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• Numerical Reasoning
• Verbal Reasoning
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Logical Reasoning Tests

Practice tests, solutions, and tips to help you pass employers' logical reasoning tests.

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Updated: 08 April 2024

• What is a logical reasoning test?

A logical reasoning test is used measure a candidate’s problem solving ability. They assess the ability to come to conclusions based on logic. You are presented with a series of shapes and are required to find patterns and rules to help you find the correct answer. These tests may be encountered for any position at any level of recruitment, but they may be particularly common when recruiting for positions which require significant problem solving ability or higher use of logic.

What is an example of logical reasoning?

Here are screenshots of our logical reasoning tests to understand what an example question involves:

Page contents:

• How we can help with logical tests
• Logical reasoning tutorial - Part 1
• Free logical reasoning test
• Logical reasoning tutorial - Part 2

Different types of logical reasoning

• Most common logical reasoning tests
• Logical reasoning test advice

Logical reasoning FAQs

How assessmentday can help with logical reasoning tests.

AssessmentDay offer numerous types of logical reasoning test which can help you perform to your best in the real thing. Practising logical reasoning tests is an ideal method of preparation as it allows you to learn from your mistakes, improving performance with every practice trial. Similarly experiencing time limits, the test layout and the overall test experience can help ease worries and anxieties about the test by familiarising yourself with them. It goes without saying that a candidate that has undertaken a logical reasoning test numerous times and seen their prior mistakes, and learned from them will be less nervous than a first time test candidate.

Logical Reasoning Video Tutorial - Part 1

Free practice logical reasoning test

Free logical reasoning test.

This free shortened logical reasoning test contains 10 questions and has a time limit of 70 seconds per question .

Logical Reasoning Test 1

• 12 questions

Logical Reasoning Test 2

Logical reasoning test 3, logical reasoning test 4, logical reasoning video tutorial - part 2.

There are numerous types of logical reasoning test, and many of these are used interchangeably. These tests tend to be similar in their layout and methodology, but with subtle and important differences.

Survey results

We analysed a sample of logic-based tests, to find the most common terms/most popular type was: Inductive reasoning

Here is a breakdown of the most common logical ability tests:

• Inductive reasoning: - Inductive reasoning is the ability to reach general conclusion based on perceived patterns observed in specific events. Inductive logic is often used in everyday life and is therefore practical to a work place environment. In these tests candidates will be provided with a series of diagrams with an evident pattern. Candidates will need to identify the pattern in the sequence of diagrams and select the next diagram in the sequence.
• Deductive reasoning: - Deductive reasoning involves a general rule or principle that leads to a specific conclusion. These tests will evaluate and measure a candidate's ability to make logical arguments and draw sound conclusions based on provided data, as well as identify flaws in a piece of information. As a result this is a useful tool in selection procedures as this type of reasoning will be used in the workplace. This type of reasoning will often be used in verbal reasoning tests and numerical tests, and is therefore very likely to be encountered in recruitment processes.
• Abstract reasoning: - Abstract reasoning, also known as conceptual reasoning measures your lateral thinking ability. In these tests candidates will be tested on their ability to identify relationships, patterns and trends. Candidates will be provided with a series of images that follow a logical sequence or underlying rules. This may include following a rule in a sequence, identifying a code or finding a missing diagram.
• Diagrammatic reasoning: - Diagrammatic reasoning is a specific form of abstract reasoning. Tests which assess this ability will typically show a flowchart of diagrams and symbols, with an input and an output. Candidates will need to identify which inputs effect diagrams, and therefore generate a specific output based on those rules.
• Critical thinking: - Critical thinking tests are a type of verbal critical reasoning task which assesses various different types of logical reasoning in arguments, assumptions and conclusions. Typical logical abilities tested include analysing arguments, making inferences and evaluating conclusions.

The most common logical reasoning tests used by employers

Did you know.

Different test publishers use different names for their assessments. The term logical reasoning is used by TalentQ. Other companies may call their test abstract, inductive, or diagrammatic reasoning. It is good advice when being asked to sit a logical reasoning test to speak to the person who invited you and ask for a bit more detail; they may even give you a few example questions so you know what to expect.

Our 2020 study asked candidates about their logical reasoning test experience, in doing so we managed to find the most popular test publishers from our sample:

• 1. Talent Q Elements Logical Ability - the important feature of these tests is that they are adaptive. That is to say the difficulty of each question is automatically determined by your performance in the previous question. So the questions become more difficult as you progress in order to quickly find your level of logical reasoning ability. There are typically 12 questions to these TalentQ logical tests and a time limit of 75 seconds per question.
• 2. Kenexa Logical Reasoning - this test published by Kenexa is actually very similar in style to what SHL call an inductive reasoning test. They are effectively the same thing; the candidate is asked to select which diagram fits within the given series from a choice of five options. Typically Kenexa will give the candidate 20 minutes for 24 questions for their logical reasoning test.
• 3. Ravens Progressive Matricies (Ravens APM / Ravens SPM) - The grid-style of symbols each following a pattern is also used in the Ravens Progressive Matrices assessments. With Raven's logical test, there are two levels of this test: Advanced Progressive Matrices (23 questions, 42 minutes) and Standard Progressive Matrices (28 questions, 47 minutes). Our logical tests are suitable for Raven's APM-III and Raven's SPM tests, you can alter the time limit with of our tests to create a more authentic experience.

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General logical reasoning test advice

Although all tests evaluate a specific logical ability, or set of abilities, there are general strategies which can be applied to ensure maximum performance in a logical reasoning test.

Here is a list of useful tips and advice for logical reasoning tests:

• 1. Stay calm: - Logical reasoning tests of all kinds can be nerve racking, particularly ones which are time limited. As a result it is important to stay calm as to allow optimum performance during your exam. A small amount of anxiety can be a performance booster, maximise focus and therefore performance. However, serious test anxiety can severely hamper performance. Proper practice, enough sleep the night before and deep and regular breathing can all help settle your nerves, and perform to your best on the day of your test.
• 2. Research the type of test: - Learning as much about the test beforehand can help you dive straight into the test once you have received it, saving you time. Similarly after researching the test, and the logical abilities which it assesses, can help you hone these skills and ensure you demonstrate the particular aptitude required for the test, optimising your performance.
• 3. Clarify what type of test: - If an employer states that you will need to undertake a logical reasoning test, it is important to gauge what type of logical reasoning will be tested due to the broad nature of logical reasoning. Don’t be afraid to ask for clarification to identify which logical reasoning test will be used, and which logical reasoning skill will be tested as this information will be invaluable for your pre test preparation.
• 4. Figure out the answer first: - A general tip for logical reasoning tests is to figure out the correct answer/sequence/rule before looking at the multiple choices. This way once you have an idea in your head of the correct answer, you can simply pick it out. If you look at the multiple choice answers first, you will be more inclined to pick the answer which best looks like the correct answer, rather than take the time to evaluate it logically. Your logic will be subject to more bias if you base your answer on which answer seems correct on face value, instead of evaluating it using the logical skills being tested.
• For more advice on logical reasoning tests, check out our logical reasoning tips where we go through an example question and give you advice on how to pass logical tests.

Yes, logical reasoning is a skill just like numerical reasoning which can be developed and practised. Some people will naturally be talented with logical reasoning and be able to solve logical puzzles much easier than others. Logical reasoning involves being able to solve logic puzzles and draw conclusions from patterns.

Logical reasoning is important for your ability to solve problems and generate creative ideas. It's this reason that many employers use logical reasoning tests in their application process.

The best way to practise logic skills is by using logical reasoning tests. These will provide the best practise as they directly involve all the skills needed in solving logic problems. You can also practise things like word puzzles or any kind of puzzle that requires you to identify patterns to find answers.

What is a Cognitive Test?

How difficult is the cognitive ability test, free practice cognitive reasoning test questions, frequently asked questions, cognitive ability test.

Updated July 16, 2024

A cognitive test is an assessment tool designed to measure an individual's cognitive abilities, which are the mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, storing and using information.

Cognitive assessments are used to evaluate various aspects of cognitive functioning, including memory, attention, problem-solving, reasoning, language comprehension, and more.

Cognitive function tests are commonly employed in several contexts, including education, clinical psychology, neuropsychology and employment assessment.

This cognitive ability practice test has been designed to help you prepare for the real thing.  

Prepare for Any Job Assessment Test

The test consists of a set of 10 questions, along with correct answers and full explanations.

What are the Topics Covered in a Cognitive Functions Test?

Verbal reasoning.

A verbal reasoning test is a type of cognitive assessment designed to evaluate an individual's ability to understand and analyze written information, as well as to draw logical conclusions and make inferences based on that information.

These test reading comprehension, critical thinking,inference and deduction, vocabulary and language skills and textual analysis.

Numerical Reasoning

A numerical reasoning test is a type of cognitive assessment designed to evaluate an individual's ability to work with numerical information, perform mathematical operations and make logical deductions based on numerical data.

These test mathematical problem solving, data interpretation, critical thinking and numerical literacy.

Logical Reasoning

A logical reasoning test, also known as a logical aptitude test or logical thinking test, is a type of cognitive assessment designed to evaluate an individual's ability to think logically, critically analyze information and make deductions based on structured patterns and rules.

These test pattern recognition, critical thinking, deductive and inductive reasoning.

Figural Reasoning

A figural reasoning test, also known as a non-verbal reasoning test, is a type of cognitive assessment that evaluates an individual's ability to analyze and solve problems using visual or abstract patterns and shapes, rather than relying on language or numbers.

These test visual patterns and shapes, pattern recognition, spatial skills and critical thinking.

At the end of the test if you would like further practice, you can find more tests like this cognitive ability test at JobTestPrep .

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How can I test my cognitive ability?

You can test your cognitive ability through various cognitive assessments and tests that are designed to measure different aspects of cognitive functioning. These tests can be administered by educational institutions, employers or qualified professionals.

To get an idea of your cognitive abilities, you can also explore online cognitive tests and brain training apps, although these may not provide as accurate or comprehensive results as professionally administered tests.

How to prepare for the cognitive ability assessment?

While cognitive ability assessments are designed to measure innate abilities and skills, there are some general strategies you can use to prepare:

• Get enough rest and sleep before the assessment.
• Practice with sample questions and familiarize yourself with the test format if possible.
• Manage your stress and anxiety through relaxation techniques.
• Follow any specific instructions or guidelines provided by the test administrator.
• Be sure to arrive on time for the assessment and be well-rested and focused.

How long does a cognitive ability test take?

The duration of a cognitive ability test can vary widely depending on the specific test and its complexity. Some tests may take as little as 15-20 minutes, while others, especially comprehensive assessments, may take several hours. The length of the test is typically determined by the number and types of questions included.

How is a cognitive ability assessment scored?

Cognitive ability assessments are typically scored based on the number of correct answers. Some tests may also consider the time taken to complete each section or question, and in such cases, speed and accuracy are both important factors. Scores may be compared to a normative group to determine how an individual's performance compares to the average or to establish percentiles.

Is cognitive ability an IQ test?

Cognitive ability assessments are closely related to IQ tests, but they are not always the same. IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests are a specific type of cognitive ability test that measures a range of cognitive skills, including problem-solving, logical reasoning and spatial intelligence.

However, there are other cognitive tests that may focus on specific cognitive domains, such as verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, or figural reasoning.

IQ tests are a subset of cognitive ability assessments but are often used interchangeably with the term "cognitive ability test" in common language.

You might also be interested in these other PRT articles:

• AON Hewitt G.A.T.E.
• PI Cognitive Assessment (PLI Test)
• Korn Ferry Leadership Assessment
• Berke Assessment
• Ergometrics
• Thomas International
• Predictive Index (PI)
• NEO Personality Inventory
• Leadership Assessment
• Gallup’s CliftonStrengths
• Sales Personality Tests
• Personality Management Tests
• Saville Wave
• McQuaig Word Survey
• Bell Personality Test
• Myers Briggs Personality Test
• DISC Personality Test
• Management SJT
• Supervisory SJT
• Administrative SJT
• Call Center SJT
• Customer Service SJT
• Firefighter SJT

Numerical Reasoning Tests

• Verbal Reasoning Tests
• Logical Reasoning Tests
• Cognitive Ability Tests
• Technical Aptitude Tests
• Spatial Reasoning Tests
• Abstract Reasoning Test
• Deductive Reasoning Tests
• Inductive Reasoning Tests
• Mechanical Reasoning Tests
• Diagrammatic Reasoning Tests
• Fault Finding Aptitude Tests
• Mathematical Reasoning Tests
• Critical Thinking Tests
• Analytical Reasoning Tests
• Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test
• Criteria’s CCAT
• Matrigma Test
• Air Traffic Controller Test
• Administrative Assistant Exam
• Clerical Ability Exam
• School Secretary Tests
• State Trooper Exam
• Probation Officer Exam
• FBI Entrance Exam
• Office Assistant Exam
• Clerk Typist Test
• Police Records Clerk Exam
• Canada’s Public Service Exams
• Firefighter Exams
• Police Exams
• Army Aptitude Tests
• USPS Postal Exams
• Hiring Process by Professions
• Recruiting Companies

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Mathematical Reasoning Tests Practice & How to Get Ready for Them? – 2024

What Is Mathematical Reasoning?

Mathematical reasoning is the ability to use quantitative data to identify patterns, solve problems without a pre-existing formula, interpret graphs and find plausible conclusions when presented with numerical evidence. Mathematical reasoning is a high-caliber form of critical thinking and problem-solving that is sought after in a variety of fields including healthcare, finance, and mechanical-based occupations.

What Is a Mathematical Reasoning Test?

Mathematical reasoning tests are administered to evaluate the aforementioned skills. This is achieved with questions that assess the candidate’s aptitude with basic mathematical functions, percentages, ratios, fractions, and statistics among other numerical disciplines. Depending on the field you are interested in, you may come across one of the following tests:

• Basic Skills Test The basic skills test is slightly different than the others because it covers more bases than just mathematical reasoning. The basic skills test also assess verbal skills and evaluates these two abilities alongside one another. This test will be equal parts math and verbal reasoning. It is commonly used to place candidates for multiple roles rather than evaluating them for one position.
• Basic Numeracy Test The basic numeracy test appraises the candidate’s mathematical foundation. Questions will consist of the fundamentals such as: algebra, decimals, geometrical concepts, and the four operations. This test is most common for administrative and operational jobs but is utilized to assess applicants seeking employment for jobs that require the use of basic math on a regular basis.
• Numerical Reasoning Test The numerical reasoning test is the most popular mathematical reasoning assessment to date. This test is more comprehensive than the previously detailed assessments because candidates must interact with ‘real world’ problems. They will be presented with graphs, tables and charts that fit a hypothetical scenario that is prevalent in their field. From there, they must find a solution and choose the correct answer from a list of choices.
• Advanced Numerical Reasoning The advanced numerical reasoning test follows a similar structure as the numerical reasoning test; however, it is considered much more difficult. The advanced version assesses your unlearned abilities alongside your prior knowledge of the content. This includes formulas that are not explicitly stated, the ability to interpret data and graphs, and strong analytical skills are a must.
• Critical Numerical Reasoning Test The critical numerical reasoning test is a subcategory of the advanced numerical reasoning tests. The difference is the precision of the critical numerical reasoning tests. This assessment is methodical and is typically administered to job seekers interested in technology or engineering.
• Currency and Unit Conversion Test The currency and unit conversion test is very simple. The candidate is asked to take a number and convert it to an international currency or unit. For example, what would forty American dollars be in Euros?
• Non-Calculator Test The non-calculator test is exactly what it sounds like; a math test without a calculator. This test will be comprised of the same principles as any other numerical reasoning test; however, the numbers are smaller and easier to work with. This test serves the purpose of assessing the candidate’s ability to work through problems mentally. To accomplish this, the non-calculator tests must be completed within a smaller amount of time than the other assessments.

How Is the Mathematical Reasoning Test Scored?

The mathematical reasoning test scores are reported to the employer as a raw score and a percentile score. The raw score is the amount of correct answers. A percentile score is how well you fared in comparison to your norm group. Your norm group will be a collection of scores from people in the same field as you at the same level of experience.

While your raw score is important, employers typically emphasize the percentile score because it tells them if you exceed, meet, or fail to meet their benchmark. For example, if you were to achieve a percentile score of eighty, that would tell the company that you did better than 80% of the people that have taken this assessment. The percentile is on a scale of zero to one hundred with fifty being the average.

Most companies will not send you your exact scores, instead, you will receive a notification alerting you if you have passed or not. Some companies will send you a feedback report which details the areas you should work on. A few common subsets are:

• Data interpretation
• Applied Mathematics
• Algebra & Geometry
• Fractions & Ratios

The score that is expected out of you depends on the requirements of the company. It is important to keep in mind that companies will bar numerous candidates from consideration if they don’t meet or exceed their standards.

When Will I Take the Mathematical Reasoning Test?

The mathematical reasoning test is most commonly administered during the interview process. The pre-employment math test is administered after the initial screening as an objective measure of the candidate’s numerical aptitude. If a candidate is successful in the first stage of the recruitment process, they will receive the online assessments via email within one or two weeks. Candidates are asked to complete the assessments within a specified number of days, after which the candidate will be notified of their standing within the week.

How to Prepare for the Mathematical Reasoning Test?

Math is a difficult subject for most. The mathematical reasoning test questions are designed to trip you up and the answer choices can be identical and confusing. Luckily, the content of the mathematical reasoning tests can be studied which is uncommon for aptitude tests .

If you want to prepare for your mathematical reasoning test successfully, review the previously described subsets by working through practice problems. The best study tools are online practice tests. By using these tests, you can prepare for both the material and the time constraint. It’s important to practice with the running clock because many candidates find themselves skipping or guessing at the questions; this method negatively impacts both your raw and percentile score. If you spend some time using the online practice tests, you can find the pace that works best for you.

Another benefit of the online practice tests is their variety. You will be able to prepare for each type of question from percentages to analysis. After you have taken the practice test, if you feel unsure about a certain subset, you can narrow your preparation to make certain that you do well in that section during the test.

• Currency Conversion Questions
• Numerical Reasoning Tables
• Numerical Critical Reasoning Test
• Advanced Numerical Reasoning Tests
• Non-Calculator Numerical Test
• Percentages in Numerical Tests
• Graphs in Numerical Reasoning Tests
• Ratios in Numerical Reasoning Tests
• Number Series Tests
• Basic Numeracy Test
• How to Use a Numerical Calculator?
• Numerical Computation Test

Aptitude Tests

• Aptitude Tests Guide
• Numerical Reasoning Test
• Verbal Reasoning Test
• Cognitive Ability Test
• Critical Thinking Test
• Logical Reasoning Test
• Spatial Reasoning Test
• Technical Aptitude Test
• Inductive Reasoning Test
• Analytical Reasoning Test
• Deductive Reasoning Test
• Mechanical Reasoning Test
• Non-Verbal Reasoning Tests
• Diagrammatic Reasoning Test
• Concentration Assessment Test
• Finance Reasoning Aptitude Test
• Fault Finding (Fault Diagnosis) Test
• Senior Management Aptitude Tests
• Error Checking Tests
• In-Basket Exercise

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7 Module 7: Thinking, Reasoning, and Problem-Solving

This module is about how a solid working knowledge of psychological principles can help you to think more effectively, so you can succeed in school and life. You might be inclined to believe that—because you have been thinking for as long as you can remember, because you are able to figure out the solution to many problems, because you feel capable of using logic to argue a point, because you can evaluate whether the things you read and hear make sense—you do not need any special training in thinking. But this, of course, is one of the key barriers to helping people think better. If you do not believe that there is anything wrong, why try to fix it?

The human brain is indeed a remarkable thinking machine, capable of amazing, complex, creative, logical thoughts. Why, then, are we telling you that you need to learn how to think? Mainly because one major lesson from cognitive psychology is that these capabilities of the human brain are relatively infrequently realized. Many psychologists believe that people are essentially “cognitive misers.” It is not that we are lazy, but that we have a tendency to expend the least amount of mental effort necessary. Although you may not realize it, it actually takes a great deal of energy to think. Careful, deliberative reasoning and critical thinking are very difficult. Because we seem to be successful without going to the trouble of using these skills well, it feels unnecessary to develop them. As you shall see, however, there are many pitfalls in the cognitive processes described in this module. When people do not devote extra effort to learning and improving reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking skills, they make many errors.

As is true for memory, if you develop the cognitive skills presented in this module, you will be more successful in school. It is important that you realize, however, that these skills will help you far beyond school, even more so than a good memory will. Although it is somewhat useful to have a good memory, ten years from now no potential employer will care how many questions you got right on multiple choice exams during college. All of them will, however, recognize whether you are a logical, analytical, critical thinker. With these thinking skills, you will be an effective, persuasive communicator and an excellent problem solver.

The module begins by describing different kinds of thought and knowledge, especially conceptual knowledge and critical thinking. An understanding of these differences will be valuable as you progress through school and encounter different assignments that require you to tap into different kinds of knowledge. The second section covers deductive and inductive reasoning, which are processes we use to construct and evaluate strong arguments. They are essential skills to have whenever you are trying to persuade someone (including yourself) of some point, or to respond to someone’s efforts to persuade you. The module ends with a section about problem solving. A solid understanding of the key processes involved in problem solving will help you to handle many daily challenges.

7.1. Different kinds of thought

7.2. Reasoning and Judgment

7.3. Problem Solving

READING WITH PURPOSE

Remember and understand.

By reading and studying Module 7, you should be able to remember and describe:

• Concepts and inferences (7.1)
• Procedural knowledge (7.1)
• Metacognition (7.1)
• Characteristics of critical thinking:  skepticism; identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions; reasoning and problem solving skills  (7.1)
• Reasoning:  deductive reasoning, deductively valid argument, inductive reasoning, inductively strong argument, availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic  (7.2)
• Fixation:  functional fixedness, mental set  (7.3)
• Algorithms, heuristics, and the role of confirmation bias (7.3)
• Effective problem solving sequence (7.3)

By reading and thinking about how the concepts in Module 6 apply to real life, you should be able to:

• Identify which type of knowledge a piece of information is (7.1)
• Recognize examples of deductive and inductive reasoning (7.2)
• Recognize judgments that have probably been influenced by the availability heuristic (7.2)
• Recognize examples of problem solving heuristics and algorithms (7.3)

Analyze, Evaluate, and Create

By reading and thinking about Module 6, participating in classroom activities, and completing out-of-class assignments, you should be able to:

• Use the principles of critical thinking to evaluate information (7.1)
• Explain whether examples of reasoning arguments are deductively valid or inductively strong (7.2)
• Outline how you could try to solve a problem from your life using the effective problem solving sequence (7.3)

7.1. Different kinds of thought and knowledge

• Take a few minutes to write down everything that you know about dogs.
• Do you believe that:
• Psychic ability exists?
• Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness?
• Magnet therapy is effective for relieving pain?
• Aerobic exercise is an effective treatment for depression?
• UFO’s from outer space have visited earth?

On what do you base your belief or disbelief for the questions above?

Of course, we all know what is meant by the words  think  and  knowledge . You probably also realize that they are not unitary concepts; there are different kinds of thought and knowledge. In this section, let us look at some of these differences. If you are familiar with these different kinds of thought and pay attention to them in your classes, it will help you to focus on the right goals, learn more effectively, and succeed in school. Different assignments and requirements in school call on you to use different kinds of knowledge or thought, so it will be very helpful for you to learn to recognize them (Anderson, et al. 2001).

Factual and conceptual knowledge

Module 5 introduced the idea of declarative memory, which is composed of facts and episodes. If you have ever played a trivia game or watched Jeopardy on TV, you realize that the human brain is able to hold an extraordinary number of facts. Likewise, you realize that each of us has an enormous store of episodes, essentially facts about events that happened in our own lives. It may be difficult to keep that in mind when we are struggling to retrieve one of those facts while taking an exam, however. Part of the problem is that, in contradiction to the advice from Module 5, many students continue to try to memorize course material as a series of unrelated facts (picture a history student simply trying to memorize history as a set of unrelated dates without any coherent story tying them together). Facts in the real world are not random and unorganized, however. It is the way that they are organized that constitutes a second key kind of knowledge, conceptual.

Concepts are nothing more than our mental representations of categories of things in the world. For example, think about dogs. When you do this, you might remember specific facts about dogs, such as they have fur and they bark. You may also recall dogs that you have encountered and picture them in your mind. All of this information (and more) makes up your concept of dog. You can have concepts of simple categories (e.g., triangle), complex categories (e.g., small dogs that sleep all day, eat out of the garbage, and bark at leaves), kinds of people (e.g., psychology professors), events (e.g., birthday parties), and abstract ideas (e.g., justice). Gregory Murphy (2002) refers to concepts as the “glue that holds our mental life together” (p. 1). Very simply, summarizing the world by using concepts is one of the most important cognitive tasks that we do. Our conceptual knowledge  is  our knowledge about the world. Individual concepts are related to each other to form a rich interconnected network of knowledge. For example, think about how the following concepts might be related to each other: dog, pet, play, Frisbee, chew toy, shoe. Or, of more obvious use to you now, how these concepts are related: working memory, long-term memory, declarative memory, procedural memory, and rehearsal? Because our minds have a natural tendency to organize information conceptually, when students try to remember course material as isolated facts, they are working against their strengths.

One last important point about concepts is that they allow you to instantly know a great deal of information about something. For example, if someone hands you a small red object and says, “here is an apple,” they do not have to tell you, “it is something you can eat.” You already know that you can eat it because it is true by virtue of the fact that the object is an apple; this is called drawing an  inference , assuming that something is true on the basis of your previous knowledge (for example, of category membership or of how the world works) or logical reasoning.

Procedural knowledge

Physical skills, such as tying your shoes, doing a cartwheel, and driving a car (or doing all three at the same time, but don’t try this at home) are certainly a kind of knowledge. They are procedural knowledge, the same idea as procedural memory that you saw in Module 5. Mental skills, such as reading, debating, and planning a psychology experiment, are procedural knowledge, as well. In short, procedural knowledge is the knowledge how to do something (Cohen & Eichenbaum, 1993).

Metacognitive knowledge

Floyd used to think that he had a great memory. Now, he has a better memory. Why? Because he finally realized that his memory was not as great as he once thought it was. Because Floyd eventually learned that he often forgets where he put things, he finally developed the habit of putting things in the same place. (Unfortunately, he did not learn this lesson before losing at least 5 watches and a wedding ring.) Because he finally realized that he often forgets to do things, he finally started using the To Do list app on his phone. And so on. Floyd’s insights about the real limitations of his memory have allowed him to remember things that he used to forget.

All of us have knowledge about the way our own minds work. You may know that you have a good memory for people’s names and a poor memory for math formulas. Someone else might realize that they have difficulty remembering to do things, like stopping at the store on the way home. Others still know that they tend to overlook details. This knowledge about our own thinking is actually quite important; it is called metacognitive knowledge, or  metacognition . Like other kinds of thinking skills, it is subject to error. For example, in unpublished research, one of the authors surveyed about 120 General Psychology students on the first day of the term. Among other questions, the students were asked them to predict their grade in the class and report their current Grade Point Average. Two-thirds of the students predicted that their grade in the course would be higher than their GPA. (The reality is that at our college, students tend to earn lower grades in psychology than their overall GPA.) Another example: Students routinely report that they thought they had done well on an exam, only to discover, to their dismay, that they were wrong (more on that important problem in a moment). Both errors reveal a breakdown in metacognition.

The Dunning-Kruger Effect

In general, most college students probably do not study enough. For example, using data from the National Survey of Student Engagement, Fosnacht, McCormack, and Lerma (2018) reported that first-year students at 4-year colleges in the U.S. averaged less than 14 hours per week preparing for classes. The typical suggestion is that you should spend two hours outside of class for every hour in class, or 24 – 30 hours per week for a full-time student. Clearly, students in general are nowhere near that recommended mark. Many observers, including some faculty, believe that this shortfall is a result of students being too busy or lazy. Now, it may be true that many students are too busy, with work and family obligations, for example. Others, are not particularly motivated in school, and therefore might correctly be labeled lazy. A third possible explanation, however, is that some students might not think they need to spend this much time. And this is a matter of metacognition. Consider the scenario that we mentioned above, students thinking they had done well on an exam only to discover that they did not. Justin Kruger and David Dunning examined scenarios very much like this in 1999. Kruger and Dunning gave research participants tests measuring humor, logic, and grammar. Then, they asked the participants to assess their own abilities and test performance in these areas. They found that participants in general tended to overestimate their abilities, already a problem with metacognition. Importantly, the participants who scored the lowest overestimated their abilities the most. Specifically, students who scored in the bottom quarter (averaging in the 12th percentile) thought they had scored in the 62nd percentile. This has become known as the  Dunning-Kruger effect . Many individual faculty members have replicated these results with their own student on their course exams, including the authors of this book. Think about it. Some students who just took an exam and performed poorly believe that they did well before seeing their score. It seems very likely that these are the very same students who stopped studying the night before because they thought they were “done.” Quite simply, it is not just that they did not know the material. They did not know that they did not know the material. That is poor metacognition.

In order to develop good metacognitive skills, you should continually monitor your thinking and seek frequent feedback on the accuracy of your thinking (Medina, Castleberry, & Persky 2017). For example, in classes get in the habit of predicting your exam grades. As soon as possible after taking an exam, try to find out which questions you missed and try to figure out why. If you do this soon enough, you may be able to recall the way it felt when you originally answered the question. Did you feel confident that you had answered the question correctly? Then you have just discovered an opportunity to improve your metacognition. Be on the lookout for that feeling and respond with caution.

concept :  a mental representation of a category of things in the world

Dunning-Kruger effect : individuals who are less competent tend to overestimate their abilities more than individuals who are more competent do

inference : an assumption about the truth of something that is not stated. Inferences come from our prior knowledge and experience, and from logical reasoning

metacognition :  knowledge about one’s own cognitive processes; thinking about your thinking

Critical thinking

One particular kind of knowledge or thinking skill that is related to metacognition is  critical thinking (Chew, 2020). You may have noticed that critical thinking is an objective in many college courses, and thus it could be a legitimate topic to cover in nearly any college course. It is particularly appropriate in psychology, however. As the science of (behavior and) mental processes, psychology is obviously well suited to be the discipline through which you should be introduced to this important way of thinking.

More importantly, there is a particular need to use critical thinking in psychology. We are all, in a way, experts in human behavior and mental processes, having engaged in them literally since birth. Thus, perhaps more than in any other class, students typically approach psychology with very clear ideas and opinions about its subject matter. That is, students already “know” a lot about psychology. The problem is, “it ain’t so much the things we don’t know that get us into trouble. It’s the things we know that just ain’t so” (Ward, quoted in Gilovich 1991). Indeed, many of students’ preconceptions about psychology are just plain wrong. Randolph Smith (2002) wrote a book about critical thinking in psychology called  Challenging Your Preconceptions,  highlighting this fact. On the other hand, many of students’ preconceptions about psychology are just plain right! But wait, how do you know which of your preconceptions are right and which are wrong? And when you come across a research finding or theory in this class that contradicts your preconceptions, what will you do? Will you stick to your original idea, discounting the information from the class? Will you immediately change your mind? Critical thinking can help us sort through this confusing mess.

But what is critical thinking? The goal of critical thinking is simple to state (but extraordinarily difficult to achieve): it is to be right, to draw the correct conclusions, to believe in things that are true and to disbelieve things that are false. We will provide two definitions of critical thinking (or, if you like, one large definition with two distinct parts). First, a more conceptual one: Critical thinking is thinking like a scientist in your everyday life (Schmaltz, Jansen, & Wenckowski, 2017).  Our second definition is more operational; it is simply a list of skills that are essential to be a critical thinker. Critical thinking entails solid reasoning and problem solving skills; skepticism; and an ability to identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions. Excellent deductive and inductive reasoning, and problem solving skills contribute to critical thinking. So, you can consider the subject matter of sections 7.2 and 7.3 to be part of critical thinking. Because we will be devoting considerable time to these concepts in the rest of the module, let us begin with a discussion about the other aspects of critical thinking.

Let’s address that first part of the definition. Scientists form hypotheses, or predictions about some possible future observations. Then, they collect data, or information (think of this as making those future observations). They do their best to make unbiased observations using reliable techniques that have been verified by others. Then, and only then, they draw a conclusion about what those observations mean. Oh, and do not forget the most important part. “Conclusion” is probably not the most appropriate word because this conclusion is only tentative. A scientist is always prepared that someone else might come along and produce new observations that would require a new conclusion be drawn. Wow! If you like to be right, you could do a lot worse than using a process like this.

A Critical Thinker’s Toolkit 

Now for the second part of the definition. Good critical thinkers (and scientists) rely on a variety of tools to evaluate information. Perhaps the most recognizable tool for critical thinking is  skepticism (and this term provides the clearest link to the thinking like a scientist definition, as you are about to see). Some people intend it as an insult when they call someone a skeptic. But if someone calls you a skeptic, if they are using the term correctly, you should consider it a great compliment. Simply put, skepticism is a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided. People from Missouri should recognize this principle, as Missouri is known as the Show-Me State. As a skeptic, you are not inclined to believe something just because someone said so, because someone else believes it, or because it sounds reasonable. You must be persuaded by high quality evidence.

Of course, if that evidence is produced, you have a responsibility as a skeptic to change your belief. Failure to change a belief in the face of good evidence is not skepticism; skepticism has open mindedness at its core. M. Neil Browne and Stuart Keeley (2018) use the term weak sense critical thinking to describe critical thinking behaviors that are used only to strengthen a prior belief. Strong sense critical thinking, on the other hand, has as its goal reaching the best conclusion. Sometimes that means strengthening your prior belief, but sometimes it means changing your belief to accommodate the better evidence.

Many times, a failure to think critically or weak sense critical thinking is related to a  bias , an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice. Everybody has biases, but many people are unaware of them. Awareness of your own biases gives you the opportunity to control or counteract them. Unfortunately, however, many people are happy to let their biases creep into their attempts to persuade others; indeed, it is a key part of their persuasive strategy. To see how these biases influence messages, just look at the different descriptions and explanations of the same events given by people of different ages or income brackets, or conservative versus liberal commentators, or by commentators from different parts of the world. Of course, to be successful, these people who are consciously using their biases must disguise them. Even undisguised biases can be difficult to identify, so disguised ones can be nearly impossible.

Here are some common sources of biases:

• Personal values and beliefs.  Some people believe that human beings are basically driven to seek power and that they are typically in competition with one another over scarce resources. These beliefs are similar to the world-view that political scientists call “realism.” Other people believe that human beings prefer to cooperate and that, given the chance, they will do so. These beliefs are similar to the world-view known as “idealism.” For many people, these deeply held beliefs can influence, or bias, their interpretations of such wide ranging situations as the behavior of nations and their leaders or the behavior of the driver in the car ahead of you. For example, if your worldview is that people are typically in competition and someone cuts you off on the highway, you may assume that the driver did it purposely to get ahead of you. Other types of beliefs about the way the world is or the way the world should be, for example, political beliefs, can similarly become a significant source of bias.
• Racism, sexism, ageism and other forms of prejudice and bigotry.  These are, sadly, a common source of bias in many people. They are essentially a special kind of “belief about the way the world is.” These beliefs—for example, that women do not make effective leaders—lead people to ignore contradictory evidence (examples of effective women leaders, or research that disputes the belief) and to interpret ambiguous evidence in a way consistent with the belief.
• Self-interest.  When particular people benefit from things turning out a certain way, they can sometimes be very susceptible to letting that interest bias them. For example, a company that will earn a profit if they sell their product may have a bias in the way that they give information about their product. A union that will benefit if its members get a generous contract might have a bias in the way it presents information about salaries at competing organizations. (Note that our inclusion of examples describing both companies and unions is an explicit attempt to control for our own personal biases). Home buyers are often dismayed to discover that they purchased their dream house from someone whose self-interest led them to lie about flooding problems in the basement or back yard. This principle, the biasing power of self-interest, is likely what led to the famous phrase  Caveat Emptor  (let the buyer beware) .  

Knowing that these types of biases exist will help you evaluate evidence more critically. Do not forget, though, that people are not always keen to let you discover the sources of biases in their arguments. For example, companies or political organizations can sometimes disguise their support of a research study by contracting with a university professor, who comes complete with a seemingly unbiased institutional affiliation, to conduct the study.

People’s biases, conscious or unconscious, can lead them to make omissions, distortions, and assumptions that undermine our ability to correctly evaluate evidence. It is essential that you look for these elements. Always ask, what is missing, what is not as it appears, and what is being assumed here? For example, consider this (fictional) chart from an ad reporting customer satisfaction at 4 local health clubs.

Clearly, from the results of the chart, one would be tempted to give Club C a try, as customer satisfaction is much higher than for the other 3 clubs.

There are so many distortions and omissions in this chart, however, that it is actually quite meaningless. First, how was satisfaction measured? Do the bars represent responses to a survey? If so, how were the questions asked? Most importantly, where is the missing scale for the chart? Although the differences look quite large, are they really?

Well, here is the same chart, with a different scale, this time labeled:

Club C is not so impressive any more, is it? In fact, all of the health clubs have customer satisfaction ratings (whatever that means) between 85% and 88%. In the first chart, the entire scale of the graph included only the percentages between 83 and 89. This “judicious” choice of scale—some would call it a distortion—and omission of that scale from the chart make the tiny differences among the clubs seem important, however.

Also, in order to be a critical thinker, you need to learn to pay attention to the assumptions that underlie a message. Let us briefly illustrate the role of assumptions by touching on some people’s beliefs about the criminal justice system in the US. Some believe that a major problem with our judicial system is that many criminals go free because of legal technicalities. Others believe that a major problem is that many innocent people are convicted of crimes. The simple fact is, both types of errors occur. A person’s conclusion about which flaw in our judicial system is the greater tragedy is based on an assumption about which of these is the more serious error (letting the guilty go free or convicting the innocent). This type of assumption is called a value assumption (Browne and Keeley, 2018). It reflects the differences in values that people develop, differences that may lead us to disregard valid evidence that does not fit in with our particular values.

Oh, by the way, some students probably noticed this, but the seven tips for evaluating information that we shared in Module 1 are related to this. Actually, they are part of this section. The tips are, to a very large degree, set of ideas you can use to help you identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions. If you do not remember this section, we strongly recommend you take a few minutes to review it.

skepticism :  a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided

bias : an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice

• Which of your beliefs (or disbeliefs) from the Activate exercise for this section were derived from a process of critical thinking? If some of your beliefs were not based on critical thinking, are you willing to reassess these beliefs? If the answer is no, why do you think that is? If the answer is yes, what concrete steps will you take?

7.2 Reasoning and Judgment

• What percentage of kidnappings are committed by strangers?
• Which area of the house is riskiest: kitchen, bathroom, or stairs?
• What is the most common cancer in the US?
• What percentage of workplace homicides are committed by co-workers?

An essential set of procedural thinking skills is  reasoning , the ability to generate and evaluate solid conclusions from a set of statements or evidence. You should note that these conclusions (when they are generated instead of being evaluated) are one key type of inference that we described in Section 7.1. There are two main types of reasoning, deductive and inductive.

Deductive reasoning

Suppose your teacher tells you that if you get an A on the final exam in a course, you will get an A for the whole course. Then, you get an A on the final exam. What will your final course grade be? Most people can see instantly that you can conclude with certainty that you will get an A for the course. This is a type of reasoning called  deductive reasoning , which is defined as reasoning in which a conclusion is guaranteed to be true as long as the statements leading to it are true. The three statements can be listed as an  argument , with two beginning statements and a conclusion:

Statement 1: If you get an A on the final exam, you will get an A for the course

Statement 2: You get an A on the final exam

Conclusion: You will get an A for the course

This particular arrangement, in which true beginning statements lead to a guaranteed true conclusion, is known as a  deductively valid argument . Although deductive reasoning is often the subject of abstract, brain-teasing, puzzle-like word problems, it is actually an extremely important type of everyday reasoning. It is just hard to recognize sometimes. For example, imagine that you are looking for your car keys and you realize that they are either in the kitchen drawer or in your book bag. After looking in the kitchen drawer, you instantly know that they must be in your book bag. That conclusion results from a simple deductive reasoning argument. In addition, solid deductive reasoning skills are necessary for you to succeed in the sciences, philosophy, math, computer programming, and any endeavor involving the use of logic to persuade others to your point of view or to evaluate others’ arguments.

Cognitive psychologists, and before them philosophers, have been quite interested in deductive reasoning, not so much for its practical applications, but for the insights it can offer them about the ways that human beings think. One of the early ideas to emerge from the examination of deductive reasoning is that people learn (or develop) mental versions of rules that allow them to solve these types of reasoning problems (Braine, 1978; Braine, Reiser, & Rumain, 1984). The best way to see this point of view is to realize that there are different possible rules, and some of them are very simple. For example, consider this rule of logic:

therefore q

Logical rules are often presented abstractly, as letters, in order to imply that they can be used in very many specific situations. Here is a concrete version of the of the same rule:

I’ll either have pizza or a hamburger for dinner tonight (p or q)

I won’t have pizza (not p)

Therefore, I’ll have a hamburger (therefore q)

This kind of reasoning seems so natural, so easy, that it is quite plausible that we would use a version of this rule in our daily lives. At least, it seems more plausible than some of the alternative possibilities—for example, that we need to have experience with the specific situation (pizza or hamburger, in this case) in order to solve this type of problem easily. So perhaps there is a form of natural logic (Rips, 1990) that contains very simple versions of logical rules. When we are faced with a reasoning problem that maps onto one of these rules, we use the rule.

But be very careful; things are not always as easy as they seem. Even these simple rules are not so simple. For example, consider the following rule. Many people fail to realize that this rule is just as valid as the pizza or hamburger rule above.

if p, then q

therefore, not p

Concrete version:

If I eat dinner, then I will have dessert

I did not have dessert

Therefore, I did not eat dinner

The simple fact is, it can be very difficult for people to apply rules of deductive logic correctly; as a result, they make many errors when trying to do so. Is this a deductively valid argument or not?

Students who like school study a lot

Students who study a lot get good grades

Jane does not like school

Therefore, Jane does not get good grades

Many people are surprised to discover that this is not a logically valid argument; the conclusion is not guaranteed to be true from the beginning statements. Although the first statement says that students who like school study a lot, it does NOT say that students who do not like school do not study a lot. In other words, it may very well be possible to study a lot without liking school. Even people who sometimes get problems like this right might not be using the rules of deductive reasoning. Instead, they might just be making judgments for examples they know, in this case, remembering instances of people who get good grades despite not liking school.

Making deductive reasoning even more difficult is the fact that there are two important properties that an argument may have. One, it can be valid or invalid (meaning that the conclusion does or does not follow logically from the statements leading up to it). Two, an argument (or more correctly, its conclusion) can be true or false. Here is an example of an argument that is logically valid, but has a false conclusion (at least we think it is false).

Either you are eleven feet tall or the Grand Canyon was created by a spaceship crashing into the earth.

You are not eleven feet tall

Therefore the Grand Canyon was created by a spaceship crashing into the earth

This argument has the exact same form as the pizza or hamburger argument above, making it is deductively valid. The conclusion is so false, however, that it is absurd (of course, the reason the conclusion is false is that the first statement is false). When people are judging arguments, they tend to not observe the difference between deductive validity and the empirical truth of statements or conclusions. If the elements of an argument happen to be true, people are likely to judge the argument logically valid; if the elements are false, they will very likely judge it invalid (Markovits & Bouffard-Bouchard, 1992; Moshman & Franks, 1986). Thus, it seems a stretch to say that people are using these logical rules to judge the validity of arguments. Many psychologists believe that most people actually have very limited deductive reasoning skills (Johnson-Laird, 1999). They argue that when faced with a problem for which deductive logic is required, people resort to some simpler technique, such as matching terms that appear in the statements and the conclusion (Evans, 1982). This might not seem like a problem, but what if reasoners believe that the elements are true and they happen to be wrong; they will would believe that they are using a form of reasoning that guarantees they are correct and yet be wrong.

deductive reasoning :  a type of reasoning in which the conclusion is guaranteed to be true any time the statements leading up to it are true

argument :  a set of statements in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion

deductively valid argument :  an argument for which true beginning statements guarantee that the conclusion is true

Inductive reasoning and judgment

Every day, you make many judgments about the likelihood of one thing or another. Whether you realize it or not, you are practicing  inductive reasoning   on a daily basis. In inductive reasoning arguments, a conclusion is likely whenever the statements preceding it are true. The first thing to notice about inductive reasoning is that, by definition, you can never be sure about your conclusion; you can only estimate how likely the conclusion is. Inductive reasoning may lead you to focus on Memory Encoding and Recoding when you study for the exam, but it is possible the instructor will ask more questions about Memory Retrieval instead. Unlike deductive reasoning, the conclusions you reach through inductive reasoning are only probable, not certain. That is why scientists consider inductive reasoning weaker than deductive reasoning. But imagine how hard it would be for us to function if we could not act unless we were certain about the outcome.

Inductive reasoning can be represented as logical arguments consisting of statements and a conclusion, just as deductive reasoning can be. In an inductive argument, you are given some statements and a conclusion (or you are given some statements and must draw a conclusion). An argument is  inductively strong   if the conclusion would be very probable whenever the statements are true. So, for example, here is an inductively strong argument:

• Statement #1: The forecaster on Channel 2 said it is going to rain today.
• Statement #2: The forecaster on Channel 5 said it is going to rain today.
• Statement #3: It is very cloudy and humid.
• Statement #4: You just heard thunder.
• Conclusion (or judgment): It is going to rain today.

Think of the statements as evidence, on the basis of which you will draw a conclusion. So, based on the evidence presented in the four statements, it is very likely that it will rain today. Will it definitely rain today? Certainly not. We can all think of times that the weather forecaster was wrong.

A true story: Some years ago psychology student was watching a baseball playoff game between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Los Angeles Dodgers. A graphic on the screen had just informed the audience that the Cardinal at bat, (Hall of Fame shortstop) Ozzie Smith, a switch hitter batting left-handed for this plate appearance, had never, in nearly 3000 career at-bats, hit a home run left-handed. The student, who had just learned about inductive reasoning in his psychology class, turned to his companion (a Cardinals fan) and smugly said, “It is an inductively strong argument that Ozzie Smith will not hit a home run.” He turned back to face the television just in time to watch the ball sail over the right field fence for a home run. Although the student felt foolish at the time, he was not wrong. It was an inductively strong argument; 3000 at-bats is an awful lot of evidence suggesting that the Wizard of Ozz (as he was known) would not be hitting one out of the park (think of each at-bat without a home run as a statement in an inductive argument). Sadly (for the die-hard Cubs fan and Cardinals-hating student), despite the strength of the argument, the conclusion was wrong.

Given the possibility that we might draw an incorrect conclusion even with an inductively strong argument, we really want to be sure that we do, in fact, make inductively strong arguments. If we judge something probable, it had better be probable. If we judge something nearly impossible, it had better not happen. Think of inductive reasoning, then, as making reasonably accurate judgments of the probability of some conclusion given a set of evidence.

We base many decisions in our lives on inductive reasoning. For example:

Statement #1: Psychology is not my best subject

Statement #2: My psychology instructor has a reputation for giving difficult exams

Statement #3: My first psychology exam was much harder than I expected

Judgment: The next exam will probably be very difficult.

Decision: I will study tonight instead of watching Netflix.

Some other examples of judgments that people commonly make in a school context include judgments of the likelihood that:

• A particular class will be interesting/useful/difficult
• You will be able to finish writing a paper by next week if you go out tonight
• Your laptop’s battery will last through the next trip to the library
• You will not miss anything important if you skip class tomorrow
• Your instructor will not notice if you skip class tomorrow
• You will be able to find a book that you will need for a paper
• There will be an essay question about Memory Encoding on the next exam

Tversky and Kahneman (1983) recognized that there are two general ways that we might make these judgments; they termed them extensional (i.e., following the laws of probability) and intuitive (i.e., using shortcuts or heuristics, see below). We will use a similar distinction between Type 1 and Type 2 thinking, as described by Keith Stanovich and his colleagues (Evans and Stanovich, 2013; Stanovich and West, 2000). Type 1 thinking is fast, automatic, effortful, and emotional. In fact, it is hardly fair to call it reasoning at all, as judgments just seem to pop into one’s head. Type 2 thinking , on the other hand, is slow, effortful, and logical. So obviously, it is more likely to lead to a correct judgment, or an optimal decision. The problem is, we tend to over-rely on Type 1. Now, we are not saying that Type 2 is the right way to go for every decision or judgment we make. It seems a bit much, for example, to engage in a step-by-step logical reasoning procedure to decide whether we will have chicken or fish for dinner tonight.

Many bad decisions in some very important contexts, however, can be traced back to poor judgments of the likelihood of certain risks or outcomes that result from the use of Type 1 when a more logical reasoning process would have been more appropriate. For example:

Statement #1: It is late at night.

Statement #2: Albert has been drinking beer for the past five hours at a party.

Statement #3: Albert is not exactly sure where he is or how far away home is.

Judgment: Albert will have no difficulty walking home.

Decision: He walks home alone.

As you can see in this example, the three statements backing up the judgment do not really support it. In other words, this argument is not inductively strong because it is based on judgments that ignore the laws of probability. What are the chances that someone facing these conditions will be able to walk home alone easily? And one need not be drunk to make poor decisions based on judgments that just pop into our heads.

The truth is that many of our probability judgments do not come very close to what the laws of probability say they should be. Think about it. In order for us to reason in accordance with these laws, we would need to know the laws of probability, which would allow us to calculate the relationship between particular pieces of evidence and the probability of some outcome (i.e., how much likelihood should change given a piece of evidence), and we would have to do these heavy math calculations in our heads. After all, that is what Type 2 requires. Needless to say, even if we were motivated, we often do not even know how to apply Type 2 reasoning in many cases.

So what do we do when we don’t have the knowledge, skills, or time required to make the correct mathematical judgment? Do we hold off and wait until we can get better evidence? Do we read up on probability and fire up our calculator app so we can compute the correct probability? Of course not. We rely on Type 1 thinking. We “wing it.” That is, we come up with a likelihood estimate using some means at our disposal. Psychologists use the term heuristic to describe the type of “winging it” we are talking about. A  heuristic   is a shortcut strategy that we use to make some judgment or solve some problem (see Section 7.3). Heuristics are easy and quick, think of them as the basic procedures that are characteristic of Type 1.  They can absolutely lead to reasonably good judgments and decisions in some situations (like choosing between chicken and fish for dinner). They are, however, far from foolproof. There are, in fact, quite a lot of situations in which heuristics can lead us to make incorrect judgments, and in many cases the decisions based on those judgments can have serious consequences.

Let us return to the activity that begins this section. You were asked to judge the likelihood (or frequency) of certain events and risks. You were free to come up with your own evidence (or statements) to make these judgments. This is where a heuristic crops up. As a judgment shortcut, we tend to generate specific examples of those very events to help us decide their likelihood or frequency. For example, if we are asked to judge how common, frequent, or likely a particular type of cancer is, many of our statements would be examples of specific cancer cases:

Statement #1: Andy Kaufman (comedian) had lung cancer.

Statement #2: Colin Powell (US Secretary of State) had prostate cancer.

Statement #3: Bob Marley (musician) had skin and brain cancer

Statement #4: Sandra Day O’Connor (Supreme Court Justice) had breast cancer.

Statement #5: Fred Rogers (children’s entertainer) had stomach cancer.

Statement #6: Robin Roberts (news anchor) had breast cancer.

Statement #7: Bette Davis (actress) had breast cancer.

Judgment: Breast cancer is the most common type.

Your own experience or memory may also tell you that breast cancer is the most common type. But it is not (although it is common). Actually, skin cancer is the most common type in the US. We make the same types of misjudgments all the time because we do not generate the examples or evidence according to their actual frequencies or probabilities. Instead, we have a tendency (or bias) to search for the examples in memory; if they are easy to retrieve, we assume that they are common. To rephrase this in the language of the heuristic, events seem more likely to the extent that they are available to memory. This bias has been termed the  availability heuristic   (Kahneman and Tversky, 1974).

The fact that we use the availability heuristic does not automatically mean that our judgment is wrong. The reason we use heuristics in the first place is that they work fairly well in many cases (and, of course that they are easy to use). So, the easiest examples to think of sometimes are the most common ones. Is it more likely that a member of the U.S. Senate is a man or a woman? Most people have a much easier time generating examples of male senators. And as it turns out, the U.S. Senate has many more men than women (74 to 26 in 2020). In this case, then, the availability heuristic would lead you to make the correct judgment; it is far more likely that a senator would be a man.

In many other cases, however, the availability heuristic will lead us astray. This is because events can be memorable for many reasons other than their frequency. Section 5.2, Encoding Meaning, suggested that one good way to encode the meaning of some information is to form a mental image of it. Thus, information that has been pictured mentally will be more available to memory. Indeed, an event that is vivid and easily pictured will trick many people into supposing that type of event is more common than it actually is. Repetition of information will also make it more memorable. So, if the same event is described to you in a magazine, on the evening news, on a podcast that you listen to, and in your Facebook feed; it will be very available to memory. Again, the availability heuristic will cause you to misperceive the frequency of these types of events.

Most interestingly, information that is unusual is more memorable. Suppose we give you the following list of words to remember: box, flower, letter, platypus, oven, boat, newspaper, purse, drum, car. Very likely, the easiest word to remember would be platypus, the unusual one. The same thing occurs with memories of events. An event may be available to memory because it is unusual, yet the availability heuristic leads us to judge that the event is common. Did you catch that? In these cases, the availability heuristic makes us think the exact opposite of the true frequency. We end up thinking something is common because it is unusual (and therefore memorable). Yikes.

The misapplication of the availability heuristic sometimes has unfortunate results. For example, if you went to K-12 school in the US over the past 10 years, it is extremely likely that you have participated in lockdown and active shooter drills. Of course, everyone is trying to prevent the tragedy of another school shooting. And believe us, we are not trying to minimize how terrible the tragedy is. But the truth of the matter is, school shootings are extremely rare. Because the federal government does not keep a database of school shootings, the Washington Post has maintained their own running tally. Between 1999 and January 2020 (the date of the most recent school shooting with a death in the US at of the time this paragraph was written), the Post reported a total of 254 people died in school shootings in the US. Not 254 per year, 254 total. That is an average of 12 per year. Of course, that is 254 people who should not have died (particularly because many were children), but in a country with approximately 60,000,000 students and teachers, this is a very small risk.

But many students and teachers are terrified that they will be victims of school shootings because of the availability heuristic. It is so easy to think of examples (they are very available to memory) that people believe the event is very common. It is not. And there is a downside to this. We happen to believe that there is an enormous gun violence problem in the United States. According the the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, there were 39,773 firearm deaths in the US in 2017. Fifteen of those deaths were in school shootings, according to the Post. 60% of those deaths were suicides. When people pay attention to the school shooting risk (low), they often fail to notice the much larger risk.

And examples like this are by no means unique. The authors of this book have been teaching psychology since the 1990’s. We have been able to make the exact same arguments about the misapplication of the availability heuristics and keep them current by simply swapping out for the “fear of the day.” In the 1990’s it was children being kidnapped by strangers (it was known as “stranger danger”) despite the facts that kidnappings accounted for only 2% of the violent crimes committed against children, and only 24% of kidnappings are committed by strangers (US Department of Justice, 2007). This fear overlapped with the fear of terrorism that gripped the country after the 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and US Pentagon and still plagues the population of the US somewhat in 2020. After a well-publicized, sensational act of violence, people are extremely likely to increase their estimates of the chances that they, too, will be victims of terror. Think about the reality, however. In October of 2001, a terrorist mailed anthrax spores to members of the US government and a number of media companies. A total of five people died as a result of this attack. The nation was nearly paralyzed by the fear of dying from the attack; in reality the probability of an individual person dying was 0.00000002.

The availability heuristic can lead you to make incorrect judgments in a school setting as well. For example, suppose you are trying to decide if you should take a class from a particular math professor. You might try to make a judgment of how good a teacher she is by recalling instances of friends and acquaintances making comments about her teaching skill. You may have some examples that suggest that she is a poor teacher very available to memory, so on the basis of the availability heuristic you judge her a poor teacher and decide to take the class from someone else. What if, however, the instances you recalled were all from the same person, and this person happens to be a very colorful storyteller? The subsequent ease of remembering the instances might not indicate that the professor is a poor teacher after all.

Although the availability heuristic is obviously important, it is not the only judgment heuristic we use. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman examined the role of heuristics in inductive reasoning in a long series of studies. Kahneman received a Nobel Prize in Economics for this research in 2002, and Tversky would have certainly received one as well if he had not died of melanoma at age 59 in 1996 (Nobel Prizes are not awarded posthumously). Kahneman and Tversky demonstrated repeatedly that people do not reason in ways that are consistent with the laws of probability. They identified several heuristic strategies that people use instead to make judgments about likelihood. The importance of this work for economics (and the reason that Kahneman was awarded the Nobel Prize) is that earlier economic theories had assumed that people do make judgments rationally, that is, in agreement with the laws of probability.

Another common heuristic that people use for making judgments is the  representativeness heuristic (Kahneman & Tversky 1973). Suppose we describe a person to you. He is quiet and shy, has an unassuming personality, and likes to work with numbers. Is this person more likely to be an accountant or an attorney? If you said accountant, you were probably using the representativeness heuristic. Our imaginary person is judged likely to be an accountant because he resembles, or is representative of the concept of, an accountant. When research participants are asked to make judgments such as these, the only thing that seems to matter is the representativeness of the description. For example, if told that the person described is in a room that contains 70 attorneys and 30 accountants, participants will still assume that he is an accountant.

inductive reasoning :  a type of reasoning in which we make judgments about likelihood from sets of evidence

inductively strong argument :  an inductive argument in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion that is probably true

heuristic :  a shortcut strategy that we use to make judgments and solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

availability heuristic :  judging the frequency or likelihood of some event type according to how easily examples of the event can be called to mind (i.e., how available they are to memory)

representativeness heuristic:   judging the likelihood that something is a member of a category on the basis of how much it resembles a typical category member (i.e., how representative it is of the category)

Type 1 thinking : fast, automatic, and emotional thinking.

Type 2 thinking : slow, effortful, and logical thinking.

• What percentage of workplace homicides are co-worker violence?

Many people get these questions wrong. The answers are 10%; stairs; skin; 6%. How close were your answers? Explain how the availability heuristic might have led you to make the incorrect judgments.

• Can you think of some other judgments that you have made (or beliefs that you have) that might have been influenced by the availability heuristic?

7.3 Problem Solving

• Please take a few minutes to list a number of problems that you are facing right now.
• Now write about a problem that you recently solved.
• What is your definition of a problem?

Mary has a problem. Her daughter, ordinarily quite eager to please, appears to delight in being the last person to do anything. Whether getting ready for school, going to piano lessons or karate class, or even going out with her friends, she seems unwilling or unable to get ready on time. Other people have different kinds of problems. For example, many students work at jobs, have numerous family commitments, and are facing a course schedule full of difficult exams, assignments, papers, and speeches. How can they find enough time to devote to their studies and still fulfill their other obligations? Speaking of students and their problems: Show that a ball thrown vertically upward with initial velocity v0 takes twice as much time to return as to reach the highest point (from Spiegel, 1981).

These are three very different situations, but we have called them all problems. What makes them all the same, despite the differences? A psychologist might define a  problem   as a situation with an initial state, a goal state, and a set of possible intermediate states. Somewhat more meaningfully, we might consider a problem a situation in which you are in here one state (e.g., daughter is always late), you want to be there in another state (e.g., daughter is not always late), and with no obvious way to get from here to there. Defined this way, each of the three situations we outlined can now be seen as an example of the same general concept, a problem. At this point, you might begin to wonder what is not a problem, given such a general definition. It seems that nearly every non-routine task we engage in could qualify as a problem. As long as you realize that problems are not necessarily bad (it can be quite fun and satisfying to rise to the challenge and solve a problem), this may be a useful way to think about it.

Can we identify a set of problem-solving skills that would apply to these very different kinds of situations? That task, in a nutshell, is a major goal of this section. Let us try to begin to make sense of the wide variety of ways that problems can be solved with an important observation: the process of solving problems can be divided into two key parts. First, people have to notice, comprehend, and represent the problem properly in their minds (called  problem representation ). Second, they have to apply some kind of solution strategy to the problem. Psychologists have studied both of these key parts of the process in detail.

When you first think about the problem-solving process, you might guess that most of our difficulties would occur because we are failing in the second step, the application of strategies. Although this can be a significant difficulty much of the time, the more important source of difficulty is probably problem representation. In short, we often fail to solve a problem because we are looking at it, or thinking about it, the wrong way.

problem :  a situation in which we are in an initial state, have a desired goal state, and there is a number of possible intermediate states (i.e., there is no obvious way to get from the initial to the goal state)

problem representation :  noticing, comprehending and forming a mental conception of a problem

Defining and Mentally Representing Problems in Order to Solve Them

So, the main obstacle to solving a problem is that we do not clearly understand exactly what the problem is. Recall the problem with Mary’s daughter always being late. One way to represent, or to think about, this problem is that she is being defiant. She refuses to get ready in time. This type of representation or definition suggests a particular type of solution. Another way to think about the problem, however, is to consider the possibility that she is simply being sidetracked by interesting diversions. This different conception of what the problem is (i.e., different representation) suggests a very different solution strategy. For example, if Mary defines the problem as defiance, she may be tempted to solve the problem using some kind of coercive tactics, that is, to assert her authority as her mother and force her to listen. On the other hand, if Mary defines the problem as distraction, she may try to solve it by simply removing the distracting objects.

As you might guess, when a problem is represented one way, the solution may seem very difficult, or even impossible. Seen another way, the solution might be very easy. For example, consider the following problem (from Nasar, 1998):

Two bicyclists start 20 miles apart and head toward each other, each going at a steady rate of 10 miles per hour. At the same time, a fly that travels at a steady 15 miles per hour starts from the front wheel of the southbound bicycle and flies to the front wheel of the northbound one, then turns around and flies to the front wheel of the southbound one again, and continues in this manner until he is crushed between the two front wheels. Question: what total distance did the fly cover?

Please take a few minutes to try to solve this problem.

Most people represent this problem as a question about a fly because, well, that is how the question is asked. The solution, using this representation, is to figure out how far the fly travels on the first leg of its journey, then add this total to how far it travels on the second leg of its journey (when it turns around and returns to the first bicycle), then continue to add the smaller distance from each leg of the journey until you converge on the correct answer. You would have to be quite skilled at math to solve this problem, and you would probably need some time and pencil and paper to do it.

If you consider a different representation, however, you can solve this problem in your head. Instead of thinking about it as a question about a fly, think about it as a question about the bicycles. They are 20 miles apart, and each is traveling 10 miles per hour. How long will it take for the bicycles to reach each other? Right, one hour. The fly is traveling 15 miles per hour; therefore, it will travel a total of 15 miles back and forth in the hour before the bicycles meet. Represented one way (as a problem about a fly), the problem is quite difficult. Represented another way (as a problem about two bicycles), it is easy. Changing your representation of a problem is sometimes the best—sometimes the only—way to solve it.

Unfortunately, however, changing a problem’s representation is not the easiest thing in the world to do. Often, problem solvers get stuck looking at a problem one way. This is called  fixation . Most people who represent the preceding problem as a problem about a fly probably do not pause to reconsider, and consequently change, their representation. A parent who thinks her daughter is being defiant is unlikely to consider the possibility that her behavior is far less purposeful.

Problem-solving fixation was examined by a group of German psychologists called Gestalt psychologists during the 1930’s and 1940’s. Karl Dunker, for example, discovered an important type of failure to take a different perspective called  functional fixedness . Imagine being a participant in one of his experiments. You are asked to figure out how to mount two candles on a door and are given an assortment of odds and ends, including a small empty cardboard box and some thumbtacks. Perhaps you have already figured out a solution: tack the box to the door so it forms a platform, then put the candles on top of the box. Most people are able to arrive at this solution. Imagine a slight variation of the procedure, however. What if, instead of being empty, the box had matches in it? Most people given this version of the problem do not arrive at the solution given above. Why? Because it seems to people that when the box contains matches, it already has a function; it is a matchbox. People are unlikely to consider a new function for an object that already has a function. This is functional fixedness.

Mental set is a type of fixation in which the problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past, even though the solution may no longer be useful. It is commonly seen when students do math problems for homework. Often, several problems in a row require the reapplication of the same solution strategy. Then, without warning, the next problem in the set requires a new strategy. Many students attempt to apply the formerly successful strategy on the new problem and therefore cannot come up with a correct answer.

The thing to remember is that you cannot solve a problem unless you correctly identify what it is to begin with (initial state) and what you want the end result to be (goal state). That may mean looking at the problem from a different angle and representing it in a new way. The correct representation does not guarantee a successful solution, but it certainly puts you on the right track.

A bit more optimistically, the Gestalt psychologists discovered what may be considered the opposite of fixation, namely  insight . Sometimes the solution to a problem just seems to pop into your head. Wolfgang Kohler examined insight by posing many different problems to chimpanzees, principally problems pertaining to their acquisition of out-of-reach food. In one version, a banana was placed outside of a chimpanzee’s cage and a short stick inside the cage. The stick was too short to retrieve the banana, but was long enough to retrieve a longer stick also located outside of the cage. This second stick was long enough to retrieve the banana. After trying, and failing, to reach the banana with the shorter stick, the chimpanzee would try a couple of random-seeming attempts, react with some apparent frustration or anger, then suddenly rush to the longer stick, the correct solution fully realized at this point. This sudden appearance of the solution, observed many times with many different problems, was termed insight by Kohler.

Lest you think it pertains to chimpanzees only, Karl Dunker demonstrated that children also solve problems through insight in the 1930s. More importantly, you have probably experienced insight yourself. Think back to a time when you were trying to solve a difficult problem. After struggling for a while, you gave up. Hours later, the solution just popped into your head, perhaps when you were taking a walk, eating dinner, or lying in bed.

fixation :  when a problem solver gets stuck looking at a problem a particular way and cannot change his or her representation of it (or his or her intended solution strategy)

functional fixedness :  a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver cannot think of a new use for an object that already has a function

mental set :  a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past

insight :  a sudden realization of a solution to a problem

Solving Problems by Trial and Error

Correctly identifying the problem and your goal for a solution is a good start, but recall the psychologist’s definition of a problem: it includes a set of possible intermediate states. Viewed this way, a problem can be solved satisfactorily only if one can find a path through some of these intermediate states to the goal. Imagine a fairly routine problem, finding a new route to school when your ordinary route is blocked (by road construction, for example). At each intersection, you may turn left, turn right, or go straight. A satisfactory solution to the problem (of getting to school) is a sequence of selections at each intersection that allows you to wind up at school.

If you had all the time in the world to get to school, you might try choosing intermediate states randomly. At one corner you turn left, the next you go straight, then you go left again, then right, then right, then straight. Unfortunately, trial and error will not necessarily get you where you want to go, and even if it does, it is not the fastest way to get there. For example, when a friend of ours was in college, he got lost on the way to a concert and attempted to find the venue by choosing streets to turn onto randomly (this was long before the use of GPS). Amazingly enough, the strategy worked, although he did end up missing two out of the three bands who played that night.

Trial and error is not all bad, however. B.F. Skinner, a prominent behaviorist psychologist, suggested that people often behave randomly in order to see what effect the behavior has on the environment and what subsequent effect this environmental change has on them. This seems particularly true for the very young person. Picture a child filling a household’s fish tank with toilet paper, for example. To a child trying to develop a repertoire of creative problem-solving strategies, an odd and random behavior might be just the ticket. Eventually, the exasperated parent hopes, the child will discover that many of these random behaviors do not successfully solve problems; in fact, in many cases they create problems. Thus, one would expect a decrease in this random behavior as a child matures. You should realize, however, that the opposite extreme is equally counterproductive. If the children become too rigid, never trying something unexpected and new, their problem solving skills can become too limited.

Effective problem solving seems to call for a happy medium that strikes a balance between using well-founded old strategies and trying new ground and territory. The individual who recognizes a situation in which an old problem-solving strategy would work best, and who can also recognize a situation in which a new untested strategy is necessary is halfway to success.

Solving Problems with Algorithms and Heuristics

For many problems there is a possible strategy available that will guarantee a correct solution. For example, think about math problems. Math lessons often consist of step-by-step procedures that can be used to solve the problems. If you apply the strategy without error, you are guaranteed to arrive at the correct solution to the problem. This approach is called using an  algorithm , a term that denotes the step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution. Because algorithms are sometimes available and come with a guarantee, you might think that most people use them frequently. Unfortunately, however, they do not. As the experience of many students who have struggled through math classes can attest, algorithms can be extremely difficult to use, even when the problem solver knows which algorithm is supposed to work in solving the problem. In problems outside of math class, we often do not even know if an algorithm is available. It is probably fair to say, then, that algorithms are rarely used when people try to solve problems.

Because algorithms are so difficult to use, people often pass up the opportunity to guarantee a correct solution in favor of a strategy that is much easier to use and yields a reasonable chance of coming up with a correct solution. These strategies are called  problem solving heuristics . Similar to what you saw in section 6.2 with reasoning heuristics, a problem solving heuristic is a shortcut strategy that people use when trying to solve problems. It usually works pretty well, but does not guarantee a correct solution to the problem. For example, one problem solving heuristic might be “always move toward the goal” (so when trying to get to school when your regular route is blocked, you would always turn in the direction you think the school is). A heuristic that people might use when doing math homework is “use the same solution strategy that you just used for the previous problem.”

By the way, we hope these last two paragraphs feel familiar to you. They seem to parallel a distinction that you recently learned. Indeed, algorithms and problem-solving heuristics are another example of the distinction between Type 1 thinking and Type 2 thinking.

Although it is probably not worth describing a large number of specific heuristics, two observations about heuristics are worth mentioning. First, heuristics can be very general or they can be very specific, pertaining to a particular type of problem only. For example, “always move toward the goal” is a general strategy that you can apply to countless problem situations. On the other hand, “when you are lost without a functioning gps, pick the most expensive car you can see and follow it” is specific to the problem of being lost. Second, all heuristics are not equally useful. One heuristic that many students know is “when in doubt, choose c for a question on a multiple-choice exam.” This is a dreadful strategy because many instructors intentionally randomize the order of answer choices. Another test-taking heuristic, somewhat more useful, is “look for the answer to one question somewhere else on the exam.”

You really should pay attention to the application of heuristics to test taking. Imagine that while reviewing your answers for a multiple-choice exam before turning it in, you come across a question for which you originally thought the answer was c. Upon reflection, you now think that the answer might be b. Should you change the answer to b, or should you stick with your first impression? Most people will apply the heuristic strategy to “stick with your first impression.” What they do not realize, of course, is that this is a very poor strategy (Lilienfeld et al, 2009). Most of the errors on exams come on questions that were answered wrong originally and were not changed (so they remain wrong). There are many fewer errors where we change a correct answer to an incorrect answer. And, of course, sometimes we change an incorrect answer to a correct answer. In fact, research has shown that it is more common to change a wrong answer to a right answer than vice versa (Bruno, 2001).

The belief in this poor test-taking strategy (stick with your first impression) is based on the  confirmation bias   (Nickerson, 1998; Wason, 1960). You first saw the confirmation bias in Module 1, but because it is so important, we will repeat the information here. People have a bias, or tendency, to notice information that confirms what they already believe. Somebody at one time told you to stick with your first impression, so when you look at the results of an exam you have taken, you will tend to notice the cases that are consistent with that belief. That is, you will notice the cases in which you originally had an answer correct and changed it to the wrong answer. You tend not to notice the other two important (and more common) cases, changing an answer from wrong to right, and leaving a wrong answer unchanged.

Because heuristics by definition do not guarantee a correct solution to a problem, mistakes are bound to occur when we employ them. A poor choice of a specific heuristic will lead to an even higher likelihood of making an error.

algorithm :  a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem

problem solving heuristic :  a shortcut strategy that we use to solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

confirmation bias :  people’s tendency to notice information that confirms what they already believe

An Effective Problem-Solving Sequence

You may be left with a big question: If algorithms are hard to use and heuristics often don’t work, how am I supposed to solve problems? Robert Sternberg (1996), as part of his theory of what makes people successfully intelligent (Module 8) described a problem-solving sequence that has been shown to work rather well:

• Identify the existence of a problem.  In school, problem identification is often easy; problems that you encounter in math classes, for example, are conveniently labeled as problems for you. Outside of school, however, realizing that you have a problem is a key difficulty that you must get past in order to begin solving it. You must be very sensitive to the symptoms that indicate a problem.
• Define the problem.  Suppose you realize that you have been having many headaches recently. Very likely, you would identify this as a problem. If you define the problem as “headaches,” the solution would probably be to take aspirin or ibuprofen or some other anti-inflammatory medication. If the headaches keep returning, however, you have not really solved the problem—likely because you have mistaken a symptom for the problem itself. Instead, you must find the root cause of the headaches. Stress might be the real problem. For you to successfully solve many problems it may be necessary for you to overcome your fixations and represent the problems differently. One specific strategy that you might find useful is to try to define the problem from someone else’s perspective. How would your parents, spouse, significant other, doctor, etc. define the problem? Somewhere in these different perspectives may lurk the key definition that will allow you to find an easier and permanent solution.
• Formulate strategy.  Now it is time to begin planning exactly how the problem will be solved. Is there an algorithm or heuristic available for you to use? Remember, heuristics by their very nature guarantee that occasionally you will not be able to solve the problem. One point to keep in mind is that you should look for long-range solutions, which are more likely to address the root cause of a problem than short-range solutions.
• Represent and organize information.  Similar to the way that the problem itself can be defined, or represented in multiple ways, information within the problem is open to different interpretations. Suppose you are studying for a big exam. You have chapters from a textbook and from a supplemental reader, along with lecture notes that all need to be studied. How should you (represent and) organize these materials? Should you separate them by type of material (text versus reader versus lecture notes), or should you separate them by topic? To solve problems effectively, you must learn to find the most useful representation and organization of information.
• Allocate resources.  This is perhaps the simplest principle of the problem solving sequence, but it is extremely difficult for many people. First, you must decide whether time, money, skills, effort, goodwill, or some other resource would help to solve the problem Then, you must make the hard choice of deciding which resources to use, realizing that you cannot devote maximum resources to every problem. Very often, the solution to problem is simply to change how resources are allocated (for example, spending more time studying in order to improve grades).
• Monitor and evaluate solutions.  Pay attention to the solution strategy while you are applying it. If it is not working, you may be able to select another strategy. Another fact you should realize about problem solving is that it never does end. Solving one problem frequently brings up new ones. Good monitoring and evaluation of your problem solutions can help you to anticipate and get a jump on solving the inevitable new problems that will arise.

Please note that this as  an  effective problem-solving sequence, not  the  effective problem solving sequence. Just as you can become fixated and end up representing the problem incorrectly or trying an inefficient solution, you can become stuck applying the problem-solving sequence in an inflexible way. Clearly there are problem situations that can be solved without using these skills in this order.

Additionally, many real-world problems may require that you go back and redefine a problem several times as the situation changes (Sternberg et al. 2000). For example, consider the problem with Mary’s daughter one last time. At first, Mary did represent the problem as one of defiance. When her early strategy of pleading and threatening punishment was unsuccessful, Mary began to observe her daughter more carefully. She noticed that, indeed, her daughter’s attention would be drawn by an irresistible distraction or book. Fresh with a re-representation of the problem, she began a new solution strategy. She began to remind her daughter every few minutes to stay on task and remind her that if she is ready before it is time to leave, she may return to the book or other distracting object at that time. Fortunately, this strategy was successful, so Mary did not have to go back and redefine the problem again.

Pick one or two of the problems that you listed when you first started studying this section and try to work out the steps of Sternberg’s problem solving sequence for each one.

a mental representation of a category of things in the world

an assumption about the truth of something that is not stated. Inferences come from our prior knowledge and experience, and from logical reasoning

knowledge about one’s own cognitive processes; thinking about your thinking

individuals who are less competent tend to overestimate their abilities more than individuals who are more competent do

Thinking like a scientist in your everyday life for the purpose of drawing correct conclusions. It entails skepticism; an ability to identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions; and excellent deductive and inductive reasoning, and problem solving skills.

a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided

an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice

a type of reasoning in which the conclusion is guaranteed to be true any time the statements leading up to it are true

a set of statements in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion

an argument for which true beginning statements guarantee that the conclusion is true

a type of reasoning in which we make judgments about likelihood from sets of evidence

an inductive argument in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion that is probably true

fast, automatic, and emotional thinking

slow, effortful, and logical thinking

a shortcut strategy that we use to make judgments and solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

udging the frequency or likelihood of some event type according to how easily examples of the event can be called to mind (i.e., how available they are to memory)

judging the likelihood that something is a member of a category on the basis of how much it resembles a typical category member (i.e., how representative it is of the category)

a situation in which we are in an initial state, have a desired goal state, and there is a number of possible intermediate states (i.e., there is no obvious way to get from the initial to the goal state)

noticing, comprehending and forming a mental conception of a problem

when a problem solver gets stuck looking at a problem a particular way and cannot change his or her representation of it (or his or her intended solution strategy)

a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver cannot think of a new use for an object that already has a function

a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past

a sudden realization of a solution to a problem

a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem

The tendency to notice and pay attention to information that confirms your prior beliefs and to ignore information that disconfirms them.

a shortcut strategy that we use to solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

Introduction to Psychology Copyright © 2020 by Ken Gray; Elizabeth Arnott-Hill; and Or'Shaundra Benson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What Is Analytical Reasoning Test?

What to expect when taking an analytical reasoning test, how to prepare for analytical reasoning tests in 2024, frequently asked questions, how to pass & prepare for analytical reasoning tests in 2024.

Updated November 10, 2023

An analytical reasoning test is a way of measuring a candidate’s comprehension skills and their ability to identify key information, apply logic and find patterns.

This form of testing is used widely in recruitment, particularly when assessing candidates for training or graduate schemes.

Large organizations may use an analytical skills test in the early stages of the recruitment process to assess the aptitude of shortlisted candidates before moving onto the interview stage.

This allows recruiters to test several skills such as:

• Attention to detail
• Critical thinking
• Ability to apply logic
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
• Decision making

Analytical reasoning tests are often delivered online and completed by the candidate at a time of their choosing.

You will be given a final deadline for completing the test which, if missed, will eliminate you from the selection process.

The time allowed to complete the test is determined by the recruiter. Some apply rigid time constraints , so good time management and quick thinking is necessary.

Taking practice papers in advance can help you work out how long to spend on each question and which types of questions take more of your time.

Not all organizations apply a time limit, although they may give you an estimate of how long it will take or record the time taken.

In these cases, the testing program may present you with different questions, depending on how well you answered the previous one.

Prepare for Any Job Assessment Test with JobTestPrep

Analytical Reasoning Test Formats

Non-verbal reasoning.

Non-verbal reasoning, or numerical reasoning , is the ability to analyze graphs, tables and data, to draw conclusions and make predictions.

Although based upon a numerical format, this method of testing is not designed to assess your mathematical knowledge; it focuses on logic and reasoning skills instead.

Many job roles rely on analyzing numerical data, and if you are applying for roles in the finance, engineering, marketing or human resources industries, you are very likely to be asked to complete an analytical reasoning test containing non-verbal reasoning assessments.

Verbal Reasoning

Verbal reasoning is the process of using written information, identifying and analyzing key points, to draw conclusions.

These skills are often assessed during an analytical reasoning test by presenting a text-based question, such as an excerpt of a business report or research paper.

You will then be expected to answer questions by interpreting the information and applying logic to come to your conclusion.

Deductive vs Inductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is taking a set of facts and using them to make further statements of fact. So, for example:

• Package C weighs the same as package D
• Package F weighs twice as much as package D

Therefore, it is also a fact that the weight of two F packages is equal to the weight of four C packages.

Of course, there are many other facts that we can deduce from the initial statements, and a question in an analytical skills test will be more complex than this.

Inductive reasoning is the process of using the information you have to identify patterns and make predictions about what is likely to happen next.

For example, take this table listing the population levels of Town A:

If you were asked to estimate the town population for 2020, you would use inductive reasoning to make your prediction.

Of course, your answer isn’t fact – but it shows that you have identified patterns and used logic to make an informed prediction.

In a test, a question that is asking you to use your inductive reasoning skills will often ask “What comes next?”.

Inductive logic is valued highly in the fields of engineering, IT and science.

If you need to prepare for a number of different employment tests and want to outsmart the competition, choose a Premium Membership from JobTestPrep . You will get access to three PrepPacks of your choice, from a database that covers all the major test providers and employers and tailored profession packs.

Examples of Analytical Questions

Analytical question 1.

Here is an example of a relatively difficult analytical reasoning question.

It requires the candidate to use the statements that are presented to identify other statements that must also be true.

This question is a test of verbal and deductive reasoning skills:

From a group of seven undergraduate students (A, B, C, D, E, F, and G), four will be selected to give a presentation to the students' union. The following conditions must be met:

• Either A or B must be selected, but A and B cannot both be selected.
• Either E or F must be selected, but E and F cannot both be selected.
• E cannot be selected unless C is selected.
• G cannot be selected unless B is selected.

If we know that F is not selected to present, how many different groups of four can be made, following the above criteria?

a) One b) Two c) Three d) Four e) Five

Analytical Question 2

A common form of numerical (or non-verbal) reasoning question is to identify pattern rules and predict what comes next.

An example of this type of question is:

Look at the top row of images. Which box comes next in the sequence?

Analytical Question 3

Non-verbal reasoning may also be assessed by asking a number series question. This involves spotting patterns in a series of numbers, using some basic mathematical principles to predict the next number.

For example:

What number comes next?

9, 15, 13, 19, 17, 23...

Step 1 . Research the Test You Are Taking

Several different companies specialize in creating analytical reasoning tests. Asking your recruiter which provider they use will allow you to research practice papers beforehand.

Step 2 . Prepare Your Tech

To save unnecessary stress on the day, make sure you have the hardware and software needed to complete the test.

Discovering that your laptop is about to run out of battery at the last minute is the last thing you need.

Step 3 . Prepare the Necessary Equipment

Make sure you have all the necessary equipment with you.

You may need a pen and paper for jotting down details and helping you work out your answers. If allowed, a calculator may also prove useful.

Step 4 . Read the Instructions Carefully

Take your time to read through the test instructions before you start answering questions.

Making a note of time allowance is important, so be sure to revisit this as you progress through the test to make sure you manage your time efficiently.

Step 5 . Leave the Hard Questions ‘Till Last

Consider answering the test questions in a different order than they are set.

It may help to go through the test, answering questions you feel confident in, before returning to the more difficult questions.

Try out this method in your practice tests beforehand to find what works for you.

Step 6 . Use Process of Elimination

Use a process of elimination when answering questions. Sometimes, it’s easier to spot the wrong answers than the right one. If you rule out enough of the wrong answers, you’ll get a head start on identifying the correct one.

Step 7 . Stay Calm

Most importantly, stay calm . When faced with a difficult question, break it down, making notes as you go.

Trust your ability – remember that all the necessary information is provided in the question, you are not being tested on any professional knowledge, just on your reasoning skills.

How do you prepare for an analytical test?

Start by getting familiar with the format of the analytical test. Know whether it's multiple-choice, essay-based or involves data analysis.

Review any material or content that may be relevant to the test.

Practice solving analytical problems from past tests or sample questions.

On the day of the test, try to stay calm and focused.

What is an example of an analytical thinking test?

An example of an analytical thinking test might be a case study or a situational analysis. You could be presented with a real-world problem or scenario and asked to analyze it, identify key issues, and propose solutions based on the information provided. The test may include written responses, multiple-choice questions, or both.

What is the purpose of an analytical thinking test?

The purpose of an analytical thinking test is to assess your ability to think critically, analyze complex situations, make informed decisions, and solve problems. Employers often use these tests to evaluate a candidate's problem-solving skills and decision-making abilities. In an academic context, analytical tests are used to assess a student's understanding of a subject and their ability to apply knowledge to solve problems.

What are the best ways to enhance your analytical abilities?

Regularly engage in activities that require critical thinking, such as puzzles, brain teasers or debates.

Reading a variety of materials, from books to news articles, can expose you to different perspectives and ideas, enhancing your analytical skills.

Work on solving problems, both simple and complex, to strengthen your ability to analyze situations and find solutions.

Stay updated in your field and keep learning, as new information and perspectives can enhance your analytical abilities.

Many corporate recruiters rely on analytical reasoning tests as part of their selection process.

This type of psychometric test is designed to assess a candidate’s general aptitude as well as their ability to apply logic and reasoning.

Results are data-driven and can provide an objective measure of a candidate’s potential to fulfill the role they are applying for.

With adequate preparation, this is an ideal opportunity for a candidate to demonstrate their logical ability and professional competence.

Scores are compared against those of other candidates and will influence progression onto the next round of the process.

In some cases, candidates will automatically be discounted if they have poor results on the reasoning test.

Therefore, it is important that you practice. Take online practice tests to ensure your skills are honed before your test.

You might also be interested in these other Psychometric Success articles:

Or explore the Aptitude Tests / Test Types sections.

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Logical Reasoning Questions and Answers

Logical Reasoning involves the ability to use and understand logical connections between facts or ideas.

• In verbal reasoning , questions are expressed in words or statements and require the reader to think critically about the language used in order to choose the correct answer from the given options.
• Non-verbal reasoning meanwhile involves questions presented as images and figures, requiring the reader to comprehend how one element relates to another before selecting the right answer out of a list of potential answers.

Logical Reasoning is a key component of many competitive and reasoning ability-testing exams in India and abroad. Reasoning questions allow organizations to assess a candidate’s problem-solving skills, critical thinking capabilities, and capacity for logical and analytical thinking. 

Aptitude Questions such as Quantitative Aptitude and Logical Reasoning are considered essential skills for success in a wide range of competitive exams worldwide. These two sections often form the backbone of entrance exams, whether it’s for a public sector job in India or a university admission test in the United States.

Go through the following article to learn more about the various types of reasoning ability queries generally included in competitive tests.

Logical Reasoning Topics

Logical Reasoning is a crucial section in various competitive exams, and aspirants must study these topics to improve their problem-solving abilities and score better.

Types of Questions included in logical reasoning:

• Verbal Questions
• Puzzle Questions
• Image-Based Questions
• Sequence Questions

Topic-wise practice questions on logical reasoning:

• Number Series
• Letter and Symbol Series
• Verbal Classification
• Essential Part
• Artificial Language
• Matching Definitions
• Making Judgments
• Logical Problems
• Logical Games
• Analyzing Arguments
• Course of Action
• Statement and Conclusion
• Theme Detection
• Cause and Effect
• Statement and Argument
• Logical Deduction
• Letter Series
• Verification of the Truth of the Statement
• Coding Decoding
• Assertion and Reason
• Statement and Assumptions
• Logical Venn Diagram

Verbal Reasoning

Verbal reasoning is the cognitive ability to understand and interpret information presented in written or spoken language and apply logical reasoning to draw conclusions and solve problems.

It involves analyzing and evaluating information, making inferences and deductions, and identifying relationships between concepts and ideas. Verbal reasoning often tests a candidate’s language comprehension, critical thinking, and analytical skills and is commonly used in aptitude tests, job interviews, and higher education admissions.

A strong grasp of verbal reasoning can help individuals communicate effectively, think critically, and make informed decisions in their personal and professional lives.

Verbal Reasoning Questions and Answers Topics

• Logical Sequence of Words
• Blood Relation Test
• Series Completion
• Cube and Cuboid
• Seating Arrangement
• Character Puzzles
• Direction Sense Test
• Classification
• Data Sufficiency
• Arithmetic Reasoning
• Verification of Truth

Non-Verbal Reasoning

Non-verbal reasoning is the cognitive ability that involves questions presented as images and figures, requiring the reader to comprehend how one element relates to another before selecting the right answer out of a list of potential answers.

Non-verbal reasoning often tests a candidate’s ability to think creatively, solve problems, and make quick decisions, and is commonly used in aptitude tests, job interviews, and higher education admissions.

A strong grasp of non-verbal reasoning can help individuals develop their creativity, spatial awareness, and problem-solving abilities, making them more effective at tackling complex challenges in their personal and professional lives.

If you are a government exam aspirant or a student preparing for college placements, the reasoning is the topic that you need to practice thoroughly. Below are some topics that need to be practiced well for the reasoning section of the exam. So, let’s go through the following article to learn more about the various types of reasoning queries generally included in competitive tests.

Non-Verbal Reasoning Questions and Answers Topics

• Analytical Reasoning
• Mirror Images
• Water Images
• Embedded Images
• Pattern Completion
• Figure Matrix
• Paper Folding
• Paper Cutting
• Rule Detection
• Grouping of Images
• Dot Situation
• Shape Construction
• Image Analysis
• Cubes and Dice
• Picture Analogies

Logical reasoning is an important assessment tool for a wide range of competitive examinations. Questions in this section are designed to judge a candidate’s analytical and logical thinking abilities. Various types of reasoning questions are included in this section to test the student’s capacity for problem-solving, deduction, and inference.

Practicing questions is the only way to prepare for the reasoning test section. This way, even those who may struggle in this section can have an equal chance at success during exams or applications. The article contains concepts, questions, and topics of the reasoning section from the competitive exams and the placement exams’ point of view. 

FAQs – Logical Reasoning

Q1. what is logical reasoning  .

Logical reasoning involves the ability to use and understand logical connections between facts or ideas. The reasoning is a critical component of many tests and interviews. In order to perform well, it can be beneficial to practice doing reasoning questions with solutions available. 

Q2. What are logical reasoning questions? 

Logical reasoning questions can be both verbal and non-verbal: In verbal logical reasoning questions, questions are expressed in words or statements and require the reader to think critically about the language used in order to choose the correct answer from the given options and in non-verbal logical reasoning questions, it involves questions presented as images and figures, requiring the reader to comprehend how one element relates to another before selecting the right answer out of a list of potential answers.

Q3. What is the approach to solving reasoning questions? 

Follow the steps given below for preparation: 1. Practice with a timer and solve questions within the time limit. 2. Read the question carefully and try to understand the logic behind it. 3. Practice as many questions as you can and brush up on your skills.

Q4. Which book is good for the preparation of reasoning question sets? 

Students can practice from the following books: 1. A Modern Approach to Verbal & Non-Verbal Reasoning by R.S. Agarwal 2. Shortcuts in Reasoning (Verbal, Non-Verbal, Analytical & Critical) for Competitive Exams by Disha Experts 3. How to Crack Test of Reasoning by Arihant Experts

Q5. What is the syllabus of the Reasoning Aptitude section for competitive exams? 

Reasoning Aptitude covers a wide range of topics. Those topics are already given in the article. Aspirants must go through the article to learn about those topics and practice them thoroughly.

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Logical Reasoning Questions and Answers

Logical reasoning interview questions and answers.

Here you can find Logical Reasoning interview questions and answers for your placement interviews and entrance exam preparation.

Why should I learn to solve Logical Reasoning questions?

Learn and practise solving Logical Reasoning questions to enhance your skills so that you can clear interviews, competitive examinations, and various entrance tests (CAT, GATE, GRE, MAT, bank exams, railway exams, etc.) with full confidence.

Where can I get Logical Reasoning questions and answers with explanations?

IndiaBIX provides you with numerous Logical Reasoning questions and answers with explanations. Fully solved problems with detailed answer descriptions and explanations are given and will be easy to understand.

Where can I get Logical Reasoning MCQ interview questions and answers (objective type, multiple choice)?

Here you can find multiple-choice-type Logical Reasoning questions and answers for your interviews and entrance examinations. Objective-type and true-or-false-type questions are also given here.

How do I download Logical Reasoning questions in PDF format?

You can download Logical Reasoning quiz questions and answers as PDF files or eBooks.

How do I solve Logical Reasoning quiz problems?

You can easily solve all kinds of quiz questions based on Logical Reasoning by practising the given exercises, including shortcuts and tricks.

• Number Series
• Letter and Symbol Series
• Verbal Classification
• Essential Part
• Artificial Language
• Matching Definitions
• Making Judgments
• Verbal Reasoning
• Logical Problems
• Logical Games
• Analyzing Arguments
• Statement and Assumption
• Course of Action
• Statement and Conclusion
• Theme Detection
• Cause and Effect
• Statement and Argument
• Logical Deduction

Current Affairs

Interview questions, group discussions.

• Data Interpretation
• Verbal Ability
• Verbal Test
• Python Programming
• C Programming
• C++ ,   C#
• Technical Interview
• Placement Papers
• Submit Paper

Problem Solving test

Summary of the problem solving test.

This Problem Solving test evaluates candidates’ ability to define problems and analyze data/textual information to make correct decisions . Our test helps you identify candidates with the analytical skills to assess and respond to complex business situations quickly and accurately.

Covered skills

Creating and adjusting schedules

Interpreting data and applying logic to make decisions

Prioritizing tasks and applying order based on a given set of rules

Analyzing textual and numerical information to draw conclusions

Use the Problem Solving test to hire

Any role that involves managing constantly shifting variables with tight deadlines, including administrative assistants, project managers, customer service managers, web developers, and people working in hospitality or sales.

Sign up for a Free forever plan and use this Problem Solving assessment test for free!

About the Problem Solving test

Effective problem-solving involves the ability to:

Define complex problems

Break it down into manageable parts using verbal and numerical reasoning skills

Develop approaches to solve the (sub)problem using creativity and analytical thinking

Execute flawlessly

Problem-solving abilities are difficult to assess through resume screening alone. A candidate might say they’ve solved several problems in the past, but that doesn’t show their ability to work well under pressure or tell you how sophisticated their problem-solving abilities are.

That’s why our Problem Solving test enables candidates to show off their skills in real time. This problem resolution test presents candidates with typical problem-solving scenarios like 1) scheduling based on a diverse set of conditions, 2) identifying the right sequence of actions based on several business rules, and 3) drawing conclusions based on textual and numerical information

Check out our practice preview questions to see the Problem Solving test in action.

A successful problem solver can quickly identify the key elements of the problem and work through the problem at speed without making mistakes. This multiple-choice test is also useful to check candidates' overall analytical skills.

The test is made by a subject-matter expert

The global IT industry has benefited from Anirban’s talents for over two decades. With a flawless reputation that precedes him, Anirban has earned a status as a sought-after agile project manager and consultant. He’s worked internationally as a Senior Project Manager with companies such as Ericsson, IBM, and T-Mobile.

Anirban’s love for learning helps him keep his skills sharp. He holds an MBA and a degree in engineering, is a certified Scrum Master, and has certifications in Prince2 and ITIL.

Crafted with expert knowledge

TestGorilla’s tests are created by subject matter experts. We assess potential subject-matter experts based on their knowledge, ability, and reputation. Before being published, each test is peer-reviewed by another expert, then calibrated using hundreds of test takers with relevant experience in the subject.

Our feedback mechanisms and unique algorithms allow our subject-matter experts to constantly improve their tests.

What our customers are saying

TestGorilla helps me to assess engineers rapidly. Creating assessments for different positions is easy due to pre-existing templates. You can create an assessment in less than 2 minutes. The interface is intuitive and it’s easy to visualize results per assessment.

VP of engineering, mid-market (51-1000 FTE)

Any tool can have functions—bells and whistles. Not every tool comes armed with staff passionate about making the user experience positive.

The TestGorilla team only offers useful insights to user challenges, they engage in conversation.

For instance, I recently asked a question about a Python test I intended to implement. Instead of receiving “oh, that test would work perfectly for your solution,” or, “at this time we’re thinking about implementing a solution that may or may not…” I received a direct and straightforward answer with additional thoughts to help shape the solution.

I hope that TestGorilla realizes the value proposition in their work is not only the platform but the type of support that’s provided.

For a bit of context—I am a diversity recruiter trying to create a platform that removes bias from the hiring process and encourages the discovery of new and unseen talent.

Chief Talent Connector, small business (50 or fewer FTE)

Use TestGorilla to hire the best faster, easier and bias-free

Our screening tests identify the best candidates and make your hiring decisions faster, easier, and bias-free.

Learn how each candidate performs on the job using our library of 400+ scientifically validated tests.

Test candidates for job-specific skills like coding or digital marketing, as well as general skills like critical thinking. Our unique personality and culture tests allow you to get to know your applicants as real people – not just pieces of paper.

Give all applicants an equal, unbiased opportunity to showcase their skills with our data-driven and performance-based ranking system.

With TestGorilla, you’ll get the best talent from all walks of life, allowing for a stronger, more diverse workplace.

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Add your company logo, color theme, and more to leave a lasting impression that candidates will appreciate.

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Create high-quality assessments, fast.

Building assessments is a breeze with TestGorilla. Get started with these simple steps.

Building assessments is quick and easy with TestGorilla. Just pick a name, select the tests you need, then add your own custom questions.

You can customize your assessments further by adding your company logo, color theme, and more. Build the assessment that works for you.

Send email invites directly from TestGorilla, straight from your ATS, or connect with candidates by sharing a direct link.

Have a long list of candidates? Easily send multiple invites with a single click. You can also customize your email invites.

Discover your strongest candidates with TestGorilla’s easy-to-read output reports, rankings, and analytics.

Easily switch from a comprehensive overview to a detailed analysis of your candidates. Then, go beyond the data by watching personalized candidate videos.

View a sample report

The Problem Solving test will be included in a PDF report along with the other tests from your assessment. You can easily download and share this report with colleagues and candidates.

Why are problem solving skills important to employers?

Employers should use problem solving skills assessment tests because nearly every role benefits from staff with positive, troubleshooting mindsets.

Problem solving skills in the workplace mean that employees can respond quickly to challenges, creating processes that mitigate or remove obstacles that prevent the company from achieving its goals.

These challenges can be anything, for example: 

Delays in your supply chain

Conflict between team members

Technological problems

Problem solving skills are especially important in roles such as project management, administrative assistance, and planning work with ever-changing circumstances and tight deadlines.

By asking candidates to pass a problem solving test online during the recruitment process, you ensure that all your recruits have what it takes to troubleshoot problems, improve your productivity, and increase your chances of innovation.

 A problem solving skills test also ensures that you do this with minimal bias, using an objective numerical measure to establish the required skill set and build a shortlist.

You should also explore candidates’ approaches to creative problem solving in more depth with problem solving questions in the interview stage.

Key problem solving abilities to measure with a problem solving test

A strong problem resolution test evaluates candidates’ ability to define problems and analyze data and textual information to make decisions that best serve the business. 

Some of the considerations for problem-solving test questions include:

Creating and adjusting schedules: Candidates should use a problem-solving process to understand what they can realistically achieve within time and how to adjust schedules to account for variable outcomes.

Interpreting data and applying logic to make decisions: Job seekers should have an aptitude for aligning data with business goals and making actionable decisions.

Prioritizing and applying order based on a given set of rules: Applicants can determine which project tasks take priority by using prioritization rules and supporting information.

Analyzing textual and numerical information to draw conclusions: Examining textual and numerical information to reveal patterns, relationships, and trends can help candidates draw accurate conclusions and pick the best choice from a selection of alternative solutions.

What job roles can you hire with our Problem Solving test?

You can – and should – use an ability test of problem solving skills when screening for most roles to reduce time-to-hire, even when hiring globally like Nexus HR.

However, it is especially important when hiring for positions where effective problem-solving is needed – for example, managerial roles, project-focused roles, and jobs where employees frequently work under time limits.

Here are some examples of roles you should use a problem solving assessment for:

Administrative assistants: Employees who can think on their feet can swiftly resolve logistical challenges, manage schedules, and facilitate seamless communication.

Project managers : Problem solving skills are essential to keep projects on track and ensure deadlines are met, even when unexpected changes occur.

Customer service managers: Customer service reps must make prompt decisions to respond to customer queries and solve their issues quickly.

Web developers : Great programmers have the competency to spot problems in their code and identify possible solutions.

Venture capitalists: Venture capitalists must be able to think critically and spot both opportunities and risks in potential investments – problem solving skills are key here.

Hospitality staff : Hotel and restaurant workers thrive when they can identify and effectively respond to customer issues, turning negatives into positive experiences.

Salespeople: Sales professionals benefit from the ability to transform client challenges and objections into opportunities for problem-solving, which often leads to upsells and cross-sells.

Create a multi-measure assessment: 4 tests to pair with the Problem Solving test

Of course, a problem solving test alone can’t tell you if a candidate has all the right skills for the role. Instead, include a problem solving skills test as part of a multi-measure psychometric assessment alongside up to four other essential skills tests to find the best candidates.

Here’s an example of four tests you might include to make a strong multi-measure assessment:

Communication test : Ensure your candidates maintain clear communication with teammates and direct reports, which is essential when discussing problems, brainstorming solutions, and implementing the chosen strategy

Time Management test : Dig deeper into jobseekers’ abilities to respond to time-pressured tasks and manage deadlines

Critical Thinking test : Identify prospects with the cognitive ability and logical reasoning to solve nuanced problems, stay objective, and balance complexities in their decision-making process

Big Five (OCEAN) Personality test : Get insight into what kind of worker a candidate is through five key metrics: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability.

Note: We haven’t included any role-specific skills tests here because they depend on the position you’re hiring for. However, we highly recommend you add at least one in your five-test assessment to ensure your candidates possess the right skills for the job.

An assessment is the total package of tests and custom questions that you put together to evaluate your candidates. Each individual test within an assessment is designed to test something specific, such as a job skill or language. An assessment can consist of up to 5 tests and 20 custom questions. You can have candidates respond to your custom questions in several ways, such as with a personalized video.

Yes! Custom questions are great for testing candidates in your own unique way. We support the following question types: video, multiple-choice, coding, file upload, and essay. Besides adding your own custom questions, you can also create your own tests.

A video question is a specific type of custom question you can add to your assessment. Video questions let you create a question and have your candidates use their webcam to record a video response. This is an excellent way to see how a candidate would conduct themselves in a live interview, and is especially useful for sales and hospitality roles. Some good examples of things to ask for video questions would be "Why do you want to work for our company?" or "Try to sell me an item you have on your desk right now."

Besides video questions, you can also add the following types of custom questions: multiple-choice, coding, file upload, and essay. Multiple-choice lets your candidates choose from a list of answers that you provide, coding lets you create a coding problem for them to solve, file upload allows your candidates to upload a file that you request (such as a resume or portfolio), and essay allows an open-ended text response to your question. You can learn more about different custom question types here .

Yes! You can add your own logo and company color theme to your assessments. This is a great way to leave a positive and lasting brand impression on your candidates.

Our team is always here to help. After you sign up, we’ll reach out to guide you through the first steps of setting up your TestGorilla account. If you have any further questions, you can contact our support team via email, chat or call. We also offer detailed guides in our extensive help center .

It depends! We offer five free tests, or unlimited access to our library of 400+ tests with the price based on your company size. Find more information on our pricing plans here , calculate the cost-benefit of using TestGorilla assessments, or speak to one of our sales team for your personalized demo and learn how we can help you revolutionize hiring today.

Yes. You can add up to five tests to each assessment.

We recommend using our assessment software as a pre-screening tool at the beginning of your recruitment process. You can add a link to the assessment in your job post or directly invite candidates by email.

TestGorilla replaces traditional resume screening with a much more reliable and efficient process, designed to find the most skilled candidates earlier and faster.

We offer the following cognitive ability tests : Numerical Reasoning, Problem Solving, Attention to Detail, Reading Comprehension, and Critical Thinking.

Our cognitive ability tests allow you to test for skills that are difficult to evaluate in an interview. Check out our blog on why these tests are so useful and how to choose the best one for your assessment.

Related tests

Attention to detail (textual), verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, critical thinking, computational thinking, basic math calculations, mechanical reasoning, understanding instructions, attention to detail (visual), intermediate math.

What Is an Analytical Reasoning Test?

What are analytical reasoning tests used for, analytical reasoning test practice questions (2024), tips for preparing for an analytical reasoning test in 2024, frequently asked questions, analytical reasoning tests (2024 guide).

Updated June 12, 2023

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Analytical reasoning tests assess a candidate’s ability to study information and apply logic to find patterns or make inferences.

At work, people use analysis to scrutinise speech, documents, diagrams, charts and graphs, and gather the most relevant information. Those with strong analytical skills will consider how key elements within that information relate to one another, and are more likely to notice crucial patterns and details.

Analytical reasoning tests measure a candidate’s critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

Data may be presented in the form of written passages, graphs, tables or shapes.

Where questions are based on a series of images , they have much in common with inductive reasoning and non-verbal reasoning tests.

Written analytical reasoning questions assess many of the same skills as verbal reasoning tests .

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Recruiters use analytical reasoning tests to evaluate inductive and deductive skills in potential employees.

Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a logical conclusion based on one or more given statements, or premises.

Inductive reasoning involves taking specific information and making predictions based on that.

Candidates do not need any specialist knowledge for analytical reasoning tests, but they must be able to think logically and pay close attention to detail. Those who demonstrate strong analytical reasoning skills are generally highly intelligent, quick to learn and more likely to improve over time in a role.

Non-verbal reasoning tests can also be helpful in assessing international candidates, or applicants who do not have English as their first language.

Candidates applying for mid- to higher-level positions may be asked to take an analytical reasoning test as part of the selection process. Analytical skills are particularly important for jobs that involve maths and numerical reasoning.

They also extend into roles where decision-making and problem-solving are key. So companies may use these tests when recruiting for positions such as computer software engineers, financial analysts, human resources managers and office managers.

Many law firms also assess analytical reasoning skills as part of their recruitment process. And analytical reasoning tests may form part of a leadership assessment process, such as a graduate recruitment scheme.

Analytical reasoning tests use both verbal and non-verbal questions.

In inductive reasoning tests , questions usually involve a series of diagrams or pictures. The candidate must find the pattern, rule or link between each item. They can then use this knowledge to decide what comes next in the sequence.

Deductive reasoning tests are typically verbal. The candidate must read a statement, or series of statements, and then choose the logically correct answer.

Examples of both are given below, with answers and explanations.

Question 1: Which Box Is Next in the Sequence?

This is an example of a question where things move around. There are many variations on this theme.

At its most basic level, elements will move around inside a box and the candidate must understand why they are moving in a particular order. By understanding this they will be able to correctly select the image that comes next.

Which box is next in the sequence?

If you need to prepare for a number of different employment tests and want to outsmart the competition, choose a Premium Membership from JobTestPrep . You will get access to three PrepPacks of your choice, from a database that covers all the major test providers and employers and tailored profession packs.

Question 2: Which Box Is Next in the Sequence?

Candidates may also be asked to find the relationship between a set of items. There are a number of ways that elements can have relationships with one another, for example:

• Where they are in relation to each other
• The number of sides that different shapes have in relation to each other
• Numbers that incrementally increase or decrease

To solve these types of questions you need to identify the rule that governs the relationship and then apply it, as in the following example:

In this sort of question, remember also to look for relationships between odd and even numbers.

Question 3: What Most Weakens the Argument?

The following question is an example of deductive reasoning . Here the candidate must read the passage and then come to a logically correct conclusion.

This question involves identifying an assumption . An assumption is a belief that is not explicitly stated within the text but must exist to link the argument’s evidence and conclusion. To successfully answer these types of question you must find that missing link between the evidence and conclusion and then fill it.

"If all beaches were publicly owned, we would have to rely on government funds to maintain them. It is true that more people would have access to the ocean and beaches, but at what cost? If the beaches are not cared for adequately, soon there will be nothing left worth having access to. We should consider carefully before nationalising more coastal property."

Which of the following, if true , would most weaken the argument above?

A – The public does not want additional access to beaches. B – The government is currently responsible for the maintenance of all public and private beaches. C – The public already has some access to many beaches. D – Other property has been nationalised in the past, with no complaints from the original owners of the property. E – Some privately owned beaches are not well maintained.

Analytical reasoning tests can be daunting, even for confident problem solvers. You may not have come across these types of questions before, so it is essential to take plenty of time to prepare properly. This will prevent you from panicking and ensure that you gain the highest score possible.

The following tips and techniques will help you to begin the test ready to perform your best:

Know what to expect . Employers and test publishers may use terms such as inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, verbal reasoning or non-verbal reasoning when referring to their tests. It is worth contacting the employer or company assessing you to ask more about the test you will be sitting. Most will be helpful in clarifying the nature of the test. They might provide a few example questions too.

Practise. And then practise some more . The more tests you do, the more familiar you will become with the types of questions that may come up, and the more confident you will feel. You will also begin to develop your own strategies for solving questions. Identify which types of question you find the hardest and then focus on finding the best ways to tackle them. JobTestPrep is a useful resource for sample tests and answers.

Manage your time . It is likely that you will be under pressure to complete all the questions within an allocated time. Work out how long you have to answer each question and then stick to your schedule. Don’t waste time labouring over a question that is proving particularly difficult. Move on, and then come back to any questions you have skipped over at the end if have time to spare.

What are the main topics of analytical reasoning tests?

Analytical reasoning tests can be broken down into four key areas: inductive and deductive reasoning and verbal and non-verbal reasoning.

The purpose of the test questions is to enable employers to understand how candidates assess and interpret information.

What are the best books to prepare for analytical reasoning tests?

Many different textbooks allow you to prepare for an analytical reasoning test .

You may need to focus your study on books that specialize in the type of test you are taking.

Some books will focus on the theory behind analytical reasoning tests; others will come complete with practice test questions.

When choosing a book to purchase as a study aid, try to read some reviews to decipher if it’s the right book for you.

Top choices based upon reader feedback from Amazon include:

The Fallacy Detective: Thirty-Eight Lessons on How to Recognize Bad Reasoning (written by Nathaniel Bluedorn & Hans Bluedorn)

Powerscore LSAT Logical Reasoning Bible by David M Killoran

Which organizations and institutions use analytical reasoning tests?

Analytical reasoning tests are highly regarded by civil service, private sector employers and educational institutions because they are recognized as beneficial and insightful assessments.

These tests are commonly used for jobs including computer software professionals, financial analysts and human resources.

That is because these jobs rely on critical thinking and analytical reasoning skills.

How many questions are asked on analytical reasoning tests?

This will depend on the type of analytical reasoning test that you are being asked to take. Typically, most tests will be timed, and you can expect to have at least one minute to answer each question.

If you are taking the LSAT exam, you can expect to be asked 22-24 multiple-choice questions.

What is a good resource to use for testing and improving my logical problem-solving skills for analytical reasoning tests?

There are a few ways to prepare for an analytical reasoning test . You can buy study books from all good bookstores, but you can also make the most of practice tests online.

The advantage of free online test sites is that you can put yourself into a hypothetical testing scenario and see how you are likely to react under test conditions.

It can also help you learn how to time your test to feel confident that you have enough time to answer all of the questions.

What are the best sites to get prepared for analytical reasoning tests?

Several websites offer comprehensive resources that allow you to practice analytical reasoning tests .

One of the most well-known is JobTestPrep , a site that offers exceptional study guides, answer explanations, and practice drills to help you prepare for your analytical reasoning assessment.

As a paid-for resource, this allows you to sign up for one week, one month, or three-month subscriptions, offering value for money.

Other notable sites that offer excellent free study aids and free practice tests online include practiceapptitudetests.com and practice4me.co.uk.

What is the difference between logical, analytical, non-verbal and verbal reasoning?

Logical reasoning is a series of questions that ask the participant to answer through a logical process. To conclude, you need to take a step-by-step approach to the information provided.

In contrast, analytical reasoning is about thinking critically about information presented to you and paying close attention to detail to form a conclusion.

For example, you may be asked to spot a pattern or identify the answer based on the available information.

Non-verbal reasoning is about understanding how to analyze and interpret information based upon visual aids.

For example, this could be through shapes, diagrams or patterns. Non-verbal reasoning is important for employers to understand that you can solve problems without being limited by language barriers.

Verbal reasoning is about problem-solving using words, language, and grammar. Questions are often based on spotting word problems using a true/false premise, solving patterns, and identifying how the context of a sentence can change based upon the grammar used.

What are some examples of analytical questions?

Here is an example of a typical verbal reasoning question :

Statement: 'Many employers benefit from seasonal workforces. They like to hire students and graduates in the summer months, allowing permanent employees to take a vacation. Seasonal work is beneficial to employers because they can take advantage of qualified workforces who are close to finishing their education and have yet to secure permanent employment. Some employers provide additional training and development for their seasonal staff to encourage them to join as full-time employees after graduation. A financial incentive for employers is paying seasonal staff lower wages because they are on fixed-term contracts that may not be eligible for employee benefits.'

Q: Staff who take vacation leave can have their work covered by students.

A: True / False / Cannot say

Can I fail an analytical reasoning test?

This will depend on the type of test that you are taking. Often, there are no specific pass/fail gradings, but you will be given two distinct scores. One score will be your exact test results which will detail how many questions you got right or wrong. The other score is your percentile score. This is a comparison of your results against other test-takers.

Employers need to review your percentile score because it allows them to put your score into context. Let’s imagine that you scored 70% on your test. You may be happy with this raw score, as it indicates a high level of success. But if the rest of the test takers were scoring 90% on the test, your results suddenly don’t look as good.

In contrast, perhaps you’ve scored 80% on a test, and the rest of the test takers have scored an average of 65% – in this scenario, you would be viewed in high regard by the employer as they’ve seen your results in context.

Why do employers use Analytical Reasoning Tests?

Employers use Analytical Reasoning Tests for several reasons:

• Assessing problem-solving skills
• Predicting job performance
• Objective evaluation
• Efficient screening process
• Identifying potential leaders
• Enhancing diversity and inclusion

Overall, employers use Analytical Reasoning Tests to assess candidates' problem-solving skills, predict job performance, streamline the screening process, identify potential leaders and foster diversity and inclusion in their hiring practices.

How do analytical reasoning tests work?

Analytical reasoning tests, also known as logical reasoning tests or deductive reasoning tests, assess an individual's ability to analyze information, recognize patterns, draw logical conclusions and solve complex problems.

These tests are often used to evaluate a person's critical thinking skills and their capacity to make sound decisions based on logical reasoning.

You might also be interested in these other Wikijob articles:

Or explore the Aptitude Tests / Test Types sections.

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Abstract Reasoning Test Questions & Answers

Free abstract reasoning test questions and answers.

Welcome to our free abstract reasoning test practice questions.

Here are a few abstract reasoning test questions to practice to give you an understanding of what real abstract reasoning tests will be like. By regularly engaging with practice questions and thoroughly understanding the reasoning behind each answer, you can gradually strengthen your skills and confidence in tackling similar challenges. Remember that proficiency in these tests is developed over time through dedicated effort and persistence. As you continue to practice and learn from the explanations provided, you’ll not only improve your performance but also build a solid foundation of problem-solving strategies that can benefit you in various assessment scenarios.

Q1) Which shape comes next in the sequence?

A, B, C, D, E

The black and white dots are alternating between 5 and 7 in number. In the last picture there are 5 white dots and 7 black ones, meaning the following image should contain 7 white dots and 5 black ones.

Correct Answer; E

Q2) Complete the sequence.

Each tile contains 2 overlapping shapes, 1 larger than the other. As the 2 shapes overlap a new, smaller shape if created inside the first large shape. The large shape in the following tile corresponds directly with this new shape that was created. When the shapes overlap the largest bisection is always within the biggest shape.

Correct Answer; B

Q3) Complete the sequence.

The first two rules are relatively easy to work out. The shape in the centre alternates between orange and white and the navy dot is moving around the tile corners in a clockwise direction. The real challenge is spotting that the big black square is moving around the sides and corners of the tile in alternating directions, first anti-clockwise, then clock-wise. It also increases how many spaces it moves in increments of one. First it moves anti-clockwise one position, next it moves 2 spaces clockwise, then 3 anti-clockwise and so on.

Correct Answer; C

Q4) Which is the odd string of letters out?

Each string of letters contains S, F, G, H and J appearing in a loop. It is easier to imagine if you can see multiple loops appearing consecutively: S-F-G-H-J-S-F-G-H-J-S-F-G-H-J A, B, C and D strings all include letters in the right order to fit in the same loop. For example, F always follows S and precedes G however in the last string (E) The letters are out of order.

Q5) Complete the sequence.

There are 4 rules consistent in this sequence. First, the number of dots appearing in the centre is decreasing by one, as is the number of sides appearing on the black shape. The triangle is being flipped sideways and then back again and finally the square in the corner remains the same.

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Reasoning Mock Test: Logical, Verbal & Non-Verbal | Practice Free Online Reasoning Mock Tests for Exams - 2024

Reasoning mock tests sep, 2024.

We have created Reasoning ( Logical , Verbal & Non-Verbal ) mock test series that you can practice online for free. Take following reasoning mock tests to check your analytical and logical reasoning skills:

• Logical Reasoning Mock Test
• Verbal Reasoning Mock Test
• Non-Verbal Reasoning Mock Test

Benefits of Practising Time-Bound Reasoning Mock Tests

Solving online mock tests on reasoning topics will make you ready for the exam format. Reasoning Mock tests provides an idea on solving difficult problems in the exam. It is therefore advised to solve time-bound reasoning mock tests to boost your performance in competitive exam.

(1) Logical Reasoning Mock Tests Sep, 2024

(2) Verbal Reasoning Mock Tests Sep, 2024

(3) Non-Verbal Reasoning Mock Tests Sep, 2024

Competitive Exam-wise Reasoning Mock Tests Sep, 2024

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Cognitive Ability Test Guide: Take Free Practice Tests Online

What is the cognitive ability test.

Cognitive tests measure a candidate’s thinking abilities, including, reasoning, perception, memory, problem-solving skills, and verbal reasoning. They are usually used by potential employers to assess an applicant’s thinking abilities.

The questions featured in these tests tend to include verbal analogies, arithmetic calculations, spatial relations number series puzzles, comprehension, and reading comprehension. Cognitive ability tests are notoriously tricky, as they often come with harsh time-limits and specific question types. Yet, rest assured, through practice it is possible to familiarize yourself with the types of questions featured on these tests and to improve your speed.

Here’s our 3-step easy to follow formula to ace any cognitive ability test:

• Read this short guide to learn everything related to cognitive ability tests.
• Take our online practice tests to assess your knowledge.
• Take our Rapid Cognitive Ability Course Online to increase your score.

Take the Free Cognitive Ability Practice Test

Quick facts on cognitive ability tests.

• Cognitive Ability tests mainly have multiple-choice format.
• Cognitive tests usually consist of verbal, numerical, abstract and logical tests.
• Questions from many topics will be included in the test, for example verbal, logical, etc.
• A single question may not be about one single topic.
• There are typically many questions that need to be answered in a very short time.
• Applicants are not required to complete these exams in their entirety.
• The content of the tests is generally not hard, however, the time constraints and the changing between subjects makes the tests difficult.

That’s why Prepterminal’s Cognitive Ability Test Prep Course is designed to get you top results in no time. With the course, you’ll benefit from learning the following: time management, a detailed strategy, question preparation and tips on approaching the test with confidence.

What topics are included in Cognitive Ability Tests?

In this part, you’ll learn about what topics are included in most of the cognitive ability tests.

Numerical Reasoning

• Basic Numeracy: Undertaker basic math – 4 operations (subtraction, addition, division, multiplication), averages, fractions, and ratios.
• Word problems: Study and solve mathematical questions given in text format.
• Number series: Discover and follow patterns in a specific list of numbers.

Verbal Reasoning

• Vocabulary: Show your knowledge of the definitions and usages of various words.
• Analogies: Discover relationships between two words and apply this relationship to an additional word.

Abstract Reasoning

• Odd One Out: Choose which shape doesn’t fit in a specific set.
• Next in Series: Discover a progression pattern of shapes and find out which shape is next.
• Matrices: Similar to ‘next in series’, but rather in a two-dimensional matrix format.
• Analogies: Discover the relationship between a certain pair of shapes and apply this knowledge to another shape.

Logical Reasoning

• Syllogisms: Come up with a conclusion from a certain number of premises.
• Deduction and Conclusions: ‘Syllogisms’ in reverse – use the necessary information to form a certain conclusion.
• Seating Arrangements: Discover the order of various elements in keeping with a given set of rules.

Sometimes test takers confuse Cognitive Ability tests with Cognitive Skills tests. Cognitive Ability tests mesure your general intelegence, your ability to learn and apply new skills. And Cognitive Skills tests are designed to find out if math and verbal career training programmes are necessary for entry-level roles. This exam will inform your future employer about where best to put you within the company structure.

Cognitive Ability Test Scores

Let’s take a look at cognitive ability test scores terminology:

1. Raw score

2. subscores, 3. percentile score, 4. stanine score.

5. Norm group

A norm group is a sample of pre-tested candidates who have a specific characteristic in common and whose scores were aggregated to develop a benchmark. Norm groups can be divided by industry, geography, profession and the like. An example of a norm group could be the population of employed managers.

Is there a cut-off score for all cognitive ability tests? In short, no. Firstly, all test providers have unique score distributions. Thus, when you are looking to find a cut-off score for your own test, ensure that you are examining the data that relates to your own assessment.

Secondly, a cut-off score or target score varies according to the employer’s recruiting decisions and thus the job position you are applying for.

6. Negative scoring

Most cognitive ability tests do not take off points for incorrect answers or blank answers. It is thus better to take an educated guess, than to leave a question blank.

Make sure you get a top score on your cognitive ability test. Maximize your test score PrepTerminal’s cognitive ability prep course today!

Rapid Cognitive Ability Course

• Word Problems – Video Guide
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• 2 BONUS Interview Prep Video Guide Buy this Course: Get full access to all lessons, practice tests and guides.
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Most Popular Cognitive Ability Tests Employers Usually Use

There are several Cognitive Ability Tests, that employers might require to pass. Here we have collected the most popular Cognitive Ability Tests. Take a look at our separate guides to be aware of each test in detail:

• The Wonderlic Test
• Criteria Cognitive Aptitude Test (CCAT)
• Cubiks Logic

Frequently Asked Questions

Can i bring and use a calculator.

While some exams let you use a calculator for numerical questions, the majority of cognitive ability tests don’t.

Bear this in mind when you practice, and try to do the calculations in your head.

Should I just guess if I don’t know an answer?

Skipping a question depends on the manner in which the exam is scored. It depends if points are taken off for incorrect answers.

If they are deducted – you shouldn’t guess, and just skip the question. If they aren’t – you should take a guess and then move on to the subsequent question.

Can I go back and answer a question that I missed?

This changes from test to test. Make sure you read the instructions well on your test day. The instructions will tell you if you can go back and answer a question you skipped.

If you read that you can’t go back then you need to address each question as they are presented.

If you are allowed to go back, you can choose, for example, to answer all the questions you know best first, and only then go back and answer the questions you are not sure about.

Will I have enough time to answer all the exam questions?

Most people don’t complete the entire test in the given amount of time. This is primarily due to the fact that typically there are a lot of questions that need to be answered in a short time frame.

It is very rare for applicants to not only answer all of the questions, but also to answer them accurately. Make sure you focus on quality and not quantity.

Created by: Matthew Appleyard

Psychometric tutor, prepterminal test expert, 1826 students, 4.6 , 268 reviews.

I’m Matthew Appleyard, Prepterminal’s Cognitive Ability Expert. Any questions about the course? Let me know at [email protected]

Scientific Inquiry & Reasoning Skills - Skill 2: Scientific Reasoning and Problem-solving

New section.

• What's on the MCAT Exam? Home
• Download Exam Content (PDF)

Questions that test scientific reasoning and problem-solving skills differ from questions in the previous category by asking you to use your scientific knowledge to solve problems in the natural, behavioral, and social sciences.

As you work on questions that test this skill, you may be asked to use scientific theories to explain observations or make predictions about natural or social phenomena. Questions may ask you to judge the credibility of scientific explanations or to evaluate arguments about cause and effect. Or they may ask you to use scientific models and observations to draw conclusions. They may ask you to identify scientific findings that call a theory or model into question. Questions in this category may ask you to look at pictures or diagrams and draw conclusions from them. Or they may ask you to determine and then use scientific formulas to solve problems.

For example, you will be asked to show you can use scientific principles to solve problems by:

• Reasoning about scientific principles, theories, and models to make predictions or determine consequences.
• Analyzing and evaluating the validity or credibility of scientific explanations and predictions.
• Evaluating arguments about causes and consequences to determine the most valid argument when using scientific knowledge.
• Bringing together theory, observations, and evidence to draw conclusions.
• Recognizing or identifying scientific findings from a given study that challenge or invalidate a scientific theory or model.
• Determining and using scientific formulas to solve problems.
• Identifying the bond that would form between two structures if they were adjacent to each other.

By way of illustration, questions from the Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior section may ask you demonstrate this skill by:

Using the main premises of symbolic interactionism, use reasoning in an observational study of physician-patient interactions to describe how the premises are connected to perceived patient compliance.

Predicting how an individual will react to cognitive dissonance.

Using reasoning to determine whether a causal explanation is possible when given an example of how someone’s gender or personality predicts his or her behavior.

Explaining how an example, such as when an anorexic teenager restricts eating to satisfy esteem needs, is compatible with the premises of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Drawing a conclusion about which sociological theory would be most consistent with a conceptual diagram that explains how social and environmental factors influence health and why this theory is most consistent.

Identifying the relationship between social institutions that is suggested by an illustration used in a public health campaign.

Recognizing a demographic trend that is represented in a population pyramid.

For more context, let’s consider three Skill 2 questions linked to different foundational concepts in the Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior section; the Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems section; and the Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems section.

Skill 2 Example From the Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior Section

Which statement describes what the concept of cultural capital predicts?

Cultural distinctions associated with the young will be more valued within a society.

With improved communication, there will eventually be a convergence of cultural practices of all classes.

Cultural distinctions by class will become less important during a recession because people will have less money to spend.

Cultural distinctions associated with elite classes will be more valued within a society.      

The correct answer is D. It is a Skill 2 question and assesses knowledge of Content Category 10A, Social inequality . It is a Skill 2 question because it requires you to make a prediction based on a particular concept. This question requires you to understand the concept of cultural capital in order to evaluate which prediction about social stratification would be most consistent with the concept.

Skill 2 Example From the Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems Section

Starting with the translation initiation codon, how many amino acids for this polypeptide does the sequence shown encode?

5'-CUGCCAAUGUGCUAAUCGCGGGGG-3'

The correct answer is A. This is a Skill 2 question, and you must use knowledge from Content Category 1B, Transmission of genetic information from the gene to the protein , to solve this problem. In addition to recalling the sequence for the start codon, this is a Skill 2 question because it requires you to apply the scientific principle of the genetic code to the provided RNA sequence. As a Skill 2 question, reasoning about the role of the stop codon in translation will allow you to arrive at the conclusion that this sequence codes for a polypeptide with two amino acids.

Skill 2 Example From the Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems Section

The radius of the aorta is about 1.0 cm, and blood passes through it at a velocity of 30 cm/s. A typical capillary has a radius of about 4 × 10 –4 cm, with blood passing through at a velocity of 5 × 10 –2 cm/s. Using these data, what is the approximate number of capillaries in a human body?

The correct answer is C. This Skill 2 question relates to Content Category 4B, Importance of fluids for the circulation of blood, gas movement, and gas exchange. This question asks you to use a mathematical model to make predictions about natural phenomena . To answer this question, you must be able to recognize the principles of flow characteristics of blood in the human body and apply the appropriate mathematical model to an unfamiliar scenario. Answering this question first requires recognition that the volume of blood flowing through the aorta is the same volume of blood flowing through the capillaries. It is a Skill 2 question because you then need to use reasoning skills to find the difference in the volumes that the aorta and capillaries can each carry in order to calculate the total number of capillaries.

Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems Section

• Foundational Concept 1
• Foundational Concept 2
• Foundational Concept 3

Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems Section

• Foundational Concept 4
• Foundational Concept 5

Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior Section

• Foundational Concept 6
• Foundational Concept 7
• Foundational Concept 8
• Foundational Concept 9
• Foundational Concept 10

Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Section

• Skill 1: Foundations of Comprehension
• Skill 2: Reasoning Within the Text
• Skill 3: Reasoning Beyond the Text
• Passage Types

Scientific Inquiry & Reasoning Skills

• Skill 1: Knowledge of Scientific Principles
• Skill 2: Scientific Reasoning and Problem-solving
• Skill 3: Reasoning about the Design and Execution of Research
• Skill 4: Data-based Statistical Reasoning
• General Mathematical Concepts and Techniques