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Essay test: types, advantages and limitations | statistics.

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After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Introduction to Essay Test 2. Types of Essay Test 3. Advantages 4. Limitations 5. Suggestions.

Introduction to Essay Test:

The essay tests are still commonly used tools of evaluation, despite the increasingly wider applicability of the short answer and objective type questions.

There are certain outcomes of learning (e.g., organising, summarising, integrating ideas and expressing in one’s own way) which cannot be satisfactorily measured through objective type tests. The importance of essay tests lies in the measurement of such instructional outcomes.

An essay test may give full freedom to the students to write any number of pages. The required response may vary in length. An essay type question requires the pupil to plan his own answer and to explain it in his own words. The pupil exercises considerable freedom to select, organise and present his ideas. Essay type tests provide a better indication of pupil’s real achievement in learning. The answers provide a clue to nature and quality of the pupil’s thought process.

That is, we can assess how the pupil presents his ideas (whether his manner of presentation is coherent, logical and systematic) and how he concludes. In other words, the answer of the pupil reveals the structure, dynamics and functioning of pupil’s mental life.

The essay questions are generally thought to be the traditional type of questions which demand lengthy answers. They are not amenable to objective scoring as they give scope for halo-effect, inter-examiner variability and intra-examiner variability in scoring.

Types of Essay Test:

There can be many types of essay tests:

Some of these are given below with examples from different subjects:

1. Selective Recall.

e.g. What was the religious policy of Akbar?

2. Evaluative Recall.

e.g. Why did the First War of Independence in 1857 fail?

3. Comparison of two things—on a single designated basis.

e.g. Compare the contributions made by Dalton and Bohr to Atomic theory.

4. Comparison of two things—in general.

e.g. Compare Early Vedic Age with the Later Vedic Age.

5. Decision—for or against.

e.g. Which type of examination do you think is more reliable? Oral or Written. Why?

6. Causes or effects.

e.g. Discuss the effects of environmental pollution on our lives.

7. Explanation of the use or exact meaning of some phrase in a passage or a sentence.

e.g., Joint Stock Company is an artificial person. Explain ‘artificial person’ bringing out the concepts of Joint Stock Company.

8. Summary of some unit of the text or of some article.

9. Analysis

e.g. What was the role played by Mahatma Gandhi in India’s freedom struggle?

10. Statement of relationship.

e.g. Why is knowledge of Botany helpful in studying agriculture?

11. Illustration or examples (your own) of principles in science, language, etc.

e.g. Illustrate the correct use of subject-verb position in an interrogative sentence.

12. Classification.

e.g. Classify the following into Physical change and Chemical change with explanation. Water changes to vapour; Sulphuric Acid and Sodium Hydroxide react to produce Sodium Sulphate and Water; Rusting of Iron; Melting of Ice.

13. Application of rules or principles in given situations.

e.g. If you sat halfway between the middle and one end of a sea-saw, would a person sitting on the other end have to be heavier or lighter than you in order to make the sea-saw balance in the middle. Why?

14. Discussion.

e.g. Partnership is a relationship between persons who have agreed to share the profits of a business carried on by all or any of them acting for all. Discuss the essentials of partnership on the basis of this partnership.

15. Criticism—as to the adequacy, correctness, or relevance—of a printed statement or a classmate’s answer to a question on the lesson.

e.g. What is the wrong with the following statement?

The Prime Minister is the sovereign Head of State in India.

16. Outline.

e.g. Outline the steps required in computing the compound interest if the principal amount, rate of interest and time period are given as P, R and T respectively.

17. Reorganization of facts.

e.g. The student is asked to interview some persons and find out their opinion on the role of UN in world peace. In the light of data thus collected he/she can reorganise what is given in the text book.

18. Formulation of questions-problems and questions raised.

e.g. After reading a lesson the pupils are asked to raise related problems- questions.

19. New methods of procedure

e.g. Can you solve this mathematical problem by using another method?

Advantages of the Essay Tests:

1. It is relatively easier to prepare and administer a six-question extended- response essay test than to prepare and administer a comparable 60-item multiple-choice test items.

2. It is the only means that can assess an examinee’s ability to organise and present his ideas in a logical and coherent fashion.

3. It can be successfully employed for practically all the school subjects.

4. Some of the objectives such as ability to organise idea effectively, ability to criticise or justify a statement, ability to interpret, etc., can be best measured by this type of test.

5. Logical thinking and critical reasoning, systematic presentation, etc. can be best developed by this type of test.

6. It helps to induce good study habits such as making outlines and summaries, organising the arguments for and against, etc.

7. The students can show their initiative, the originality of their thought and the fertility of their imagination as they are permitted freedom of response.

8. The responses of the students need not be completely right or wrong. All degrees of comprehensiveness and accuracy are possible.

9. It largely eliminates guessing.

10. They are valuable in testing the functional knowledge and power of expression of the pupil.

Limitations of Essay Tests:

1. One of the serious limitations of the essay tests is that these tests do not give scope for larger sampling of the content. You cannot sample the course content so well with six lengthy essay questions as you can with 60 multiple-choice test items.

2. Such tests encourage selective reading and emphasise cramming.

3. Moreover, scoring may be affected by spelling, good handwriting, coloured ink, neatness, grammar, length of the answer, etc.

4. The long-answer type questions are less valid and less reliable, and as such they have little predictive value.

5. It requires an excessive time on the part of students to write; while assessing, reading essays is very time-consuming and laborious.

6. It can be assessed only by a teacher or competent professionals.

7. Improper and ambiguous wording handicaps both the students and valuers.

8. Mood of the examiner affects the scoring of answer scripts.

9. There is halo effect-biased judgement by previous impressions.

10. The scores may be affected by his personal bias or partiality for a particular point of view, his way of understanding the question, his weightage to different aspect of the answer, favouritism and nepotism, etc.

Thus, the potential disadvantages of essay type questions are :

(i) Poor predictive validity,

(ii) Limited content sampling,

(iii) Scores unreliability, and

(iv) Scoring constraints.

Suggestions for Improving Essay Tests:

The teacher can sometimes, through essay tests, gain improved insight into a student’s abilities, difficulties and ways of thinking and thus have a basis for guiding his/her learning.

(A) White Framing Questions:

1. Give adequate time and thought to the preparation of essay questions, so that they can be re-examined, revised and edited before they are used. This would increase the validity of the test.

2. The item should be so written that it will elicit the type of behaviour the teacher wants to measure. If one is interested in measuring understanding, he should not ask a question that will elicit an opinion; e.g.,

“What do you think of Buddhism in comparison to Jainism?”

3. Use words which themselves give directions e.g. define, illustrate, outline, select, classify, summarise, etc., instead of discuss, comment, explain, etc.

4. Give specific directions to students to elicit the desired response.

5. Indicate clearly the value of the question and the time suggested for answering it.

6. Do not provide optional questions in an essay test because—

(i) It is difficult to construct questions of equal difficulty;

(ii) Students do not have the ability to select those questions which they will answer best;

(iii) A good student may be penalised because he is challenged by the more difficult and complex questions.

7. Prepare and use a relatively large number of questions requiring short answers rather than just a few questions involving long answers.

8. Do not start essay questions with such words as list, who, what, whether. If we begin the questions with such words, they are likely to be short-answer question and not essay questions, as we have defined the term.

9. Adapt the length of the response and complexity of the question and answer to the maturity level of the students.

10. The wording of the questions should be clear and unambiguous.

11. It should be a power test rather than a speed test. Allow a liberal time limit so that the essay test does not become a test of speed in writing.

12. Supply the necessary training to the students in writing essay tests.

13. Questions should be graded from simple to complex so that all the testees can answer atleast a few questions.

14. Essay questions should provide value points and marking schemes.

(B) While Scoring Questions:

1. Prepare a marking scheme, suggesting the best possible answer and the weightage given to the various points of this model answer. Decide in advance which factors will be considered in evaluating an essay response.

2. While assessing the essay response, one must:

a. Use appropriate methods to minimise bias;

b. Pay attention only to the significant and relevant aspects of the answer;

c. Be careful not to let personal idiosyncrasies affect assessment;

d. Apply a uniform standard to all the papers.

3. The examinee’s identity should be concealed from the scorer. By this we can avoid the “halo effect” or “biasness” which may affect the scoring.

4. Check your marking scheme against actual responses.

5. Once the assessment has begun, the standard should not be changed, nor should it vary from paper to paper or reader to reader. Be consistent in your assessment.

6. Grade only one question at a time for all papers. This will help you in minimising the halo effect in becoming thoroughly familiar with just one set of scoring criteria and in concentrating completely on them.

7. The mechanics of expression (legibility, spelling, punctuation, grammar) should be judged separately from what the student writes, i.e. the subject matter content.

8. If possible, have two independent readings of the test and use the average as the final score.

Related Articles:

• Merits and Demerits of Objective Type Test
• Types of Recall Type Test: Simple and Completion | Objective Test

Educational Statistics , Evaluation Tools , Essay Test

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• Copy URL https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/fact-checking-warnings-from-democrats-about-project-2025-and-donald-trump

Fact-checking warnings from Democrats about Project 2025 and Donald Trump

This fact check originally appeared on PolitiFact .

Project 2025 has a starring role in this week’s Democratic National Convention.

And it was front and center on Night 1.

WATCH: Hauling large copy of Project 2025, Michigan state Sen. McMorrow speaks at 2024 DNC

“This is Project 2025,” Michigan state Sen. Mallory McMorrow, D-Royal Oak, said as she laid a hardbound copy of the 900-page document on the lectern. “Over the next four nights, you are going to hear a lot about what is in this 900-page document. Why? Because this is the Republican blueprint for a second Trump term.”

Vice President Kamala Harris, the Democratic presidential nominee, has warned Americans about “Trump’s Project 2025” agenda — even though former President Donald Trump doesn’t claim the conservative presidential transition document.

“Donald Trump wants to take our country backward,” Harris said July 23 in Milwaukee. “He and his extreme Project 2025 agenda will weaken the middle class. Like, we know we got to take this seriously, and can you believe they put that thing in writing?”

Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz, Harris’ running mate, has joined in on the talking point.

“Don’t believe (Trump) when he’s playing dumb about this Project 2025. He knows exactly what it’ll do,” Walz said Aug. 9 in Glendale, Arizona.

Trump’s campaign has worked to build distance from the project, which the Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank, led with contributions from dozens of conservative groups.

Much of the plan calls for extensive executive-branch overhauls and draws on both long-standing conservative principles, such as tax cuts, and more recent culture war issues. It lays out recommendations for disbanding the Commerce and Education departments, eliminating certain climate protections and consolidating more power to the president.

Project 2025 offers a sweeping vision for a Republican-led executive branch, and some of its policies mirror Trump’s 2024 agenda, But Harris and her presidential campaign have at times gone too far in describing what the project calls for and how closely the plans overlap with Trump’s campaign.

PolitiFact researched Harris’ warnings about how the plan would affect reproductive rights, federal entitlement programs and education, just as we did for President Joe Biden’s Project 2025 rhetoric. Here’s what the project does and doesn’t call for, and how it squares with Trump’s positions.

Are Trump and Project 2025 connected?

To distance himself from Project 2025 amid the Democratic attacks, Trump wrote on Truth Social that he “knows nothing” about it and has “no idea” who is in charge of it. (CNN identified at least 140 former advisers from the Trump administration who have been involved.)

The Heritage Foundation sought contributions from more than 100 conservative organizations for its policy vision for the next Republican presidency, which was published in 2023.

Project 2025 is now winding down some of its policy operations, and director Paul Dans, a former Trump administration official, is stepping down, The Washington Post reported July 30. Trump campaign managers Susie Wiles and Chris LaCivita denounced the document.

WATCH: A look at the Project 2025 plan to reshape government and Trump’s links to its authors

However, Project 2025 contributors include a number of high-ranking officials from Trump’s first administration, including former White House adviser Peter Navarro and former Housing and Urban Development Secretary Ben Carson.

A recently released recording of Russell Vought, a Project 2025 author and the former director of Trump’s Office of Management and Budget, showed Vought saying Trump’s “very supportive of what we do.” He said Trump was only distancing himself because Democrats were making a bogeyman out of the document.

Project 2025 wouldn’t ban abortion outright, but would curtail access

The Harris campaign shared a graphic on X that claimed “Trump’s Project 2025 plan for workers” would “go after birth control and ban abortion nationwide.”

The plan doesn’t call to ban abortion nationwide, though its recommendations could curtail some contraceptives and limit abortion access.

What’s known about Trump’s abortion agenda neither lines up with Harris’ description nor Project 2025’s wish list.

Project 2025 says the Department of Health and Human Services Department should “return to being known as the Department of Life by explicitly rejecting the notion that abortion is health care.”

It recommends that the Food and Drug Administration reverse its 2000 approval of mifepristone, the first pill taken in a two-drug regimen for a medication abortion. Medication is the most common form of abortion in the U.S. — accounting for around 63 percent in 2023.

If mifepristone were to remain approved, Project 2025 recommends new rules, such as cutting its use from 10 weeks into pregnancy to seven. It would have to be provided to patients in person — part of the group’s efforts to limit access to the drug by mail. In June, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected a legal challenge to mifepristone’s FDA approval over procedural grounds.

WATCH: Trump’s plans for health care and reproductive rights if he returns to White House The manual also calls for the Justice Department to enforce the 1873 Comstock Act on mifepristone, which bans the mailing of “obscene” materials. Abortion access supporters fear that a strict interpretation of the law could go further to ban mailing the materials used in procedural abortions, such as surgical instruments and equipment.

The plan proposes withholding federal money from states that don’t report to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention how many abortions take place within their borders. The plan also would prohibit abortion providers, such as Planned Parenthood, from receiving Medicaid funds. It also calls for the Department of Health and Human Services to ensure that the training of medical professionals, including doctors and nurses, omits abortion training.

The document says some forms of emergency contraception — particularly Ella, a pill that can be taken within five days of unprotected sex to prevent pregnancy — should be excluded from no-cost coverage. The Affordable Care Act requires most private health insurers to cover recommended preventive services, which involves a range of birth control methods, including emergency contraception.

Trump has recently said states should decide abortion regulations and that he wouldn’t block access to contraceptives. Trump said during his June 27 debate with Biden that he wouldn’t ban mifepristone after the Supreme Court “approved” it. But the court rejected the lawsuit based on standing, not the case’s merits. He has not weighed in on the Comstock Act or said whether he supports it being used to block abortion medication, or other kinds of abortions.

Project 2025 doesn’t call for cutting Social Security, but proposes some changes to Medicare

“When you read (Project 2025),” Harris told a crowd July 23 in Wisconsin, “you will see, Donald Trump intends to cut Social Security and Medicare.”

The Project 2025 document does not call for Social Security cuts. None of its 10 references to Social Security addresses plans for cutting the program.

Harris also misleads about Trump’s Social Security views.

In his earlier campaigns and before he was a politician, Trump said about a half-dozen times that he’s open to major overhauls of Social Security, including cuts and privatization. More recently, in a March 2024 CNBC interview, Trump said of entitlement programs such as Social Security, “There’s a lot you can do in terms of entitlements, in terms of cutting.” However, he quickly walked that statement back, and his CNBC comment stands at odds with essentially everything else Trump has said during the 2024 presidential campaign.

Trump’s campaign website says that not “a single penny” should be cut from Social Security. We rated Harris’ claim that Trump intends to cut Social Security Mostly False.

Project 2025 does propose changes to Medicare, including making Medicare Advantage, the private insurance offering in Medicare, the “default” enrollment option. Unlike Original Medicare, Medicare Advantage plans have provider networks and can also require prior authorization, meaning that the plan can approve or deny certain services. Original Medicare plans don’t have prior authorization requirements.

The manual also calls for repealing health policies enacted under Biden, such as the Inflation Reduction Act. The law enabled Medicare to negotiate with drugmakers for the first time in history, and recently resulted in an agreement with drug companies to lower the prices of 10 expensive prescriptions for Medicare enrollees.

Trump, however, has said repeatedly during the 2024 presidential campaign that he will not cut Medicare.

Project 2025 would eliminate the Education Department, which Trump supports

The Harris campaign said Project 2025 would “eliminate the U.S. Department of Education” — and that’s accurate. Project 2025 says federal education policy “should be limited and, ultimately, the federal Department of Education should be eliminated.” The plan scales back the federal government’s role in education policy and devolves the functions that remain to other agencies.

Aside from eliminating the department, the project also proposes scrapping the Biden administration’s Title IX revision, which prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. It also would let states opt out of federal education programs and calls for passing a federal parents’ bill of rights similar to ones passed in some Republican-led state legislatures.

Republicans, including Trump, have pledged to close the department, which gained its status in 1979 within Democratic President Jimmy Carter’s presidential Cabinet.

In one of his Agenda 47 policy videos, Trump promised to close the department and “to send all education work and needs back to the states.” Eliminating the department would have to go through Congress.

What Project 2025, Trump would do on overtime pay

In the graphic, the Harris campaign says Project 2025 allows “employers to stop paying workers for overtime work.”

The plan doesn’t call for banning overtime wages. It recommends changes to some Occupational Safety and Health Administration, or OSHA, regulations and to overtime rules. Some changes, if enacted, could result in some people losing overtime protections, experts told us.

The document proposes that the Labor Department maintain an overtime threshold “that does not punish businesses in lower-cost regions (e.g., the southeast United States).” This threshold is the amount of money executive, administrative or professional employees need to make for an employer to exempt them from overtime pay under the Fair Labor Standards Act.

In 2019, the Trump’s administration finalized a rule that expanded overtime pay eligibility to most salaried workers earning less than about $35,568, which it said made about 1.3 million more workers eligible for overtime pay. The Trump-era threshold is high enough to cover most line workers in lower-cost regions, Project 2025 said.

The Biden administration raised that threshold to $43,888 beginning July 1, and that will rise to $58,656 on Jan. 1, 2025. That would grant overtime eligibility to about 4 million workers, the Labor Department said.

It’s unclear how many workers Project 2025’s proposal to return to the Trump-era overtime threshold in some parts of the country would affect, but experts said some would presumably lose the right to overtime wages.

Other overtime proposals in Project 2025’s plan include allowing some workers to choose to accumulate paid time off instead of overtime pay, or to work more hours in one week and fewer in the next, rather than receive overtime.

Trump’s past with overtime pay is complicated. In 2016, the Obama administration said it would raise the overtime to salaried workers earning less than $47,476 a year, about double the exemption level set in 2004 of $23,660 a year.

But when a judge blocked the Obama rule, the Trump administration didn’t challenge the court ruling. Instead it set its own overtime threshold, which raised the amount, but by less than Obama.

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Essay Test vs Objective Test

An essay item is one in which the examinee relies upon his memory and past associations to answer the questions in a few words only. Since such items can be answered in whatever manner one likes and these items are also known as free answer items.

Essay items are most appropriate for measuring higher mental processes which involve the process of synthesis, analysis, evaluation, organization and criticism of the events of the past. Essay tests are thus suitable for measuring traits like critical thinking, originality and the ability to integrate synthesis or analyze different events.

Types of essay items

Essay items are of two types

• Short answer types
• Long answer type / Extended answer essay type

A short answer essay item is one where the examinee supplies the answer In one or two lines and is usually concerned with one central concept.

A long answer essay item is one where the examinee’s answer comprises several sentences. Such an item is usually concerned with more than one central concept.

Suggestions for Writing Good Essay Items

1 – An essay item must contain explicitly defined problems usually essay items are intended to measure the higher mental process as such its essential that they contain problems in clear cut and explicit terms so that every examinee interprets them in more or less the same way. Therefore, essay item is set to be not valid if its interpretation varies among examinees

2 – It must contain such problems whose answers are not very wide. In case a student is asked to answer a problem with a larger content area. He may start writing whatever he knows without making any discrimination in such a situation he may not write about the facts or information needed by the item, thus lowering the validity of the essay item.

3 – Essay items must have clear cut directions or instructions for the examinees the instruction should indicate the total time to be spent on any particular test item. What type of information is required and the likely weight age to be given to each item so that the examinee may pick up the relative importance of the essay questions and accordingly adjust the length of the answer.

4 – Sufficient time should be allowed in the construction of essay items such items measure the higher mental processes and in order that they actually measure what they intend to measure. It is essential that essay items are carefully worded and ordered so that all the items can be interrupted in the same way.

Difference between Essay tests and Objective Tests

1 – In essay items the examinee writes the answer in her/his own words whereas the in objective type of tests the examinee selects the correct answer from the among several given alternatives.

2 – Thinking and writing are important in essay tests whereas reading and thinking are important in objective type tests. In essay tests the examinee answers the questions in several lines. S/he critically thinks over the problems posed by the questions and arranges the idea in sequence and expresses them in writing. In objective type the examinee doesn’t have to write in many cases. He is simply asked to put a tick/mark. However, in order to make a correct choice he is required to read both the stem as well as the alternative answers very carefully and then critically think and decide.

3 – It is difficult to score objectivity and accurately in essay tests whereas in objective tests can be easily scored objectively and accurately.

4 – Essay tests are difficult to evaluate objectively and partially because the answers are not fixed like the answers of objective items because of the variability in the scorer judgment regarding the contents of the answers in the objective types of tests whether of the selection or supply type scoring can be done accurately because the answers are fixed in them. The scoring will also be objective because when the answers are fixed there will obviously be complete interpersonal agreement among the students.

5 – In objective type tests the quality of the item is dependent upon the skill of the test constructor but in essay test the quality of the item is dependent upon the scorer’s skill. Writing item for an objective type test is a relatively difficult task. Only a skilled test constructor can write good objective items. The quality of the test items are bound to suffer. If the test constructor lacks skill in writing items as well as limited knowledge regarding the subject matter items in essay tests are easy to construct. A test constructor is even with a minimum knowledge of writing items can prepare relatively good essay items.

6 – Objective test items no matter how well they are constructed permit and encourage guessing by the examinee whereas essay test items no matter how well they are constructed permit and encourage bluffing by examinees. In objective type test items the probability of guessing can’t be fully nullified. The effect of the guessing is the inflation of the actual score obtained on the test. Guessing is the most obvious when the length of the test is short and the two alternative objectives form is used or when difficult alternative responses are included in multiple choice items or matching items and the length of the test is short.

7 – Assignment of numerical scores in essay test items is entirely in the hands of the scorer whereas assignment of numerical scores in objective type test items is entirely determined by the scoring key of the manual.

Common Points between Essay Tests and Objective Tests

Despite of all these differences following are the common points or main similarities that lie in essay test or objective test.

• An element of subjectivity is involved in both objective type as well as essay tests. In objective tests subjectivity is involved in writing the test items in selecting particular criterion for validation of the test. In essay tests subjectivity is involved in writing and selecting the items. The most obvious effect of the subjectivity in essay test is seen in scoring of the essay items.
• In both essay tests as well as objective type tests, emphasize is placed upon the objectivity in the interpretation of the test scores. By objectivity is meant the score must mean nearly the same to all observers or graders who have assigned it. If this is not so it means that the scoring lacks objectivity thus reducing the usefulness of the score.
• Any educational achievement such as the ability to spell the English words, proficiency in grammar, and performance in history, geography, and educational psychology can be measured through both the essay test and objective type tests.

When the intention is to measure critical thinking, originality and the organizational ability essay tests are preferred but when the intention is to measure the piecemeal knowledge in any subject, objective type tests are preferred.

However, this line of demarcation is fast vanishing now because objective items have been used effectively for measuring achievement representing, critical thinking and originality of the examinees. Likewise, essay items particularly short answer essay items have been successfully used in measuring achievement representing piecemeal knowledge of any subject.

• Tags: Essay Test , Essay Test vs Objective Test , Essay Writing , Objective Test , Subjective Test , Writing Good Essay

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Your baby’s birth is an exciting time. This is also your first opportunity to protect your child from serious diseases with immunizations.

Hepatitis B vaccine

1st dose of 3

Hepatitis B is an infectious and potentially serious disease that can cause liver damage and liver cancer. There is no cure for hepatitis B. Mothers can unknowingly pass the hepatitis B virus to their babies at birth, which is why babies should get their first dose within 24 hours of birth.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccine

RSV is a common cause of severe respiratory illness in infants and young children. Those infected with RSV can have difficulty breathing and eating, and sometimes may need respiratory support or hydration in the hospital. An RSV immunization uses monoclonal antibodies to protect infants and young children from severe RSV disease. This immunization gives your baby's body extra help to fight an RSV infection.

Infants younger than 8 months old during RSV season (typically fall through spring) should get a one-dose RSV immunization to protect them against RSV. This dose should be given shortly before or during the RSV season.

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Hib vaccine

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Hib disease is a serious illness caused by the bacteria Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib). Babies and children younger than 5 years old are most at risk for Hib disease. It can cause lifelong disability and be deadly. Doctors recommend that your child get three or four doses of the Hib vaccine (depending on the brand).

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Hepatitis B is an infectious and potentially serious disease that can cause liver damage and liver cancer. If babies are infected at birth, hepatitis B can be a lifelong, chronic infection. There is no cure for hepatitis B, but the hepatitis B vaccine is the best way to prevent it.

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Polio is a disabling and life-threatening disease caused by poliovirus, which can infect the spinal cord and cause paralysis. It most often sickens children younger than 5 years old. Polio was eliminated in the United States with vaccination, and continued use of polio vaccine has kept this country polio-free.

Pneumococcal disease can cause potentially serious and even deadly infections. The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine protects against the bacteria that cause pneumococcal disease.

Rotavirus vaccine

1st dose of 2 or 3

Rotavirus can be very dangerous, even deadly for babies and young children. Doctors recommend that your child get two or three doses of the rotavirus vaccine (depending on the brand).

Protect your baby by providing immunity early in life. Stay on track with the recommended vaccine schedule.

At 4 months of age, your baby receives the following vaccines to develop immunity from potentially harmful diseases.

2nd dose of 5

2nd dose of 3 or 4

2nd dose of 4

2nd dose of 2 or 3

Rotavirus can be very dangerous, even deadly for babies and young children. Doctors recommend that your child get two or three doses of the Rotavirus vaccine (depending on the brand).

At 6 months of age, your baby receives vaccines to develop immunity from potentially harmful diseases.

COVID-19 vaccine

CDC recommends COVID-19 vaccination for everyone aged 6 months and older.

3 rd dose of 5

3 rd dose of 4

3rd dose of 3

3 rd dose of 3

7 through 11 months

There are usually no vaccinations scheduled between 7 and 11 months of age. However, if your baby has missed an earlier vaccination, now is a good time to "catch up."

Flu vaccine

Babies 6 months and older should receive flu vaccination every flu season.

12 through 23 months

By following the recommended schedule and fully immunizing your child by 2 years of age, your child should be protected against 16 vaccine preventable diseases.

Between 12 and 23 months of age, your child receives the following vaccines to continue developing immunity from potentially harmful diseases.

Chickenpox vaccine

1 st dose of 2

Chickenpox is a very contagious disease known for its itchy, blister-like rash and a fever. Chickenpox is a mild disease for many, but can be serious, even life-threatening, especially in babies, teenagers, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune systems.

4 th dose of 5

Children should receive flu vaccination every flu season.

Hepatitis A vaccine

1 st Dose of 2

Hepatitis A can be a serious, even fatal liver disease caused by the hepatitis A virus. Children with the virus often don't have symptoms, but they often pass the disease to others, including their unvaccinated parents or caregivers.

3 rd dose of 3 between 6 months and 18 months

3 rd dose of 3 or 4 th dose of 4

3 rd dose of 4 between 6 months and 18 months

MMR vaccine

The MMR vaccine helps prevent three diseases: measles, mumps, and rubella (German measles). These diseases are contagious and can be serious.

4 th dose of 4

2 through 3 years

Between 2 and 3 years of age, your child should visit the doctor once a year for check-ups.

Young children

4 through 6 years.

Between 4 through 6 years of age, your child should visit the doctor once a year for check-ups. During this time, your child receives the following vaccines.

2nd dose of 2

5th dose of 5

4th dose of 4

7 through 10 years

Between 7 and 10 years of age, your child should visit the doctor once a year for check-ups.

Vaccines your child may have missed

Now is a good time for your child to catch up on any missed vaccines. Make an appointment for your child to get caught up if they haven't received vaccines to protect against any of the following diseases:

• Hepatitis A
• Hepatitis B
• Measles , mumps , and rubella
• Tetanus , diphtheria , and  whooping cough (pertussis)

Preteens and teens

11 through 12 years.

There are four vaccines recommended for preteens—these vaccines help protect your children, their friends, and their family members.

HPV vaccine

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a common virus that can cause several cancers in men and women. HPV vaccination is recommended at ages 11-12 years to help protect against cancers caused by HPV infection. For best protection, most children this age will need two shots of the HPV vaccine, 6-12 months apart.

MenACWY vaccine

1st dose of 2

Meningococcal disease can refer to any illness caused by a type of bacteria called Neisseria meningitidis. These bacteria can cause meningococcal meningitis or bloodstream infections, which can be serious, even deadly. The meningococcal vaccine called MenACWY helps protect against four types of the bacteria that causes meningococcal disease (serogroups A, C, W, and Y).

Tdap vaccine

A Tdap booster shot protects older children from three serious diseases—diphtheria, tetanus, and whooping cough (pertussis). While people of any age in the United States can get all three of these potentially deadly diseases, whooping cough is most common. Preteens and teens who get whooping cough may cough for 10 weeks or more, possibly leading to rib fractures from severe coughing.

13 through 18 years

Between 13 through 18 years old, your child should visit the doctor once each year for check-ups. This can be a great time to get any vaccines your teen may have missed or may need if traveling outside the United States.

MenB vaccine

Meningococcal disease can refer to any illness caused by a type of bacteria called Neisseria meningitidis. These bacteria can cause meningococcal meningitis and bloodstream infections, which can be serious, even deadly. Meningococcal B vaccine, or MenB vaccine, helps protect against one type of the bacteria that causes meningococcal disease (serogroup B).

Note: CDC does not routinely recommend MenB vaccine for all adolescents. Instead, healthcare providers and parents can discuss the risk of the disease and weigh the risks and benefits of vaccination.

MenABCWY vaccine

Meningococcal disease can refer to any illness caused by a type of bacteria called Neisseria meningitidis. These bacteria can cause meningococcal meningitis and bloodstream infections, which can be serious, even deadly. Pentavalent meningococcal vaccine, or MenABCWY vaccine, helps protect against five types of the bacteria that causes meningococcal disease (serogroups A, B, C, W, and Y).

Note: MenABCWY vaccine can be given instead of MenACWY and MenB vaccines when both of those vaccines are being given at the same visit. MenABCWY is not given in addition to those two vaccines.

19 through 26 years

All adults ages 19 through 26 years old should make sure they're up to date on the vaccines listed below. You may need other vaccines based on other factors, too. Talk with your doctor to learn which vaccines are recommended for you.

Adults who have never had chickenpox or received chickenpox vaccine should get 2 doses. The doses should be at least 28 days apart.

All adults need a seasonal flu vaccine every year. Flu vaccine is especially important for people with chronic health conditions and pregnant women.

The hepatitis B vaccine is recommended for all adults, age 19 through 59 years.

If you were not vaccinated at a younger age (HPV vaccination is routinely recommended at age 11 or 12 years), then you should also get an HPV vaccine.

Adults who do not have presumptive evidence of immunity should get at least one dose of MMR vaccine. Students at post-high school educational institutions who do not have presumptive evidence of immunity need two doses of MMR vaccine, separated by at least 28 days.

Td or Tdap vaccine

Every adult should get the Tdap (tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis) vaccine once if they did not receive it as an adolescent to protect against pertussis (whooping cough), and then a Td (tetanus, diphtheria) booster shot every 10 years.

In addition, women should get the Tdap vaccine each time they are pregnant, preferably at 27 through 36 weeks.

27 through 49 years

All adults ages 27 to 49 years should make sure they’re up to date on the vaccines listed below. You may need other vaccines based on other factors, too. Talk with your doctor to learn which vaccines are recommended for you.

50 through 64 years

All adults ages 50 to 64 years should make sure they’re up to date on the vaccines listed below. You may need other vaccines based on other factors, too. Talk with your doctor to learn which vaccines are recommended for you.

All adults need a seasonal flu vaccine every year. Flu vaccine is especially important for people with chronic health conditions.

Shingles vaccine

Adults 50 years and older get two doses of the shingles vaccine to prevent shingles and complications from the disease.

65 years or older

As we get older, our immune systems tend to weaken over time, putting us at higher risk for certain diseases.

All adults ages 65 years or older should make sure they’re up to date on the vaccines listed below. You may need other vaccines based on other factors, too. Talk with your doctor to learn which vaccines are recommended for you.

Pneumococcal vaccine

CDC recommends PCV vaccines for adults who never received a PCV and are age 65 years or older.

Adults aged 60 years or older should talk to their healthcare provider about getting a single dose of RSV vaccine.

Vaccines & Immunizations

Vaccination is one of the best things you can do to help protect yourself from serious diseases.

For Everyone

Health care providers, public health.

English Typing Test Paragraphs

Stimulate your mind as you test your typing speed with this standard English paragraph typing test. Watch your typing speed and accuracy increase as you learn about a variety of new topics! Over 40 typing test selections available.

If you don't like a test prompt, you can get a different (random) prompt with the "change test" button - or select a specific paragraph to type from the list below. To find out how fast you type, just start typing in the blank textbox on the right of the test prompt. You will see your progress, including errors on the left side as you type. In order to complete the test and save your score, you need to get 100% accuracy. You can fix errors as you go, or correct them at the end with the help of the spell checker.

Personalized Feedback

This feedback graph will follow you from page to page for your typing session. You can see more details by mousing over the graph. The session is reset when the tab on your browser is closed.

Type this... CHANGE TEST

Test begins when you start typing..., check your wpm typing speed here.

To find out how fast you type, just start typing in the blank textbox on the right of the test prompt. You will see your progress, including errors on the left side as you type.

You can fix errors as you go, or correct them at the end with the help of the spell checker. If you need to restart the test, delete the text in the text box. Interactive feedback shows you your current wpm and accuracy.

In order to complete the test and share your results, you need to get 100% accuracy. You can review your progress for this session with the feedback chart. Just hover over a dot to see what your average speed and accruacy are for that key.

Letter Drills

A | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | q | r | s | t | u | v | w | x | y | z.

Select a Specific Typing Test:

Click on a topic to use it as your test prompt. Selections are ranked according to difficulty from '*' (easiest typing tests) to '*****' (most challenging typing tests). For more details, check the difficulty key at the bottom of the page.

Short typing tests for beginners: (1 - 3 minute typing test at < 30 wpm)

• Virtual Assistant (38.4 words) ****
• Slash: / Choosing Between Options (46 words) ***
• Confidentiality: Protecting Sensitive Information (43.8 words) ****
• Utilizing Technology to Your Advantage (47.4 words) ****
• Closed Captions (56.2 words) **
• Teachers (70.2 words) ****
• Business Casual (74 words) ***
• Paralegals (76.4 words) *
• Web Designers (77 words) ***
• Medical Transcription (82.6 words) ***
• Thumbing (83 words) ***
• Engineers (84.4 words) ****
• Translation (88 words) ***
• Stay Ahead of the Curve (50.8 words) ****
• Data Entry Accuracy (50.2 words) ***
• Boost Your Typing Speed (53.4 words) ****
• Quotation Marks: Capturing Words Directly (65.4 words) ***
• The Question Mark: Inquisitive and Curious? (56.6 words) ***
• Parentheses: A Whisper in the Reader's Ear (69.8 words) ****
• Email Etiquette (51.8 words) ****
• Making a Professional Impression (51.2 words) ****
• Proofreading Tips (56.8 words) ***
• The Hyphen: Connecting Words and Ideas (56.8 words) ***
• Brackets: [Adding Clarification and Context] (56.2 words) ****
• Your Workstation Setup Matters (59.6 words) ***
• The Apostrophe: Possession, Contraction, and More (59.4 words) ****
• The Ellipsis: ...And the Story Continues (62.4 words) **
• The Period: A Full Stop, A Moment of Pause. (61.8 words) ***
• Capture Information Efficiently (65.2 words) ***
• Business Writing Essentials for Administrative Professionals (75.8 words) ****
• Filing Systems for the Modern Office (82.6 words) ****
• The Key to Productivity (89.4 words) ****
• The Exclamation Point: Expressing Excitement and Urgency! (68 words) ****
• The Dash -- An Em Dash of Drama and Parentheses' Subtle Whisper (78.8 words) ***
• Owning Your Role in the Team's Success (87.2 words) ***
• The 10-Minute Pitch (80.8 words) ***
• The 30-Day Challenge (81.8 words) ***
• The 3-Month Internship (84 words) ***
• The $20 Bill (72 words) **

Intermediate typing tests: (3-6 minutes at 40 wpm)

• Proofreaders (90 words) **
• Typing Styles (91.8 words) ***
• Typing Tips for Efficiency and Accuracy (110.6 words) ***
• Careers for Skilled Typists (104.8 words) ****
• Embrace Your Uniqueness (110.4 words) ***
• Stepping Stones to Growth (94.6 words) ***
• Cultivate a Positive Mindset (101.8 words) ***
• Learn from Failure (101.6 words) ***
• Your Personal Cheerleading Squad (113 words) ***
• Set Inspiring Goals (115.2 words) ***
• Celebrate Your Achievements (110.6 words) ***
• Nurturing Your Mind, Body, and Spirit (105.2 words) ***
• The Ripple Effect of Positivity (112.2 words) ***
• The Power of Perseverance (114.4 words) ***
• The Power of Collaboration (154 words) ****
• The Foundation of Effective Teamwork (114 words) ***
• Communication: The Lifeline of Collaboration (123 words) ****
• Diversity: The Spice of Collaboration (114.2 words) ****
• Guiding the Team Towards Success (103 words) ****
• Adapting to Change and Overcoming Challenge (101.8 words) ***
• Celebrating Success (97.4 words) ****
• Turning Challenges into Opportunities (103.2 words) ****
• The Joy of Teamwork (112.6 words) ***
• Embracing a Growth Mindset (121 words) ***
• Prioritizing Self-Care for Optimal Performance (116.4 words) ****
• Utilizing Available Resources and Support Systems (117.2 words) ***
• Strategies for Maximizing Learning (123.2 words) ***
• Bouncing Back from Setbacks and Challenges (127 words) ***
• Active Learning Strategies (132.4 words) ****
• Effective Time Management (161.2 words) ****
• The Power of Goal Setting (156.8 words) ***
• The Importance of Budgeting (166.6 words) ***
• Building Wealth Over Time (167.4 words) ***
• The Debt Dilemma (181.8 words) ***
• The $5 Investment (98.4 words) ***
• The Coffee Shop Turnaround (107.2 words) ***
• The Unexpected Partnership (116 words) ****
• The Rise of the Eco-Friendly Startup (159.2 words) ****
• The 5-Year Plan (129.4 words) ***
• The 100th Customer (145.8 words) ***
• The 5-Year Career Pivot (137.6 words) ***
• The 10-Year Journey to the C-Suite (119.6 words) ***
• The 20-Year Transformation of a Company (174 words) ****
• The 30-Year Legacy of a Mentorship Program (199.6 words) ****
• The 1% Raise (100 words) ***
• The $50,000 Inheritance (120.6 words) ***
• The 5-Year Savings Goal (132.8 words) ***
• Typing Speed in WPM (100.4 words) ***
• Keyboard Shortcuts (104 words) *
• Buffer Method of Typing (105 words) **
• Transcription Service (107.4 words) ***
• Data Entry Clerks (112.4 words) **
• Hunt and Peck (128.2 words) **
• Touch Type (132.2 words) **
• Sales Methodologies (135.4 words) ***
• Invention of Touch Typing (147.4 words) ***
• Typing Speed Records (166.8 words) ****
• Comparing Typing Speed and Methods (169.2 words) ***
• Pharmacists (172.4 words) ***
• Editing (175.2 words) ***
• History of Flight (175.4 words) ****
• HR Management (177.4 words) ****
• Transcription Services (187.4 words) ****
• Motivation (192.4 words) ***
• Freelancers (194.6 words) ***
• Average Typing Speeds (195.2 words) ****

Hard typing tests for advanced typists: (over 4 minutes at 60+ wpm)

• The Future of Administrative Work (232.6 words) ****
• Understanding the Stock Market (332 words) ***
• The Legacy of the Family Business (224 words) ***
• The 10-Year Reunion (236.2 words) ***
• The $1 Million Business Deal (202.4 words) ***
• The Art of Transcription: Transforming Audio into Text (247.2 words) ****
• Word Processors (203.8 words) ***
• Class Reunion Report (211 words) ***
• Financial Reporting (221.2 words) *****
• Biking Story (233.6 words) *
• Event Description (233.8 words) *
• New York Stock Exchange (234.6 words) **
• Career Choice Article (236.6 words) *
• Self Confidence Article (244.8 words) ***
• FDA Article (246.8 words) ***
• Competitive Typing (250.4 words) ***
• Academic Success Article (256.6 words) **
• Typing as a Life Skill: Beyond the Workplace (219.8 words) ***
• Effective Communication in the Workplace: More Than Just Words (275.2 words) ****
• The Evolution of Typing: From Typewriters to Touchscreens (275.8 words) ***
• Emotions Article (272.8 words) **
• MBA Article (276 words) ****

If you have a topic that you would like to see added to the list above, please feel free to contact us with your suggestion for a new paragraph typing test.

Typing Test Difficulty Levels

Our typing tests are ranked on level of difficulty. The algorithm to calculate difficulty depends on the average word length and how many special characters like capitals, numbers and symbols are included in the text. Most standard pre-employment typing tests will be in the normal range. You should expect to get higher wpm scores on easier tests and lower wpm scores on the more difficult tests.

• * Very Easy Typing Test
• ** Easy Typing Test
• *** Normal Typing Test
• **** Difficult Typing Test
• ***** Very Difficult Typing Test

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Last Will and Testament Guide for 2024

Key takeaways.

• A last will and testament is a legal document that states how a person wishes to distribute their assets upon their death.
• Although requirements vary by state, usually your will needs to be in writing, signed by the testator, and witnessed by at least two other people.
• If you die without a will, your state’s laws will dictate how to distribute your assets, and your estate may have to pay a death tax.
• Using an attorney to draft your will can end up costing more than $1,000. If you’re looking for a more affordable option, will creation services are available online. Trust & Will starts at $199.

One of the most important estate planning tools is a last will and testament, often referred to as a “will.” In a will, you state where your assets should go when you die and, sometimes more importantly, where they shouldn’t go. Whether you choose to leave your assets to your loved ones or support your favorite cause, you should have a will.

In this article, we’ll explain what a last will and testament is, the benefits of having one, the different types of wills you can create, and how to create one. We’ll also give you a list of helpful estate planning terms and address frequently asked questions about beginning the estate planning process.

Why you can trust us

Our Reviews Team consists of trained lawyers who have spent hundreds of hours researching estate planning and using the services we recommend. We only recommend services we find to be helpful and accurate. To develop our reviews and guidance, we:

• Spent 300 hours researching and using online estate planning services
• Consulted with legal experts, probate attorneys, and financial planners to learn the best practices in estate planning
• Went behind the paywall to gain firsthand experience with five of the top online will creation services to review and compare them with each other
• Read hundreds of customer reviews on trusted third-party websites, such as Better Business Bureau (BBB) and Trustpilot

What is a last will and testament?

A last will and testament is a legal document that allows a person to plan how to distribute their assets after they die.

When someone dies, their assets usually go toward funeral expenses and probate court fees. Then, if the person has any outstanding debts, the executor uses assets from the estate to settle them.

What happens to the rest of someone’s property after that? This is where a last will and testament can be helpful. It will give your loved ones guidance on what to do with your remaining assets.

Benefits of creating a last will and testament

April M. Townsend , Esq., is an estate planning attorney based in Pennsylvania with more than 12 years of experience. Townsend said that, “creating an estate plan, including a will, offers significant advantages and peace of mind. By taking these steps, you gain control over how your property is divided after [you die], ensuring your wishes are followed.”

Having a last will and testament in place for when the time comes makes this process easier and less expensive. Your will tells the court exactly what to do with your belongings, so there’s less for the court to sort through. Less work for the court means your assets will be distributed quicker, and you’ll pay less in administrative and probate costs.

Without a will, all your belongings would be distributed according to your state’s “intestacy” laws. Intestacy refers to dying intestate, or without a will. The biggest problem with intestacy is that state laws won’t take into account your preferences on how you want your assets distributed. Close family members and estranged family members can potentially have access to the same amount of your estate.

For example, in New Jersey, if you die without a will, your spouse is entitled to your entire estate —even if you were separated but not yet divorced. [1] Mercer County. Administration of Estate (No Will). Found on the internet at https://www.mercercounty.org/government/county-surrogate/administration-of-estate-no-will. That means if you want to leave something behind for your children, siblings, or parents, they won’t get anything unless you have a will that provides for them.

Helpful hint: Intestacy laws don’t provide a means for you to appoint a legal guardian for dependents. If you’re a caregiver for any minor children or pets, you’ll need a will to arrange their support. Otherwise, the court will appoint a guardian for those who need one, without considering your preferences.

Types of wills

You can choose from five main types of wills when creating your own:

• Simple will: A straightforward will lists your assets and beneficiaries. You can easily create your own simple will online.
• Living will : This is different from a simple will in that it doesn’t deal with your assets or how the court will distribute them upon your death. Instead, a living will gives instructions for your medical care and other end-of-life decisions, such as whether you want medical staff to use life-extending measures.
• Joint will: This is a will that used to be common among spouses where both parties agree to grant all their assets to the surviving spouse. With a joint will, once one spouse dies, the surviving spouse can’t change the terms of their will. This restriction makes joint wills less popular—there are other options that provide more freedom for the surviving spouse.
• Testamentary trust: This is a will that creates a trust that won’t take effect until after your death. A testamentary trust is commonly used to provide support for minor children over a long period of time.
• Holographic will: This type of will is only recognized in 28 states . [2] Trust & Will. What is a Holographic Will (& Why It’s Not the Best Choice). Found on the internet at https://trustandwill.com/learn/holographic-will It must be handwritten and signed by the testator —it can’t be typed or written by someone else. [3] Cornell Law School Legal Information Institute. Holographic will. Found on the internet at https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/Holographic_will Since the handwriting in the will matches the handwriting in the signature, most states that recognize these types of wills don’t require additional signatures from witnesses. This raises a potential for mistake or fraud, so they’re commonly contested in probate court.

How to create a last will and testament in six steps

With all the free resources available online, most people won’t need estate planning attorneys to craft a will for them. Creating your own will is a relatively straightforward process that can save you time and money.

Since state law governs wills, each state has its own requirements to create a will. Still, most of these state requirements boil down to three conditions: Your will must be in writing, signed by the testator, and witnessed by at least two people. We’ll explain how to satisfy these minimum requirements and create the best will for your estate planning needs.

Step 1: Make detailed property records

Since your will contains a plan for how you want to distribute your assets, you’ll need to make a list of all the property you own. When compiling these property records, consider the following:

• Land or real estate
• Business stocks or bonds
• Cash in bank accounts
• Valuable personal property, like jewelry, vehicles, or art

If you’re worried about forgetting to list some of your assets, you can include a residuary clause ⓘ A residuary clause identifies a person or institution that receives any assets that aren’t accounted for in your will. This is important to have if you don’t want state law to distribute any remaining assets. in your will. A residuary clause works as a catchall for the rest of your property, so the executor ⓘ An executor, also known as a personal representative, is the individual responsible for carrying out the instructions left in someone’s will. knows what to do with any belongings you didn’t specifically name in your will.

Another thing to keep in mind is some assets may already have designated beneficiaries, like life insurance policies or qualified retirement plans.

Helpful hint: When listing all your assets, don’t forget to include any debts you might have (for example, unpaid taxes, credit cards, student loans, or mortgages). Usually, if a debt is unpaid at death, the estate is responsible for paying it. This will give you a better idea of how much of your estate you’re leaving for your beneficiaries.

Step 2: Name an executor

An executor, or personal representative, is someone legally obligated to administer a person’s estate. In other words, an executor is the person responsible for following the instructions you left in your will.

To be an executor, you have to be at least 18 years old and of sound mind . You may need to have additional qualifications depending on your state’s rules. [4] Cornell Law School Legal Information Institute. Holographic will. Found on the internet at https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/Holographic_will

When naming your executor, try to choose someone you’re close with, so they truly understand your intentions during the probate process. You should also consider naming someone healthy who will likely live long enough to take on this role. It’s a good idea to name a “successor executor,” or a backup executor, in case your first choice is unavailable. Being an executor is a lot of responsibility, so make sure you choose someone who is able to address estate matters quickly and efficiently.

Step 3: Add beneficiaries and designate property

A beneficiary is a person designated to receive something from an estate or trust. Simply put, a beneficiary is any person you’re leaving property to in your will. You can name any person or institution (such as a charity) to be a beneficiary in your will. Once you’ve named your beneficiaries, you’ll have to decide what property they should receive.

A general bequest is when you want to leave behind some money from your estate to a beneficiary. For example, if you want to make sure your child is well-supported after you’re gone, you can make a general bequest that designates a certain amount of money from your estate to go directly to that child.

A specific bequest is when you want to leave behind a particular piece of your property to a beneficiary. For example, if you want to leave your stamp collection to your nephew who collects stamps, you can make a specific bequest.

Another useful type of bequest is called a contingent bequest. This allows you to put conditions on whether a beneficiary receives property from your will. For example, if you want to encourage your grandchild to go to college, you can make a bequest to your grandchild on the condition they go to college. If your grandchild doesn’t attend college, they won’t receive that bequest, and it will return to your estate.

Step 4: Formalize your will on paper

All states require you to put your will on paper. This memorializes your intentions, so your executor can refer back to it during the probate process.

Online templates can help you format the document correctly, or you can use an online will maker service that will generate the correct document for you.

Helpful hint: Some people like to include letters for their loved ones with their will. The executor will deliver these letters of love and support upon your death. It’s a thoughtful way to say your final goodbyes and give your loved ones closure.

Step 5: Sign the document

Once you’re happy with your will, you have to sign the document to make it official.

At least two people must witness you sign the document. After they see you sign your will, they’ll have to place their signatures on the will to prove its authenticity. Only two states slightly modify this requirement:

• Louisiana requires a notary to sign your will in addition to the two witnesses.
• Colorado allows you to have your will witnessed by only one person if the person is a notary.

Helpful hint: Regardless of requirements, getting your will notarized helps to ensure your will holds up in court. You can find a notary at your bank or some FedEx or UPS locations, or you can hire a mobile notary to come to you.

Step 6: Maintain and update the document as needed

While you can keep your last will and testament in a safe place at home, you need to make sure these estate planning documents outlast you. We recommend taking extra precautions, such as using a fireproof lockbox (like this one for $30) or a safe deposit box at the bank.

Some states allow you to file your will with the probate court to ensure the document is safe and available when needed. If you do this, only you, your attorney, and your executor will be able to access the will during your lifetime. But once you die and your case goes through probate, your will becomes publicly available information. If this raises privacy concerns for you, keep in mind that all probate court matters become public record once they’re closed—even if you don’t have a will.

You don’t need to wait for an important life event to create or update a will. Townsend advised that you should “think of your estate plan as a living document. Give it a regular check-up every three to five years, or whenever life’s chapters change.” She added that some examples of changes are:

• Marriage or divorce
• The birth of a child or grandchild
• Financial changes
• Evolving legal requirements in your state

You can use something called a codicil ⓘ A codicil is an amendment to a will. It allows you to add, subtract, or modify something in your will, without having to create a brand new one. to make changes to your will down the line if you ever need to. A codicil can be used to supplement, modify, or even revoke a will.

All you need to do is write down what you want to change about your will, sign it, have at least two witnesses sign it, and keep it with your original will. After your death, the executor will read and interpret both documents together.

Estate planning terms to know

As you learn about what a last will and testament is, it may be helpful to know what certain legal terms mean.

• The testator is the person who created the will.
• Beneficiaries are individuals or institutions that receive something from the execution of a will. In other words, beneficiaries stand to benefit from the will.
• Adding a codicil to a will updates the will by adding a document at the end rather than rewriting a portion of the will. A codicil can explain, modify, or revoke part of a will.
• A decedent is the term used in estate planning for a person who has died.
• An executor, or personal representative, is the individual responsible for “executing the will,” or facilitating the probate process.
• An estate is anything a person owns at the time of their death. This can include real estate and personal property, like jewelry, vehicles, and other items of value.
• Power of attorney means you’ve given authority to another person to make legal and financial decisions for you if you’re unable to do so.
• A residuary clause identifies a person or institution that receives any assets not accounted for in your will. This is important to have if you don’t want state law to distribute any remaining assets.
• Attach a self-proving affidavit to a will to “prove” to the court the will is valid. Executors must sometimes go through a hearing—potentially requiring witnesses—to prove to the court the will belongs to the testator and is valid. A self-proving affidavit does this automatically, but it’s not an option in every state. Some states consider a valid will to be self-proving, so an additional affidavit isn’t necessary.

Bottom line

For many people, the most important document in their estate plan is their last will and testament. This document will give you a say in how an executor should handle your assets upon your death. Without a will, your estate will be subject to state-created intestacy laws, which don’t take into account your preferences. You also won’t be able to make specific arrangements for your spouse, children, pets, or anyone else you care for without a will.

To create a valid will, you’ll have to memorialize your final wishes by putting it on paper. You can do this by using an attorney, an online will creation service, or following templates you find online. An attorney is the most thorough option, but it’s also the most expensive. Following templates online is usually free, but there’s the risk of filling out the templates incorrectly. An online will maker service is a middle-ground that will result in a legally binding document at a lower cost than hiring an attorney. Read our guide to learn how to make a will without a lawyer .

You and at least two other people must sign it to make it a valid will. Your signature will show you intend this document to be your last will and testament. The two other people must sign the document as witnesses to authenticate your signature. Keep your will in a safe place, so your executor can find it when they need to start distributing your assets. You should also make copies of the document and give them to your executor and anyone else you think should have one.

Additional estate planning resources

Learning about estate planning tools, like the power of attorney, can be intimidating, but it’s an important part of safeguarding your affairs. For more resources on how to begin preparing for your future, check out NCOA’s AgeWell Planner . If you’re taking care of a loved one, read our advice about managing someone else’s legal, financial, and medical decisions. And be aware of estate recovery , how it works, and how it can affect you or a loved one.

Plenty of resources offer affordable legal aid . Also, nonprofit organizations, such as the Veterans Legal Institute , will provide pro bono legal assistance to current and former service members.

Frequently asked questions

In general, a legal will is written, signed, and witnessed, though each state can have its own specific requirements.

“In writing” means the will isn’t verbal. The paper makes it formal. The testator, or person making the will, must also sign the will. This shows approval of the asset distribution plan and certifies this is the last will and testament. Finally, you must have at least two witnesses when you sign the will. These witnesses attest, or confirm, the testator was of sound mind when they were creating their will and the testator’s signature is their own. The witnesses must then sign the will to make it valid. Witnesses can’t be beneficiaries.

The most simple definition of a last will and testament is a legal document that records how a person wants to distribute their assets upon their death.

In estate planning and probate law, the ultimate goal is to mirror the testator’s intentions and dispose of their assets in the manner they desire. Your last will and testament formalizes these intentions on paper, so the executor can follow them as closely as possible when the time comes.

If you’re drafting your will on your own, you can create one for free or use an online will making service, which usually costs around $40–$300.

If you’re hiring a lawyer to draft your will, you can expect to pay, on average, anywhere from $300–$1,000. This cost depends on the complexity of your estate.

No, you don’t need an attorney to create a last will and testament. You can create your last will and testament by using online resources.

You can distribute your assets through many different ways while minimizing your risk and tax liability. If you have a complex estate plan, a lot of valuable assets, or just want to ensure your will is completely correct, you can hire an estate planning attorney.

Yes, you can create your last will and testament online.

You can either find will templates online and create one yourself, or you can have an online service make your will for you. Some services will even connect you with an estate planning attorney and offer continued support in case you need to update your will down the line. We have tested and reviewed these online will creation services, so you can choose the best one for your needs

Your last will is a way for you to decide what happens to your assets after you die. A living will, also known as a health care directive, is a statement of your wishes regarding medical treatment in circumstances where you’re no longer able to make decisions or communicate effectively. A living trust holds your assets until a predetermined time and provides instructions for management and distribution.

Unlike a living will, your last will doesn’t express what medical treatment you want to pursue if you’re ever incapacitated—unless you included a medical power of attorney in your will. It’s also unable to hold assets for you, unlike a living trust.

Typically, you should avoid including property that you’ve already assigned to someone, like:

• Life insurance or annuity proceeds
• Retirement plan proceeds
• Transfer-on-death property
• Property held in living trust
• Property held with a right of survivorship

The most common example is life insurance proceeds. When you get a life insurance policy, you have to designate a beneficiary to receive the policy payout. By including the proceeds in your will, you can create a situation where you’ve designated two different people to receive the same property. This usually leads to the two beneficiaries going to probate court. Even if you name the same beneficiary in both documents, you’ll have to make sure both documents match if you ever want to make any changes in the future.

Have questions about this review? Email us at [email protected] .

• Mercer County. Administration of Estate (No Will). Found on the internet at https://www.mercercounty.org/government/county-surrogate/administration-of-estate-no-will .
• Trust & Will. What is a Holographic Will (& Why It’s Not the Best Choice). Found on the internet at https://trustandwill.com/learn/holographic-will
• Cornell Law School Legal Information Institute. Holographic will. Found on the internet at https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/Holographic_will
• North Carolina Administrative Office of the Courts. Estate Procedures for Executors, Administrators,Collectors By Affidavit, and Summary Administration. Found on the internet at https://www.nccourts.gov/assets/documents/forms/e850-en.pdf?VersionId=wAfy5o3sqw7oCN0qFSPp5N1aWnKA7nNK

• Essay Editor

How to Write a Family Essay with Examples

Writing about your family gives you a chance to think about your own experiences and what matters to you. It lets you look at how your family works together and share important stories from your life. This guide will help you write a good family essay that others will find interesting, whether you're doing it for school or just want to put your family's story on paper.

What is a Family Essay?

A family essay is a personal story that talks about your experiences with your family, your relationships, and what you value. It's a type of personal essay that teachers often ask students to write to see how well they can tell their family stories.

The main goal of a family essay is to share your own thoughts on family values, traditions, and how you're all connected. It's a chance to talk about the love in your family, share favorite memories, or describe the strong bonds between family members.

Useful Tips for Writing an Essay on Family Topics

To write a great family essay, you need to plan and write carefully. Here are some helpful tips:

• Start with something interesting: Begin your essay with a fun fact or story about your family to get the reader's attention right away.
• Make a clear main point: Write a short statement that sums up the main idea of your essay. This will guide your writing and help readers understand what you're focusing on.
• Do your research: Find out more about your family's history, traditions, and cultural background. This will make your essay more real and detailed.
• Organize your essay well: Arrange your thoughts into a clear introduction, middle sections, and conclusion. Each part should lead smoothly into the next.
• Use clear descriptions: Make your family members and experiences come to life with detailed descriptions. This will help readers feel connected to your story.
• Include your own thoughts: Share how you feel about family events or how your family works together. This makes your writing more real and personal.
• Check and fix your work: After you finish writing, take time to read over and improve your essay. Look for grammar mistakes, make sentences better, and make sure your ideas are clear.

When thinking about how to write about your family, remember that being real is important. Your own point of view and experiences will make your essay special.

Interesting Ideas on Family Essay Related Topics

Picking a good topic is important when writing about your family. Here are some ideas to get you thinking:

• How family traditions have changed over time
• How technology affects how families talk to each other
• Finding a balance between being yourself and what your family expects
• How extended family members fit into today's families
• What we learn from family arguments and how we solve them
• How cultural background affects how families work together
• What "family" means in different types of families
• Why family support is important for personal growth
• Dealing with differences between older and younger family members
• How shared experiences make family bonds stronger

When you write about these topics, think about how they relate to your own life. For example, if you're writing about how technology affects family communication, you could share a story about how video calls help you stay in touch with relatives who live far away.

Remember, the best family essays mix personal stories with concepts about how families work and how they fit into society.

Family Essay Example: Why family support is important for personal growth

“ Family support is similar to having a group of people who both encourage you and protect you. It's more than just having people nearby; it's about having individuals who truly want you to succeed. When I was afraid of speaking in front of others, my sister's encouraging words helped me get through my first presentation. And truthfully, who else but family would listen to you practice guitar poorly without complaining? This kind of support without conditions gives us the bravery to try new things outside of what we're used to. It's also a way to learn from others - I've learned many things, from cooking advice to useful life tips, from different family members. Even when we don't agree, we grow; those serious discussions at dinner taught me how to defend my opinions and express my thoughts clearly. Yes, family can be frustrating at times, but they're also the ones who will stop what they're doing to help you move or listen to you when you're worried late at night. This combination of care, challenges, and support creates a special environment where we can be our true selves and slowly become the best versions of ourselves. ”

Closing Remarks

Writing a family essay helps you learn about yourself and think deeply. It's a chance to look closely at your relationships, celebrate what makes your family special, and understand more about how your family affects your life and the world around you.

Remember, the process of writing about your family can be just as rewarding as the finished essay. Take this opportunity to think about how your family has shaped your life and let your true voice come through in your writing.

Ready to bring your family story to life? Let Aithor's intuitive AI writing tools help you write a compelling and heartfelt family essay that captures the essence of your unique experiences.

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Boost Your Skills: Top Accounting Questions and Answers PDF Revealed

Boost your skills with our accounting questions and answers pdf. master essential concepts and ace your exams, essential accounting concepts.

Getting a grip on basic accounting concepts is key for anyone stepping into finance. Here, we’ll break down the core principles and main financial statements that are the bedrock of accounting.

Basic Principles

Accounting runs on a few basic rules to keep things consistent and clear. Here are five you should know:

• Historical Cost : Record assets at what you paid for them, not what they’re worth now.
• Revenue Recognition : Count revenue when it’s earned, not when the money hits your account.
• Matching : Match expenses with the revenue they help generate in the same period.
• Full Disclosure : Include all necessary info in financial statements to give a clear picture of the company’s finances.
• Objectivity : Base financial data on solid evidence, not opinions or guesses ( NetSuite ).

Core Financial Statements

These statements give a snapshot of a company’s financial health and performance. Knowing them helps you make smart financial decisions. Here are the main ones:

• Income Statement : Also called the profit and loss statement, it shows revenues and expenses over a period, ending with a net profit or loss.
• Balance Sheet : A snapshot of the company’s financial position at a specific date, listing assets, liabilities, and shareholders’ equity.
• Statement of Cash Flows : Details cash coming in and going out, split into operating, investing, and financing activities.
• Statement of Retained Earnings : Shows changes in retained earnings over a period, including net income and dividends.
• Notes to the Financial Statements : Adds extra details and context to the numbers in the financial statements ( NetSuite ).

Want to dive deeper? Check out our resources on accounting 101 pdf and accounting knowledge .

By understanding these basic accounting concepts, you’ll be ready to tackle more complex topics and make smart financial decisions. For hands-on practice, download our accounting questions and answers pdf .

Alright, let’s talk about the stuff that makes your business tick. We’re diving into the nitty-gritty of accounting, focusing on two big players: intangible assets and current assets.

Intangible Assets

Think of intangible assets as the invisible gold in your business treasure chest. They don’t have a physical form, but boy, do they pack a punch in terms of value. We’re talking about things like patents, trademarks, copyrights, and goodwill. These are the secret sauce that can make your company worth a lot more than just its physical stuff.

What makes intangible assets tick?

• They don’t take up space.
• They’re in it for the long haul.
• They can bring in the big bucks down the line.

Examples of Intangible Assets:

• Patents: Your invention, your rules. No one else can touch it.
• Trademarks: That logo or symbol everyone recognizes as yours.
• Goodwill: The warm fuzzies people feel about your brand, your loyal customers, and your stellar reputation.

Want to dive deeper into the world of intangible assets? Check out our accounting notebook .

Current Assets

Now, let’s talk about the stuff you can turn into cash faster than you can say “liquidity.” Current assets are your go-to for keeping the lights on and the wheels turning. These are the assets you can convert to cash within a year, making them crucial for your day-to-day operations.

What makes current assets so handy?

• They’re easy to cash in.
• They’re short-term heroes.
• They keep your business running smoothly.

Examples of Current Assets:

• Cash and Cash Equivalents: Cold, hard cash ready to roll.
• Accounts Receivable: Money that’s coming your way from customers.
• Inventory: All the stuff you’re ready to sell, from raw materials to finished products.

Grasping these assets and how to manage them is a must for anyone serious about accounting. For more tips and tricks, check out our accounting courses part-time .

And if you’re looking to level up your accounting game, download our accounting questions and answers PDF . It’s packed with all the juicy details you need to become an accounting whiz.

Counting Your Cash: A Quick Guide to Profits

Knowing how to figure out your profits is a must for anyone dabbling in accounting. We’ll break down the basics of gross profit and net profit, and why they matter.

Gross Profit

Gross profit is like the first checkpoint in your profit journey. It’s what you get after subtracting the costs of making and selling your stuff. Here’s the simple formula:

[ \text{Gross Profit} = \text{Sales} – \text{Cost of Goods Sold (COGS)} ]

Let’s say you sold £100,000 worth of goods and it cost you £60,000 to make them. Your gross profit would be:

[ \text{Gross Profit} = £100,000 – £60,000 = £40,000 ]

Check out this table for a clearer picture:

Gross profit shows how well you’re doing at making money from your main gig before other costs come into play. For more on the basics, visit our accounting knowledge page.

Net profit, or the bottom line, is what’s left after you’ve paid all your bills. This includes operating costs, interest, taxes, and other expenses. Here’s how you calculate it:

[ \text{Net Profit} = \text{Gross Profit} – \text{Total Expenses} ]

Using our earlier example, if your total expenses are £20,000, your net profit would be:

[ \text{Net Profit} = £40,000 – £20,000 = £20,000 ]

Here’s a table to make it clear:

Net profit gives you the full picture of your business’s profitability, considering all costs. It’s a key indicator of financial health. For more detailed principles, check out our accounting made simple page.

Knowing the difference between gross profit and net profit is vital for anyone in accounting. These numbers not only show how well a company is doing but also help in making smart business moves. Dive deeper into these concepts and test your skills with our accounting questions and answers pdf download .

Keeping Your Finances in Check

Keeping your finances in check is a must for any business. Two key tools to help you do this are the trial balance and suspense accounts.

Trial Balance

The trial balance is like a report card for your finances. It lists all the balances of your general ledger accounts at a specific time. The goal? Make sure your total debits match your total credits. If they don’t, you’ve got some detective work to do.

Total Debits: £30,000

Total Credits: £30,000

If your numbers don’t add up, it’s time to roll up your sleeves and find the mistake. For more tips on keeping your trial balance in shape, check out our article on accounting 101 pdf .

Suspense Accounts

A suspense account is like a holding pen for errors. When your trial balance doesn’t match, you park the difference here until you can figure out what’s wrong.

Say your trial balance is off by £500. You’d put that £500 in the suspense account while you hunt down the mistake. Once you fix the error, you can close the suspense account.

Want to know more about handling suspense accounts and other accounting basics? Check out our accounting knowledge and accounting made simple sections.

Getting a grip on these concepts is key for anyone in accounting or finance. For more detailed info and practice questions, grab our accounting questions and answers pdf .

Accrual Basis

Alright, let’s break down the accrual basis of accounting. This method is a game-changer for anyone serious about getting a grip on accounting. It records financial transactions when they happen, not when the money actually changes hands. This is crucial for getting a real sense of how a business is doing financially.

Recording Liabilities

With the accrual basis, you jot down liabilities when they occur, not when you pay them off ( NetSuite ). So, if your business gets goods or services in one month but pays for them in another, you record the expense when you owe it.

Imagine you get supplies worth £500 in December but pay for them in January. You’d record the liability in December. This gives you a clearer picture of your financial situation.

Revenue Recognition

Revenue recognition works the same way. You record revenue when it’s earned, not when you get paid. This makes sure your income statement shows the real performance of your business during a specific period.

For example, if you deliver a service worth £1,000 in November but get paid in December, you record the revenue in November. This follows the matching principle, which says expenses should match the revenues they help generate ( NetSuite ).

Here’s a quick table to make it clearer:

Getting the hang of recording liabilities and recognizing revenue is a must for anyone looking to up their accounting game. Dive deeper into the accrual basis and other key accounting principles with our accounting knowledge resources.

Want to sharpen your skills even more? Check out our accounting courses part time and learn about the accounting 3 way match method to keep your financial records spot on.

Practice Questions

Want to get good at accounting? Practice is your best friend. Here are some questions to help you sharpen your skills. We’ve split them into short and long answers to match different levels of understanding.

Short Answer Questions

These quick questions test your basic accounting knowledge. They’re great for reinforcing key ideas. For more on the basics, check out accounting 101 pdf .

• What is the basic accounting equation?
• Answer: Assets = Liabilities + Equity
• Define ‘current assets’.
• Answer: Current assets are things you can turn into cash or use up within a year.
• What is gross profit?
• Answer: Gross profit is what you get when you subtract the cost of goods sold from net sales.
• Explain the term ‘trial balance’.
• Answer: A trial balance lists all your ledger accounts to make sure your bookkeeping is accurate.
• What are intangible assets?
• Answer: Intangible assets are non-physical things like patents, trademarks, and goodwill.

Long Answer Questions

These questions need more detailed answers and a deeper understanding of accounting. They’re perfect for honing your analytical skills and getting ready for big exams. For more practice, check out accounting exam papers .

• Discuss the importance of financial statements in accounting.
• Answer: Financial statements are like a report card for a company. They show the company’s financial health through the balance sheet, income statement, and cash flow statement. These documents help investors, managers, and other stakeholders make smart decisions by showing the company’s assets, liabilities, revenues, and expenses.
• Explain the accrual basis of accounting and its significance.
• Answer: The accrual basis of accounting records revenues and expenses when they happen, not when the cash changes hands. This method gives a more accurate picture of a company’s financial situation by matching revenues with the expenses that generated them. For more details, check out our section on accounting directive .
• Describe the process of preparing a trial balance and its purpose.
• Answer: To prepare a trial balance, list all your ledger accounts and their balances at a specific time. The goal is to make sure total debits equal total credits, confirming your bookkeeping is correct. If something’s off, you investigate and fix it.
• What are suspense accounts, and why are they used?
• Answer: Suspense accounts are temporary accounts for uncertain transactions. They help keep your books balanced while you figure out the details. They’re crucial for maintaining accuracy in your financial records.
• Compare and contrast gross profit and net profit.
• Answer: Gross profit is what you get after subtracting the cost of goods sold from net sales. It shows how efficient your production and sales are. Net profit is what’s left after you subtract all operating expenses, interest, taxes, and other costs from gross profit. It shows the overall profitability of your business.

Keep practicing these questions to deepen your understanding of accounting and boost your problem-solving skills. For more questions and detailed explanations, download the accounting questions and answers pdf download .

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