly in case studies, where individuals may become famous or infamous. Cases that spring to mind would include Genie’s mother.

3) The research team. There are examples of researchers being intimidated because of the line of research they are in.

4) The institution in which the research is conducted.

Sieber & Stanley (1988) also suggest there are 4 main ethical concerns when conducting SSR:

• The research question or hypothesis.
• The treatment of individual participants.
• The institutional context.
• The way in which the findings of the research are interpreted and applied.

Ethical Guidelines For Carrying Out SSR

Sieber and Stanley suggest the following ethical guidelines for carrying out SSR. There is some overlap between these and research on human participants in general.

Privacy : This refers to people rather than data. Asking people questions of a personal nature (e.g., about sexuality) could offend.

Confidentiality: This refers to data. Information (e.g., about H.I.V. status) leaked to others may affect the participant’s life.

Sound & valid methodology : This is even more vital when the research topic is socially sensitive. Academics are able to detect flaws in methods, but the lay public and the media often don’t. When research findings are publicized, people are likely to take them as fact, and policies may be based on them. Examples are Bowlby’s maternal deprivation studies and intelligence testing.

Deception : Causing the wider public to believe something, which isn’t true by the findings, you report (e.g., that parents are totally responsible for how their children turn out).

Informed consent : Participants should be made aware of how taking part in the research may affect them.

Justice & equitable treatment : Examples of unjust treatment are (i) publicizing an idea, which creates a prejudice against a group, & (ii) withholding a treatment, which you believe is beneficial, from some participants so that you can use them as controls. E.g., The Tuskergee Study which withheld treatment for STIs from black men to investigate the effects of syphilis on the body.

Scientific freedom : Science should not be censored, but there should be some monitoring of sensitive research. The researcher should weigh their responsibilities against their rights to do the research.

Ownership of data : When research findings could be used to make social policies, which affect people’s lives, should they be publicly accessible? Sometimes, a party commissions research with their own interests in mind (e.g., an industry, an advertising agency, a political party, or the military).

Some people argue that scientists should be compelled to disclose their results so that other scientists can re-analyze them. If this had happened in Burt’s day, there might not have been such widespread belief in the genetic transmission of intelligence. George Miller (Miller’s Magic 7) famously argued that we should give psychology away.

The values of social scientists : Psychologists can be divided into two main groups: those who advocate a humanistic approach (individuals are important and worthy of study, quality of life is important, intuition is useful) and those advocating a scientific approach (rigorous methodology, objective data).

The researcher’s values may conflict with those of the participant/institution. For example, if someone with a scientific approach was evaluating a counseling technique based on a humanistic approach, they would judge it on criteria that those giving & receiving the therapy may not consider important.

Cost/benefit analysis : If the costs outweigh the potential/actual benefits, it is unethical. However, it is difficult to assess costs & benefits accurately & the participants themselves rarely benefit from research.

Sieber & Stanley advise: Researchers should not avoid researching socially sensitive issues. Scientists have a responsibility to society to find useful knowledge.

• They need to take more care over consent, debriefing, etc. when the issue is sensitive.
• They should be aware of how their findings may be interpreted & used by others.
• They should make explicit the assumptions underlying their research so that the public can consider whether they agree with these.
• They should make the limitations of their research explicit (e.g., ‘the study was only carried out on white middle-class American male students,’ ‘the study is based on questionnaire data, which may be inaccurate,’ etc.
• They should be careful how they communicate with the media and policymakers.
• They should be aware of the balance between their obligations to participants and those to society (e.g. if the participant tells them something which they feel they should tell the police/social services).
• They should be aware of their own values and biases and those of the participants.
• Psychologists have devised methods to resolve the issues raised.
• SSR is the most scrutinized research in psychology. Ethical committees reject more SSR than any other form of research.
• By gaining a better understanding of issues such as gender, race, and sexuality, we are able to gain greater acceptance and reduce prejudice.
• SSR has been of benefit to society, for example, EWT. This has made us aware that EWT can be flawed and should not be used without corroboration. It has also made us aware that the EWT of children is every bit as reliable as that of adults.
• Most research is still carried out on white middle-class Americans (about 90% of research is quoted in texts!). SSR is helping to redress the balance and make us more aware of other cultures and outlooks.
• Flawed research has been used to dictate social policy and put certain groups at a disadvantage.
• Research has been used to discriminate against groups in society, such as the sterilization of people in the USA between 1910 and 1920 because they were of low intelligence, criminal, or suffered from psychological illness.
• The guidelines used by psychologists to control SSR lack power and, as a result, are unable to prevent indefensible research from being carried out.

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Determinism And Free Will

March 17, 2021 - paper 3 issues and options in psychology | issues & debates.

• Back to Paper 3 - Issues & Debates

Determinism And Free Will Definition:

Determinism and Free Will is one of the classic debates in psychology and refers to the extent that psychologists believe human behaviour is influenced by forces beyond our control. Alternatively, do we have personal control over our actions.

Determinism:  Is the view that an individual’s behaviour is control by  internal  (genes etc ) or  external  (e.g. learning behaviour from our parents) forces. This means that behaviour should be  predictable.

Free Will:  Used to refer to the alternative end of the spectrum where an individual is seen as self-determination. According to this view, individuals have an active role in controlling their behaviour (i.e. they are free to choose and are not acting in response to any internal or external pressures.

The Scientific Emphasis On Causal Explanations:

One of the basic principles of science is that every event in the universe has a cause and that causes can be explained using general laws. Knowledge of causes and the formulation of laws are important as they allow scientists to predict and control events in the future. In Psychology, the lab experiment enables researchers to stimulate the conditions of the test tube and remove all other extraneous variables in an attempt to precisely control and predict human behaviour.

Different Types Of Determinism:

Determinism can take a  number of different forms  (biological, environmental, psychic determinism). This stems from the assumption that behaviour is rarely influenced by simply one factor

(1)  Biological Determinism:

Is the belief that behaviour is caused by  biological  influences (e.g. genetics, hormones, evolution) that we cannot control.  For example:  high levels of testosterone will cause aggressive behaviour, the XYY gene cause aggression, low serotonin causes depression etc

(2)  Environment Determinism:

Is the belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as systems of reward and punishment) that we cannot control. For example, if we are raised in an aggressive household we will learn that aggressive behaviour (through vicarious reinforcement) and will also display aggressive behaviour, through observing slim role models and vicarious reinforcement we could develop anorexia etc

(3)  Psychic Determinism:

Is the belief that we are controlled by internal, unconscious conflicts that we cannot control, for example, we could develop OCD because of a fixation at the psychosexual stages of development, we might suffer from depression because of repressed memories etc

Implications Of The Determinism And Free Will Debate:

Many areas of psychology have been influenced by the Free Will vs Determinism debate, and such the debate has had practical and  theoretical contributions  to psychology as it has helped develop a number of theories and strategies. There is a however still a great deal of debate about the role of free will in behaviour.

The case  FOR  determinism

The notion that human behaviour is orderly and obeys laws places psychology on equal footing with other more established sciences. The value of such research is that the prediction and control of human behaviour has led to the development of treatments, therapies and behavioural interventions that have benefitted many-for instance, psychotherapeutic drug treatment in controlling and managing schizophrenia.  For example,  if schizophrenia is caused by elevated levels of dopamine, treatments such as anti-psychotic drugs can be used to decrease levels of dopamine and alleviate the symptoms of schizophrenia this supports the idea of determinism as it shows that the cause of increased levels of dopamine creates the ‘effect’ the disorder schizophrenia. Reduce the dopamine leads to an alleviation of the symptoms of schizophrenia.

The experience of mental disorders like schizophrenia where sufferers experience a total loss of control over their thoughts and behaviour casts  doubts  over the notion of  free will   no one would choose to have schizophrenia.  This suggests that at least in terms of mental illness, behaviour would appear to be determined.

The case  AGAINST  determinism

In terms of hard determinism and the idea that the individual choice is not the cause of behaviour is  not consistent  with the way the legal system in the UK operates.

For example,  in a court of law, offenders are held morally accountable for their actions very few individuals would represent themselves in a court of law by trying to appeal to a judge or jury that their offence was biologically, environmentally of psychically determined.  This goes against a deterministic approach because  it suggests that we are in control of our own behaviours, that free will can over ride any ‘biological determined’ ideal.

The case  FOR  FREE WILL

There is  face validity  in support of the concept that everybody holds  free will. For example,  everyday experiences ‘gives the impression’ that we are constantly exercising free will through the choices that we make on any given day. Furthermore, research suggests that people who have  internal locus of control  (internal Locus of Control an individual feels that they are completely responsible for their behaviours and actions), tend to be more mentally healthy. In contrast,  Roberts (2000)  demonstrated that adolescents who believed in fatalism (believed that their lives were decided by events outside of their control) were at significantly greater risk of developing depression.

This suggests the effects of believing in free will has a positive on human behaviour and mental health.

The case  AGAINST  FREE WILL

Neurological studies have provided evidence against the idea of free will.  

For example,  Libet (1985) and Siong Soon (2008) have demonstrated that the brain activity that determines the outcome of simple choices may predate our knowledge of having made such a choice. The researchers found that the activity related to whether or not to press a button with the right or left hand occurs in the brain up to 10 seconds before participant’s report being consciously aware of making such a decision.  This goes against the idea of free will becaus e it suggests that elements of our biology are already being drafted into our decision making before we are even consciously aware of our decision or choice.

An  interactionist  perspective may offer the best compromise in the free will vs determinism debate. Approaches in psychology that have a  cognitive element  (like Social Learning Theory), tend to adopt an interactionist or soft determinism perspective. For example,  Bandura  argues that environmental factors are key to learning behaviour, but that we are free to choose (or make decisions about) who or what to attend to and when to perform certain behaviours (think about the  f our requirements of social learning theory!  Which one(s) of these requirements suggest that individuals have a free choice with regards to whether or not to imitate behaviour?)

This perspective offers perhaps the most  complete explanation  of many behaviours.

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Free Will vs Determinism (Debate in Psychology)

Do you believe in free will? Do you freely choose to make all of your decisions?

These are some big questions, and the answers from philosophers and psychologists may upset you. And it won’t help if I tell you that your upset feelings are not something that you chose to feel, either.

But that's the nature of psychology's biggest debate: free will and determinism.

What Is Free Will Vs. Determinism?

Psychologists have spent centuries debating how much control humans have over their thoughts, emotions, and actions. On one side of the spectrum is complete free will; on the other side is a world where everything is determined for us before it happens. 

What Is Free Will?

You may have heard the term “free will” before. It comes up quite a bit in the Christian religion - many Christians are taught that God gave them the free will to sin or not to sin. In psychology and philosophy, free will isn’t a gift from God but just how the world operates.

Examples of Free Will

We feel free when we decide to go to the park or buy a new backpack. After all, we had the options of going to the swimming pool or saving our money. Free will is the ability to make a choice when other options are present. Nothing is predetermined. Instead, we create our own destiny and have the power to make any decision at any given time.

Can Free Will and Determinism Coexist?

You may believe that free will cannot exist in a deterministic universe. You may believe that free will and determinism are completely separate and that free will reigns supreme. In this case, you would consider yourself a libertarian free will. (This has nothing to do with the political party.)

However, it’s easy to argue that free will doesn’t really extend beyond human behavior. Certain chemicals will react when they interact with other chemicals - they don’t have the free will to do otherwise. When lightning strikes, thunder doesn’t have the option of taking the day off. All of these physical factors could also limit our choices.

But according to free will, there is a difference between physical causation and agent causation. Not everything is completely random, however, we have the ability to take control (as an agent) and start a new causal chain of events.

As you’ll learn, it’s easy to argue against free will. But there is certainly something to be said for the fact that when we decide to go skateboarding or have breakfast for dinner, we feel like we are in complete control.

But are we?

What Is Determinism?

Now let’s talk about determinism. If free will lives on one end of a spectrum, determinism lives at the completely opposite end. Determinism is the idea that we have no control over our actions. Instead, internal and external factors determine the choices that we make. Our behavior is completely predictable. We have no sense of personal responsibility, because all of our actions are dictated by other things.

Some of the things that cause is to act are external: weather, media, our parents, etc. Some of these things are internal. We’ll go more into that a bit later.

This can make us feel uncomfortable, sure. But start to think about some of the decisions you made in the past week. Were they caused by something before it? Most likely, yes. Maybe you decided not to play baseball because it was raining outside or because you left your cleats at a friend’s house. Or you left a party early because your stomach hurt. You paid rent because you signed a lease because you were taught that it was important to live in a home.

Studies on Determinism in Psychology

The causes of our actions can go all the way back to our childhood. Take Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment . Children either observed an adult hitting a Bobo doll or being gentle with the Bobo Doll. The children did not choose which adult they would be observing. The children who observed the aggressive adult were more likely to be aggressive. This experiment was one of many that shaped Behaviorism and linked the “cause” of certain actions and behaviors to conditioning. Ivan Pavlov was able to make dogs uncontrollably drool through conditioning. What have we been conditioned to do?

What Causes Determinism?

There are a few factors that you can play around with to pinpoint the causes of your actions and decisions. Some psychologists believe that your actions are caused by a combination of factors, including:

• Temperaments

Let’s use the example of buying a backpack. You believe that a backpack would be a worthy investment and that it is superior to another type of bag. You desire a backpack for yourself after carrying around a ripped bag and seeing everyone at work with nice backpacks. At the time you decide to buy, your temperament is pleasant and you’re in the mood to do some shopping.

A similar theory about our decisions and prompts can be found in Tiny Habits. This book, written by Stanford researcher BJ Fogg, discusses his Behavior Model. He believes behaviors are caused by:

It’s easy to see the similarities between these two.

Different Levels of Determinism

If you’ve been on my page before, you know how powerful beliefs are. You also know that it’s entirely possible to change your beliefs and change the course of your life. Are these changes also pre-determined, or are they something that we can control through free will?

You don’t have to answer that by choosing one end of the spectrum. There are ideas that blend both free will and determinism to form theories that aren’t so extreme.

Soft Determinism

One of these ideas is soft determinism. Soft determinism is the idea that all of our actions are predetermined or self-determined. The difference is that self-determined actions, or actions caused by internal factors, are considered free. If you believe that the choice to knock out limiting beliefs is your choice, then you probably feel more comfortable with the idea of soft determinism.

Compatibilism

The idea that free will and determinism can exist together is called compatibilism. When thinking about our ability to make our own choices versus the choices that are pre-determined for us, compatibilism seems like a feel-good compromise. But it doesn’t always help philosophers and psychologists when thinking about responsibility. When are we responsible for our actions? Can internal factors, like a mental illness or intoxication, free us from responsibility? How does that work when someone chooses to alter these factors? Or did they really make that choice in the first place?

We Don't Have All the Answers

Want to hear more thoughts on free will vs. determinism? Psychologists, philosophers, and even Reddit users continue to weigh into this debate.

Quotes on Free Will and Determinism

• "Man, what are you talking about? Me in chains? You may fetter my leg but my will, not even Zeus himself can overpower.” -Epictetus
• "Though I cannot tell why it was exactly that those stage managers, the Fates, put me down for this shabby part of a whaling voyage, when others were set down for magnificent parts in high tragedies, and short and easy parts in genteel comedies, and jolly parts in faces—though I cannot tell why this was exactly; yet, now that I recall all the circumstances, I think I can see a little into the springs and motives which being cunningly presented to me under various disguises, induced me to set about performing the part I did, besides cajoling me into the delusion that it was a choice resulting from my own unbiased freewill and discriminating judgment.” - Herman Melville,  Moby Dick
• "For we do not run to Christ on our feet but by faith; not with the movement of the body, but with the freewill of the heart. Think not that thou art drawn against thy will: the mind can be drawn by love.” - Augustine of Hippo
• "Humans have an amazing capacity to believe in contradictory things. For example, to believe in an omnipotent and benevolent God but somehow excuse Him from all the suffering in the world. Or our ability to believe from the standpoint of law that humans are equal and have free will and from biology that humans are just organic machines." - Yuval Noah Harari

The Debate Continues On Reddit!

Below are just a few thoughts from Reddit users on the entp subreddit!

u/Destrh0 said : 

" There is no such thing as actual free will, only a remarkable facsimile of free will. At our core, we are truly unable to make any completely free choice. It is tantamount to being able to make a completely random decision. We aren't even consciously aware of any decision being made until well after it has been made. And anyone with severe PTSD will tell you that they really don't have a choice in a lot of their reactions. Free will is a joke." 

They were met with a rebuttal from u/ENTP-one: " I actually thought about it a lot lately. I come up with an thesis that to stop everything being pre descent you have to do something only from the need of changing the path. If your 100% you want to do something not doing it and choosing something that you 100% not wanna do will change the destination. Of course the idea only works if what's predestination does not account for you knowing it and actively doing something just to mess it up. But at the moment you do it the new path is created and again we are stuck in this predestined path." 

u/Musikcookie said:

"I believe in both. Humans have this weird conception, that free will would somehow be apart from the world it exits. But what would this even mean? Even apart from our world a free will will have to be based on what happens in this world, so it would still run into the same problems. This is because a free will needs to have some sort of logic to it. If we stop setting unreasonably high bars for what a “free will” has to accomplish, we can see, that our complex ability to change things can pass as a free will." 

u/fridge_escaped said:

"I have to do what any self-respecting ENTP would do, when proposed two options: provide a third (albeit popular one). I believe that we have both, but on different scales. From my surface knowledge of statistical mechanics and chaos theory even in completely chaotic environment we can define a trend, which the system follows, but locally its actions could be totally non-deterministic. So we have an option to choose what path to take, but in the end most of this choices lead us to singular ending.

Quick tangent there: we are always "governed by internal or external forces we cannot control" - physics provides tons of examples. I think what matters is what you do in the face of circumstances you cannot change. You can always settle for obvious options and weep "The system is rigged!", or you can try to find/make a way. Isn't it who we are?"

Want to read the whole debate? You can, on Reddit!

There is a lot to unpack when we think about free will and determinism. There is no definite answer that everyone can agree on. But that is why we continue to observe behavior, conduct experiments, and study how humans behave and make choices.

Related posts:

• William Glasser Biography - Contributions To Psychology
• Choice Theory (Definition + Examples)
• The Mind Body Debate in Psychology
• Behavioral Psychology
• Albert Bandura (Biography + Experiments)

Reference this article:

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16 16 Free Will Requires Determinism

• Published: March 2008
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This chapter proposes that the only kind of free will that is coherent is deterministic free will, and makes an argument for what philosophers call compatibilism. To the extent that the universe is not deterministic, such as at the level of quantum events, free will is simply impossible, because actions or events that are random cannot be willed or caused by anyone. But in a largely deterministic universe, free will means that a person's thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, hopes, goals, desires, and skills matter, and that these personal attributes can and do cause that person to act as he does. The fact that those personal attributes may themselves be determined by prior events does not change the fact that who the person is plays a large role in the decisions he makes and the actions he takes. Determinism makes free will (and psychology) possible.

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Issues and Debates 16-marker Plans (AQA A Level Psychology)

Description.

• issues and debates
• answer plans
• question plans
• aqa a level psychology- 16-mark question plans

Resource summary

Nature vs. nurture Outline What is the debate?- whether behaviour is influenced by our experiences or determined by inherited genetic factors.  What is nature?- The belief that behaviour is inherited; it could be present at birth or develop through maturation. People who support this view are called nativists What is nurture?- The belief that we are born 'tabula rasa' (blank slate) and our behaviour is influenced through sensory experiences in our environment. People who support this view are called empiricists Evidence from topics for nature- dopamine hypothesis as an explanation for schizophrenia OR Lombroso's atavistic explanation of offending OR Bowlby's monotropy theory OR the brain sex theory for gender development- there are other options to pick from, these are just the ones I'm best at and that seemed most obvious  Evidence from topics for nurture- token economy as treatment for schizophrenia OR the learning theory for attachment (Dollard and Miller's food leads to attachment theory) OR influence of culture and media on gender OR the behaviourist explanation for phobias (conditioning) Interactionist approach- nature and nurture interact and influence one another (e.g. twin studies in which both the environment and genes affect behaviour) Evidence from topics for interactionist approach- Kohlberg's theory of gender development (maturation and observation) OR interactionist approach of schizophrenia (diathesis stress model- genetic vulnerability+ family/cognitive dysfunction) Evaluation Empiricism led to the development of therapies- unlike nature, therapies like CBT treat the cause, and not just the symptoms.  Taking an interactionist approach explains how an individual may have a genetic vulnerability for a disorder but not develop it.  Nativist view is deterministic and has led to epigenetics in the past Drawing conclusions without debate is difficult e.g. twin studies- what is the true cause of the behaviour? Implications/ counterarguments of research- the dopamine hypothesis led to the development of drug therapies for schizophrenia, however they aren't 100% effective so we can conclude that nurture may also play a role in developing schizophrenia. The behaviourist explanation for phobias enabled the creation of systematic desensitisation.   Free will vs. determinism Outline What is the debate?- whether behaviour is caused by a person's own volition, or controlled by forces outside an individual's control What is biological determinism?- behaviour is caused by biological factors such as genes and hormones. For example, innate drives (hunger drive) leads to attachment Evidence of biological determinism- MAOA gene for crime. However, this is incompatible with the legal system as it removes responsibility from the offender.  What is environmental determinism?- behaviour is caused by environmental factors Evidence of environmental determinism- conditioning for phobias. This led to the development of systematic desensitisation as a treatment, although the role of biological factors is ignored. What is free will?- people are self-determining. This is good for our psychological well-being. Evaluation Humanists claim that believing we have free will improves psychological well-being. Roberts (2000) found that adolescents with a fatalistic view had a higher risk of depression Libert (1985) found evidence against free will through brain scans- people's brains made decisions before they consciously knew they'd made the decision. Determinism is consistent with science as general laws can be established, and we can therefore predict and control behaviour Determinism is incompatible with the legal system (it removes responsibility from the offender)   Idiographic vs nomothetic Outline What is the debate?- idiographic approach focuses on individual personal experiences, while the nomothetic approach aims to make general laws on human behaviour Methods used- idiographic research uses qualitative data, case studies, and unstructured interviews, while the nomothetic approach uses scientific methods such as experiments Example for the idiographic approach- humanistic approach and client-centred therapy Example for the nomothetic approach- behaviourism and biological approach Evaluation Idiographic Idiographic approach can challenge nomothetic approach- David Reimer challenges socio-psychological theories Hard to generalise meaningfully- little predictive value Nomothetic Scientific methods e.g. systematic desensitisation  Loses sight of the individual's experiences   Holt (1967) said that many approaches use both nomothetic and idiographic views, such as the cognitive approach- using idiographic techniques to create general laws e.g. case studies into memory in order to understand it better (Wearing)   Holism vs reductionism Outline What is the debate?- breaking complex behaviour into units (reductionism) vs. considering whole experience Example for holistic approach- humanistic approach+ client-centred therapy Types of reductionism- biological and environmental  Example for reductionist approach- biological reductionism for schizophrenia- dopamine hypothesis Evaluation Holism  Explains social behaviours like conformity to social roles- we can't understand group behaviour if we study individual members out of context Doesn't establish causation so difficult to develop appropriate therapies Reductionism Economical- drug therapies are cheaper than others Scientific credibility  Biological reductionism leads to errors- it ignores the complexity of human behaviour by mistaking symptoms for cause. This is highlighted by varying levels of success for drug therapies   Combining different levels of reductionism leads to more holistic treatments e.g. family therapy+ drug therapy   Gender Bias Outline What is the issue?- the differential treatment/representation of males/females based on stereotypes and not real differences. This undermines psychology's claim of universality. Example of alpha bias- exaggerates differences between males and females. Freud's theory that girls can't feel castration anxiety so don't identify as strongly with the same sex parent, therefore forming a weak superego and having fewer morals. Example of beta bias- ignores/ minimises differences between males and females. Asch generalised male findings to females. This leads to androcentrism- theories based on men are classed as normal, so females are misunderstood. Evaluation Reflexivity helps overcome bias- recognising it occurs ensures we can minimise its effects  Negative implications- misleading assumptions are made; diagnosis of women with depression uses the DSM and ICD, both of which are based on male samples. Sexism within research- males predominate at senior research level in psychology so follow male concerns. There is also publishing bias for research which shows differences do exist between males and females.    Attempts to overcome gender bias still require more effort to improve the claim of universality   Culture Bias Outline What is the issue?- the tendency to judge people in terms of one's own cultural assumptions. 64% of the world's psychologists are Western- this undermines the claim of universality When does culture bias occur?- Assuming an emic construct (behaviour specific to one culture) is actually an etic construct (behaviour that is universal), resulting in imposed etic. Mead used Western methods and understanding when researching gender in Papua New Guinea Ethnocentrism- Takes behaviour of one's own culture as normal and others are considered deficient and abnormal. Ainsworth's Strange Situation considers German mothers to be cold and distant, hence the high levels of insecure avoidant attachment in children, however this may just be a sign of independence Cultural relativism- solves culture bias; can't judge behaviour properly unless viewed in the context of the culture it originated from. For example, when defining crime Evaluation Negative consequences of culture bias- African-Americans are diagnosed with Western ICD+ DSM for schizophrenia, however in some African cultures, hallucinations are seen as good, and a way of communicating with ancestors/gods/spirits Methodological issues- carrying out research in different cultures doesn't always indicate whether a behaviour is universal. Nowadays, there is less culture bias, although it still needs to decrease further. Psychologists no longer distinguish between collectivist and individualist cultures.   Ethical implications of research studies and theories Outline Ethical implications- considering the impact or consequences that psychological research has on the rights of other people in the wider context, not just for the participants taking part Socially sensitive research- studies where there are potential social consequences for the participants or the group of people represented by the research e.g. genetic explanations of offending means violent crimes may not lead to convictions, or may lead to genetic engineering to avoid genetic transmission It is argued that psychologists have social responsibility to carry out this type of research , despite its negative implications  Sieber and Stanley (1988) studied factors that should be considered when conducting socially sensitive research: Implications: ensure research doesn't give credence to prejudice or discrimination, although it is sometimes hard to predict- Milgram's study- obedience alibi for Nazis Uses/public policies: what the research is likely to be used for- the findings may be adopted by the government, although it is sometimes hard to predict- Bowlby's maternal deprivation led to the introduction of key workers, and mothers being more likely to get custody of child Validity of research: ensure research is objective and value-free- Ainsworth's Strange Situation was based on Western values Evaluation There are benefits to socially sensitive research- studies of under-represented groups can actually promote greater sensitivity and understanding. There are also great benefits to society e.g. Rosenhan's Being Sane in Insane Places led to revision of the DSM Negative consequences- certain groups may be marginalised or not adequately considered. It can also lead to social control e.g. sterilisation of citizens with a low IQ in the 1920/30s BPS code of ethics and university ethics board aims to minimise the risk of negative implications and they weigh up losses vs. benefits, and check researchers have adhered to guidelines.                                     

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A-level AQA Psychology Issues and Debates: Free will VS determinism application question 16 mark

Subject: Psychology

Age range: 16+

Resource type: Assessment and revision

Last updated

27 October 2020

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Suitable for teachers and students following the AQA A-level Psychology course, this is an example model answer to the following question within the Issues and Debates topic:

Discuss the free will and determinism debate in psychology. Refer to Stan in your answer (16)

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Discuss the Free will vs. Determinism debate

Free will vs. Determinism

        The free will vs. determinism debate has been argued by psychologists almost as long as the subject of psychology itself has been around. The deterministic approach explains behaviour as a direct result of 2 types of determinism; external/environmental stimuli (i.e. life events) and internal stimuli (i.e. genes). These stimuli create behaviour that is totally predictable which occurs in a regular, orderly manner – implying that people are just passively respondents. In contrast to this, the free will approach states that humans are free to choose their own behaviour and can therefore, break away from their biological programming and predispositions. However, it seems ignorant to believe fully in free will and there are no approaches which follow the belief of free will fully, thus, a multi-dimensional approach, of ‘soft determinism’, was devised. This is the belief that free will and determinism are coexisting factors of behaviour: it indicates that there are constraints within any situation, yet there are also a number of choices, which gives the individual a sense of free will.

The Behavioural approach is one of the many approaches that adopt a strict deterministic view of human behaviour. This is an environmentally deterministic approach which states that our behaviour is moulded, directly or indirectly, as a result of reinforcement provided by the environment; thus ‘conditions’ us to behave in a specific and predictable way. It is believed that the environment ‘writes upon the blank slate of our minds’ making us who we are. Psychologist Skinner went further and concluded plainly that freewill is an illusion created by complex learning. This approach has been successful in dealing with other problems, such as abnormal behaviour, but an ethical consideration which causes concern is the therapist’s manipulation of the patient’s behaviour by the therapist to achieve goals. This approach, like many deterministic views, is that it is extremely reductionist. Disregarding any form of individual intelligence, it reduces complex behaviours into a series of stimulus response units that respond to reinforcement. Therefore, this explanation may be more applicable to simpler, non-human behaviour, limiting the generalisability of the applications to the real world.

Bandura provides the social learning approach of reciprocal determinism which is similar to that of soft determinism. This suggests that humans make the environment what it is therefore choosing their behaviour by our capability to make individual choices, which affects what we imitate. Consequently, people are controlled by the environment but also have a certain amount of control over it. This is a more accepted belief as this is far less deterministic than classical behaviourism.

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Another deterministic approach is the Psychodynamic approach. At the core of this approach is the belief in ‘psychic determinism’ which is the view that events are controlled by our unconscious processes rather than occurring by chance. Freud shared Skinner’s views that the concept of freewill is an illusion, but did believe that humans have potential to achieve it. One belief that has produced harsh criticism for its lack of evidence is Freud’s theory of Psychosexual development. This states that a person’s behaviour and personality is due to their infantile characteristics, for example; an infant that defecates everywhere will develop into an Anal Expulsive character which means that as an adult, despite any other factors, they will be disorganised, reckless and defiant. This is a reductionist view, lacks face validity and has been proven to be wrong a through a number of studies.

This approach also has a successful therapy application to abnormal behaviours through the method of psychoanalysis. Many psychologists dispute this method and have found it to be unfavourable, such as Esyenck (1952) who found only 44% of patients benefited from therapy. Although Bergin (1971) found the majority of patients did benefit psychoanalysis, an alternative explanation for this success rate was offered; it may be due to the relaxed environment and the patient-therapist relationship established which may have allowed the patient to become more self-accepting. Also, this theory lacks falsifiability as it is based on innate activities and personalities which cannot be proved or disproved.  Freud’s determinist account of dreaming

Neurobiological accounts of dreaming are another example of highly reductionist and deterministic approaches in psychology. They explain dreams as a result of neuro-biochemical processes in the brain such as a random firing of neurons. This is a weak theory as it does not explain complex dreams or dreams that reoccur. This is evidence that genes cannot solely explain behaviour, so strict determinism cannot be completely valid approach. The idea of lucid dreaming suggests that dreams are controlled by the dreamer and could be seen as evidence of free will.

The Cognitive approach is one of a few approaches which sit on the fence. This explains behaviour as a result of perception, language and memory, a distorted view of these will lead to abnormal or maladaptive behaviours. This is determinist as it states that past memories will shape our behaviour, but also promotes free will as the clinical approaches aim to eradicate faulty thinking and create rational thinking. This is attained through changing a person’s schema. The word ‘schema’ was first used by Piaget and Anderson devised the ‘Schema Theory’ which assumes that we all have schemas (a mental structure that represents some aspect of the world) which controls how we behave in certain situations. We have schemas about everything in the world (i.e. stereotypes of races, ages and genders, worldviews etc.), and use schemata to organize current knowledge and provide a framework for future understanding. This works as an elaborate network of abstract mental structures which represents an individual’s understanding of themselves and society. This is determinist view as it suggests that previous experiences lead to expectations which determine our behaviors and perceptions unconsciously.

The multi-dimensional Cognitive approach is widely supported as it doesn’t oversimplify behavior, as the deterministic psychologists do, yet doesn’t disregard the importance of genetics and other predispositions that occur. By combining both nature and nurture it is more valid and seems to take a ‘soft determinism’ view rather than either or.

        However, Psychology as a subject is not wholly deterministic as there are approaches that do encourage the concept of freewill. The Humanistic approach has adopted the freewill view of behaviour; believing that all humans are free to plan their own actions and ultimately choose and shape their destinies. This results in everybody being unique and responsible for their own behaviours. ‘Self-actualisation’, a key concept within this theory, is the idea that we all have different potentials and constantly strive to achieve them. Maslow uses this in his hierarchy of needs and according to Jahoda’s view of mental health, problems only occur when we are prevented from fulfilling our true potential. However, on Humanist that has incorporated determinism into this approach is Carl Rodgers. He said that we do choose our own actions, but only through a framework which dictates what certain behaviours. This is also an example of soft determinism. Like the previous approaches, this has also has successful therapies such as Rodgers’ ‘self-centred’ therapy in which the therapist helps the patient to exercise free will  in such a way to maximise the rewards in their life. This type of therapy has been very successful in treating less serious cases of mental disturbances but it culturally bias, as it is only appropriate for individualistic societies. As collectivist cultures are more concerned with interdependence and group needs, self-actualization would not apply to them.

Research into the human genome is producing increasing evidence on genetic influences on behaviour, supporting determinism. For example, a high IQ may be related to the IGF2R gene (Chorney et al. 1998). Scientific research is based on the notion of cause and effect, so if a scientific approach is not taken this rules out psychological research explaining causes of behaviour. This also means that, human behaviour is completely unpredictable which is contrary to what many people have experienced. However, it is unlikely that total genetic determination will ever be found for any behaviour – meaning that there must be another factor. Another popular debate is the questioning of whether Psychology is a science, if it is not then it should not be treated as one. However, studying chemicals or stars is not the same as studying behaviour in the intricate detailed situation of the real world. Dennett (2003) argues that even if it was, it is now accepted that there is no such thing as total determinism even in the physical sciences. Also, determinism tends to oversimplify human behaviour, some theories may be relevant to animals but human behaviour is influenced by other factors - including thinking.

 Chaos theory proposes that even small alterations in initial conditions can result in major changes – the ‘butterfly effect’. Free will can be explained within a determinist framework as if free will is a product of conscious thought and decision making and psychologists can explain such processes in terms of brain activity then free will is another aspect of behaviour determined by the brain. Freewill is supported by subjective experiences and the fact that people do make individual decisions and are bound to their desires and inclinations.  Yet, despite our subjective sense of free will, this is not proof. This could be an illusion, as Freud and Skinner described, and cannot be tested. Many freewill theories still explain moral thinking and behaviour as being determined by internal/external forces. Both Piaget and Kohlberg suggested that moral development was a result of biological determination.

Though there are strong arguments for both sides, there is a lack of evidence to show that either one is solely responsible for human behaviour. Both are necessary for explaining behaviour of humans due to its extreme complexity, therefore a ‘soft determinism’ approach offered by William James may be more applicable. This allows them to work conjunctively which provides a better comprehension of behaviours.  

Document Details

• Word Count 1655
• Page Count 3
• Level AS and A Level
• Subject Psychology

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