literature review on bacteriological analysis of borehole water

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Microbiological analysis of borehole water quality  †.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• Souto, J.P.; Sarmento Lira, A.G.; Figueira, J.d.; Nascimento da Silva, A.; Silva, E.S. Poluição Fecal da Água: Microrganismos Indicadores. In Proceedings of the VI Congresso Brasileiro de Gestão Ambiental, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil, 23–26 November 2015. [ Google Scholar ]
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• Rosa Candeias, G.M. Qualidade Microbiológica do Gelo Usado em Estabelecimentos de Restauração e de Bebidas. Master’s Dissertation, Instituto Superior de Ciências da Saúde Egas Moniz, Almada, Portugal, 2014. [ Google Scholar ]

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Silva, C.; Costa, T.; Silva, N.; Valério, S.; Barroso, H.; Hilário, M.J.; Alves, S. Microbiological Analysis of Borehole Water Quality. Med. Sci. Forum 2023 , 22 , 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2023022011

Silva C, Costa T, Silva N, Valério S, Barroso H, Hilário MJ, Alves S. Microbiological Analysis of Borehole Water Quality. Medical Sciences Forum . 2023; 22(1):11. https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2023022011

Silva, Catarina, Telma Costa, Nádia Silva, Sérgio Valério, Helena Barroso, Maria João Hilário, and Sara Alves. 2023. "Microbiological Analysis of Borehole Water Quality" Medical Sciences Forum 22, no. 1: 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2023022011

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Home > Books > Pathogenic Bacteria

Bacteriological Quality of Borehole and Sachet Water from a Community in Southeastern Nigeria

Submitted: 04 June 2019 Reviewed: 18 February 2020 Published: 20 August 2020

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.91812

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Water from boreholes and packaged commercial sachet water from different areas in a community in southern Nigeria was analyzed with membrane filtration for a snapshot of heterotrophic count and coliforms. Two boreholes out of the 20 analyzed had counts of over 500 Cfu/mL and 7 boreholes indicated the presence of coliforms. Sixteen samples out of 20 sachet water brands analyzed showed a regulatory product registration code, whereas 4 samples had no number or code indicating that they were not registered. The heterotrophic count of all sachet water was well within the limit for all samples analyzed, and coliform was detected in only two samples. The overall quality of borehole water in the community studied was rated D (65%), whereas the sachet water was rated C (90%) according to the World Health Organization (WHO) surveillance guidelines. Improvements in water quality structure in the community studied are required to help achieve WHO sustainable development goals on water sanitation. The etiology, virulence properties, epidemiology, and pathogenicity of bacteria associated with borehole and sachet water are also discussed.

• sachet water
• heterotrophic count

Author Information

Ogueri nwaiwu *.

• School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, United Kingdom

Chiugo Claret Aduba

• Department of Science Laboratory Technology, University of Nigeria, Nigeria

Oluyemisi Eniola Oni

• Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Agriculture, Nigeria

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Up to 2.1 billion people worldwide lack access to safe, readily available water at home according to a WHO/UNICEF report [ 1 ]. The report emphasized that majority of the people without good quality water are from developing countries and the lives of millions of children are at risk every day, with many dying from preventable diseases caused by poor water supply. The importance of good quality water is the reason why clean water and sanitation have been included as goal number 6 out of the 17 proposed sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the United Nations [ 2 ]. The proposal is that the SDGs will be the blueprint to achieving a better and more sustainable future for humanity by 2030.

In Nigeria, the public water supply is in a state of comatose in most towns and villages and dry taps without any hope of water running through the taps soon affect millions of homes. This has forced individuals and institutions to resort to self-help by using water from boreholes as the only source of water supply for drinking and general use. Use of borehole is a simple way of obtaining potable water from the aquifer below the ground, after which the water can be pumped into storage tanks before distribution.

Many people that went into borehole drilling business, which reduced the price of new boreholes, aided the proliferation of boreholes in Nigeria, and many citizens were ready to pay more money in rent for houses, which had boreholes. Furthermore, the dependence on groundwater, which is believed to be purified, is on the increase due to the increasing contamination of the surface water [ 3 ]. It is known that properly designed and constructed borehole both ensures the success of the borehole as an adequate supply of water and minimizes the risk of local pollution affecting the source [ 4 ]. If a borehole facility is not properly managed, contamination may occur in the process through the accumulation of physical, chemical, and biological agents in the pipelines and storage tanks of a distribution system or water packaging company. One direct use of boreholes is in the production and packaging of drinking water in sachets made from low-density polyethylene sheets. These products are popularly known as “pure water” in Nigeria. From the early 1990s, the production of sachet water increased exponentially and provided jobs for producers and sellers of the product. There is hardly any community in Nigeria without a sachet water facility. It is possibly the most widely consumed commercial liquid in Nigeria, and no sophistication is required for production. The quest for a cheap, readily available, and inexpensive source of potable water contributed to the emergence of sachet water [ 5 ], and it is far better and safer than the hand-filled, hand-tied packaged water in polyethylene bag [ 6 ] sold in Nigeria in the past. In developing countries, production and consumption of sachet water are rapidly on the rise [ 7 ], and many unregulated producers exist.

Packaged drinking water like the sachet water could be water from any potable source such as tap, well, and rain, which may be subjected to further treatments like decantation, filtration, demineralization, remineralization, and other methods to meet established drinking standards [ 8 , 9 ]. Packaged water is susceptible to microbial and chemical contamination regardless of their source [ 10 ]. Researchers have previously performed microbial analysis of sachet water in Nigeria using different laboratory techniques and found different bacteria and fungi. Occurrence of bacteria could lead to different disease conditions such as gastroenteritis, typhoid fever, cholera, bacillary dysentery, and hepatitis [ 11 ]. It has been reported [ 12 ] that waterborne diseases account for 80% of illnesses and diseases in developing countries, which leads to the death of several children every 8 seconds. In Nigeria, like most developing countries, various factors predispose packaged sachet water to contamination, and these include poor sanitation and source of raw material for food or water production [ 13 ]. Long storage of sachet under unfavorable environmental conditions and lack of good manufacturing practices (GMP) in general also contribute to contamination.

It has been found that the microbiome dynamically changes during different stages of water treatment distribution and the main important group in the past and present are fecal-associated bacterial pathogens like Escherichia coli [ 14 ]. However, opportunistic bacteria like Legionella and process-related bacteria, which form biofilms, are also a cause for concern [ 15 , 16 ]. A review [ 17 ] elucidated that drinking water comprises a complex microbiota that is influenced by disinfection and that members of the phylum Proteobacteria represent the most frequent bacteria in drinking water. It was also pointed out that their ubiquity has serious implications for human health and that the first step to address the persistent nature of bacteria in water would be to identify and characterize ubiquitous bacteria. The manifestation of bacterial contamination in drinking water can become known when outbreaks occur, and surveillance data provides insights on the microbial etiology of diseases and process failures that facilitated the outbreak [ 18 ]. Sometimes it can also be detected from laboratory results especially when water treatment facility is contaminated by bacterial biofilms [ 19 , 20 ].

In Nigeria, regulatory oversight is inadequate due to limited resources. Surveillance of bacteria in drinking water from boreholes and sachet water is necessary for the benefit of public health; hence, periodic surveys can help establish trends and identify where water quality of boreholes and sachet water is deficient. This chapter reports a survey, explores reports of bacteria associated with water from borehole and sachet water in Nigeria, and compares data found with WHO water standards. The organisms associated with boreholes and sachet water are discussed.

Water samples from boreholes were collected on different days using Whirl-Pak sampling bags (Nasco, Wisconsin, USA) and analyzed within 2 hours after collection. Twenty private boreholes and 20 different brands of commercial sachet water sold in four areas of a community were analyzed on different days. Sachet water was purchased (five each) from the different areas and were inspected for the inscription of an approved product registration code from the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), the Nigerian national regulatory body. It was ensured that the same brand was not purchased twice from one area. The human population of the community (all 4 areas) was estimated to be over 5000 but less than 100,000.

Heterotrophic plate and total coliform count of bacteria were carried out using standard membrane filtration performed previously [ 21 ]. A slight modification of the method was introduced. Instead of using factory-made ready to use nutrient media sets, plate count agar (Oxoid, United Kingdom, CM0325) and violet red bile lactose agar (Oxoid, CM0107) for coliforms were prepared and used according to manufacturer’s instructions. Briefly, the filtration process involved placing of 100 ml of water sample in a sterile multibranched stainless steel manifold and filter holder system. A 0.45 μm membrane filter was fitted into the filter system after which water was drawn through to retain bacteria on the membrane. The membrane filter was placed on the media prepared and then incubated at 32°C over 48 h for membrane filters placed on plate count agar, whereas incubation at 30°C for 48 h was used for filters grown on violet red bile lactose agar. The heterotrophic count was noted, and estimated coliform results obtained for boreholes and sachet water were compared to WHO quality guidelines for drinking water [ 22 ].

3.1 Heterotrophic and total coliform count of borehole samples

This survey was carried out to have an overview of the bacterial load in water quality of some boreholes in the community surveyed. The borehole owners were apprehensive and thought they were being investigated for possible closure. To allow sample collection, it was agreed that the name of borehole owners and their location should remain anonymous when the findings were published. Results showed that borehole samples from area “C2” had the highest heterotrophic aerobic count. Two boreholes had counts of over 500 Cfu/mL, which is above the recommended heterotrophic limit [ 21 ]. All the other samples were below 500 Cfu/mL. Seven boreholes indicated the presence of coliforms because purple-pink colonies, which were 1–2 mm in diameter surrounded by a purple zone, were formed on the plates after incubation. Samples C2a, C2b, C2c, C2d, and C2e had coliform count of 17, 15, 9, 6, and 5 Cfu/mL, respectively, whereas samples C3b and C4b had coliform count of 4 and 2 Cfu/mL. The rest of the samples had no coliform on the plate used after incubation. A definitive trend was that samples with the highest heterotrophic count had the most coliform count ( Figure 1 ).

Heterotrophic plate count of borehole water sourced from different areas of the community studied (C1–C4). The letters a to e represent different samples.

3.2 Heterotrophic and total coliform count of sachet water samples

Periodic analysis of sachet water is important to public health because millions of people in Nigeria consume it. An ideal situation would be to analyze every borehole water from which sachet water is produced to establish water treatment effectiveness. Enquiries made to sachet water producers for access to their source of water for production were not successful. To refuse access some companies gave information and advice that they do not have a borehole and their water for production is sourced from the supply by water tankers. Hence, commercial samples of sachet water were purchased from different locations with unknown source of initial water for production of sachet water on sale. Sixteen samples out of the 20 analyzed showed a NAFDAC product registration code, whereas 4 samples had no number or code indicating that they were not registered. The heterotrophic count was well within the limit for all samples analyzed, and coliform was detected in only two samples. Sample SC1c and SC3c had a coliform count of 2 Cfu/mL each ( Figure 2 ).

Heterotrophic plate count of sachet water (S) sourced from different areas of the community studied (C1–C4). Letters a to e represent different samples.

3.3 Comparisons with WHO guidelines

The WHO standards and guidelines are usually used to monitor water quality. The WHO categorizes drinking water systems based on population size and quality rating to prioritize actions. A quality score from A to D is awarded (quality decreases A to D) based on the proportion (%) of samples negative for E. coli . However, the samples under study were assessed for total coliforms and not E.coli ; the scoring was carried out with the presumption that samples with high coliform count may contain E. coli . Total coliforms serve as a parameter to provide basic information on water quality [ 23 ]. On this basis, the overall quality of borehole water in the community studied (all areas combined) was rated D (proportion of samples negative for coliform =13; 65%), whereas the sachet water was rated C (18 = 90%).

4. Discussion

4.1 bacteria associated with boreholes in nigeria.

Pathogenic bacteria often occur in borehole water systems especially in developing nations [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. Coliforms found in this study and other Gram-negative bacteria have been isolated from boreholes in different parts of Nigeria by many investigators [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. The organisms mentioned in these studies include Enterobacter aerogenes , Escherichia coli , Klebsiella aerogenes , Klebsiella sp., Klebsiella pneumoniae , Klebsiella variicola , Proteus sp., and Proteus vulgaris . Other bacteria isolated are Providencia sneebia , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Salmonella paratyphi , Salmonella sp., Salmonella typhi , Staphylococcus aureus , and Vibrio cholera .

The prevalence of the aforementioned species and genera may be due to the classical microbiological methods used for isolation. In most cases, MacConkey media was used for E.coli and coliform identification with no molecular studies that included 16S or whole-genome sequencing essential for establishing the actual prevalent bacteria species and strains in boreholes. An opportunity exists for regular molecular characterization of bacteria found in boreholes to help differentiate between harmless coliforms, fecal coliforms, and the deadly E. coli strain O157: H7. Borehole operators are required to deliver safe and reliable drinking water to their customers. If a community consistently consumes contaminated water, they may become unwell. Hence, regular monitoring and assessment of borehole water sources help maintain quality and provide data on groundwater management [ 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 ].

4.1.1 Bacteria contamination of groundwater

In Africa, many people rely on water from a borehole, but the purity of the drinking water from this source remains questionable [ 39 , 40 ]. The high heterotrophic count found in Area “2” of the community studied suggests that the groundwater of that area may be contaminated. The corresponding increased coliform count observed is consistent with the findings of Amanidaz et al. [ 41 ], which showed that when the concentration of coliforms and fecal Streptococci bacteria increased in a water network system, there was also an increased concentration of heterotrophic bacteria. These contrasts with the work of others [ 42 ] where it was shown that high heterotrophic count inhibits coliform proliferation. Despite increased heterotrophic count and coliforms in the study of Amanidaz et al. [ 41 ], it was concluded that no correlation exists, and increased numbers could be due to variability in nutrient composition [ 43 ]. Another factor could be biofilm formation because it has been shown that attached bacteria in biofilms of a water system are more metabolically active than the ones that are free-living [ 44 ]. Groundwater is susceptible to contamination by both organic and inorganic contaminants [ 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ]. Contamination could happen through natural processes, such as geological weathering and dissolution of numerous minerals beneath the earth’s surface, which results in low natural concentrations of contaminants in groundwater [ 49 ]. Anthropogenic sources, such as seepages from agricultural wastewaters, domestic sewages, mining activities, and industrial effluents, can also affect the quality of groundwater in many parts of the world [ 50 , 51 , 52 ]. Other reports showed that borehole contamination may occur through domestic wastewater and livestock manure [ 53 ] industrialization and urbanization [ 54 ] and leakages from septic tanks [ 55 ] or pit latrines [ 56 ]. Seasonal environmental conditions may also contribute to increased bacteria count from borehole water because other investigators [ 57 , 58 ] have demonstrated that higher bacterial count in borehole water occurs during the rainy season. This has been attributed to flooding which may allow floodwater to get into borehole systems that are not properly constructed.

4.2 Cases of sachet water contamination in Nigeria

Postproduction improper handling [ 59 ] and compromising safety and quality for profit during production [ 60 ] are factors that can affect sachet water contamination in Nigeria. Sachet water producers are expected to be food safety conscious in order not to jeopardize the health of the public. A large number of sachet water-producing companies in Nigeria are not registered and do not practice good manufacturing practices or follow international quality standards of water treatment [ 61 ] despite the efforts of NAFDAC to improve standards. Up to 25% of samples analyzed in this study had no regulation or expiration date code as recommended previously [ 62 ]. However, the fact that 75% of sachet water analyzed had date codes is a remarkable improvement from what was the norm (0%) when sachet water production started in the country. Unlike a previous study with larger sample size [ 11 ], which reported isolation of bacterial species in 54 out of 720 (7.5%) from 6 different brands of sachet water in northern Nigeria, all the samples in this study (100%) showed heterotrophic growth that were within permissible limits (<500 Cfu/mL).

Sachet water analysis from other parts of Nigeria has shown different levels of contamination. In this study, 10% (2 out of 20) of samples contained coliforms. In other studies carried out on samples sourced from Aba in the southeast, an analysis of 20 sachet water samples showed that 32% of the samples reportedly tested positive for Staphylococcus spp., 23% for Pseudomonas , 20% for Klebsiella spp., 15% for Proteus , and 10% for Enterobacter [ 59 ]. Another study in the same region reported a contamination in 8 out of the 10 sachet water samples analyzed, isolated microorganisms included E. coli , Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., Bacillus spp., Proteus spp., and Staphylococcus spp. [ 5 ]. Also 66% and 73% prevalence of pathogens have been reported [ 63 ] in this region after two batches of 30 sachet water samples were analyzed. In Oyo, which is situated in the southwest of Nigeria, E. coli (13.3%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (39.9%), and Enterobacter aerogenes (53.3%) were isolated from commercially sold sachet water [ 64 ]. Another report in this region [ 26 ] highlighted that all brands of sachet water (100%) analyzed had the presence of coliforms.

4.3 Compliance with world standards

A recent SDGs progress report [ 3 ] shows that between 2000 and 2017, the proportion of the global population using safely managed drinking water increased from 61 to 71%. The report highlighted that despite the increase, water stress affects people on every continent, requiring immediate and accelerated collective action to provide billions of people with safely managed drinking water. The quality score for the boreholes and sachet water from the community studied showed that the water needs improvement to achieve the desired “A” rating. In this study, the borehole water quality in Area “2” is a source of concern, and the owners in that area were advised to boil and filter the water before drinking. It is common knowledge in Nigeria that some boreholes are not deep enough to produce clean water from the aquifer; hence, such boreholes are used for other domestic purposes but not for cooking food or drinking. Owners of such boreholes normally boil and filter the water for drinking.

Water quality specifications may depend on the particular use, but the presence of coliforms in drinking water indicates that disease-causing organisms could be in the water system and may pose an immediate health risk to the water consumers. When coliforms and other bacteria are found, it is always recommended [ 65 ] that an investigation should be carried out to establish the sources of contamination. This confirmation will enable risk assessment and identification of solutions that will eliminate or reduce the risk of waterborne disease within a large population [ 66 ].

4.4 Etiology, virulence, epidemiology, and pathogenicity of bacteria associated with borehole and sachet water

From the studies reviewed, the organisms found in borehole water are well-known food- and waterborne bacteria that are constantly monitored by regulatory authorities in many parts of the world. Outbreaks can occur in a community and cause fatalities and economic losses. Hence, a constant review of the growth conditions that enable the bacteria to proliferate, the features that enable survival in different environments, infection mode, and prevalence pattern of these bacteria is important to reduce outbreaks.

4.4.1 Staphylococcus

The bacterium Staphylococcus aureus from the genus Staphylococcus is known for methicillin resistance of some strains. The bacterium is a major environmental contaminant of food and water, and the human skin and nose are known to be major sources of the organism. Nasal colonization [ 67 , 68 ] and atopic dermatitis of the skin [ 69 , 70 ] are considered risk factors. Environmental contamination may be the source of contamination in borehole water analyzed in this study, whereas humans or personnel involved in sachet water production are likely to be contributors to contamination. In Nigeria, sachet water producers are known to lack resources; hence, it is possible that respiratory protective equipment like nose masks are not worn during production in some facilities. Since it is possible to distinguish community-associated MRSA from healthcare-associated MRSA based on genetic, epidemiologic, or microbiological profiles [ 71 ], it would be beneficial to screen the strains found in this study to determine if they are methicillin resistant and community-related.

The pathogenicity, epidemiology, and virulence factors of Staphylococcus have been comprehensively reviewed [ 72 ]. It was highlighted that colonization is aided by biofilm formation that is housed in extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) found in many bacteria and that virulence factors are expressed with accessory gene regulator (agr) system in response to cell density [ 73 ]. To avoid formation of biofilms and EPS in the sachet water-producing environment, adequate personnel hygiene and good manufacturing practices that meet food safety standards must be implemented.

4.4.2 Pseudomonas

The genus Pseudomonas especially P. aeruginosa is known globally as endemic [ 74 ] and an opportunistic pathogen that causes several infections [ 75 ]. They are often isolated in clinics [ 76 ], and other sources may include residential, recreational, or surface water [ 77 ]. The colonies are usually heavily mucoid on solid media. It has been reported that mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in Pseudomonas strains and most bacteria include multidrug efflux pumps and downregulation of outer membrane porins, whereas virulence may include secretion of toxins and the ability to form biofilms [ 78 , 79 ]. A natural property of Pseudomonas is the possession of multiple mechanisms for different forms of antibiotic resistance [ 80 ], and this may have facilitated its occurrence in boreholes and sachet water.

4.4.3 Klebsiella

Klebsiella causes many infections, which includes urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bacteremia, and liver abscesses [ 81 ]. The genus is associated with water, and this may be why it has been isolated in both borehole and sachet water. The organism is found in drinking water [ 82 ], rivers [ 83 ], and sewage water [ 84 ], which may encourage environmental spread. It has been reported that the organism has a variety of virulence and immune evasive factors, which contribute to uptake of genes associated with antimicrobial resistance and pathogenicity [ 85 ]. A report [ 86 ] suggested that the species K. pneumoniae acquired antimicrobial resistance genes independently and their population is highly diverse. An analysis of strains from human and animal isolates spanning four continents has shown convergence of virulence and resistance genes, which may lead to untreatable invasive K. pneumoniae infections [ 87 ].

4.4.4 Escherichia

The most studied species of the Escherichia genus is E. coli , a coliform bacteria used to verify hygiene status in food and water. Usually, the presence of various strains of pathogenic or nonpathogenic E. coli in food or water samples indicates fecal contamination [ 88 ]. It has been reported that [ 89 ] a comparative analysis show that avian and human E. coli isolates contain similar sets of genes encoding virulence factors and that they belong to the same phylogenetic groups, which may indicate the zoonotic origin of extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli .

A study of the prevalence of E. coli strain O157:H7 in England and Scotland showed that it has a seasonal dependency, with greater fecal shedding of the organism in the warmer months together with increased reporting of E. coli O157:H7 infection among hospitalized patients [ 90 ]. This finding is very worrying because it suggests that there could be high prevalence when applied to Nigeria because the country has a warm climate all year round. However, good manufacturing practices irrespective of the climate appear to be the key factor in producing packaged water free of coliforms. It has been shown that levels of coliform bacteria and E. coli detected in sachet water samples in Ghana, a country with similar climate to Nigeria, were statistically and significantly lower than levels detected from several water sources including public taps [ 91 ].

4.4.5 Enterobacter

The genus Enterobacter consists of coliforms that are known to be of non-fecal origin. It is believed [ 92 ] that many Enterobacter species, which could act as pathogens, are widely encountered in nature but are most frequently isolated in human clinical specimens possibly because phenotypic identification of all species belonging to this taxon is usually difficult and not always reliable. Therefore, the identification of this genus in borehole and sachet water may need a revisit since molecular methods were not used. The organism is known as a ubiquitous and persistent Gram-negative bacterium in drinking water [ 17 ], but there are few studies of its occurrence or prevalence in borehole and sachet water or other water sources in Nigeria.

To understand the carbapenemase-producing Enterobacter spp. and the development of molecular diagnostics, Chavda et al. [ 93 ] used genomic analysis of 447 sequenced strains to establish diverse mechanisms underlying the molecular evolutionary trajectory of drug-resistant Enterobacter spp. Their findings showed the acquisition of an antibiotic resistance plasmid, followed by clonal spread and horizontal transfer of blaKPC -harboring plasmids between different phylogenomic groups. The report also showed repeated transposition of the blaKPC gene among different plasmid backbones.

4.4.6 Proteus

Proteus species are Gram-negative opportunistic rod-shaped bacteria known for its swarming motility and contamination of agar plates. Furthermore, on agar plates, the bacteria undergoes a morphological conversion to a filamentous swarmer cell expressing hundreds of flagella, and during infection, histological damage is caused by cytotoxins including hemolysin and a variety of proteases [ 94 ]. The organism is reported to have negative and positive advantages. According to Drzewiecka [ 95 ], Proteus species may be indicators of fecal pollution, which may cause food poisoning when the contaminated water or seafood is consumed, and it could be used for bioremediation activity due to its tolerance and ability to utilize polluting compounds as sources of energy.

Virulence factors may include fimbriae, flagella, outer membrane proteins, lipopolysaccharide, capsule antigen, urease, immunoglobulin A, proteases, hemolysins, and amino acid deaminases [ 96 ]. The ability to swarm and survive is facilitated by the upregulation of FlhD(2)C(2) transcription activator, which activates the flagellar regulon [ 97 ]. The prevalence of Proteus spp. in borehole or sachet water may be aided by its ability to swarm and colonize the production environment.

4.4.7 Vibrio

In Nigeria, the most reported species among the Vibrio species that cause water-related infection is Vibrio cholerae . The organism causes cholera, which is an infection that is characterized by watery stooling. The disease has killed hundreds of people in Nigeria in the last decade. According to Faruque et al. [ 98 ], a lysogenic bacteriophage designated CTXΦ encodes the Cholera toxin (CT), which is strongly influenced by environmental conditions [ 99 ]. The organism is responsible for the profuse diarrhea, and molecular epidemiological surveillance has revealed clonal diversity among toxigenic V. cholerae strains with continuous emergence of new epidemic clones. It has not been established if the strains found in boreholes and sachet water are the V. cholerae O1 or O139 strains that cause cholera [ 100 ]. There is a possibility that they could be non-O1 or non-O139 strains that are common in the environment.

In 2017, the WHO launched a global strategy on cholera control with a target to reduce cholera deaths worldwide by 90% [ 101 ]. The strategy is to use safe oral cholera vaccines in conjunction with improvements in water and sanitation to control cholera outbreaks and for prevention in areas known to be high risk for cholera. Nigeria can be classified as a high-risk area, and the occurrence of Vibrio species in borehole or sachet water suggests that they could transmit cholera. Outbreaks occur regularly in Nigeria, and it is always difficult to bring it under control. An outbreak in 2018 was characterized by four epidemiological waves and led to 836 deaths out of 43,996 cases [ 102 ], whereas that of 2010 killed a total of 1716 out of 41, 787 cases [ 103 ]. In both cases, the case fatality rate was over 1% recommended by WHO.

4.4.8 Bacillus

Bacillus cereus is a food safety concern among several species of Bacillus . It is naturally widely distributed in nature, and it is known as a Gram-positive rod bacterium that is responsible for food poisoning [ 104 ]. It can proliferate because of unhygienic practices [ 105 ] and can attach to drinking water infrastructure [ 106 ]. This suggests that the ubiquity of the organism, poor hygiene, and attachment to equipment may be why Bacillus has been repeatedly isolated from boreholes and sachet water by previous investigators.

Bacillus growth is sometimes considered an insignificant contaminant. Some strains like B. subtilis is used for probiotics [ 107 ], whereas a strain like B. cereus which secrets toxins like hemolysins, phospholipases, an emesis-inducing toxin, and proteases [ 108 ] is not used due to obvious reasons. Toxin production in B. cereus requires the transcription factor PlcR , which controls expression of virulence factors [ 109 ]. Virulence-associated gene profiles have been used to evaluate the genetic backgrounds and relationships of food poisoning cases among other isolates from the environment, and it was concluded that both molecular and epidemiological surveillance studies could be used effectively to estimate virulence [ 110 ].

4.4.9 Salmonella

The species Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi cause typhoid fever and remain a major public health concern in Asia and Africa [ 111 ] due to antimicrobial resistance. For developed countries, it is believed that some non-typhoidal strains are zoonotic in origin and acquire their resistance in the food animal host before onward transmission to humans through the food chain [ 112 ]. It has been reported that the overall global burden of Salmonella infections is high and this may be the reason why in 2017, the WHO listed fluoroquinolone-resistant Salmonella spp. as priority pathogens for which new antibiotics were urgently needed [ 113 ].

The bacterium can survive in aquatic environments by a number of mechanisms, including entry into the viable but non-culturable state or residence within free-living protozoa [ 114 ]. Survival in water may have contributed to the isolation from borehole and sachet water in studies by others. It is not certain if the isolates encountered in this study cause typhoid fever or are the non-typhoid causing strains. Hence, additional studies are required to establish the prevalent type of Salmonella in water-producing facilities in Nigeria. A recent report found that typhoid fever still poses a serious health challenge in Nigeria and is a major health security issue [ 115 ]. It was recommended that a combined approach that includes the use of typhoid vaccines, improvements in sanitation, and safe water supply is essential.

5. Conclusions

The overall bacteria quality of the borehole and sachet water in the community studied needs improvement. An improvement can be achieved by focusing on areas with coliform contamination. Boreholes should be sited where pollutants will not easily contaminate them. Regular water testing should be carried out to ensure the attainment of WHO guidelines always. Where deviations are found, corrective actions should be undertaken. The literature on bacteria from boreholes and sachet water in Nigeria shows that not much molecular characterization has been carried out; hence an opportunity exists for more investigations. Regulatory oversight for sachet water production and the use of boreholes by large community populations requires improvement. It is recommended that universities should carry out periodic surveillance of boreholes and sachet water sold near them to support the SDG targets of the WHO.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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American Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences

p-ISSN: 2165-901X    e-ISSN: 2165-9036

2019;  9(3): 96-103

doi:10.5923/j.ajmms.20190903.06

Assessment of Bacteriological Quality of Borehole Water, Sachet Water and Well Water in Bingham University Community

Ajobiewe H. F. 1 , Ajobiewe J. O. 1 , 2 , Mbagwu T. T. 1 , Ale T. 2 , Taimako G. A. 1

1 Biological Science Department Bingham University, Karu, Nasarawa State, Nigeria

2 Microbiology Department National Hospital Abuja FCT, Nigeria

Copyright © 2019 The Author(s). Published by Scientific & Academic Publishing.

This study was conducted to investigate the portability of 20 water samples collected for two weeks from boreholes, wells and sachet water consumed within Bingham University community. The objective was to determine the bacteriological quality of these water samples. Results obtained after carrying out bacteriological analysis showed the presence of organisms in all the water samples. Organisms isolated include Escherichia coli , Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa . Klebsiella pneumoniae having the highest percentage occurrence of 40% for the first week and 30% for the second week, Escherichia coli having the highest percentage occurrence of 50% for the second week and 30% for the first week, Salmonella spp. with 30% and 20% for the first and second week respectively and Pseudomonas aeruginosa with percentage occurrence of 10% for the second week. The highest bacteria count was obtained in the well water samples and the least was from sachet water. Findings showed that water consumed within Bingham University community is not completely suitable for consumption and should be treated properly. There is a significant correlation between bacterial infection and different water samples.

Keywords: Bacteriological, Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas spp., Klebsiella spp., Water

Cite this paper: Ajobiewe H. F., Ajobiewe J. O., Mbagwu T. T., Ale T., Taimako G. A., Assessment of Bacteriological Quality of Borehole Water, Sachet Water and Well Water in Bingham University Community, American Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences , Vol. 9 No. 3, 2019, pp. 96-103. doi: 10.5923/j.ajmms.20190903.06.

Article Outline

1. study background/literature reviews, 2. literature review.

Physicochemical Analysis Showing the pH and Temperature Obtained from Both Weeks       Biochemical Analysis Week One       Biochemical Analysis Week Two       Bacteria load for each sample       Graphical Representation of Physicochemical Analysis Percentage Occurrence 5. Discussion 6. conclusions, 7. recommendations. [1]   Ugorji, J. (2010). Comparative Study of Physicochemical Analysis of Borehole Water and Sachet Water in Owerri Municipal, Imo State: 9 – 10. [2]   Svagzdiene, R., Lau, R. and Page, R.A. (2010). Microbiological Quality of Bottled Water Brands Sold in Retail Outlet in New Zealan. 10(5): 689-699. [3]   Owolabi, J.B., Olaitan, J.O., Alao, A.A., Deile, A.K., Ige, O.O. and Oloke, J.K. (2014). Bacteriological and Physicochemical Assessment of Water from Student Hostels. [4]   European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (2010). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for Water, 8(3): 1459. [5]   World Health Organisation. (2010). 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[33]   Hunter, P.R. (1997). Waterborne Disease: Epidemiology and Ecology, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, United Kingdom: 27-30. [34]   WHO. (2006). Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, 3 Ed., Incorporating 1 Addendum, World Health Organization, Geneva: Available on www.who.int/watersanitation_health/dwq/guidelines/en. [Retrieved Feb. 2016]. [35]   Roivainen, M., Rasilainen, S., Ylipaasto, P., Nissinen, R., Bouwens, L., Eizirik, D.L., Hovi, T. and Otonkoski, T. (2000). Mechanism of Coxsackievirus-induced Damage to Human Pancreatic Beta-cells, 85(1): 432. [36]   Farreira Jr., A.G., Ferreira, S.M., Gomes, M.L. and Linhares, A.C. (1995). Enteroviruses as Possible Cause of Myocarditis, Pericarditis and Dilated Cardiomyopathy in Belem, Brazil, 28(8): 869-874. [37]   Prendergast, M.M. and Moran, A.P. (2000). Lipopolysaccharides in the Development of the Guillain-Barre Syndrome and Miller Fisher Syndrome Forms of Acute Inflammatory Peripheral Neurophathies, 6(5): 341. [38]   Uemura, N., Okamoto, S., Yamamoto, S., Matsumura, N., Yamaguchi, S., Yamakido, M., Taniyama, K., Sasaki, N. and Schlemper, R.J. (2001). Infection and Development of Gastric Cancer, 345(11): 784-789. [39]   Ebringer, A. and Wilson, C. (2000). HLA Molecules, Bacteria and Autoimmunity, 49(4): 305-311. DOI: 10.21608/NRMJ.2018.22710 Corpus ID: 134221081 Assessment of bacteriological quality of borehole water in Wamakko local government, Sokoto state, Nigeria I. Bashir , Abubakar Adam , +4 authors R. Afolabi Published in Novel Research in… 25 December 2018 Environmental Science Figures and Tables from this paper 10 Citations Seasonal variety on bacteriological evaluation of borehole waters in orumba south local government area in anambra state, bacteriological assessment of pipe-borne, borehole, and well water sources available to students in nasarawa state university keffi, nasarawa state, nigeria, assessment of coliform bacteria as indicator of water quality in jigawa state nigeria, quality and safety assessment of water samples collected from wells in four emirate zones of kebbi state, nigeria, a comprehensive review of water quality monitoring and assessment in nigeria., antibiotics resistance pattern of coliform bacteria isolated from slaughterhouse wastewater in jega town, kebbi state, nigeria. Highly Influenced A systematic literature analysis of the nature and regional distribution of water pollution sources in Nigeria Evaluation of factors that influence reoccurrence of cholera epidemics in bwera hospital, kasese district, investigation of virulence factors and effect of chlorine and sunlight on carbapenems-resistant enterobacteriaceae from water samples, impact of different land use types on groundwater quality in ibadan, nigeria, 30 references, evaluation of bacteriological quality of surface, well, borehole and river water in khana local government area of rivers state, niger delta, bacteriological analysis of borehole water in uli, nigeria, microbiological assessment of well waters in samaru, zaria, kaduna, state, nigeria., bacteriological and physicochemical analyses of borehole and well water sources in ijebu-ode, southwestern nigeria, bacteriological and physicochemical qualities of some borehole waters in aba south metropolis, abia state nigeria, assessment of quality of drinking water sources in the federal university of technology, owerri, imo state, nigeria, microbiological analysis of sachet drinking water marketed at two sites in aliero, kebbi state, nigeria., comparative analysis of three borehole water sources in nsukka urban area, enugu state, nigeria, quality assessment of some groundwater samples in ogbomoso metropolis, southwest nigeria, quality status of drinking water sources in gombe metropolis of nigeria, related papers. Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers An official website of the United States government The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely. Publications Account settings Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now . Advanced Search Journal List Int J Environ Res Public Health Physico-Chemical and Microbial Analysis of Selected Borehole Water in Mahikeng, South Africa Groundwater is generally considered a “safe source” of drinking water because it is abstracted with low microbial load with little need for treatment before drinking. However, groundwater resources are commonly vulnerable to pollution, which may degrade their quality. An assessment of microbial and physicochemical qualities of borehole water in the rural environs of Mahikeng town, South Africa, was carried out. The study aimed at determining levels of physicochemical (temperature, pH, turbidity and nitrate) and bacteriological (both faecal and total coliform bacteria) contaminants in drinking water using standard microbiology methods. Furthermore, identities of isolates were determined using the API 20E assay. Results were compared with World Health Organisation (WHO) and Department of Water Affairs (DWAF-SA) water quality drinking standards. All analyses for physicochemical parameters were within acceptable limits except for turbidity while microbial loads during spring were higher than the WHO and DWAF thresholds. The detection of Escherichia coli , Salmonella and Klebsiella species in borehole water that was intended for human consumption suggests that water from these sources may pose severe health risks to consumers and is unsuitable for direct human consumption without treatment. The study recommends mobilisation of onsite treatment interventions to protect the households from further possible consequences of using the water. 1. Introduction On a global scale, groundwater represents the world’s largest and most important source of fresh potable water [ 1 ]. Groundwater provides potable water to an estimated 1.5 billion people worldwide daily [ 2 ] and has proved to be the most reliable resource for meeting rural water demand in the sub-Saharan Africa [ 3 , 4 ]. Due to inability of governments to meet the ever-increasing water demand, most people in rural areas resort to groundwater sources such as boreholes as an alternative water resource. Thus, humans can abstract groundwater through a borehole, which is drilled into the aquifer for industrial, agricultural and domestic use. However, groundwater resources are commonly vulnerable to pollution, which may degrade their quality. Generally, groundwater quality varies from place to place, sometimes depending on seasonal changes [ 5 , 6 ], the types of soils, rocks and surfaces through which it moves [ 7 , 8 ]. Naturally occurring contaminants are present in the rocks and sediments. As groundwater flows through the sediments, metals such as iron and manganese are dissolved and may later be found in high concentrations in the water [ 9 ]. In addition, human activities can alter the natural composition of groundwater through the disposal or dissemination of chemicals and microbial matter on the land surface and into soils, or through injection of wastes directly into groundwater. Industrial discharges [ 10 ], urban activities, agriculture [ 9 ], groundwater plumage and disposal of waste [ 11 ] can affect groundwater quality. Pesticides and fertilizers applied to lawns and crops can accumulate and migrate to the water tables thus affecting both the physical, chemical and microbial quality of water. In rural Africa, where the most common type of sanitation is the pit latrines, this poses a great risk on the microbial quality of groundwater. For instance, a septic tank can introduce bacteria to water and pesticides and fertilizers that seep into farmed soils can eventually end up in the water drawn from a borehole. Poor sanitary completion of boreholes may lead to contamination of groundwater. Proximity of some boreholes to solid waste dumpsites and animal droppings being littered around them [ 11 ] could also contaminate the quality of groundwater. Therefore, groundwater quality monitoring and testing is of paramount importance both in the developed and developing world [ 12 ]. The key to sustainable water resources is to ensure that the quality of water resources are suitable for their intended uses, while at the same time allowing them to be used and developed to a certain extent. Although surface water is the main source of water supply in South Africa, ground water is extensively utilized, particularly in rural and arid areas with only about half of the country’s groundwater resources (around 7500 million m 3 /a) being used [ 13 ]. Due to South Africa’s unpredictable rainfall, high evaporation rates and low conversion of rainfall to runoff, South Africa is a water stressed country, where demand is fast approaching available supply [ 14 ]. This, coupled with rising water consumption, is placing increasing demands on the nation’s existing water resources. The North West Province, being generally an arid province has all of these water resource constraints. Mahikeng, the capital city of the North West Province is one of several towns in South Africa whose residents especially in rural areas depend on groundwater resources. Groundwater is piped to the Mahikeng Water Treatment Plant where the flows are combined and the water is chlorinated. From the treatment plant the water is reticulated into the town. However, the majority of the surrounding peri-urban areas are not connected to the water system and individuals in these communities make use of boreholes, which are either equipped with various electric, diesel or wind pumps. The quality of water from these sources is variable, but usually in some areas it may contain huge amounts of nitrates and this is of particular concern [ 13 ]. High levels of salinity, high hardness and microbiological problems have also been reported in groundwater. Water quality problems have partly been associated with inadequate sanitation [ 13 ]. The common sanitation system applicable in most of the peri-urban areas of Mahikeng is Ventilated Improved Pit latrines (VIP) and/or dug pits which are dry systems and do not use water. However, it has been observed that the sources of water in some villages are in close proximity to human settlements and thus there is an inherent risk of pollution of the groundwater aquifer which supplies the village. It is therefore against this background that the physicochemical and bacteriological parameters of borehole water in Mahikeng were assessed to ascertain whether the borehole water was within the acceptable standards for human consumption as set by the World Health Organisation. 2. Experimental Section 2.1. study area. The study was conducted in Mahikeng, North West Province of South Africa in a village called Magogoe, about 8 km from Mahikeng town ( Figure 1 ). Mahikeng is located within Latitude −25° 51′ S and Longitude 25° 38′ E, covering a total area of 24.57 km 2 . Magogoe village is located within Latitude −25° 53′ 12.99″ and Longitude 25° 36′ 39.98″, and covers an area of 3.75 km 2 . Map of the study area within South Africa and sampling points. 2.2. Collection of Water Samples Drinking water samples (24) from eight randomly selected boreholes in the Magogoe village were collected for microbiological and physico-chemical analyses. Water samples were collected twice in June, when the temperatures were lower and September, when the temperatures were warmer, in order to establish the seasonal variations on physico-chemical and bacteriological parameters present in the water. Water samples were collected from the selected boreholes using three sterile 250 mL plastic bottle for each sample. 2.3. Physico-Chemical Analyses Determination of temperature, ph, turbidity, and nitrate levels in drinking water samples. The pH of water samples was analysed on-site using a pH meter (Model 300408.1, Denver Instruments Company, Bohemia, New York, USA) which was previously calibrated using two buffer solutions, pH 4 and pH 7. Thermometer reading in °C was used to record the temperature of the water samples while water turbidity was determined using a portable turbidimeter (TB200-IR-10). The concentrations of nitrate were determined in the laboratory using UV/Vis spectrophotometer at 410 nm using EDTA as described by American Public Health Association [ 15 ]. 2.4. Microbiological Analyses of Water Samples Water samples were analysed immediately after collection, for the presence of total coliforms and E. coli (bacterial indicator for faecal contamination) using membrane filtration method [ 16 ]. Aliquots of 50 mL from each samples was filtered using 0.45 µm paper filters. The filters were placed on mFC and mENDO agar and plates were incubated aerobically at 45 °C and 37 °C respectively for 24 h. Blue and metallic sheen colonies on MFc and mENDO agar plates were purified and used for bacteria identification tests. The isolates were subjected to both preliminary Gram staining [ 17 ]; oxidase, citrate utilization [ 18 ]; Triple Sugar Iron tests [ 19 , 20 ] and confirmatory biochemical identification tests (EnteroPluri-Test, Ref: 78618-78619) to screen for characters of bacteria belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae . 2.5. Data Analysis Data for microbial and physico-chemical contaminants in drinking water samples were recorded and analysed for total coliforms, E. coli , pH, turbidity, and nitrate. Mean and standard deviations were calculated from the results of the analysis of the three samples per sampling point. Water quality results were compared with the Department of Water Affairs and the World Health Organisation drinking water standards. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. physico-chemical analyses. Table 1 shows the physico-chemical analyses determined in winter and spring. Generally, most of the physico-chemical parameters in the majority of the boreholes were within the DWAF and WHO water standards for domestic use. On the contrary, the turbidity and nitrate concentrations of water from some of the boreholes were above the required limits. When the results from winter and spring are compared, it is evident that the temperature between the two seasons was relatively constant. This might have resulted from the fact that these boreholes were within the same area and protected from temperature variations. Physico-chemical analyses of water samples for winter and spring. Temperature (°C) pH Turbidity (NTU) Nitrate (mg/L) Winter Spring Winter Spring Winter Spring Winter Spring Borehole 1 15.3 ± 3.6 20.4 ± 0.6 7.7 ± 0.1 7.4 ± 0.03 0.9 ± 0.4 0.6 ± 0.1 6.7 ± 2.7 6.4 ± 3.1 Borehole 2 17.6 ± 0.3 21.2 ± 2.0 7.4 ± 0.09 7.4 ± 0.02 1.5 ± 0.7 0.8 ± 0.1 4.1 ± 0.1 3.2 ± 0.4 Borehole 3 23.1 ± 0.2 20.3 ± 4.4 7.3 ± 0.02 7.3 ± 0.05 3.2 ± 0.2 2.0 ± 1.5 Borehole 4 19.5 ± 1.6 21.8 ± 1.4 7.6 ± 0.04 7.7 ± 0.02 1.2 ± 0.5 0.8 ± 0.1 7.6 ± 2.2 4.4 ± 2.2 Borehole 5 25.1 ± 0.1 22.2 ± 1.4 7.6 ± 0.03 7.8 ± 0.01 0.6 ± 0.1 0.7 ± 0.1 4.2 ± 1.2 2.7 ± 2.0 Borehole 6 22.7 ± 0.4 23.2 ± 2.7 7.2 ± 0.04 7.4 ± 0.03 0.5 ± 0.2 1.2 ± 0.5 Borehole 7 22.4 ± 0.2 23.9 ± 0.3 7.3 ± 0.02 7.3 ± 0.03 3.6 ± 3.7 3.7 ± 0.5 Borehole 8 20.9 ± 0.9 — 7.4 ± 0.03 1.3 ± 0.4 1.8 ± 0.4 DWAF No standards ≥5 to ≤9.7 ≤1 NTU <11 mg/L WHO No standards ≥7 to ≤9.2 5 NTU 50 mg/L Temperature is one of the most important ecological and physical factor which has a profound influence on both the living and non-living components of the environment, thereby affecting organisms and the functioning of an ecosystem. Although temperature generally influences the overall quality of water (physico-chemical and biological characteristics), there are no guideline values recommended for drinking water. Therefore, having analysed temperature for the collected borehole water samples during winter and spring, the overall mean values were 20.8 °C and 22.9 °C, respectively ( Table 1 ). The pH of water is important because many biological activities can occur only within a narrow range, thus any variations beyond an acceptable limit could be fatal to a particular organism [ 5 ]. In the present study, all borehole water samples collected during both seasons had pH values within the recommended ranges for both DWAF and WHO drinking water standards. The values ranged from 7.2 to 7.8 for both seasons. Therefore, the pH of the borehole water in the study area could be classified as suitable for drinking purposes. Turbidity is defined as the measure of the clarity or cloudiness of water and the values are attained by measuring the scattering and absorbing effect that suspended particles have on light [ 21 ]. Turbidity values ranged from 0.5 NTU to 40.9 NTU for all the water samples. Turbidity results for the other boreholes during both seasons were within WHO standards except for boreholes 3 and 7. The plausible explanation for high turbidity from borehole 3 and 7 could be the use of a hand pump resulting from corrosion. Corrosion may cause permeability of the hand pump such that soil particles seep into the water thereby causing high turbidity levels [ 22 ]. Nitrate concentration in most of the boreholes is below both DWAF and WHO guidelines ( Table 1 ). Nitrate levels therefore did not appear to be a serious water quality problem except for borehole 6 whose nitrate concentration during both seasons was above the permissible DWAF standards though the values were within WHO standards. This could have been due to this borehole being located in close proximity to an animal shelter thereby causing surface pollution. Oxidation of ammonia form of nitrogen from animal and human wastes to nitrite is a possible way of nitrate entry into the groundwater aquifer [ 23 ]. In higher concentrations, nitrate may produce a disease known as Methemoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome) which generally affects bottle-fed infants. Repeated doses of nitrates on ingestion may also cause carcinogenic diseases [ 24 ]. 3.2. Bacteriological Analyses Total coliform bacteria are known as “indicator organisms” meaning that their presence provides indication that other disease causing organisms may also be present in the water body. The total bacterial count in the borehole water sampled during winter ranged from <1 to 44.1 cfu/100 mL. However, during spring higher values were recorded (1.0 to 579.4 cfu/100 mL) ( Table 2 ). It can be noted that except for borehole 7, all the water samples from the other boreholes were within the permissible standards of DWAF and WHO drinking water standards. However, five of the borehole water samples collected during spring did not conform to the set guidelines for drinking water. Results of the bacteriological analyses. Total Coliform Bacteria (cfu/100 mL) Winter Spring Borehole 1 <1 133.3 Borehole 2 <1 272.3 Borehole 3 1.0 5.2 Borehole 4 2.0 1.0 Borehole 5 <1 579.4 Borehole 6 <1 172.2 Borehole 7 461.1 Borehole 8 1.0 DWAF ≤10 cfu/100 mL WHO ≤10 cfu/100 mL The high total coliform count during spring could be attributed to the increase in temperature. Temperature affects the rate of proliferation of micro-organisms [ 11 ]. Another possible cause of high coliform count could be the proximity of certain boreholes to pit latrines and poor sanitary completion of boreholes may have led to contamination of groundwater. Total coliforms can also originate from environmental sources such as soils or from biofilms. Although information on the depth of the sampled boreholes was not available, another possible cause of microbial contamination is the depth of the borehole [ 7 , 9 ]. Minimum depth of a borehole is 40 m such that microbial contamination from surface sources is removed within the first 30 m as groundwater passes through saturated sand and non-fissured rock. In unsaturated zone, no more than 3 m may be necessary to purify groundwater. However, in fractured aquifer, microbial contaminants can rapidly pass through the unsaturated zone to the water table [ 9 ]. During the study, it was observed that some of the boreholes are electrical such that the water is pumped into pipes for distribution. Rusty pipes affect the quality of water by allowing seepage of microbial contaminants into the borehole [ 22 ]. Selective Detection of Faecal and Total Coliform Bacteria All the 21 presumptive isolates from m-FC agar were subjected to preliminary identification tests and results are shown in Table 3 . Ten of the isolates were Gram negative rods while nine were Gram negative cocci. In addition, seven of the Gram negative rods shaped bacteria were able to ferment the carbohydrates in the TSI medium. However, only two of these isolates produced hydrogen sulphide gas which is a strong characteristic of Salmonella strains. A total of nine rod shaped isolates were able to utilize citrate and only two of these produced gas. Preliminary identification test results for presumptive coliform bacteria isolates with m-FC agar (+ = positive for the test; − = negative for the test). Isolate ID Gram Staining TSI Citrate Utilization Butt Slant Gas H S Butt Slant Gas A − (rod) + + + − − + + A − (rod) + + − − + + − A − (coccus) + + − − − + − B − (rod) + + − − − + + B − (rod) + − − + − + − B − (rod) + + + − − + − C − (coccus) + − − − + + − C − (rod) + − − − − + − C − (rod) + − − − + + − D + (coccus) − − − − − + − D − (coccus) − − − − + + − D + (coccus) + − − + + + − E − (coccus) + − − − − + − E − (coccus) − − − − + + − E − (coccus) + − − + − + − F − (rod) + + − − − + − F − (rod) + + − − − + − F − (rod) + + − + − − − G − (coccus) + − − − + + − G − (coccus) + − − − + + − G − (coccus) + + − − − + − The isolates from m-ENDO agar were subjected to preliminary identification tests and results are shown in Table 4 . Seven of the isolates were Gram negative rods while three were Gram positive rods. Eight of the Gram negative rod shaped isolates partially utilized carbohydrates in the TSI agar but none produced gas. However, only one of these isolates produced hydrogen sulphide gas. All the isolates from m-ENDO agar did not produce gas from the Simmon’s citrate agar and only four were able to completely utilize citrate. Preliminary identification test results for presumptive coliform bacteria isolates with m-ENDO agar (+ = positive for the test; − = negative for the test). Isolate ID Gram Staining TSI Citrate Utilization Butt Slant Gas H S Butt Slant Gas A − (rod) − − − + − + − A − (rod) + − − − − + − A − (coccus) + − − − + + − B − (rod) + − − − − + − B − (coccus) + + − − + + − B − (coccus) + − − − − + − C − (coccus) + − − − − + − C − (rod) + − − − + + − C − (rod) + − − − + + − D + (coccus) + − − − + + − D − (coccus) − − − + − + − D − (rod) + + − − + + − E − (rod) + − − − − + − E − (coccus) + − − − − + − E − (coccus) − − − + + + − F − (coccus) + + − + + + − F + (rod) + + − − + + − F − (coccus) + + − − − + − G − (coccus) + − + − + + − G + (rod) − − − − + + − G + (rod) + − − + + + − A number of morphological and biochemical parameters have been used to facilitate in determining the identities of faecal contaminating bacteria in water [ 25 , 26 ]. Despite the fact that the sensitivity of these protocols might not be very reproducible between laboratories, it is highly recommended that they should be combined with confirmatory biochemical tests. The identities of the isolates from both m-FC and m-ENDO were confirmed based on their biochemical profiles and results are shown in Table 5 . Amongst the Enterobacteriaceae , Escherichia coli were most frequently isolated from m-FC agar (7/21) and m-ENDO (8/21) respectively. In addition, two isolates from m-FC agar were positively identified as Salmonella species while only one isolate was confirmed as Klebsiella specie. Similar findings were observed from m-ENDO agar. Some of the isolates produced unknown profiles. Identities of the isolates from m-FC and m-ENDO based on the biochemical profiles. Isolate ID m-FC m-ENDO A species A A Unknown profile Unknown profile B B Unknown profile B species Unknown profile C Unknown profile C C D Unknown profile Unknown profile D Unknown profile Unknown profile D Unknown profile E Unknown profile species E Unknown profile Unknown profile E Unknown profile Unknown profile F species Unknown profile F F species Unknown profile G Unknown profile Unknown profile G Unknown profile G Unknown profile species The detection of Escherichia coli , Salmonella species and Klebsiella species ( Table 5 ) in borehole water that is intended for human consumption was a cause for concern. These isolates may pose severe health complications to humans especially if they harbour virulence gene determinants. These E. coli strains may belong to recently identified pathogenic serotypes such as E. coli O157:H7 and E. coli O104:H4 that have been reported to cause diseases in humans [ 27 ]. It has been established that domestic and wildlife animals are the natural reservoirs of bacteria belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae and the presence of these bacteria in the environment results through the uncontrolled release of faeces [ 28 ]. During sample collection it was observed that some of the boreholes have been constructed next to pit latrines and this has the potential of contaminating groundwater [ 29 ]. 4. Conclusions The study has revealed that borehole water of Magogoe village is vulnerable to physico-chemical as well as bacteriological pollution. It was found that change in the seasons (from winter to spring) did not have any impact on the quality of water except for the microbial quality of the borehole water which deteriorated significantly during spring. Therefore, groundwater may not always be of pristine quality as is perceived. For this reason, it is recommended that groundwater for human consumption is treated in the same manner as surface water sources before distribution to users. Detailed and continuous monitoring and assessment of other chemical species in the area such as total phosphorus concentrations which are indicative of pollution from human and animal waste is highly recommended. Increasing the frequency of sampling and analysis is also needed to effectively monitor the quality of the borehole water. Early detection of possible contamination can lead to faster implementation of corrective measures, preventing an imminent waterborne disease outbreak. Communities using borehole water as their source of water should be educated of the possible risks when borehole water is used for human consumption. Education should also include possible means of treatment of water such as boiling and use of chlorination tablets so as to prevent possible adverse health effects. In addition, community participation through protection of drinking water sources from contamination could help improve the water situation in the area thereby ensuring a health environment. For example, regulations governing activities in the area especially pit latrine siting, best management practices for agriculture, general hygiene and appropriate storage practices at household level. Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge the financial support received from North West University. The assistance provided by Johannes Morapedi during the collection of water samples is hereby appreciated. Author Contributions Lobina Palamuleni and Mercy Akoth designed the project; Mercy Akoth performed the laboratory experiments; Mercy Akoth prepared the manuscript; Lobina Palamuleni proof read and edited the manuscript. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.   Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences Journal / Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences / Vol. 21 No. 2 (2023): Special Issue: Man, Environmental Safety and Sustainability the Role of Research / Articles (function() { function async_load(){ var s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.async = true; var theUrl = 'https://www.journalquality.info/journalquality/ratings/2406-www-ajol-info-jafs'; s.src = theUrl + ( theUrl.indexOf("?") >= 0 ? "&" : "?") + 'ref=' + encodeURIComponent(window.location.href); var embedder = document.getElementById('jpps-embedder-ajol-jafs'); embedder.parentNode.insertBefore(s, embedder); } if (window.attachEvent) window.attachEvent('onload', async_load); else window.addEventListener('load', async_load, false); })();   Article sidebar. Article Details Main article content, quality assessment of borehole water in nigeria, godwin ahunanya nwachukwu, emmanuella chinenye onyenechere. major themes of environmental, economic and social debates. Boreholes represent a major source of potable water supply for most urban and rural areas in Nigeria. Considering its continued proliferation, it becomes necessary to examine its water quality assessment and health implications. Some experts believe that the water from these boreholes is polluted as they are not adequately treated before consumption. This study employed the bibliographical approach, wherein it analyzed relevant literature. The analysis showed that there is no borehole water in any environment in Nigeria that is automatically safe, as the cost implications of getting a completely safe borehole is not within the reach of an average Nigerian. This reaffirms the need for a continued effort at investigating the quality of borehole water nationwide in order to ascertain the nature of water being consumed by the people. The study recommends water quality assessments which employ mathematical models and statistical techniques such as water quality index. This is because it was observed that most previous studies did not employ it. Water quality index does not only describe the behavior of the water quality indicators, it also allows for estimates and of future scenarios. Such analysis can be of great importance in the management of water resource, as well as in the formulation and implementation of national and state water policies. AJOL is a Non Profit Organisation that cannot function without donations. AJOL and the millions of African and international researchers who rely on our free services are deeply grateful for your contribution. AJOL is annually audited and was also independently assessed in 2019 by E&Y. Your donation is guaranteed to directly contribute to Africans sharing their research output with a global readership. For annual AJOL Supporter contributions, please view our Supporters page. Journal Identifiers 220 IMAGES (PDF) Effect of storage on bacteriological quality of borehole water SOLUTION: Bacteriological analysis of water Bacteriological quality of borehole water samples. (PDF) Comparative bacteriological analysis of stored borehole water Comparative Study of Physical and Bacteriological Analysis of Borehole Bacteriological Analysis of Water VIDEO Kola Superdeep Borehole horror film: virus, mold, and a sacrifice to prevent disaster A Female Researcher goes below the surface to find out what secret the world's deepest borehole is Bacteriological Monitoring Using R-Cards CHO'S/Mlhp'S How to Conduct Water bacteriological testing medium ,Residual free chlorine test,/app Bacteriological analysis of water : MPN and Membrane filtration technique A jeśli w wodzie bakterie?. Water sample for bacteriology examination COMMENTS Microbiological Analysis of Borehole Water Quality The oxidase test is extremely important for differentiating between Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas [ 2, 4, 7 ]. 2. Materials and Methods. The main objective of the present study was to microbiologically analyse the quality of water coming from boreholes in the locality of Santo Ovídio, Setúbal. (Pdf) Bacteriological Assessment of Boreholes and Wells Water in 3.1 Bacteriological analysis for borehole water for dry and wet season . ... A quick review of literature reveals that most sources of drinking water in Nigeria are polluted with both solid and ... Bacteriological Quality of Borehole and Sachet Water from a Community Water from boreholes and packaged commercial sachet water from different areas in a community in southern Nigeria was analyzed with membrane filtration for a snapshot of heterotrophic count and coliforms. Two boreholes out of the 20 analyzed had counts of over 500 Cfu/mL and 7 boreholes indicated the presence of coliforms. Sixteen samples out of 20 sachet water brands analyzed showed a ... PDF Bacteriological Quality Status Of Boreholes Water In Tharaka Nithi The lowest total coliform was recorded in boreholes at Chuka and the mean cfu between the bore holes were different and statistically significance (p<.05; Table 2). The highest total coliform in bore holes in Chuka was 37.78 cfu/100 ml at BNo.4 while the lowest total coliform was observed at BNo.3 (13.3 cfu/100 ml). PDF Microbiological Analysis of Borehole Water Quality '2279 This was carried out through a microbiological analysis of 20 water samples from boreholes belonging to study participants, who were previously informed about the study via leaflets. As a proce-dure, samples were collected in sterile containers and kept refrigerated until they reached the laboratory. Literature Review of Bacteriological Analysis of Borehole Water Literature Review of Bacteriological Analysis of Borehole Water - Free download as PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online for free. literature review of bacteriological analysis of borehole water Assessment of Bacteriological Quality of Borehole Water, Sachet Water This study was conducted to investigate the portability of 20 water samples collected for two weeks from boreholes, wells and sachet water consumed within Bingham University community. The objective was to determine the bacteriological quality of these water samples. Results obtained after carrying out bacteriological analysis showed the presence of organisms in all the water samples. PDF Bacteriological Assessment of Boreholes and Wells Water in Akungba According to the borehole water analysis, the total bacterial count (TBC) was extremely high in Akunmi 1, Ilale 1 and Okele boreholes and quite moderate in the other ... 3.1 Bacteriological analysis for borehole water for dry and wet season 3.2 Total bacterial count (TBC) Tables 1 and 2 showed the total bacterial counts (TBC), total coliform ... PDF Bacteriological assessment of borehole water in some communities in Government Area of Imo State in the southeastern part of Nigeria. Three borehole water samples were collected from each community and labelled BWA 123 to BWD 123 respectively. The water samples were transported to laboratory for bacteriological analysis within 3 hours of collection. 2.2. Bacteriological analysis of the borehole water samples PDF Physicochemical and bacteriological assessment of some borehole waters Key word: Physicochemical, bacteriological, water and borehole INTRODUCTION Water is an important constituent of all forms of life. It is essential for life as it is the medium in which all living processes occur. Water is a combination of hydrogen and oxygen atoms, with a chemical formula H 2 O (Osei, 2005). Bacteriological contamination of groundwater in relation to septic Table 1 presents the total bacterial load in the water samples taken from the four borehole, represent by BH (Borehole); BH1, BH2, BH3, and BH4 and wells, represented as OW (open well) and CW (closed well) in the study communities. CFU/100 denotes coliform forming units per 100 ml of water. [PDF] Assessment of bacteriological quality of borehole water in The increase in human populations together with their daily activities continues to have great influence on the quality of borehole water in Nigeria. In the current study, the major source of drinking water within Arkilla which is the one of the most growing community in Wamakko local government area of Sokoto state, were analyzed bacteriologically to ascertain their portability. A total of ... PDF Bacteriological and Physicochemical quality of Borehole water used for Boreholes should also be properly constructed with good understanding of site locations. Keywords— Boreholes, Bacteriological analysis, physicochemical analysis, potable water. I. INTRODUCTION Water is essential for the existence of humans and all living things and hence a satisfactory (adequate, safe and Assessment of bacteriological quality and physico-chemical parameters The range of sulphate concentration recorded from ground water samples (0.046-0.056 mg/L in tap water, 0.298-0.341 mg/L in borehole and 0.028-0.039 mg/L in well water) were significantly low comparable to the WHO and SON permissible limit for drinking water of 250 mg/L. PDF Physicochemical And Bacteriological Assessment Of Borehole Water In Standards (that is not exceeded the standards).Hence, borehole water studied are safe for drinking, laundry and other application. It is therefore recommended that proper chlorination of water should be done before usage. Keywords: Bacteriological analysis, physiochemical analysis, borehole water, chlorination, deviation. Physico-Chemical and Microbial Analysis of Selected Borehole Water in The study has revealed that borehole water of Magogoe village is vulnerable to physico-chemical as well as bacteriological pollution. It was found that change in the seasons (from winter to spring) did not have any impact on the quality of water except for the microbial quality of the borehole water which deteriorated significantly during spring. QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF BOREHOLE WATER IN NIGERIA BY NWACHUKWU, Godwin Such analysis can be of great importance in the management of water resource, as well as in the formulation and implementation of national and state water policies. KEYWORDS: Borehole, Water quality, Policy, Nigeria, Pollution INTRODUCTION 25 _____Quality Assessment of Borehole Water in Nigeria_____ CHAPTER 3 (PDF) Domestic Borehole water quality Groundwater is the major source of drinking water in many areas which is abstracted through domestic boreholes for private or public use. This study attempts to review and assess domestic borehole ... PDF Physico Chemical and Bacteriological Analysis of Selected Borehole Well borehole water samples investigated. The MPN of coliforms in 100 ml of the selected borehole water samples from each well was estimated by the number of positive bottles and then compared with standard MPN Probability Tables. Controls were setup alongside strains of E. coli and sterile distilled H 2 Assessment of Bacteriological Quality of Borehole Water, Sachet Water borehole water is considered to have better microbial quality than that of hand dug well water because borehole water is from deep aquifer while hand dug well water is from shallow aquifers which makes it more susceptible to microbial pollution [15]. 2. Literature Review Water is essential for living things, both in the (PDF) COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF WATER QUALITY FROM HAND ... comparative analysis of water quality from hand dug wells and bored holes in uyo, akwa ibom state, nigeria. ... 2.0 literature review . 2.0.1 review of related . ... 2.1.2 hand-dug well water . Quality assessment of borehole water in Nigeria major themes of environmental, economic and social debates. Boreholes represent a major source of potable water supply for most urban and rural areas in Nigeria. Considering its continued proliferation, it becomes necessary to examine its water quality assessment and health implications. Some experts believe that the water from these boreholes is polluted as they are not adequately treated ... assignment essay homework paper phd report resume review thesis