advantages of instant messaging essay

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Perceived Positive and Negative Effects of Instant Messaging on Academic Writing

In the age of technology, does instant messaging enhance or hinder writing? A case study offers insights from a generation that’s never lived without the internet.

In the spring of 2021, I met with several high school directors. Each of them brought up the same concern: today’s high schoolers are struggling to obtain college-level writing skills. The directors blame this problem primarily on instant messaging (IM) and the internet, and they are unsure how to adjust their writing curriculum in order to meet this generation’s unique needs. This experience led me to wonder how the students themselves think IM has affected their writing. Perhaps with a clearer idea of young writers’ strengths and weaknesses, we can better address the confounding problems posed by the age of the internet.

THE RESEARCH 

Jill Adams’s 2007 study “ Student Perceptions of the Impact of Instant Messaging on Academic Writing ” addresses this issue by investigating how students perceive IM’s influence on their writing. Adams examined middle school students’ written documents and conducted interviews with five students to determine how they viewed their writing strengths and weaknesses. Their responses suggest that there are distinct positive and negative effects of IM on academic writing. 

“On my papers, I tend to have really bad organization—my thoughts are all spread out or they’re all in the same long paragraph.” Anonymous Student Participant

The perceived positive effects include the following:

• Speed: Students noted that IM has greatly increased the speed at which they write. 
• Original ideas: Some students believed that IM helped them come up with original ideas and creative content in their academic writing.
• Voice: Many participants thought their voice in writing was greatly improved by IM. One student said, “I used to have really bad voice in my papers. I haven’t had a teacher ask for better voice anymore” (under “Impact of Instant Messaging on writing products”).

The perceived negative effects of IM are as follows:

• Lack of organization: Instant messages are typically written in one “paragraph” that can contain unrelated ideas. This unorganized style is also apparent in academic writing, as noted by one student: “On my papers, I tend to have really bad organization—my thoughts are all spread out or they’re all in the same long paragraph” (under “Impact of Instant Messaging on writing products”).
• Rushing: Students’ increased writing speed is a double-edged sword. While it provides certain advantages, it can also lead to mistakes, lack of proper planning, and omission of important details.
• Lack of proper mechanics: The study found that students’ papers had poor word choice, improper spelling and punctuation, and lack of capitalization. Students said they did not care about those mechanics when using IM. 

THE IMPLICATIONS

These perceived positive and negative effects give us a glimpse at the advantages and disadvantages of the rising generation’s writers. In order to properly teach this generation how to improve their writing, educators must play to their strengths and assist them with their weaknesses. The middle school students of 2007 are also now the authors of today, so editors may need to more frequently help their authors with organizing thoughts, planning, including important details, and applying an appropriate mechanical style.

Individuals who grew up with instant messaging need not be an enigma; if we understand their unique advantages and disadvantages, we unlock the key to their writing success.

To learn more about how students perceive the effects of IM, read the full article:

Adams, Jill. 2007. “Student Perceptions of the Impact of Instant Messaging on Academic Writing.” Literacy Learning: The Middle Years 15 (2): 37–45. https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA166201100&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=13205692&p=AONE&sw=w

—Kennadie Halliday, Editing Research

FEATURE IMAGE BY PRISCILLA DU PREEZ

Find more research

For more on technology’s impact on editing, check out Madeline Hill’s Editing Research article “ Online Editing: The Effects of Technology on Future Editors .”

Read Sheelah M. Sweeny’s (2011) article to learn more about teaching the IM generation how to improve their writing: “Writing for the Instant Messaging and Text Messaging Generation: Using New Literacies to Support Writing Instruction.” Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 54 (2): 121–30. https://doi.org/10.1598/JAAL.54.2.4 .

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Skylar Griego

This is an interesting topic. But I think the strengths and weaknesses outlined here are outdated at this point. The variety of instant communication methods available to us has exploded since 2007, and many people now text/IM with multiple messages styled like short paragraphs now. On top of that, we now have emojis, memes, and gifs as a mainstream form of communication. I would be very interested in an updated version of this study for both those students surveyed in 2007 and today’s middle schoolers.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Instant Messaging - Pros & Cons Unveiled

• Regina Woodard
• Categories : Collaboration , Business
• Tags : Office collaboration topics collaboration tools

Introduction

With the introduction of the Internet, much of our communication has been done through the screen of our computer monitors or even through our phones. One of the many additions to this was that of instant messaging. Instant messaging , or IMs, allow for instant communication to anyone in the same city, in a different state, or anywhere in the world.

With the real time response in speaking to someone as though they were in the same room, there are both advantages and disadvantages of instant messaging. In this article, we’ll look at a few cases of the advantages and the disadvantages of this instant technology.

Advantages of Instant Messaging

There are many advantages to using instant messages. The very concept is to put people together when they aren’t in the same city or

even the same country. Now, with online gaming, friends and strangers can group together in order to take down an evil boss; businesses and companies can do business through the use of IMs from either the office or that of their phone. Other advantages are -

• Ability to keep in contact with family and friends when not in the same city, state, or country.
• Ability to make new friends from all around the world.
• Sending messages to co-workers or employees as short messages in the workplace.
• Ability to speak to multiple people online at the same time either through several IM windows or inviting people to a chat room.

Disadvantages of Instant Messaging

As with anything online, there are of course disadvantages. While the real time response is great, IMs do take away the face to face, personal experience that people have when they are speaking to someone in person. You can’t really get a very good emotional bead on someone through IM nor are you sure of who you are talking to through IM, which can be dangerous if you aren’t careful. Other disadvantages include -

• Inability to gauge emotional well being through IM.
• Uncertainty that the person you are talking to is the person you are talking to. This can be dangerous, especially for teens, as there’s no guarantee of knowing who the person is or how old they are.
• Possibility of getting viruses from people you don’t know.
• Lkelihood of miscommunication. Because a screen separates people, some individuals may not feel the need to use the appropriate netiquette .
• Potential for misuse. Workplaces now have certain rules when it comes to using IMs, which if ignore, could lead to loss of employment.

With the wide variety of different applications for not only desktop and laptop applications, you can also IM from your smart phone or cell phone that has the IM capability. So much diversity means that IM users need to be vigilant in making sure that they protect themselves from malicious and dangerous threats that may present themselves.

Image content @ author, via Trillian

• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 11 January 2022

Effects of using mobile instant messaging on student behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement: a quasi-experimental study

• Ying Tang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4757-1604 1 &
• Khe Foon Hew 1  

International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education volume  19 , Article number:  3 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Mobile instant messaging (MIM) has become the most popular means for young people to communicate. MIM apps typically come with a myriad of features that educators may leverage to increase student learning. However, it remains poorly understood to what extent and in what aspect MIM can facilitate student engagement. We address the gap by comparing the effects of using MIM and asynchronous online discussion (AOD) on student online engagement, using a quasi-experimental study involving a historical cohort control group. Understanding which communication mode can better promote student online engagement is particularly important during the current widespread use of online learning. Specifically, we examined engagement from the behavioral, emotional, and cognitive dimensions. The results showed that the MIM group was more behaviorally engaged in discussion activities, producing more messages, more words, and higher rates of participation, task completion, and interaction. Emotionally, no statistically significant difference was found in students’ affective evaluation of course interaction and satisfaction between the two groups. However, MIM appeared to help students with improved intimacy and interpersonal relationships. Cognitively, the MIM group was more engaged than the AOD group. In particular, MIM seemed to facilitate interactive idea exchange and thus contributing to more “creating” activities. We conclude by providing suggestions for future instructional practice and research directions.

Introduction

With the wide penetration of smartphones and mobile broadband access, mobile instant messaging (MIM) is becoming an essential means of communication worldwide (Dhir et al., 2020 ). As of July 2020, WhatsApp was the most popular MIM app with 2 billion monthly active users, followed by Facebook Messenger (1.3 billion) and WeChat (1.2 billion) (Statista, 2021 ). A recent study showed that MIM has surpassed voice calls, emails, face-to-face communication, and social network sites (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Instagram) and become the most popular means of daily communication (Pew Research Center, 2019 ). Typical MIM apps offer various functions including group chats, audio/video chats, file sharing, real-time location sharing, and exchange of nonverbal graphics such as emoji and stickers.

MIM presents a unique “quasi-synchronous” communication because although posted messages are available synchronously to participants, the message production process (typing) is available only to the sender; the recipient does not have direct access to real-time message production by the sender (Garcia & Jacobs, 1999 ). When a new message arrives, a push notification will pop up and prompts users to engage in communication either instantaneously or with a short time lag. In other words, whether and when to participate in the communication is up to the message receiver after they get notified about message arrival. This is different from synchronous communication (e.g., phone calls, video chats), which requires the transmitter and receiver to be present at the same time and/or space at a mutually agreed schedule. There is no response time delay in synchronous communication because it happens in real time, unlike MIM quasi-synchronous communication where there is often some short delay. MIM is different from asynchronous communication (e.g., emails, forum discussions) because most MIM messages are answered promptly (Andujar, 2019 ) within 60 s (as in the case of WhatsApp) (Rosenfeld et al., 2018 ), whereas the average response time of asynchronous communication is markedly longer—24 h for email (Chang et al., 2016 ) and 24 to 48 h for online discussion forums (Jeong & Frazier, 2008 ). Figure  1 illustrates the differences between asynchronous, synchronous, and quasi-synchronous communication with examples.

The differences between asynchronous, synchronous, and quasi-synchronous communication

MIM is both a mobile and quasi-synchronous communication tool. MIM is developed specifically for mobile devices and not for computers, which means users can carry WhatsApp or WeChat easily in their pocket (Unuth, 2020 ). The mobility of MIM tools and the quasi-synchronicity of MIM communication are two interwoven features and are not separable from each other. The quasi-synchronous communication of MIM is attributed to the portability and mobility of mobile devices. Thus, the word “quasi-synchronicity” has the connotation that easy accessibility of a mobile device is available in the communicative process. To explain, the message notification of a mobile phone alerts a receiver whenever a new WhatsApp or WeChat message arrives. The receiver can then choose to join the conversation anytime and anywhere he or she prefers.

In addition to its unprecedented popular social use, MIM demonstrates the potential to support teaching and learning. Like other computer-mediated communicative (CMC) channels, MIM shatters the temporal and spatial restrictions of traditional face-to-face meetings and allows people to stay connected (Kiesler et al., 1984 ). Besides, its multi-functionality and flexibility enable learning by facilitating resource sharing and distant collaboration (Tang & Hew, 2019 ; Xue & Churchill, 2019 ). For example, teachers have used MIM to support language practice (e.g., Andujar, 2016 ), after-class tutorial services (e.g., Butgereit, 2007 ), class-related information delivery (e.g., Chai & Fan, 2016 ), and assignment submission (e.g., Dambal et al., 2015 ). According to a recent literature review, MIM seemed to be particularly beneficial for developing a social presence in computer-mediated learning environments, mainly due to the friendly environment created with multiple integrated lively elements (e.g., visuals, audio, videos, and other graphical icons), as well as the increased interactivity of the quasi-synchronous communication (Tang & Hew, 2017 ). As for its impact on improving student learning outcomes, most experimental studies reported positive effect, especially when MIM was used to supplement course content in interactive class activities (e.g., Andujar, 2016 ; Chai & Fan, 2016 ). However, researchers also found that messaging can be obstructive to student learning, such as taking a longer time to complete the task or having lower assignments scores (Bowman et al., 2010 ; Chen & Yan, 2016 ; Fox et al., 2009 ). Unstructured messaging can also negatively influence one’s overall productivity due to the increase of communicative workload, engagement in multitasking, and frequency of message notification interruptions (Rennecker & Godwin, 2003 ).

Although the use of MIM has significantly increased, MIM has received much less attention in education, compared with other popular social tools such as Facebook and Twitter (Pimmer & Rambe, 2018 ). Questions remain concerning whether MIM is superior to other CMC mode (such as asynchronous online discussion [AOD]) in engaging students. In this study, we referred to the media synchronicity theory and examined the influence of MIM on learning through the lens of engagement, which is linked to desired learning behaviors and outcomes (Finn & Zimmer, 2012 ; Xu et al., 2020 ). We adopted a quasi-experimental research design to compare the influences of using MIM and AOD on student behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement. The central research question is: How effective is the impact of MIM-supported educational activities on student online engagement as compared to AOD?

This study offers the following original contributions. First, we empirically compare the extent to which MIM influences student online engagement with the commonly used AOD mode. Understanding which communication mode can better promote student online engagement is particularly important during the current health crisis. Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, many institutions have little choice but to use online education for remote teaching and learning. Yet despite the widespread use of online education, the lack of student online engagement remains a problem (Farrell & Brunton, 2020 ). This study offers timely empirical evidence to help teachers choose the appropriate communication mode to foster student online engagement. Second, we investigate student engagement as a multi-dimensional construct, uncovering the nuances in how different communication modes influence student engagement behaviorally, emotionally, and cognitively. Third, we provide pedagogical suggestions to promote student engagement and learning in MIM-supported educational activities in CMC contexts.

In the following sections, we first review related literature on media synchronicity theory, the multidimensional nature of engagement, as well as empirical studies of the educational use of MIM. We proceed to describe the research design and present the comparative results of the behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement of participants from the two groups. We discuss the results in relation to media synchronicity and student motivation and conclude with a set of instructional design suggestions and directions for future research.

Literature review

In this section, we review related literature on the media synchronicity theory, the multiple dimensions of engagement, as well as previous studies on the educational use of MIM to support student learning.

Media synchronicity theory

Media Synchronicity Theory (MST) discusses the capability of media to support synchronicity, which is defined as “a state in which individuals are working together at the same time with a common focus” (Dennis et al., 2008 , p. 581). According to MST, one medium is no better than another; communication performance can be improved when the synchronicity of media can match the synchronicity required to complete the task. Dennis et al. ( 2008 ) defined two fundamental processes of all communication: conveyance and convergence. Conveyance refers to the transmission of new information to create new mental models. Convergence is the process of reaching mutual understanding based on sharing “known” knowledge (Dennis et al., 2008 ). Since conveyance involves more cognitive processing of new information, it typically requires longer periods of time characterized by a medium with low synchronicity. In contrast, because convergence typically requires rapid transmission of small amounts of known information, it benefits from a medium that supports high synchronicity (Dennis et al., 2008 ). In real-life scenarios, to improve the performance of a communicative task, we need to consider the task nature, the media features, and the maturity of grouping, in order to make strategic choices of selecting and combining multiple media types (Dennis et al., 2008 ).

Engagement as a multi-dimensional construct

Students engagement happens when they are motivated to devote time and efforts to the learning process (Wigfield et al., 2006 ). Engagement is the visible manifestation of motivation (Skinner et al., 2009 ). “Engagement is defined by an observable, action-oriented subtype (behavioral) and two internal ones (cognitive and emotional) but then is differentiated from motivation as engagement being action (observable behavior), motivation as intent (internal)” (Reschly & Christenson, 2012 , p. 14). Engagement is multi-dimensional (Appleton et al., 2008 ; Finn & Zimmer, 2012 ). Fredricks et al. ( 2004 ) proposed a three-construct typology consisting of behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, and cognitive engagement (see Fig.  2 , with two examples of indicative behaviors for each dimension).

Three dimensions of engagement and examples of indicators for each dimension

This typology is well grounded in the literature and has been widely cited across diverse disciplines (e.g., Balfanz et al., 2007 ; Brodie et al., 2011 ; Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ). Behavioral engagement refers to participation in academic, social, or extracurricular activities (Fredricks et al., 2004 ). Student participation in an online discussion can be evaluated by various factors, such as the number and type of discussion posts (Hew & Cheung, 2003 ). Emotional engagement refers to students’ affective reactions toward interactions with teachers, peers, and the learning environment (Fredricks et al., 2004 ). Emotional engagement is typically measured by self-reported data, such as questionnaire surveys and interviews. Cognitive engagement comprises thinking and understanding of the topic, as reflected by students’ task investment in terms of being strategic or self-regulating (Fredricks et al., 2004 ). There is a qualitative distinction between low-level and high-level cognitive engagement, observable from surface-level to deep-level strategy use (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990 ). Cognitive engagement can be assessed either subjectively with self-reported questionnaire surveys or objectively with test scores and choices of task difficulty levels (Hew et al., 2016 ; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990 ). It is also common to perform content analysis to examine cognitive engagement in online interactions (e.g., Wang et al., 2014 ; Xie & Ke, 2011 ; Zhu, 2006 ).

Education use of MIM

Previous studies have exploited the communicative functions of MIM and used it in dialogic activities. For example, Allagui ( 2014 ) asked students to accomplish structured conversation tasks (e.g., a role play) in WhatsApp groups to learn English. Over 80% of the students liked MIM and expressed willingness to continue using it. Similarly, Lai ( 2016 ) asked 45 seventh graders to use WhatsApp groups to practice English for three months and found a significant correlation between students’ chat frequency and vocabulary gain. Instructors also used MIM to deliver multi-modal messages or to provide out-of-class assistance in a timely manner. For example, Chai and Fan ( 2016 ) used WeChat to deliver texts, images, and videos about course content to support pre-class content delivery in a flipped classroom. Zhang and Xue ( 2015 ) allowed students to use WeChat and ask for help about their assignments or exam preparation. Aside from these two “transmission” and “helpline” functions, previous studies also used MIM to support other educational activities, such as to collaboratively complete a writing piece, to post a solution to an assignment, or to record students’ learning reflections (Tang & Hew, 2017 ). More recently, Xu et al. ( 2020 ) examined the effects of the teacher role on learner engagement in WeChat-based discussion.

MIM promotes a sense of collaboration among students (Robinson et al., 2015 ). Its quasi-synchronicity allows students to respond quickly, leading to an increased level of interactivity and the development of a social presence (Tu & McIsaac, 2002 ). Social presence refers to the ability of students “to project themselves socially and emotionally as real people” in mediated environment (Garrison et al., 1999 , p. 94). It can influence student learning in the aspects of motivation, activity participation, course satisfaction, perceived learning, and critical thinking (Richardson et al., 2017 ). Furthermore, the availability of non-verbal cues, such as emoticons, emojis, and stickers, can convey emotions in student interactions (Tang & Hew, 2019 ) and make online conversations livelier and friendlier (Wang et al., 2016 ). Recently, Tang and Hew ( 2020 ) compared the levels of social presence between students using MIM and those using AOD and found that MIM is particularly suited to promoting expressions of emotions (affective social presence), agreement (interactive social presence), as well as phatics and support (cohesive social presence). However, this study focused solely on the social aspect of MIM use but did not examine its influence on other dimensions of students’ learning.

The effect of using MIM on cognitive engagement is not conclusive, due to the limited number of comparative studies and insufficient methodological rigor in experimental studies. For instance, Andujar ( 2016 ) and Chai and Fan ( 2016 ) reported positive effects of MIM use compared with the use of other tools or no treatment, while Kim et al. ( 2014 ) and Lai ( 2016 ) reported either no effect or adverse effects. A recent study by Sun et al. ( 2018 ) compared interaction types, social network patterns, and participants’ attitudes between using an online discussion forum and an MIM app. The results show students were more involved in social interactions on MIM but were more involved in knowledge construction on the online forum (Sun et al., 2018 ). While MIM led to more interactions, students preferred using the online forum for collaborative learning (Sun et al., 2018 ). This study adopted a broad categorization of interaction types (social interaction vs. knowledge construction) and did not evaluate specific levels of thinking or knowledge construction. Moreover, it only reported descriptive statistical results but no measurable learning outcomes.

The educational use of MIM also has challenges. Pimmer and Rambe ( 2018 ) identified three interdependent pairs of affordances and constraints in temporal, relationship, and intellectual dimensions. To explain, its immediacy may increase interactivity but may pressure users to respond quickly. Ubiquitous interaction may increase perceived intimacy but may decrease the sense of privacy. Informal language use may be considered friendly but may not be always appropriate in formal educational contexts. The casual environment may increase the level of playfulness and participation but may distract students from task-oriented conversations (Pimmer & Rambe, 2018 ). Other challenges include technical problems such as insufficient smartphone ownership, unstable Internet connectivity, and small cellphone keyboards and screens (e.g., Allagui, 2014 ; Dambal et al., 2015 ).

We identified three major gaps regarding student engagement and the educational use of MIM. First, there is a lack of empirical study that examined the influence of MIM-supported activities on student engagement. Second, some engagement indicators, such as student participation and affective responses, have been sporadically presented by previous studies. However, without a comprehensive examination of engagement as a multi-dimensional construct, our understanding of the educational potential of MIM remains limited. Third, very few studies have compared the effectiveness of using MIM with other communication mode in influencing student learning. This study addresses these gaps by comparing the impacts of using MIM and using AOD in educational activities on student engagement. In the next section, we present more details of the research design.

We conducted a quasi-experimental research involving a historical cohort control group. When random assignment of participants is not possible for practical and ethical reasons in educational research, a quasi-experimental study allows researchers to conduct comparative study in its natural setting (Campbell & Stanley, 1966 ). In addition, use of a historical cohort control group design provides a viable option for conducting quasi-experiments in outcome evaluation, with minimal resource requirements and disruption to school routines (Walser, 2014 ). To manage the comparability of treatment and control conditions, in this study, we chose two classes taught by the same instructor with identical syllabi, course materials, and class activities in two consecutive semesters. Students in the experimental group (hereinafter: MIM group) used WeChat for course-related discussion, while those in the control group (hereinafter: AOD group) used the asynchronous Moodle forum for the same activities. Moodle is the learning management system used on the university campus.

This study was conducted in an ecologically valid real classroom setting where WeChat and Moodle were adopted in natural educational practices, instead of a laboratory setting where strict controls of experiment conditions to investigate the different influences of mobile versus non-mobile, and synchronous versus asynchronous communication were imposed. In this study, we did not impose any restrictions on how participants should use MIM or AOD services. All students in the MIM group naturally used the MIM service via the mobile app on their mobile phones while all students from the AOD group naturally used Moodle forum via their personal computers. This allowed us to better understand what was going on in real classrooms and derive insights from authentic use cases. Moreover, although we chose these two tools for this study, our focus was not to merely compare these tools, but to evaluate the impacts of different modes (quasi-synchronous communication and mobility presented by MIM versus asynchronous communication and non-mobility represented by Moodle forum) on student engagement. MIM and AOD forum are both widely adopted to support student learning activities. Understanding which communication mode can better promote student online engagement is particularly important during the current widespread use of online learning. Our goal was to empirically investigate which one of the communicative modes can better support student engagement in real classroom settings.

To further improve the validity of comparison, since students with a better understanding of the content knowledge typically participate more actively (Tinto, 1987 ), we controlled the influence of students’ initial content knowledge by administering a pre-class assessment on the main knowledge unit covered in this course. 26 students from the MIM group and 28 from the AOD group completed the quiz. Since the data significantly deviated from a normal distribution, we compared the difference with a Mann–Whitney U -test. The results showed no significant difference ( U  = 337.5, p  = 0.63) in student prior knowledge between the two groups (MIM group: M  = 1.19, SD  = 1.44; AOD group: M  = 1.21, SD  = 1.13) (See Table 1 ).

Research context

Participants were enrolled in an educational course at a large university in Hong Kong in the 2016–2017 school year. The class met once a week, three hours each week, and for eight weeks in total. The instructor taught the course in a flipped approach, by disseminating instructional videos before each class and guiding students to apply what they had learned in class (see Fig.  3 for a visual illustration of the learning process). The first four weeks covered content knowledge, and the last four weeks were for student-led group presentations. In the first four weeks, students completed six online discussion tasks (see Table 2 ) on the designated platforms. The MIM group was enrolled in 2016 Fall, involving 26 students (23 females and three males). All the students were from mainland China or Hong Kong. The AOD group was enrolled in 2017 Spring, involving 29 students (21 females and eight males). One student was from Thailand, and the others were from mainland China or Hong Kong.

The learning activities and process of a flipped learning approach adopted in this study

Students understood that their participation in the discussion was completely voluntary and would not be counted toward their grades. Students were encouraged to provide feedback to others’ comments, and they were allowed to use the discussion platform in any way that might help them learn with no prescribed regulations. For example, they could ask assignment-related questions or share internship information. The instructor did not participate unless students specifically sought his help.

Data collection and analysis

Figure  4 summarizes the ways in which we measured how behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement happened in the learning process, and how we collected the data.

The measurements and data sources of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement

To measure behavioral engagement , we collected students’ online interaction records after the course ended, and analyzed the data using a content analysis method (Holsti, 1969 ). Specifically, we counted the number of participants and their posts, as well as calculated the number of posts per individual and discussion task. We categorized postings as on-task and off-task messages. On-task messages were posts that directly contributed to the discussion topics, while off-task messages were not directly related to the topics. On-task messages were further grouped into two types: task completion (messages intended to complete the task) and interaction (messages as responses). One message could contain components of both task completion and interaction.

To compare emotional engagement , we interviewed 20 students, 10 from each group, to understand their affective responses toward the course content, participation, resources, and interaction. These interviews were semi-structured, wherein we asked elaboration and clarification questions as needed to gain more insight. Each interview lasted about 30 min. All interviews were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim, and double-checked for accuracy. We also administered a Likert-style survey anonymously via Google Forms upon the course completion. The 15-item survey was adapted from Bailey ( 2002 ) to measure student attitude towards peer interaction, student–instructor interaction, and course satisfaction. We compared students’ responses with the Mann–Whitney U -test, as the data significantly deviated from a normal distribution. Significance was accepted at the level of 0.05.

The aforementioned interviews also helped identify students’ learning strategies and perceived learning outcomes, as indicators of cognitive engagement . We analyzed the interview data with a grounded theory approach (Glaser & Strauss, 1967 ) to allow categories to emerge from the data. This involved generating a series of codes and successively refining them through an iterative process, until no more new codes could be identified.

In addition to the interview data, we adopted Wang et al. ( 2014 ) framework of cognitive engagement in connected learning contexts and analyzed on-task messages as an externalization of learning-related thought. The unit of analysis was the thematic unit because our focus was the “communication of meaning” (Merriam, 1998 ). One message might contain several units of analysis. The framework includes four levels (from low to high) of cognitive engagement:

Operation . Learners operate technologies to help with their personal learning and mainly interact with the interface to facilitate idea expression. This stage does not involve interaction with other participants.

Wayfinding . Learners identify resources and opportunities contributed by others in the network. Learners interact with the content and other learners to aggregate more information to enhance their understanding.

Sense-making. Learners bring together different information and critically evaluate and negotiate a viewpoint.

Innovation. Learners construct new understanding and artifacts, such as changes to one’s personal opinions or behaviors and new suggestions or resources to extend the existing discussion.

Guided by this framework, we adopted the constant comparison method (Lincoln & Guba, 1985 ) to identify specific indicators of cognitive engagement. Ten codes emerged inductively from the data corpus. The operationalization of each code was reviewed and refined iteratively. To increase the consistency of the analysis, we identified exemplary posts to illustrate each code. The final codebook is shown in Table 3 . Twenty percent of the qualitative data were randomly selected and analyzed by two independent researchers to ascertain coding reliability, which yielded an agreement rate of 92%. All disagreement was resolved through discussion.

Behavioral engagement

Table 4 summarizes the differences in behavioral engagement of the two groups.

The MIM group produced more messages than the AOD group, including more on-task and interactive messages, while the AOD group wrote longer messages than MIM students. All MIM students participated in the out-of-class discussions, producing 473 messages with 22,489 words. A total of 321 messages were on-task, among which 186 (57.9%) were interactive. Each student produced 865 words, and each message contained an average of 47.5 words. On the other hand, 28 of the 29 students from the AOD group participated in the tasks, producing 169 messages with 17,289 words. All the messages were on-task, and 47 (27.8%) were interactive. The average number of words per student was 617.5 and per message was 102. We further analyzed the following aspects of participation and interaction.

Participation rate

Measured by dividing the number of students who participated by the total number of students enrolled. The average participation rate of the MIM group across all six tasks was 88.5% and that of the AOD group was 69.5%. The MIM group demonstrated a higher participation rate.

Task completion rate

Measured by dividing the number of students who completed the tasks by the total number of students enrolled. In the MIM group, the average number of students who completed the tasks was 21.2, with a completion rate of 81.4%. In the AOD group, the average number of students who completed the tasks was 20.2, with a completion rate of 69.5%. The MIM students demonstrated a higher task completion rate.

Interaction rate

Measured by dividing the number of interaction posts by the total number of posts. The MIM group’s interaction rate reached 51.68%, while the AOD group’s interaction rate was 23.13%. In the AOD group, two tasks did not have any interactive posts. The MIM students demonstrated a higher interaction rate.

Emotional engagement

According to the interviews, both MIM and AOD helped students create a sense of group and connectivity. Both technologies improved an awareness of peer presence. However, while most MIM interviewees explicitly acknowledged the positive impact of using WeChat on their feelings, hardly any AOD interviewees recognized the effect of the forum on their emotional engagement. Students mentioned the following reasons why they felt WeChat enhanced their emotional engagement.

Instructor being approachable

Students appreciated the instructor’s attempt to use this social tool in an academic context. According to one interviewee, “It shows he is willing to know us and mingle with us. I do not know any other teachers who are using WeChat. Maybe they do, but they don’t share it with us.”

Inclusive, relaxing, and interactive

Students frequently used inclusive pronouns, such as “we, us, our” to address the group, which gave them a sense of belonging. In addition, the message notifications prompted them to get engaged and contributed to an interactive learning environment. One student noted, “You know others are participating, and you want to be a part of it too. It is not like Moodle, where you post your answer and leave. I seldom read what others say, and I don’t think others care that much about what I say.”

Easy emotional expression

The convenient use of emojis and stickers helped with emotional expression and added some fun to the conversation. One student said, “If someone knows how to use stickers, they are more likely to be an easygoing and interesting person. I would want to know them and make friends with them.”

Social interaction

The social nature of WeChat increased a sense of intimacy. Students would use social phatics, such as greetings or holiday wishes, to improve the level of positivity and friendliness. Students were also connected with the social sharing function, which allowed them to know their classmates as unique individuals outside of the classroom. One student commented, “You get to know them better through what they share and how they describe their posts.”

However, some students still preferred limiting the use of MIM to social conversations. They felt awkward to intentionally use MIM for academic posts. Further, students sometimes thought the notifications pushed by MIM were distracting, even annoying. Messages could also be obstructive to one’s private life. Students also disliked the pressure to participate only because their classmates were active, even though the discussions were voluntary. One student said, “Sometimes I forced myself to comment, because others would have a better impression of me, including the teacher.”

On the other hand, most AOD interviewees showed a neutral attitude toward the impact of using forum on their affective involvement. Their responses were comparatively succinct, such as “I could not say it had a strong influence,” or “It was not obvious.” Two main uninviting features of Moodle forum were (1) the lack of interaction, and (2) the pressure of being formal. Most students would just post their own answers but did not bother to comment on others’ postings. When they wrote their own responses, students felt the pressure to provide in-depth responses. One student said, “I always wrote an essay in a Word document, double-checked the grammar, and read it several times before posting it. I had to make sure that everything was up to academic expectations.”

Regarding the survey results, 20 MIM students and 27 AOD students responded on their attitudes towards the course interaction and satisfaction. The score of each construct was obtained by summing the scores of each item in that construct, and the overall score was obtained by adding the scores of all constructs. The results showed no significant difference in any surveyed aspects (see Table 5 ).

Cognitive engagement

We measured cognitive engagement based on students’ online interaction records and interviews about their learning strategies and perceived learning outcomes. Table 6 summarizes the coding results of students’ interaction records.

Both technologies supported student cognitive engagement in a variety of ways. A stark difference was in the wayfinding dimension. MIM students were most involved in wayfinding interaction, while the AOD students showed the least involvement in this category. This indicates MIM was more facilitative to interaction, as wayfinding indicates bidirectional communication. Regarding specific indicators, both groups were more frequently engaged in sharing information, although the AOD group demonstrated a higher percentage. Between groups, MIM students demonstrated higher frequencies of all individual indicators, indicating that more cognitively engaging communication was present in the MIM group. Particularly, MIM students demonstrated more instances of the highest level of cognitive engagement indicator “creating” than their AOD peers (32 vs. 8).

According to the interviews, students in the MIM group attributed their improved cognitive engagement to increased interactivity, class preparation, just-in-time learning opportunities, connected learning resources, and succinct language use.

Learning facilitated by increased interactivity

The mobility and synchronicity of MIM increased the level of interactivity and allowed students to seize just-in-time learning opportunities. They were able to co-produce knowledge in peer interactions, which prompted them to think more deeply about the discussion topics. One student said, “I would have more opportunities to ask questions and receive answers from my classmates. Reading my classmates’ answers also helped me learn.”

Better class preparation

Students actively utilized the MIM group to prepare for the course. “We basically explored the course content together before class. Unsolved questions could then be addressed by the instructor in class.”

Connected learning resources

The MIM group established an easy conversation channel, whereby they could navigate learning resources and have direct contact with their classmates to ask for clarification and elaboration. “If I am interested in a particular idea and would love to have more discussions, I could just @ the sender and ask them directly. It is convenient and efficient.”

However, some students from the MIM group complained about the size of keyboard and screen, which limited them to fully elaborate on ideas. Another negative factor was the chronological display of messages, which made group conversations difficult to follow. Students found it hard to engage in in-depth discussions if they were always catching up on the most recent messages. “If you are not following the interactions all the time, there is no easy way to read all the messages.”

As for AOD, students appreciated using it for academic discussions, mainly due to the following factors.

Extended processing time

Students took advantage of the asynchronous feature of the online forum to really think about their ideas and carefully put them into words. Extra processing time helped develop higher-order thinking, as one student said, “I can take my time to think carefully about what I want to say and how to support my ideas. I might spend several days on the draft.”

Searching while writing

All students used the online forum on their personal computers. The ease of searching and writing at the same time was one outstanding affordance of using Moodle forum. This feature was particularly facilitative of idea development, especially as academic posting tended to be complex and often required searching for extra information.

Easy editing and revision

It was easy to refine the content and insert more information on the forum. This allows for more critical thinking and language processing. “I can revise my posting when I have new ideas or supporting materials. It’s nice that Moodle allows editing.”

Organized threaded format

The threaded format of forum posts allowed students to organize relevant posts and easily search for content. Students considered this feature helpful for information retrieval and idea development.

What students disliked about AOD are its low interactivity and long formal responses. Like many other learning management systems, Moodle forum was not mobile-friendly, as it required students to take multiple steps to login, navigate to the right course, find the discussion board and the right topic, and then write their responses. One student said, “It is hard to use. That’s why I did not interact much. It was a headache to find the right place.” Additionally, students did not enjoy reading long posts or providing responses to such posts. The low interactivity and difficulty of use prevented students from actively participating in discussion tasks and thus limited the development of high-level cognitive engagement.

Discussion and implications

Revisiting the major findings.

In this study, we compared the engagement levels of two groups of students using MIM and AOD to conduct same course-related discussions in a flipped learning setting. Behaviorally, MIM seems to have contributed to a higher level of engagement than AOD in terms of the total number of posts, the total number of words and of each student, the participation rate, the task completion rate, and the interaction rate. However, the messages tended to be longer on the forum than those in the MIM group, as shown by the number of words per message.

Emotionally, although the survey results showed no significant differences in student peer interaction, teacher–student interaction, or course satisfaction between the two groups, the interview results revealed more nuance. MIM established a friendly and interactive environment, which helped develop positive interpersonal relationships among participants. In contrast, students found little impact of AOD communication on their affective feelings toward the course and other students. On the negative side, some students disliked using WeChat for academic purposes, and some from the AOD group did not like the lack of interaction and lengthy essay-like responses on Moodle forum.

Cognitively, both technologies supported student cognitive engagement. AOD seemed more facilitative of individual sharing, while MIM contributed to a higher level of interactive idea exchange. The MIM group was also involved in more “creating” activities. Based on the interview results, students identified multiple facilitative and inhibitive features of both technologies. The MIM students enjoyed the increased interactivity, better class preparation, just-in-time learning opportunities, connected learning resources, and succinct language use, but they were also bothered by the device limitations and information disorganization. In the AOD group, students liked the structured discussion, extended processing time, and the ease of multi-tasking and editing, but they did not enjoy reading or responding to lengthy posts, which limited their desire for interaction.

The mobility, quasi-synchronicity, and casualness of MIM reduced students’ anxiety about being perfect and promote spontaneous discussion (Rambe & Bere, 2013 ). Studies have suggested that the increased interactivity would lead to a higher level of intimacy (Tu & McIsaac, 2002 ), which is a key factor of student affective feelings toward and satisfaction with completely online learning (Gunawardena & Zittle, 1997 ). However, our survey results revealed no significant difference in the emotional engagement between the two groups, although the MIM group demonstrated a higher level of interactivity. This might be due to the course nature, which in this study operated in a blended format. Therefore, the results may be different from completely online courses examined in previous studies. This course prioritized face-to-face meetings and included online discussions as supplementary and voluntary activities. As a result, online interaction might have less impact on student affective engagement than face-to-face meetings. Because both groups took the course with the same instructor and the same activities, their evaluation of the course might be very similar.

The differences in cognitive engagement presented a complex picture. Previous studies found that threaded AODs might better support higher-order thinking compared with chronologically organized discussions in instant messages (Kim et al., 2014 ; Sun et al., 2018 ). Our results suggested otherwise. One explanation of this incongruity may be that in both Kim et al. ( 2014 ) and Sun et al. ( 2018 ), the instructors assigned discussion activities as mandatory tasks. These activities were designed purposefully as collaborative projects, in which students had to either collaboratively find solutions to an ill-structured problem or co-develop a lesson plan based on peer feedback. According to the media synchronicity theory, when a large amount of information is to be exchanged in the communication, media that afford low synchronicity (AOD in this case) may facilitate better communication performance, as it allows more time to read, understand, and process information transmitted (Dennis et al., 2008 ). However, in our study, participating in the discussions was voluntary, and collaboration was not necessary. When students were given the choice to participate, MIM seemed to have afforded higher levels of interaction and more opportunities to share ideas. Such frequent “give and take” is favorably supported by a medium that supports high synchronicity (in this case, MIM) (Dennis et al., 2008 ). The increased level of interaction may have contributed to higher cognitive engagement, especially more “creating” indicators. The creation of new ideas or artifacts does not occur in an individual but through interaction between the individual and the social–cultural context (Csikszentmihályi, 1990 ). Pi et al. ( 2019 ) also found if students were exposed to a high rate of peers’ original ideas and paid more attention to those ideas, they would be more creative. Therefore, using MIM to boost students’ interaction might be a useful strategy for improving creative thinking.

Instructional design suggestions

According to the media synchronicity theory, no medium is better than the other. Communicators should choose appropriate media based on the task requirements, the media features, and the maturity of grouping (Dennis et al., 2008 ). Based on our observation and analysis, we provide the following suggestions for instructors who wish to incorporate MIM or AOD to improve student engagement and learning. These suggestions aim to utilize the affordances of MIM or AOD and to address their challenges.

Set clear goals for using technologies for learning

Different communicative modes and tools are suitable to serve different learning purposes. To address students’ complaints over the confusion between casual and academic interactions, instructors should clearly communicate the purposes and expectations of using MIM or AOD for communication and learning activities. Instructor can also encourage students to design and implement MIM-supported learning activities themselves. Giving students the freedom of choice will enhance their sense of autonomy, leading to higher levels of behavioral and emotional engagement. Our study also shows that clear communication of the expectations will help students to be more intentionally focused of academic conversations.

Start with the whole-class MIM group first, but reconsider group size in discussion activities

The MIM group helps students to stay connected, assist one another with content learning, and exchange ideas to facilitate higher-level thinking. It is therefore beneficial to have a group to improve relatedness and competence. However, as indicated by some participants in this study, too many members in a group will lead to information overload and message disorganization. We thus suggest starting a whole-class group first to establish a sense of community but breaking up into smaller groups for discussion activities. For example, students could have internal discussion within small groups. Each group then selects a representative to summarize and present group ideas to the whole class to further facilitate exchange of thoughts.

Develop schedules for discussion

Instructor can develop a schedule with students to address student concerns about messaging being distractions and invasion of privacy, but still maintain flexibility and connectivity (Tu et al., 2014 ). For example, a discussion schedule can be set between 9 am and 5 pm each weekday. The schedule should be a collective decision of all participants. In addition, instructors can remind students to mute their MIM notifications when they do not want to be disturbed (Tang & Hew, 2019 ). AOD, on the other hand, due to its asynchronous nature, does not create any distraction or obtrusive feelings.

Design activities catering to device limitations

Students in this study complained about the low input ability and readability of long messages on MIM apps. They did not enjoy reading long messages on their cellphone screens and had difficulty typing long messages with small cellphone keyboards. Therefore, discussion activities should be designed purposefully with comparatively short answers that are easy to summarize. A task with multiple questions, or a topic requiring students to share anecdotal experiences in extensive narration, may be more suitable for AOD-based communication.

Cultivate a constructive knowledge sharing environment

High level of interaction is beneficial for enhancing both competence and relatedness. Instructors should actively cultivate a constructive knowledge exchange environment in MIM-supported interactions. For example, instructors can demonstrate how to provide constructive comments and build on one another’s ideas. To address information disorganization of MIM communication, in addition to managing group size, instructors could also assign student facilitators to summarize the highlights and manage conversations, which could help students to grasp crucial information and facilitate follow-up interactions. As for AOD, because of its asynchronous nature and comparatively low interactivity, instructors could consider providing rewards, incentives, or other positive stimuli to encourage students to participate in the knowledge co-construction process through interactions, in addition to their own sharing.

Limitations and future work

There are some limitations of this study which point to an array of possibilities for future research. First, the study was conducted in a graduate-level education course. These contextual factors might limit the generalizability of our results to other contexts such as undergraduate and K-12 settings. Future studies could investigate other disciplinary and geographical areas and in non-higher educational contexts. Second, the study examined student use of one technology over one semester (eight weeks). There might be a novelty effect on the results—the tendency of an initial improvement in student performance when a new technology is introduced to the learning environment (Clark, 1983 ). Researchers might wish to examine the long-term adoption of MIM and its influence on student learning and engagement. Third, this study suggests that discussion tasks with shorter answers could cater to the strengths of mobile devices. However, it is beyond our scope to investigate what types of activities are most suited to an MIM-based discussion. Future research could explore the influence of different discussion activities. Fourth, this study does not demonstrate that how different levels of engagement eventually lead to qualities of learning outcomes. Further studies should examine the relationship between student engagement and learning outcomes. Finally, we were unable to isolate the possible individual influences of mobility and synchronicity on the reported results. To determine the possible individual influences of mobility and synchronicity, future research may consider having different experiment conditions while controlling for the confounding variable. For instance, one group may use quasi-synchronous communication (MIM) via mobile phones versus another group using asynchronous online discussion also via mobile phones.

Our main motivation for this study is to understand the extent to which MIM, as a social tool, can facilitate student engagement. We compared the use and effects of MIM and AOD on students’ behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement. Our findings showed that using MIM could better facilitate interaction and the development of interpersonal relationships. A learning environment with higher levels of intimacy and interactivity can help meet the psychological need for motivation. We also found that when MIM was used in optional tasks, in which the students could choose whether and how they want to participate in the discussion, MIM seemed to afford a higher level of cognitive engagement, as shown by more indicators of idea exchange and creativity. MIM emerges as a promising tool for engaging students in social learning activities and fostering higher-level thinking through interaction. Our findings provide evidence to improve the instructional design of MIM-supported learning experiences and promote our theoretical understanding of student engagement.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available under the university IRB guidelines. Other materials are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Tang, Y., Hew, K.F. Effects of using mobile instant messaging on student behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement: a quasi-experimental study. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 19 , 3 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-021-00306-6

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-021-00306-6

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• Mobile instant messaging
• Asynchronous online discussion
• Higher education
• Quasi-experimental

• February 5, 2023
• 8 minute read

The Benefits of Instant Messaging at Work

In today’s fast-paced work environments, effective communication is essential for success. Employees need to be able to communicate quickly and efficiently, especially when working collaboratively on projects. In recent years, instant messaging has emerged as one of the best communication tools for businesses.

Topics Covered

Improved Communication and Collaboration

One of the primary benefits of instant messaging is improved communication and collaboration. Instant messaging allows team members to communicate in real time, making it easy to ask questions, get feedback, and share information with each other. This creates a more collaborative work environment, leading to improved productivity and better project outcomes.

For example, imagine you are working on a project with a team member who is located in a different time zone. With instant messaging, you can easily communicate with them and get the information you need without having to wait for a response via email or phone call. This not only saves time but also ensures that everyone is on the same page and working towards the same goals.

Faster Response Times

Instant messaging enables employees to respond quickly to messages, eliminating the need to wait for an email response or phone call. With messaging, employees can easily send and receive updates on their projects, leading to faster response times and better decision-making.

For instance, if you are working on a project and need a quick answer from a team member, you can send them an instant message and get a response within seconds. This helps in keeping the project moving forward and ensures that deadlines are met.

Real-Time Updates and Notifications

Instant messaging platforms also offer real-time updates and notifications . Team members can be notified instantly when a change is made to a project, making it easy to keep up-to-date with progress and stay on top of deadlines. This helps in keeping everyone on the same page and minimizes the risk of missed deadlines.

For example, if a team member makes a change to a document, the rest of the team can be instantly notified via instant message. This ensures that everyone is aware of the change and can adjust their work accordingly.

Streamlined Teamwork

Instant messaging platforms allow teams to work together efficiently, irrespective of their physical location. With messaging tools like file-sharing , screen-sharing, and video-conferencing, project collaboration can be streamlined, making it easy to share ideas, create documents, and collaborate on tasks.

For instance, if you are working on a project with team members who are located in different parts of the world, you can use instant messaging to share files and collaborate in real time. This makes it easy to work together, even if you are not in the same physical location.

In conclusion, instant messaging is a powerful tool that can help teams communicate more effectively, collaborate more efficiently, and ultimately achieve better project outcomes. By using instant messaging platforms, teams can work together seamlessly and efficiently, no matter where they are located.

Increased Productivity

Instant messaging is not just a communication tool but can also be a productivity tool. Here are some ways instant messaging can help you be more productive.

Reduced Email Clutter

Instant messaging can reduce the clutter in your inbox. People often send emails that do not need to be formal and, in many cases, could be handled by messaging. Instant messaging allows for these informal communications, removing unnecessary emails from your inbox.

For example, instead of sending an email to a colleague asking for a quick update on a project, you can send them a quick message on the messaging platform. This not only saves time but also reduces the number of emails in your inbox, making it easier to find important emails.

Time-Saving Features

Many instant messaging tools come with time-saving features such as instant replies, reminders, and read receipts. These features help to speed up communication, making it easy to follow up on messages and stay organized.

For instance, instant replies can be used to acknowledge a message without having to type a response. This can be especially useful when you are in a meeting or working on a project and do not have time to respond to a message immediately.

Reminders can be set to ensure that important messages are not forgotten. For example, if you receive a message about a meeting, you can set a reminder to ensure that you do not forget to attend the meeting.

Read receipts can be used to confirm that a message has been received and read. This can be helpful when you are waiting for a response to an important message.

Task Management and Prioritization

Instant messaging can also be used to manage tasks and prioritize them. Teams can create task lists, assign tasks, set deadlines, and monitor progress through messaging platforms. This can help ensure that tasks are completed on time and deadlines are met.

For instance , a team can create a task list on the messaging platform and assign tasks to team members. Each team member can then update the task list to show the progress they have made on their assigned tasks. This can help the team stay organized and ensure that tasks are completed on time.

Overall, instant messaging can be a valuable productivity tool that can help you stay organized, save time, and communicate more efficiently with your colleagues.

Remote Work and Flexibility

Remote work has become increasingly popular in recent years, with more and more companies offering their employees the option to work from home or other remote locations. One of the key tools that has made remote work possible and successful is instant messaging.

Connecting Remote Teams

Instant messaging can act as a virtual office, connecting remote teams and enabling collaboration. This is especially important for companies with employees spread across different locations or even different countries. With instant messaging, teams can communicate and work together regardless of their physical location, making teamwork possible even when separated by time zones and geography. This can lead to increased productivity, as team members can easily share ideas and information, and work together to solve problems.

For example, imagine a team of developers working on a project from different parts of the world. They can use instant messaging to communicate with each other in real-time, sharing updates on their progress, discussing any issues they encounter, and collaborating on solutions. This can help ensure that the project stays on track and is completed on time.

Accessible from Any Device

Another advantage of instant messaging is that it is accessible from any device, including smartphones, tablets, and computers. This makes it easy for remote workers to stay connected, no matter where they are . Having access to instant messaging tools from any device enhances productivity and fosters a more flexible work environment.

For instance, a salesperson who is traveling can use instant messaging to stay in touch with their team back at the office. They can receive updates on the latest sales figures, communicate with customers, and coordinate with their colleagues, all from their smartphones or tablet. This allows them to stay productive even when they are out of the office.

Adapting to Different Time Zones

Instant messaging can also help teams adjust to different time zones. By using instant messaging, team members can communicate with each other when it’s most convenient for them, making it easier to work with colleagues in different time zones .

For example, imagine a team with members in New York, London, and Tokyo. They can use instant messaging to communicate with each other throughout the day, even if they are working during different hours. This can help ensure that everyone is on the same page and that deadlines are met.

In conclusion, instant messaging is a vital tool for remote teams, enabling them to collaborate and communicate effectively regardless of their physical location. It is accessible from any device, making it easy for remote workers to stay connected, and can help teams adapt to different time zones. With instant messaging, remote work can be just as productive and successful as working in a traditional office setting.

Employee Engagement and Satisfaction

Instant messaging can also contribute to employee engagement and satisfaction. Here are some ways instant messaging can help keep employees engaged and satisfied at work.

Building Relationships and Team Culture

Instant messaging provides an opportunity for employees to build relationships and develop a team culture. It enables employees to communicate informally and share interests, personalities, and perspectives.

Encouraging Open Communication

Instant messaging can encourage open communication between employees and their managers. It provides an informal platform to discuss work-related concerns, ask questions, and provide feedback. This open communication can promote a culture of transparency, accountability, and trust.

Providing a Platform for Recognition and Feedback

Instant messaging can provide a platform for recognition and feedback. Managers can use messaging to provide feedback or recognition to an employee in real-time. This feedback and recognition can motivate and encourage employees to perform better.

In conclusion, Instant messaging plays a vital role in modern business communication. It allows for faster communication, streamlined collaboration, increased productivity, and a more flexible work environment. Instant messaging can also improve employee engagement and satisfaction, building relationships and promoting open communication within the workplace. Overall, integrating instant messaging into your business communication strategy can lead to better outcomes, happier employees, and a more successful business.

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The Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Instant Messaging in Business

Updated 19 September 2023

Subject Communication

Downloads 25

Category Business ,  Information Science and Technology ,  Sociology

In the current edge of technology, the Instant Messaging has been used by various companies. One of the advantages of using the instant messaging platforms in the business sector is the security of the platforms. Many firms used to believe that the instant messaging platforms are not secure, but as technology has advanced, platforms such as WhatsApp have the cutting-edge end-to-end encryption algorithms to improve the security of the information sharing system. Moreover, many people now own smartphones, and the Instant Messaging platforms offer a cost-effective strategy for communication within a business. Conferencing is, therefore, made possible under cheap platforms (William, Nicol II, and Andrew Smith 59). The mobility of having the smartphones increases the communication process that aids in discussions even when people are not in a meeting. Therefore, only a few departments in any business can benefit from the use of Instant Messaging, especially the ones which require constant communication (Bovée, Courtland, John Thill, and Roshan Lal Raina 77).

            The challenge, however, occurs in the privacy of the system. Many people can access the mobile phones of people and hence get access to the business discussions. Additionally, many distractions occur as these instant messaging platforms are used for social activities. As such, business discussions can be affected by the nature of people to socialize with others, hence the loss of concentration on the business matters. A variety of the instant messaging platforms exist, and thus it becomes challenging to select the most suitable to use for any business.

            Considering the accounting nature of the business, instant messaging may not have many benefits to the department. No major accounting principles and calculations can be conducted on such platforms, which hence limit the ability to use the Instant Messaging technology in the business.

Works Cited

Bovée, Courtland L., John V. Thill, and Roshan Lal Raina. Business communication today. Pearson Education India, 2016.

William, B. Nicol II, and Andrew B. Smith. "Solution that leverages an instant messaging system to manage ad hoc business process workflows." U.S. Patent No. 9,454,737. 27 Sep. 2016.

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• Frontiers - Exploring the Emotional Experience During Instant Messaging Among Young Adults: An Experimental Study Incorporating Physiological Correlates of Arousal
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instant messaging (IM) , form of text-based communication in which two people participate in a conversation over their computers or smartphones via an Internet -based chat room or application.

Instant messaging (IM) platforms, generally referred to as messaging services or apps, often monitor for users’ online presence and show an indication of their availability. For example, the popular workplace messaging service Slack shows a green circle next to a user’s profile name if they are available to chat. IM software relies on a central server or servers to monitor user availability. In the past, when a user logged into an IM system, the login was recognized by the system, and other online users who had that address listed as a “buddy,” or friend, were notified of the user’s presence. With the modernization of such apps, users rarely have to log in or out of an application to receive messages, and applications rarely send notifications to friends simply to indicate online availability. IM software establishes a direct connection between users so they can talk to each other synchronously, in real time. The technology came to the forefront of digital communication in the 1990s in response to ongoing battles between commercial ventures engaged in its development.

One of the precursors to a formal IM was the Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS), which originated in 1961 at MIT’s Computation Center. CTSS was housed in a large mainframe . Users connected to the mainframe through remote dial-up terminals to send messages back and forth to one another and share files. CTSS soon grew beyond MIT, allowing several hundred users from a number of colleges to converse with one another by 1965, thereby adopting modern IM-like qualities.

IM was invented in 1971 as a chat function on a government computer network . American computer scientist Murray Turoff created IM as part of the Emergency Management Information Systems and Reference Index (EMISARI) for the Office of Emergency Preparedness. Its original purpose was to help exchange information which would aid the U.S. government during emergencies. One of EMISARI’s first uses was to facilitate communication among government officials to assist the anti-inflation wage and price control efforts of the Nixon administration. EMISARI users accessed the system through teletypewriter terminals linked to a central computer. EMISARI continued to be used by the U.S. government for management of emergency situations until 1986. The EMISARI chat function was called the Party Line and was originally developed to replace telephone conferences. Party Line users all had to log on to the same computer over phone lines and read the text of the chats on Teletype units.

During the 1970s, the first public chat software emerged. “Talk,” designed to work within the UNIX operating system , also required that users be logged on to the same computer to use the program. This was truly the forerunner of IM systems, since users could send a message to anyone else on the system and a note would pop up on the user’s terminal . This software was often used in combination with “Finger,” a program that allowed users to determine whether one user or another was present online at the time.

The first large-scale rollout of IM came from America Online (AOL). IM had been a part of the AOL browser as early as 1988, in the form of lists of acquaintances that let AOL customers know when their friends, relatives, or other acquaintances who also used AOL were online. Such lists were called “buddy lists” after the rollout of AOL Instant Messenger (AIM) in 1997. AIM flourished, and, as the popularity of the Internet grew, so did the demand for software systems that allowed real-time conversation. The late 1980s also saw the introduction of Internet Relay Chat (IRC) software for group conversations, and by the mid-1990s other IM software, such as ICQ (or “I Seek You”) for non-AOL Internet users, also became available.

By the early 2000s several IM systems were in use on the Internet, with multiple versions for different computer operating systems ( Windows , Mac OS , Linux ). Such systems included Apple’s iChat, which made its debut in 2002 during the rollout of OS X Jaguar, the third version of Apple’s Mac OS X operating system. Beginning in 2011, Apple products used the centralized service iMessage (via the Apple Messaging application) to facilitate communication between users. Though Apple’s Messaging app supports MMS and SMS messages, which are delivered using cell service, the app uses the Internet to send “iMessages.” Skype , an IM and video conferencing service that was introduced in 2003, was popular for its messaging and its video-call-oriented framework. Microsoft bought Skype in 2011, but the application was soon overshadowed by options such as Zoom and Microsoft Teams, both of which gained popularity during the COVID-19 pandemic. Google Talk was first linked to the company’s Gmail service in 2005. The service has since gone through multiple iterations , with its name changed to “Hangouts” and “Allo,” among others. In 2024 Google owned the services Google Meet and Google Chat, with Google Chat designated as the company’s official IM service.

IM became linked to social media platforms with the release of MySpaceIM by MySpace in 2006, Facebook ’s Facebook Chat in 2008, and Facebook Messenger in 2011. Many more platforms have integrated IM chatting as part of their features. WhatsApp , owned by Meta Platforms , which also owns Facebook, is prominent in the space, reporting more than 2 billion monthly users. Slack and Microsoft Teams are workplace-oriented platforms that have modernized IM features. With the proliferation of artificial intelligence , chatbots have become popular as well, and users sometimes choose to message a bot rather than a human.

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Benefits Of Instant Messaging In the Workplace

Anton Vdovin : Jun 23, 2023 4:46:00 PM

There are very few things as important in the workplace as communication that has been proven to be effective. And one of the most effective office communication software it seems is instant messaging, which is now being used as widely in the corporate world as it is in one’s personal life. Not only have instant messaging platforms proven to be good supports to traditional modes of communication, they are also even able to replace some forms of communication as well.

One of the main benefits of instant messaging is that it is almost as instantaneous as telephone conversations and features the record-keeping capability of email messaging. While face-to-face interaction and meetings are, of course, still beneficial, instant messaging makes communication more convenient and accessible even if those you need to communicate with are a desk away or a country away.

Here are some benefits to this vital office communication software:

1. It aids in connecting staff members who are in off-site locations

There will be occasions wherein some team members will be on the field, while others will be stationed in the office. Even if this is the case, this office communication software continues to provide seamless communication between those on the field and in the workplace. It is extremely important that colleagues, managers and staff members continue to communicate and feel connected. Not only will instant messaging allow the work staff to communicate through words, they are also able to share and archive files within the chats.

2. It allows for group communication

One of the benefits of instant messaging is that it allows for both private messaging and group chats. These two options are highly advantageous, depending on the kind of communication you want to get into.

Through private messaging, you are able to chat with only those who you choose to communicate with. This is particularly important if the message you want to relay is private and confidential. On the other hand, group chats are particularly useful when it comes to informing everyone on the team about important information such as deadlines, tasks assigned to each one, new company policies and programs, and others.

3. It supports and complements other forms of communication

This type of office communication software is particularly useful if you want to utilize it to complement and support another form of communication. For example, if you are on a call with a client and need additional information regarding a product or service, you can silently use instant messaging to ask others about the information you need without interrupting the call you are having. While multitasking can certainly require skill and practice, being on several chat groups is certainly less disruptive than taking multiple calls at once.

4. It saves on space and overhead costs

One of the advantages of instant messaging is that it is a much cheaper alternative to long-distance phone calls, especially for businesses that see themselves having to constantly communicate with international clients. Many of the instant messaging platforms out there are free to use, or at the very least, free to try.

5. It promotes employee engagement

Colleagues, managers and team members who have open lines of communication are more likely to be engaged in the work they do, the company they work for, and the team they work with. This type of office communication software promotes constant, more informal and friendlier communication, which can result in more productivity and creativity.

6. It breaks down barriers

In today’s corporate world, it is not unusual for organizations to have both onshore and offshore employees. Instant messaging breaks barriers because it enables work staff either onshore or offshore to understand each other much better despite the possibility of either having strong accents. Communication done through this office communication software is more likely more understandable than verbal communication.

Which of the following are benefits for instant messaging and texting in the workplace?

You may ask what is the purpose of instant messaging and texting in the workplace. Instant messaging benefits include: 

• Enabling quick and efficient communication
• Allowing employees to exchange information and resolve issues promptly
• Promoting real-time collaboration
• Facilitating instant feedback and decision-making
• Fostering a sense of connectivity and inclusivity among team members, regardless of their physical locations
• Offering a less intrusive means of communication, allowing employees to manage their time effectively and prioritize tasks
• Creating a written record of conversations, aiding in documentation and reference
• Enhancing productivity, teamwork, and streamlining communication.

What is one benefit of instant messaging?

The main benefit of instant messaging in the workplace is its ability to facilitate quick and efficient communication. Instant messaging features provide employees the ability to exchange messages in real-time, promoting timely responses and effective collaboration. 

How does chat communication benefit the workplace?

Chat communication has the following benefits for the workplace:

• Enhanced real-time communication and collaboration.
• Facilitates quick decision-making and problem-solving.
• Creates a written record of conversations for future reference.
• Supports efficient information sharing and knowledge transfer.
• Promotes inclusivity and connectivity among team members.
• Allows for quick updates and status checks without interrupting workflow.
• Streamlines communication processes, improving productivity and teamwork.

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Essays on Instant Messaging

Instant messaging is a form of communication that has become increasingly popular in recent years. It allows people to send messages, images, and video quickly and easily over the internet. It has become an important part of modern life for many people due to its convenience and immediacy.Instant messaging offers a way for users to stay connected with friends, family members, and colleagues at any time of the day or night. This makes it particularly useful for those who don’t have the time or ability to talk on the phone or visit in person frequently. As well as making it easier to keep in touch with others without having to make long-distance calls or travel long distances, instant messaging also ensures that conversations are private since only two people can be involved at one time.Another advantage of using instant messaging is that it enables users to communicate with multiple individuals simultaneously through group chat rooms. Group chats allow several users from all around the world (depending on their location) to connect by sharing ideas instantly and engaging in meaningful discussions regardless of physical proximity. This makes it ideal for work teams, school projects, and even social activities such as club meetings or parties where everyone needs access to information quickly but may not have enough time for personal conversations between each other. The disadvantage of using this type of communication technology is that messages can be sent too quickly which might lead some people feeling overwhelmed if they receive too many notifications at once; however this problem can usually be avoided by setting specific times when you are available online so your contacts know when you will respond more promptly. Additionally because there is no face-to-face contact present during instant message exchanges it can sometimes lead to misunderstandings regarding tone and intention behind particular messages sent back-and-forth unless these are clarified properly before continuing further dialogue with one another — something which requires patience, understanding, and empathy between both parties involved in order for things not get awkward. In conclusion: Instant Messaging provides an easy way for us all to stay connected with our loved ones throughout our busy lives by enabling instantaneous communication across different parts of the globe – although care should always be taken when interpreting what someone has written.

A Guide Doing an oral history interview is a fantastic way to learn about the past. From a screen historical perspective, it gives you unique and valuable insight into the way the movies have changed. And it gives you a fun, “real-world” opportunity to compare the movie-going of yesteryear with the experience we know today. […]

Text messaging Pop culture is defined as commercial culture of popular taste. These are some of the categories music, fashion, movies, and trends or fads. One of the biggest trends among young adults today is text messaging and IMing. Young adults generally don’t leave home without their cell phones. Texting is a way for young […]

Organizational success hinges on effective communication. Communication plays a vital role in organizations as it helps convey the vision and strategies to employees, promoting collaboration and shared purpose. Understanding worker feelings is crucial for employers to address unsatisfactory work conditions and foster a supportive environment. The workplace has experienced substantial transformations thanks to technological advancements, […]

For the past 48 hours, I have eliminated all the use of media except for emergencies, work, and anything to do with school. In general, “media” refers to various means of communication. For example, television, radio, the internet, books, and the newspaper are different types of media. The term can also be used as a […]

1. Opening Comments The emergence of web technology has driven the growth in the use of digital communication tools. Modern facilities such as instant messaging and wikis present both positive and negative impacts across various industries, notably in business. Nowadays, business dealings and trade operations are conducted online, providing unparalleled ease and efficiency. The effects, […]

E-mail is private and goes from one user to another. Instant messaging (such as AIM or ICQ) Is similar to email, but allows two or more people to chat to each other much faster. Some governments think the Internet is a bad thing, and block all or part of it. For example, the Chinese government […]

Can this question be answered in one sentence or Is It necessary to explore this more In depth? The famous linguist David Crystal has tried to deal with this question In the book The English language. He investigates the effect of the Internet more In detail In Language and the Internet, where he explores a […]

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Best Practices for Instant Messaging at Work

• Dustin York

Companies need ground rules around communication tools like Slack.

The benefits of instant messaging tools like Slack, Microsoft Teams, and Zoom have become quickly obvious. There’s just one problem: We’re still figuring out how to properly, and professionally, communicate via IM. Organizations should begin to adopt best practices, such as carefully choosing which systems to use, ideally ones already favored by employees; setting ground rules around personal messages; respecting work-life balance by creating norms around appropriate response times; and encouraging face-to-face communication as well.

In these difficult times, we’ve made a number of our coronavirus articles free for all readers. To get all of HBR’s content delivered to your inbox, sign up for the Daily Alert newsletter.

“I’ll Slack you.” In workplaces around the world, the name of the popular online messaging system has become a verb, just like Google. Slack has been enthusiastically integrated into the day-to-day functions of legacy corporations and burgeoning startups: The company claims that, in 2019, it hosted 10+ million daily users . It has competitors, too, including Microsoft Teams and Zoom.

• Dustin York  is an associate professor and the director of undergraduate and graduate communications at Maryville University.

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• The Use Of Online Messaging Apps Essay

The Use of Online Messaging Apps Essay

Online messaging apps are those apps which allow one to send and receive a message instantly. Popular messaging apps include Telegram, WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, Google Chats, WeChat and Viber. They come with multiple features like location sharing, contact sharing, photo sharing, document sharing, and video and audio calls. These messaging apps can be installed on your smartphone, tablet or laptop for free.

If we look into the current communication trends, texting has become popular among all generations. It has surpassed phone calls and is most popular among millennials. The reason might be it is free of cost and has all the features essential for communication purposes. These messaging apps help people engage in multiple conversations, and also they can form groups such as family groups, friends groups, tuition groups, office groups, etc.

How Messaging Apps Evolved?

During the 1990s, these messaging apps came to the mainstream, helping people connect in real-time. But, at that time, these apps were not so popular and were used just as messaging tools. Through these apps, we could not send links, videos, images, or locations.

But, over the years, with the advancement in technology, messaging apps have been transformed into a platform from just a messaging tool. Multiple messaging apps are easily accessible with various features like sending photos, live locations, and attaching documents, videos or links. So, online messaging apps are in great demand in the current form of communication. These apps revolutionised the entire communication process and how people communicate.

The top three messaging apps by the number of users are WhatsApp – with 2 billion users; Facebook Messenger – with 1.3 billion users; and WeChat, with 1.12 billion users.

Advantages of Online Messaging Apps

Online messaging apps come with enormous advantages. One of the main advantages of these apps is that people can connect instantly even if they don’t live in the same place. These messaging apps can be used for work and business purposes too.

Online messaging apps are one of the standard platforms for marketing purposes. Nowadays, most companies use these platforms for marketing their products, offers, etc. You might have seen that companies send messages through WhatsApp about their business. These messaging apps can be accessed free of cost.

Even inside the corporate world, office colleagues use these messaging apps to send and reply to messages. They can also conduct team meetings online without physical presence and send work reports and updates. Any team member or manager out of the office for a business trip can connect with their colleagues through these messaging apps. Managers can create team members groups so that all can share their ideas, ask for help and get regular work updates.

People can also start their online businesses through these messaging apps. They can talk to their vendors and can display their products. Online messaging apps like WhatsApp also provide a platform for money transfers.

Disadvantages of Online Messaging Apps

Along with the advantages, there are disadvantages to using online messaging apps. We can’t perfectly understand the other person’s emotional state and can’t recognise with whom we are talking. After the invention of these messaging apps, face-to-face interaction and personal experience have come down.

When we communicate through these messaging apps, there are chances of miscommunication because of typos or the inability to make the other person understand our thoughts or feelings. During a face-to-face interaction, people show some etiquette, but during an online conversation, people don’t feel the need to use the appropriate netiquette.

Conclusion of The Use Of Online Messaging Apps Essay

With the wide variety of different online messaging apps for desktops, laptops, and smartphones, people should be vigilant in protecting themselves from malicious and dangerous threats that may present themselves.

We hope you found this essay on the use of online messaging apps useful. For more such interesting CBSE Essays , check BYJU’S. You can also find study materials and resources like worksheets, solutions and question papers to prepare for the exams.

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An exploratory investigation of the use and effects of academic instant messaging groups among university students

• Published: 07 July 2021
• Volume 27 , pages 1055–1080, ( 2022 )

Cite this article

• Daniel B. le Roux   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9682-0377 1 &
• Douglas A. Parry   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6443-3425 1  

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The use of instant messaging groups for various academic purposes is a rising, but largely understudied, trend in higher education institutions. In the present study we investigate the use purposes and outcomes of three types of academic instant messaging groups or AIMGs. Formal AIMGs are created and managed by teaching staff, class AIMGs are created by students and joined by all members of a particular class, and study AIMGs are smaller groups created by students that know each other personally or collaborate in group assignments. To advance understanding of the role of these groups in students’ wellbeing and academic development, we pose research questions concerning their associations with academic performance, academic stress, and students’ course experiences. We adopt an exploratory frame and survey methodology to collect data from a large sample of undergraduate students ( n = 1752). Our findings indicate that, at the institution where data were collected, high rates of AIMG participation is the norm, with class AIMGs emerging as particularly popular. We find statistically significant interaction between formal and study AIMGs and academic performance, as well as between study AIMGs and academic stress. Participation in these groups also predicts students’ social experience of a learning community, as well as their perception of the teaching they receive. Throughout, however, the observed effects are small and their practical significance is questioned.

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1 Introduction

High levels of smartphone use are common among university students in both the developed and developing worlds (Panova et al., 2020 ; le Roux et al., 2021 ). The affordances associated with these media have cultivated a mode of living characterised by permanent online connectedness—a phenomenon which has rapidly emerged over the past decade and of which the individual and social consequences are not yet well understood (Vorderer et al., 2017 ). A central theme in this domain has concerned the role of social media and their diverse impacts—positive and negative—on behaviour and well-being (Krause et al., 2019 ; Orben, 2020 ; le Roux & Parry, 2020 ). Not surprisingly, among university students, social media have also become an important medium for communication and collaboration in relation to academic activities, with instant messaging (IM) applications, in particular, playing a key role in these exchanges (Kim et al., 2014 ).

In the present study we explore the use of instant messaging among university students with particular emphasis on the formation, adoption, use and effects of multi-user IM groups created for academic purposes. We refer to such groups as academic instant messaging groups (AIMGs). Within this research area, studies can broadly be categorised based on the type of instant messaging group under investigation, with two primary categories emerging. The first category, which includes a majority of studies conducted, concerns AIMGs that are initiated and administered by academic staff (i.e, lecturers, instructors, tutors etc.) as part of a teaching and learning strategy (e.g., Kim et al., 2014 ; Bouhnik & Deshen 2014 ; Willemse 2015 ; Zulkanain et al., 2020 ). For the purpose of the present study we refer to these as formal AIMGs . The second category includes only a small collection of studies and concerns AIMGs that are initiated and administered by students for academic purposes, without any involvement of, or participation by, academic staff (e.g., Muktar et al., 2020 ; Udenze & Oshionebo 2020 ; Alghamdi et al., 2016 ). We refer to these groups as organic AIMGs .

Across studies of both formal and organic AIMGs, researchers have noted that IM platforms offer a wide range of potential advantages over other media used for communication and collaboration in teaching and learning contexts. Some studies have also reported enhanced academic performance when students participate in formal AIMGs over traditional, face-to-face interactions (Barhoumi, 2015 ; Altaany, 2015 ; Nitza & Roman, 2016 ). However, researchers have also warned that AIMGs may, under certain conditions, introduce risks—both for the individual participant, and for the academic integrity of the course or programme (Bouhnik & Deshen, 2014 ; Willemse, 2015 ; Román et al., 2018 ).

To contribute to this body of knowledge, we conducted a survey-based, exploratory study targeting a population of undergraduate university students. In addition to investigating the adoption of, motivation for and perceptions about the use of both formal and organic AIMGs, we investigated the relationship between participation in the different group types and academic performance, academic stress, students’ perceptions of the quality of their academic programmes and the teaching they receive, as well as their sense of belonging in an academic community.

2 Literature review

2.1 theoretical points of departure.

As a theoretical point of departure for the present investigation we adopt the primary premises of Uses and Gratifications Theory (U&G) which has been widely used in research on the adoption and use of communication media. U&G posits that individuals seek out media among competitors to fulfil their needs and obtain gratifications (Whiting & Williams, 2013 ). This contrasts U&G from earlier theories of communication which adopted a more passive view of media consumers – “the audience is characterised as active, discerning, and motivated in their media use” (p. 351 Quan-Haase & Young 2010 ). For example, findings by Leung ( 2001 ) indicate that instant messaging is used to fulfil a range of needs including showing affection, being entertained, having fun, killing time, relaxing, and escaping from pressures and responsibilities.

We propose, accordingly, that the adoption and use of AIMGs are driven by particular needs among students and, based on the review of extant literature on AIMGs, we developed an initial list of such needs to structure our empirical investigation.

However, while U&G provides a meaningful theoretical lens for the study of the motivations and purposes of AIMG use, it does not explicitly speak to the potential outcomes of such use for academic performance, anxiety or course experiences. Acknowledging the recent emergence of AIMGs in general and organic AIMGs in particular, we adopted an exploratory frame and based our research questions on recently reported empirical data of the associations between these constructs. Moreover, the three dependent variables of interest to us differ to the extent that a single theoretical framework would be inadequate. Accordingly, where relevant, we note theories which potentially describe these relationships.

In the sections which follow we provide a concise review of relevant literature. The first section addresses studies of formal AIMGs, while the second addresses organic AIMGs. Thereafter, we briefly outline extant findings in relation to the association between participation in AIMGs, academic performance, academic stress and students’ experiences of their academic programmes.

2.2 Formal AIMGs

Effective and efficient communication among students and academic staff is an important dimension of any teaching and learning strategy in higher education. The potential of smartphones and IM applications to enhance such communication has received attention in a wide range of disciplines, with early studies appearing more than a decade ago (Hickerson and Giglio, 2009 ). Across these studies a common theme is the adoption of experimental or action research approaches to compare various aspects of student behaviour and/or performance based on their participation or non-participation in a formal AIMG as part of a course. The studies are motivated by a range of perceived benefits associated with the affordances offered by the medium. These include, amongst others, low cost, ease of use, mobility and multimedia support (Hickerson & Giglio, 2009 ; Barhoumi, 2015 ; Bouhnik & Deshen, 2014 ; Willemse, 2015 ; Suardika et al., 2020 ).

A key advantage of AIMGs over email, which is often used for student-lecturer interaction, is the increased immediacy afforded by the reduction in the technical friction associated with interaction. Poblete and Nieto ( 2020 ) compare the reception and response time of a group of students using group email ( n = 32) with a group using a WhatsApp -based AIMG ( n = 27). WhatsApp is a free, mobile-centric IM platform used by more than two billion people in over 180 countries across the world (WhatsApp, 2020 ). Results indicated that communication in the AIMG was significantly faster in terms of both reception and response time (Poblete & Nieto, 2020 ). Accordingly, formal AIMGs are associated with an increased volume of student-instructor interactions (Hickerson & Giglio, 2009 ).

Researchers have also investigated the potential of formal AIMGs to encourage and enhance collaborative learning among students (e.g., Barhoumi 2015 ; Nitza & Roman 2016 ; Ntinda & Bidwell 2018 ; Basitere et al., 2019 ; Udenze & Oshionebo 2020 ). Across these studies results indicate that students are both willing and able to utilise formal AIMGs to share knowledge and engage in collaborative problem solving, particularly when they enjoy some degree of anonymity. Willemse ( 2015 , p. 5), for instance, report that anonymous participation in AIMGs encourages engagement due to the reduction of fear of criticism from peers.

Participation in formal AIMGs has also been associated with a stronger sense of community among students (Suardika et al., 2020 ), increased subject interest (Román et al., 2018 ), improved performance in a number of competencies (including teamwork, adaptability and continuous learning; Pérez-Jorge et al. 2018 ), and improved performance in the learning of a foreign language (Avci & Adiguzel, 2017 ).

Notwithstanding the positive aspects of formal AIMGs, studies have also identified barriers to and potential risks of their adoption. Prominent among these is the rise in staff workload that results from the increased volume of interactions and the expectation to be available for interaction at all times (Bouhnik & Deshen, 2014 ; Zulkanain et al., 2020 ). The high volume of messages from both staff and students also creates an increased possibility of the distribution of false information, confusion and misinterpretations of statements (Willemse, 2015 ; Zulkanain et al., 2020 ; Udenze & Oshionebo, 2020 ). In contexts where not all students enjoy equal access to devices and Internet connectivity, a formal AIMG may lead to information asymmetry (Willemse, 2015 ). Researchers have also warned that many students may struggle to learn effectively from participation in AIMGs (Zulkanain et al., 2020 ; Rahmadi, 2020 ), particularly when their personal or social use of the IM platform continuously distracts them from their academic use thereof (Zulkanain et al., 2020 ).

2.3 Organic AIMGs

While formal AIMGs are initiated and administered by academic staff members, studies have shown that university students also create their own IM groups for academic purposes (Muktar et al., 2020 ; Alghamdi et al., 2016 ; Fuentes Gutiérrez et al., 2017 ). These organic AIMGs have received very little research attention and various aspects of their operation, use patterns and effects remain unknown. Nonetheless, as argued by Fuentes Gutiérrez et al. ( 2017 ), they play an increasingly important role in shaping the dynamics of interpersonal and inter-group interaction among university students.

Alghamdi et al. ( 2016 ), based on a study of “unmonitored, self-created” WhatsApp groups among students undertaking distance learning, report that the medium offers students various benefits. These include collaboration with peers, the sharing of administrative information like important dates and deadlines, and support in their efforts to make sense of study material. As is the case with formal AIMGs, the ease of use of IMGs was found to be a key motivator for its adoption. Muktar et al. ( 2020 ) investigate the use of WhatsApp among undergraduate students through the lens of self-regulated learning theory. The authors find that the medium plays an important role in “scaffolding” learning processes by providing students with immediate and easy access to vital information, as well as facilitating academic interaction and social development. Fuentes Gutiérrez et al. ( 2017 ) utilise a discussion group methodology to investigate the use of organic WhatsApp groups in the university classroom context. Supported by Muktar et al. ( 2020 ), the authors conclude that the potential of the medium is mainly a product of the immediacy it offers, coupled with its plasticity and capacity to generate personal ties.

While acknowledging these benefits, Basitere and Ivala ( 2017 ) find evidence that the use of organic AIMGs enables, what they refer to as, ‘cheating collaboration’. This occurs when the affordances of the medium enable students to share answers or solutions to tests and assignments, creating the possibility of shortcuts to achieving academic outcomes. Moreover, the absence of the lecturer increases the possibility of a high volume of irrelevant messages (Udenze & Oshionebo, 2020 ), as well as the dissemination of false or inaccurate information (Muktar et al., 2020 ).

2.4 Comparison of formal and organic AIMG content

In a comparative analysis of content in formal and organic AIMGs, Baishya and Maheshwari ( 2020 ) found that messages in these groups can be classified according to six broad themes: regular academics, exam and evaluation, extracurricular activities, entertainment, wishes and greetings, and general discussion of social or non-academic topics. Their analysis indicates, firstly, that the volume of messages was substantially lower in formal groups — 123 messages in the formal versus 1404 messages in the organic AIMG— during the month of data collection. Secondly, they found that discussions in the formal group adopt a more formal conversational style, with messages primarily concerning academic matters. Finally, Baishya & Maheshwari ( 2020 , p. 36) found that almost a third of the messages in the organic AIMG concerned entertainment (“sharing or linking of photos and videos for the main purpose of fun”).

Given the relative dearth of prior research about the use patterns, purposes and motivations of formal and organic AIMGs, we posed the following two research questions.

RQ1: How common is participation in formal and organic AIMGs among undergraduate university students?

RQ2: What are the purposes and motivations for use of formal and organic AIMGs?

2.5 AIMGs and academic performance

The small number of studies that have investigated the impact of formal AIMG participation on academic performance typically rely on small sample sizes and ad hoc, unvalidated measures of performance in particular assessments. Barhoumi ( 2015 ), for example, found improved performance in test scores for students who engaged in a weekly, hour-long IM discussion about course content ( n = 34), compared to those who performed the activity face-to-face ( n = 34). Avci and Adiguzel ( 2017 ) investigate the use of WhatsApp groups for university students’ learning of a foreign language. The authors report that participation in such groups was associated with increased performance and improved work quality. Nitza and Roman ( 2016 ) show a significant positive relationship between the achievements of WhatsApp users during a case study seminar course ( n = 120) and their satisfaction with the course ( r = 0.819). However, the relationship between WhatsApp group participation and academic performance is not reported.

Despite the various shortcomings in these studies, the totality of evidence suggests that the utilisation of formal AIMGs has the potential to enhance the performance of participating students. However, as argued by Zulkanain et al. ( 2020 ), this outcome depends upon the enactment of the medium such that it effectively supports learning processes and requires active participation of lecturers to align the content of conversations with learning outcomes.

There is also a general absence of studies that investigate the association between academic performance and organic AIMG participation. However, a number of studies have considered the use of social media for academic purposes in relation to students’ performance. In their study of 400 medical students in Saudi Arabia, AlFaris et al. ( 2018 ) find that 36% of students use WhatsApp for learning purposes, but find no association between such use and academic performance. Afful and Akrong ( 2020 ), in a study among students in Ghana ( n = 295), find a small, albeit not statistically significant, positive association between self-reported time spent on WhatsApp for academic purposes and academic performance measured as cumulative GPA ( β = 0.095, p < 0.1). Al-Rahmi and Zeki ( 2017 ) find that social media use for learning is positively associated with both collaborative learning and student satisfaction. These two factors, in turn, were positively associated with academic performance.

It may be argued that, much like formal AIMGs, organic AIMGs have the potential to scaffold the learning process by providing students with immediate access to their peers and, through them, access to administrative information, learning material and knowledge sharing. However, unlike formal AIMGs where lecturers can moderate conversation and correct false information, organic AIMGs can potentially disrupt learning through high volumes of irrelevant messages and inaccurate information.

Considering their increasingly important role in student interaction and collaboration (Fuentes Gutiérrez et al., 2017 ), their association with academic performance is of interest. Accordingly, we posed the following research question:

RQ3: What is the nature of the association between participation in AIMGs and self-reported academic performance?

2.6 AIMGs and academic stress

Due to a range of factors, including developmental and social changes, financial and accommodation problems, as well as work and academic demands, university students experience “significantly greater than average levels of stress” (Lakaev, 2009 , p. 56). Macgeorge et al. ( 2005 , p. 365), accordingly, argue that, while university is a positive experience for many students, “many students also experience college as chronically stressful due to academic requirements” like tests, papers and presentations.

The role of formal and/or organic AIMGs in student stress has not received research attention. However, Mogashana et al. ( 2019 ) investigate the potential of WhatsApp groups specifically designed to provide students with psychosocial support through a small group life coaching programme. Results indicated that immediacy of interactions through the WhatsApp group served to bridge physical separation between the coach and students, fostering ongoing communication and support. This aligns with well-documented evidence that the perceived availability of support of a network of caring and accessible members influences health outcomes after stressful events (Macgeorge et al., 2005 ).

While AIMGs are not necessarily initiated with the aim of psychosocial support, Kim et al. ( 2014 , p. 39), in a study of AIMG use among Korean students, find that, under certain circumstances, AIMGs offer a friendly environment where students feel comfortable to share personal matters “using various emotional and social expressions.” Zulkanain et al. ( 2020 ), accordingly, argue that the expression of emotions or experiences of problems unrelated to class, serve to cultivate stronger relationships among group members. We propose, accordingly, that AIMGs may, under certain circumstances, serve to alleviate academic stress by providing students with a network of supportive peers and enabling expressions of care and encouragement.

We are mindful, however, of the possibility that AIMGs may also aggravate academic stress. We foresee two potential mechanisms for this effect. Firstly, studies have suggested that the high volume of messages associated with organic AIMGs can create experiences of information overload (Baishya and Maheshwari, 2020 ), as well as distract students during academic activities (Zulkanain et al., 2020 ). Such media-based distractions have been associated with the procrastination of academic tasks and increased academic stress (le Roux & Parry, 2021 ). Secondly, based on the general premises of social contagion, we propose that messages in which students express their own concern, fear or anxiety about upcoming tests or exams may evoke or worsen experiences academic stress among their peers. Social contagion refers to the “involuntary catching of behaviours and attitudes across connected individuals” (Burgess et al., 2018 , p. 164). In extant research on the role of social contagion in educational contexts, evidence indicates that “student attitudes, beliefs, values and behaviours are influenced by natural peer contexts” (Parr & Townsend, 2002 , p. 409), and that this may include levels of motivation and perceptions of academic self-efficacy (Burgess et al., 2018 ).

Given the lack of evidence on the interaction between formal and organic AIMG use and academic stress, we posed the following research question:

RQ4: What is the nature of the association between participation in AIMGs and academic stress?

2.7 AIMGs and course experience

In addition to academic performance and stress, we propose, based on extent literature, that AIMG participation has the potential to impact two dimensions of students’ perceptions about their academic programmes. Firstly, due to their ability to increase the immediacy, quality and quantity of student-lecturer interactions (Hickerson & Giglio, 2009 ; Poblete & Nieto, 2020 ; Willemse, 2015 ), formal AIMGs are likely to influence students’ perceptions of the quality of the teaching they receive. Román et al. ( 2018 ) report that a majority of students believe that IM-based interaction with their lecturers would increase their motivation and interest, and that 90% of students believe such interaction is appropriate. While these findings suggest that formal AIMGs would be positively associated with perceptions of teaching quality, it should be acknowledged that the potential negative consequences of poorly managed formal AIMGs (see Section  2.2 ) may lead to negative experiences and perceptions of teaching quality.

The role of organic AIMGs in perceptions of teaching quality has not been investigated. We propose, however, that the interactions in these groups will, at times, involve students’ views of their lecturers and the quality of teaching they receive. In accordance with Fuentes Gutiérrez et al. ( 2017 ) we argue that interactions on organic AIMGs will impact the dynamics of relations between students and their teaching staff and, as part thereof, perceptions about the abilities of and effort made by teaching staff.

The second dimension of course experience which, based on earlier studies, may be influenced by AIMGs is students’ sense of being part of a learning community. Suardika et al. ( 2020 ), through a comparative study of students attending conventional face-to-face classroom instruction ( n = 51) and students using WhatsApp for learning ( n = 49), find that the WhatsApp group reported a stronger sense of community. This likely results from increased levels of interaction and the sharing of personal information (Kim et al., 2014 ), as well as knowledge sharing, collaborative learning, or problem solving (Nitza and Roman, 2016 ; Barhoumi, 2015 ; Willemse, 2015 ) — factors which serve to generate strong interpersonal ties (Fuentes Gutiérrez et al., 2017 ). Based on these factors, it is expected that both formal and organic AIMGs have the capacity to increase students’ sense of being part of an academic community. However, as Román et al. ( 2018 ) warn, students may experience embarrassment or rejection when peers ridicule, ignore or reject their ideas during AIMG interactions, and that harassment or cyberbullying can occur in these groups. Such events may have a negative impact on students’ sense of belonging to learning community.

To advance knowledge of the interaction between AIMG participation and students’ experiences of their degree programmes, we posed the following two research questions:

RQ5: What is the nature of the association between participation in AIMGs and students’ perception of the quality of teaching they receive?

RQ6: What is the nature of the association between participation in AIMGs and students’ social experience of belonging to a learning community?

To address our research questions, we adopted a survey methodology and conducted an exploratory study with a sample of undergraduate university students. In accordance with recent calls for greater transparency in our research processes (e.g., Bowman and Keene 2018 ; Dienlin et al., 2020 ; Lewis 2020 ), following IRB approval, given the need for clarity around the timing of analytic decisions, we specified a pre-analysis plan prior to data collection (available at: https://osf.io/pd42h/ ). Any deviations from our pre-analysis plan and any further exploratory analyses will be explicitly labelled as such. Additionally, all materials, data, and analysis scripts are also available through the OSF.

3.1 Participants and procedure

We targeted an undergraduate student sample at a large residential university in South Africa. After development of an initial version of our survey, we performed a pilot test with a small group of students ( n = 7) in their fourth year of study, followed by a focus group discussion to gather feedback. Based on feedback about the use of AIMGs at the institution, we made two important changes to the survey. Firstly, the students stated that, with only rare exceptions, WhatsApp is the platform used for AIMGs at the institution and, to ensure clarity, we updated the survey to refer to “WhatsApp groups for academic purposes” rather than “academic instant messaging groups.” While this phrasing would reduce ambiguity in our survey items, we are mindful that our data do not reflect the use of non-Whatsapp AIMGs at the institution. Secondly, the focus group participants made a strong distinction between two forms of organic AIMGs. The first, which we refer to as study AIMGs , are groups involving a small number of students (typically less than 10) from a class. Members of a study AIMG generally know each other on a personal level and/or work together on group assignments. The second form of organic AIMG, which we refer to as class AIMGs , are created to include all students in a particular class. The group is usually created by the student representative and students are added to the group by providing him/her with their phone numbers. We updated our AIMG typology accordingly, a summary of which is presented in Table  1 .

To recruit respondents, after receiving IRB approval, email invitations to complete the final version of the survey on an online survey platform (Checkbox) were sent to 20 196 undergraduate students at the institution in November 2020. Importantly, we collected data approximately eight months after the institution switched from face-to-face to online teaching due to the closure of its campuses in response to Covid-19. While we believed that the dominant norms and practices around AIMG creation and use would continue to determine their functioning, we expected that the switch to online learning would lead to some changes. However, the absence of baseline data for comparison implied that we would be unable to identify or describe these changes meaningfully. Accepting these limitations, we endeavoured to interpret our data with attention to the potential role that online teaching may have played in AIMG functioning.

To detect a minimally interesting effect size of R 2 = 0.05 (a small effect size given conventional benchmarks) for a multiple regression analysis with alpha = 0.05, 80% power, the AIMG participation variables as predictors, and controlling for the demographic variables and the remaining variables of interest, we determined that we required a minimum sample of at least 430 completed responses to the survey. The survey remained open for a period of 14 days and, in this time, it was accessed 2990 times. After removing 1220 incomplete responses and 18 responses for which consent was not provided, our final sample of n = 1752 was established. The sample included more female (63.3%) than male (36.2%) respondents, with only 0.5% using other gender descriptors. The mean age of respondents is 21.12 years (SD= 2.81), and 26.9% are in their first year of study, 28.1% their second, 28% their third, and 17% have been enrolled for four or more years. Respondents represented 10 of the academic faculties at the institution, with 339 from Economic and Management Sciences (19.3%), 324 from Engineering (18.5%), 278 from Arts and Social Sciences (15.9%), 271 from Medicine and Health Sciences (15.5%), 228 from Science (13%) and the remainder from Agriculture (6.6%), Law (5.6%), Education (4.2%), Theology (1.1%) and Military Science (0.3%).

3.2 Measures

To produce relevant data to address our research questions we used a combination of existing scales and, where necessary, developed new measures based on the literature reviewed. The complete survey is available through the OSF ( https://osf.io/qpva7/ ).

To describe the demographics of our sample, respondents were asked to indicate the gender they identify as (male, female, or open), the faculty within which their academic program resides, their year of birth, and their current year of study. Next, to assess self-reported overall academic performance we used a single item that asked respondents to indicate their average academic performance in their courses or modules. Response options ranged from less than 40% to more than 85%, with 5% intervals.

To quantify AIMG participation we considered two metrics: the proportion of a respondents’ modules (or courses) in which a group type was used and the frequency with which a respondent reported engaging in three group-level behaviours. To determine the proportion of the respondents’ modules in which they participate in a particular type of AIMG we presented three items, one for each group type. These items required respondents to indicate, using a five-point Likert scale with response options ranging from zero (“In none of my modules”) to four (“In all of my modules”), the proportion of their modules in which they participated in 1) “Whatsapp groups created by the lecturer or tutor”; 2) “Whatsapp groups created by students for everyone in the class to join”; and 3) “Whatsapp groups for a smaller group of classmates, like a study group or project team.” If a respondent indicated that they did not participate in a particular type of AIMG, no further items for that group type were presented to them, with their responses coded as zero to indicate non-participation. For participants who indicated at least some level of participation in a group type we presented three sets of items concerning their participation frequency, participation purpose, and the perceived outcomes of participation for each of the three group types.

For participation frequency, for each type of group, three items were presented. These items concerned the frequency with which respondents 1) read messages, 2) posted messages, and 3) shared files in an AIMG. Responses were recorded using five-point likert scales with values as follows: “never” (0); “a couple of times per semester” (0.25); “a couple of times per week” (0.5); “daily” (1); and “multiple times per day” (2). For each respondent and each group type, responses to these three items were summed to produce frequency scores with a possible range of 0 to 6. To produce an overall participation score for each group type we calculated the product of participation proportion and participation frequency. This resulted in three scales (one for each group type) that, with a range of 0 to 24, provide an indication of the respondents’ self-reported level of participation in AIMGs on Whatsapp.

To assess the purposes for which each of the group types were used we presented seven items, separately for each type of AIMG. These items concerned whether respondents use these groups to 1) communicate administrative information like class or test dates and times; 2) discuss academic content covered in the module; 3) share class notes or other academic resources; 4) share answers or solutions for assignments; 5) coordinate group work; 6) encourage and support each other; and 7) share non-academic content like jokes or memes. Responses could be provided on a five-point Likert scale ranging from never to always and were, rather than being summed to form a scale, considered individually as each item represents a distinct use purpose.

To assess respondents’ perceptions of the outcomes associated with participation in each type of AIMG we presented, separately, eight statements, informed by the literature reviewed, that represent possible outcomes experienced. These items (available through the OSF) concerned the perceived effect of participation on respondents’ access to accurate administrative information, access to useful academic material, understanding of the work, academic performance, stress about their academic work, ability to cope with academic pressure, ability to perform effective group work, and anxiety about their work. Respondents indicated their level of agreement for each statement through a five-point agreement scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. As with use-purposes, responses to these items were not aggregated but were instead considered individually.

Academic stress was assessed using the Lakaev academic stress response scale (LASRS; Lakaev 2009 ). This scale was developed to quantify stress responses among university students in four stress domains: physiological, behavioural, cognitive, and affective. The scale consists of 21 items, each representing a stress symptom, including: “there is so much going on that I can’t think straight”, “I felt worried about coping with my studies”, and “my work built up so much that I felt like crying.” Respondents indicated extent to which they experienced these symptoms on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “None of the Time” (1) to “All of the Time” (5). Responses to the individual items are summed to form subscale scores and these subscale scores are summed to produce a total LASRS stress response score. A higher score indicates a greater stress response. The LASRS generally has sound psychometric properties (Lakaev, 2009 ; Javaheri, 2017 ) and, in the present study, the scale was internally consistent (Cronbach’s α = 0.91).

Perceptions of course experience were assessed using two sub-measures from the Australian Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ): the good teaching scale and the learning community scale (Mcinnis et al., 2001 ; Griffin et al., 2003 ). The learning community scale (LCS) includes five items (e.g., “ I felt part of a group of students and staff committed to learning”) that assess respondents’ perceptions of the social experience of learning at university. Responses, provided through a five-point agreement scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree, are aggregated, with higher scores representing a positive perception of the learning community. In the present study, the scale was internally consistent (Cronbach’s α = 0.81). The Good Teaching Scale (GTS) assesses various basic elements of effective teaching through five items (e.g., “the teaching staff motivate me to do my best work”), with responses (provided through a five-point agreement scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree) aggregated to form an overall scale. Higher values indicate a perception of better teaching quality. This scale was also found to be internally consistent in the present data (Cronbach’s α = 0.85). We also collected responses to the single overall satisfaction item (OSI) to assess respondents’ overall satisfaction with their degree programme.

3.3 Data analysis plan

All analyses were conducted using the R statistical programming language (v. 4.0.3 R. Core Team 2020 ), with an alpha level of 0.05 adopted as a threshold for statistical significance. To address our first research question we determined, firstly, the distribution of responses that indicate the proportion of respondents’ modules for which each group type is used. Secondly, for each group type, we summarised the frequency with which the three participation forms were reported. Finally, as described in the previous section, overall participation was calculated as the product of proportion and frequency. RQ2 was addressed by providing a descriptive account of the responses for the use purpose and outcome motivation items for each group type. To address our four remaining research questions, we first assessed the zero-order bivariate correlations among the overall participation indicators, academic performance, academic stress, the GTS, and the LCS. Following this, we computed separate multiple regression models to determine the predictive capacity of the AIMG participation variables over each of the dependent variables. Each of the regression models controlled for age, gender, faculty, and study-year, as well as all other outcome variables not used as the dependent variable in the model. Deviating from our pre-specified analysis plan, we did not assess gender differences in outcomes, nor did we assess for relationships involving the single overall satisfaction item for education quality.

4.1 Use of academic instant messaging groups

Of the 1752 respondents, 852 (48.63%) indicated that they did not use formal AIMGs in any of their modules, while 900 (51.37%) used such groups in at least some of their modules and only 164 (9.36%) reported using formal AIMGs in all of their modules. In contrast, for class groups, only 81 (4.62%) respondents reported that they did not use such groups in any of their modules, with the remaining 1671 (95.38%) indicating use of class groups in some modules. At 60.78% the largest proportion of respondents indicated that they use class AIMGs in all of their modules. For study groups, while 311 (17.75%) respondents reported that they did not use this form of AIMG in any of their modules, of the 1441 (82.25%) respondents who do use such groups, 279 (15.82%) reported that they use these groups in all of their modules. Figure  1 provides a summary of the proportion of respondents’ modules in which they reported using the three forms of AIMG. It is evident that, of the three group types, among our sample, use of class groups is the most prevalent across academic modules.

Proportion of modules in which the three types of AIMGs are used

For respondents who reported using an AIMG type in their modules (formal: n = 900, class: n = 1671, study: n = 1441), we considered the frequency with which they reported engaging in three actions: reading, posting, and sharing. For all three group types, as depicted in Fig.  2 , participation is characterised more so by reading than by the posting or sharing of content. For formal AIMGs, 591 (65.67%) respondents reported reading content either daily or multiple times per day, compared to just 34 (3.78%) respondents who reported posting in such groups daily or multiple times per day. Similarly, the number of respondents who reported reading content daily or multiple per day in class ( n = 1222, 73.13%) or study groups ( n = 936, 64.95%) was larger than the number who indicated that they post in either class ( n = 91, 5.45%) or study groups ( n = 397, 27.55%) daily or multiple times per day. Across action types, with the exception of reading, respondents indicated a greater frequency of involvement in study groups than formal or class groups.

Participation frequency by action and AIMG type

4.2 Use purposes and outcome perceptions

Figure  3 provides a visual summary of the purposes for which respondents report using the three types of AIMG. In class and formal groups, the use cases most commonly reported concern the communication of administrative information (formal AIMGs: 40.78%; class AIMGs: 46.68%) and the discussion of course content (formal AIMGs: 36.89%; class AIMGs: 36.74%), while for study groups the most frequently reported use case involved the coordination of group work (45.11%) followed by the discussion of course content (37.34%). In all three group types, the two least reported use purposes were the sharing of answers and the sharing of non-academic content. Table 1 in the Supplementary materials provides a detailed description of the response proportions for each use purpose and AIMG type.

Use purposes by AIMG type

Figure  4 visualises the level of agreement with nine perceived outcomes of participating in the three AIMG types. For both formal and class AIMGs, access to accurate administrative information was the outcome that received the most support, while effective group work was the most reported outcome for study AIMGs. In terms of improving students’ academic performance, study AIMGs were perceived to be the most important with 68% of students either strongly agreeing (24%) or agreeing (44%) that their participation in these groups improves their academic performance. Additionally, 59% of students either strongly agreed (20%) or agreed (39%) that study groups reduce their academic stress and agreed (41%) or strongly agreed (19%) that they help them to cope with academic pressure. These findings align with the findings about group use purposes which indicate that students frequently encourage and support each other on study AIMGs, something which occurs less frequently on formal and class AIMGs. Across all three AIMG types, the lowest level of agreement was observed for perceived increases in anxiety about work resulting from participation in AIMGs. Table 2 in the Supplementary materials provides provides a detailed summary of the responses for these items.

Use outcomes by AIMG type

4.3 Relationships between AIMG use and academic performance, academic stress, and perceptions of educational quality

Table  2 presents the descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations (Spearman’s ρ ) for the main study variables. Of the three AIMG types, the highest level of overall participation was found for class AIMGs, followed by study AIMGs. Formal AIMGs, as indicated in Fig.  1 are used much less frequently at the institution. With the exception of the associations between LCS and GTS ( ρ = 0.57, p < 0.001), as well as between study and class AIMG participation ( ρ = 0.34, p < 0.05), all observed correlations are small in magnitude. Positive correlations were found between participation in the three AIMG types. Reported participation in all three group types correlates positively with students’ social experience of a learning community (LCS), while formal AIMG participation correlates positively with their perception of effective teaching (GTS) ( ρ = 0.13, p < 0.001). Academic performance is negatively associated with academic stress ( ρ = − 0.23, p < 0.001), but positively associated with both LCS ( ρ = 0.16, p < 0.001) and GTS ( ρ = 0.06, p < 0.05). The only correlation found between AIMG participation and academic performance was with participation in study AIMGs ( ρ = 0.06, p < 0.05). Although statistically significant, this association is particularly negligible in magnitude. Academic stress is negatively associated with both GTS ( ρ = − 0.27, p < 0.001) and LCS ( ρ = − 0.29, p < 0.001), but not with participation in any of the three AIMG types.

To address RQ3, we conducted a multiple linear regression predicting academic performance with formal, class and study AIMG participation, academic stress, perception of teaching quality, and social experience of learning community, while controlling for the demographic variables. Table  3 presents the results of this regression. Overall, the model predicts 20% of the variance in academic performance (adj. R 2 = .20; F (22;1729) = 20.68, p < .001), with academic stress as the strongest predictor ( β = −.29, p < .001). The second strongest predictor is experience of learning community which has a positive effect on academic performance ( β = .15, p < .001). Formal AIMG participation negatively predicts academic performance ( β = −.10, p < .001), while study AIMG participation is a positive albeit negligible predictor ( β = .05, p < .05).

To address RQ4, we conducted a multiple linear regression predicting academic stress with formal, class and study AIMG participation, academic performance, perception of teaching quality, and social experience of learning community, while controlling for demographic variables. Table  4 presents the results of this regression. Overall, the model predicts 25% of the variance in academic performance (adj. R 2 = .25; F (22;1729) = 27.24, p < .001), with academic performance as the strongest predictor ( β = −.27, p < .001). Additionally, both GTS ( β = −.19, p < .001) and LCS ( β = −.15, p < .001) negatively predict academic stress, with participation in study AIMGs as the only positive predictor ( β = .08, p < .001).

To address RQ5 we conducted a multiple linear regression predicting students’ perception of their teaching quality (as presented by GTS) with formal, class and study AIMG participation, academic performance, academic stress, and social experience of learning community, while controlling for demographic variables. Table  5 presents the results of this regression. Overall, the model predicts 40% of the variance in academic performance (adj. R 2 = .40; F (22;1729) = 54.82, p < .001), with experience of learning community as the strongest predictor ( β = .56, p < .001) and formal AIMG participationas the only other positive predictor ( β = .07, p < .01). Three negative predictors were found in academic stress ( β = −.15, p < .001), academic performance ( β = −.08, p < .001) and participation in class AIMGs ( β = −.08, p < .001).

Finally, to address RQ 6 we conducted a multiple linear regression predicting students’ experience of being part of a learning community with formal, class and study AIMG participation, academic performance, academic stress and GTS, while controlling for demographic variables. Table  6 presents the results of this model. Overall, the model predicts 41% of variance in the dependent variable (adj. R 2 = .41; F (22;1729) = 57.14, p < .001), with GTS as the strongest predictor ( β = .55, p < .001). Both class ( β = .10, p < .001) and study ( β = .08, p < .001) AIMG participation predicted experiences of belong to a learning community, while participation in formal AIMGs did not.

5 Discussion

The present study investigated the adoption, use purposes, perceived outcomes, and role of academic instant messaging groups in academic performance, academic stress and course-related experiences among university students. To this end we conducted a survey-based, exploratory study among a sample of undergraduate university students.

Our data indicate, firstly, that the average student simultaneously participates in a high number of AIMGs. Assuming a student is enrolled in six courses during the semester, the median number of simultaneous AIMGs he/she participates in is nine, of which six are class groups. Secondly, our data confirm the appropriateness of the a priori AIMG typology adopted in this study (see Table  1 ), with respondents indicating use across all three group types defined. Of the three types, class AIMGs are used in the most courses, followed by study and formal AIMGs. The relatively low use of formal AIMGs should be interpreted in relation to the policies and norms which guide teaching and learning strategy at the institution where the data were collected. The institution’s policy prescribes the use of a centralised, web-based learning management system (LMS) as the main platform for the distribution of administrative and learning material and, as our data indicate, formal AIMGs on WhatsApp are only adopted in a relatively small minority of courses. This suggests that, for the most part, academic staff continued to utilise the LMS to communicate with their students during online teaching rather than adopting WhatsApp-based formal AIMGs. It is possible, however, that some academic staff adopted formal AIMGs to augment the LMS, in which case the formal AIMG use levels we report here are higher than what they would be during the institution’s normal (face-to-face) class schedules. It is also possible that formal AIMGs may have been initiated on alternative platforms (e.g., Microsoft Teams), in which case they would not be reflected in our data.

The dearth of previous studies of class AIMGs makes it difficult to gauge whether the high levels of class AIMG participation observed among our sample is unique to their institution, or whether the same pattern would be observable at other universities in the same country or internationally. As shown in Fig.  2 , a very small proportion of students frequently post messages or share files in class AIMGs, while a large majority only read. This imbalance between the amount of participants that actively post or share material and those who merely consume content, often referred to as the 1% rule or 90-9-1 principle, has been reported in relation to various forms of social media (van Dijck, 2013 ).

Study AIMGs are notably different in this regard as a larger proportion of students actively participate through posting or sharing. When considering these differences in relation to the use purposes for the different groups (Fig.  3 ), it suggest that class AIMGs might be used primarily for the distribution of administrative or academic material by students fulfilling either official or unofficial leadership roles in the class (e.g., student representatives). While both class and study AIMGs are used to share notes and discuss academic content, study AIMGs seem to play a particularly important role in group work coordination, which explains the active participation by a larger proportion of users. Additionally, the more frequent use of study AIMGs to share messages of support and encouragement suggests that members of these groups know each other personally. Moreover, study AIMGs are used most frequently to share answers or solutions to assignments, suggesting a certain degree of trust among members. In accordance with Alghamdi et al. ( 2016 ), we acknowledge that such sharing of answers may, at times, function as a “cheating technique”, but that the online learning setting complicates distinctions between, on the one hand, collaboration through knowledge sharing and, on the other, academic cheating.

In terms of the outcomes students associate with the different group types (see Fig.  4 ), the high degree of similarity between formal and class AIMGs is noteworthy. It seems, based on these findings, that the two group types, while initiated and managed by different stakeholders, are perceived to serve very similar, primarily administrative functions with emphasis on the distribution of academic material and accurate administrative information. Study AIMGs, by contrast, are perceived as having a stronger impact on learning and academic performance, as well as students’ management of academic stress. These findings suggest that students experience these smaller groups to play a more important role in their academic development, while formal and class AIMGs serve functions similar to an online bulletin board with the added affordances of mobility and immediacy.

In contrast to students’ perceptions about the value of study AIMGs for their academic performance, consideration of our regression models suggests that participation in AIMGs has little effect. While participation in study AIMGs positively predicts academic performance, the effect, when considering the standardised coefficient values and the relatively low predictive capacity of the model, is negligible. Interestingly, notwithstanding the diminutive magnitude of the effect, our model indicates that formal AIMG participation negatively predicts academic performance, contradicting the findings of earlier studies indicating positive association between AIMG participation and performance in particular courses or assessments (e.g., Barhoumi 2015 ; Nitza and Roman 2016 ; Avci & Adiguzel 2017 ). However, our findings should be distinguished from those made in these studies. Firstly, we considered general academic performance across all courses, not only those in which AIMGs were adopted. Secondly, compared to organic AIMGs, only a small portion of AIMG participation reported by our sample occurred in formal AIMGs. Over and above these aspects, though negative, the size of the effect is too small to be of practical significance within the broader scope of factors that predict academic performance.

The same pattern is observable in relation to academic stress. In contrast to students’ perceptions that participation in study AIMGs reduces academic stress, our model (see Table  4 ) indicates that study AIMG participation positively predicts academic stress, though the effect size is small. This finding may indicate that students experiencing high levels of academic stress participate in study AIMGs as a coping mechanism. However, it may also indicate that study AIMGs exasperate academic stress through the social contagion of stress-related beliefs and perceptions of academic self-efficacy as proposed by Burgess et al. ( 2018 ). Our data do not permit causal inference and, as such, these interpretations should be read as propositions which require further investigation. Importantly, across group types, no strong (or even moderate) relationship between participation and increases in reported academic stress was observed. Therefore, while not necessarily reducing stress, as students perceive, participation in AIMGs is not associated with increases in experiences of academic stress in any meaningful way.

Both class and study AIMG participation positively predict students’ social experience of being part of a learning community. However, the relative sizes of these effects are small compared to the role of teaching quality which is also a positive predictor. This finding suggests, firstly, that previous studies may have over estimated the role of formal AIMGs as a means of creating a sense of community among students and, secondly, that effective teaching is a much more important factor in this regard than AIMG participation. Given students’ perceived outcomes of the important role of study AIMGs in their academic development, it is perhaps surprising that participation in these groups is not a stronger positive predictor of students’ experience of a learning community, with both academic performance and academic stress having greater predictive capacity in our model.

Lastly, we consider students’ perceptions of teaching effectiveness. Our model again indicates small effects for participation in AIMGs, with formal AIMGs as a positive and class AIMGs as a negative predictor. One may argue that students’ participation in formal AIMGs is associated with higher perceptions of the quality of teaching they receive, suggesting that they experience these groups as an effective teaching strategy. This argument, however, is partly contradicted by the lack of effect of formal AIMG participation on academic performance. Hence, while formal AIMGs, much like study AIMGs, may be perceived as effective tools for teaching and learning, our data suggest that they do not impact participants’ academic performance. The negative effect of class AIMG participation may be indicative of the role that class AIMGs play in shaping students’ perceptions of their courses and lecturers. We expect that messages in class AIMGs, at times, involve criticism of aspects of the course (e.g., content, presentation, assessment etc.) and that such criticism influence participants’ subjective evaluations of their courses. These groups, accordingly, run the risk of becoming spaces where students share their frustrations, potentially cultivating negative attitudes towards course content and resentment towards teaching staff. These propositions, however, should be considered with respect to the small effect sizes observed and the current lack of qualitative data about the functioning of organic AIMGs.

5.1 Implications for research and practice

While our findings provide a useful initial picture of the use and role of AIMGs in higher education, there remains much uncertainty about the phenomenon. We propose, in particular, that qualitative work be conducted to investigate the use patterns of study AIMGs. Of the three group types we considered, it is the one which students perceive as the most valuable for their performance and wellbeing. Specifically, the rather surprising finding that study AIMG use is positively associated with academic stress should be investigated further as it runs contrary to students’ perceptions of the role these groups play.

Considering the relevance of our findings for teaching practices at higher education institutions, a number of implications are worth noting. Because the creation and use of organic AIMGs fall outside the locus of control of teaching staff, they have very limited control over the practice or its impacts on teaching and learning. Moreover, we expect that organic AIMGs will remain a popular medium for communication among students in the foreseeable future. While we propose that teaching staff should be mindful of the existence of these groups, our findings suggest that they are not a cause for serious concern in terms of either academic performance or stress. Accordingly, we do not see any reason to actively discourage participation in such groups among students.

Based on our findings we question the value of the adoption of formal AIMGs as part of a teaching strategy. Despite the small negative association we found between formal AIMG participation and academic performance, we are mindful of the implications of such groups for students’ expectations of lecturer availability. In rare cases where teaching loads are low and classes are small, effective formal AIMGs may indeed be feasible and effective. However, considering the high levels of work-related stress and burnout among academics (Mudrak et al., 2018 ), the expectation that lecturers should be available continuously and respond promptly to students through AIMGs is likely to exacerbate the problem. This is not to disregard the importance of a clear communication channel for the dissemination of administrative information from staff to students, such channels should obviously be created and managed.

5.2 Limitations

A number of important limitations characterise the present study. Firstly, our measures of AIMG participation are self-developed and non-validated. While we are confident that the data is a meaningful reflection of students’ behaviour, we acknowledge that there are may alternative and potentially better ways to quantify AIMG participation. Secondly, the limitations of self-reported data about media use behaviour have been well-documented (Ellis et al., 2019 ) and we acknowledge the possibility of inaccurate findings as a result thereof. Thirdly, as noted in earlier sections, we collected data while teaching at the institution was done online as a result of Covid-19. Our data indicate that, despite this, organic AIMGs were still being used extensively, but we are uncertain of the potential impacts of the switch to online learning on their functioning. Lastly, because we focused specifically on WhatsApp-based AIMGs, our finding are ignorant of AIMGs on alternative platforms. While we are confident that a large majority of AIMGs at the institution are Whatsapp-based, we are mindful of the possibility that students have adopted a variety of online platforms for this purpose, particularly following the switch to online teaching.

6 Conclusion

In conclusion, we argue that three primary findings describe the contribution of the present study to the body of knowledge about AIMGs. Firstly, our data indicate that participation in organic AIMGs is an important dimension of academic interaction among university students. These groups have been largely ignored by scholars and their role in the wellbeing and academic development of students has received little attention. The present study is, to the best of our knowledge, a first attempt to provide a comprehensive, quantitative description of organic AIMGs. Secondly, the distinction we propose between study and class AIMGs is of importance to understanding the purposes, outcomes and effects of organic AIMGs. These two groups types are clearly created and used with different goals in mind, and their effects on students’ wellbeing and academic experiences are different. While these two types provide a starting point, we propose that a more textured typology of organic AIMGs should be developed to serve as a foundation for studying them in greater depth. Finally, our findings indicate that neither formal nor organic AIMGs play an important role in academic performance, academic stress or course perception among university students. While we did find statistically significant effects for these outcomes, they are not large enough to be considered practically significant. We argue, accordingly, that these groups are, in general, neither particularly useful nor particularly harmful in the context of higher education.

Data Availability

All data and material is publicly available through the OSF at: https://osf.io/t576r/

Code Availability

All code is publicly available through the OSF at: https://osf.io/t576r/

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le Roux, D.B., Parry, D.A. An exploratory investigation of the use and effects of academic instant messaging groups among university students. Educ Inf Technol 27 , 1055–1080 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10631-y

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Chatbots in cancer applications, advantages and disadvantages: all that glitters is not gold.

1. Introduction

2. the novel chatbots in medicine and cancer, 3. the benefits of chatbots in medicine and cancer, 4. the disadvantages of chatbots in medicine and cancer, 5. the current issues and challenges of chatbots, 6. the expert opinion on chatbots and oncology: all that glitters is not gold, 7. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Goumas, G.; Dardavesis, T.I.; Syrigos, K.; Syrigos, N.; Simou, E. Chatbots in Cancer Applications, Advantages and Disadvantages: All that Glitters Is Not Gold. J. Pers. Med. 2024 , 14 , 877. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm14080877

Goumas G, Dardavesis TI, Syrigos K, Syrigos N, Simou E. Chatbots in Cancer Applications, Advantages and Disadvantages: All that Glitters Is Not Gold. Journal of Personalized Medicine . 2024; 14(8):877. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm14080877

Goumas, Georgios, Theodoros I. Dardavesis, Konstantinos Syrigos, Nikolaos Syrigos, and Effie Simou. 2024. "Chatbots in Cancer Applications, Advantages and Disadvantages: All that Glitters Is Not Gold" Journal of Personalized Medicine 14, no. 8: 877. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm14080877

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How restaurants improve operations and dining experience with tech

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6 ways digital menu boards for restaurants enhance service — and profits.

Outdoor-ready digital displays have become essential components for quick-service restaurants (QSRs). These technologically advanced screens do more than just provide bright and vivid eye candy, nowadays. Today’s leading digital menu boards for restaurants can also attract and direct customers, shorten lines, accelerate orders, promote specials and boost sales.

That’s why major QSRs have made digital signage a standard part of their service delivery, both in-store and in the drive-thru, where up to 75% of QSR sales occur .

Here are six ways digital menu boards for restaurants enhance the QSR business and customer experience.

1. Raising awareness

When motorists enter a QSR drive-thru, they may know precisely what they want to order — or they may want to try something new instead of or in addition to their typical order. Displays positioned along the drive-thru lane, ahead of the ordering position, can raise awareness of new menu options, specials and other items that deliver higher margins for owner-operators.

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Typically oriented like posters, these screens promote items that might otherwise be lost among the many options listed on the menu at the order station, where many drive-thru customers feel rushed to make decisions and not hold up the line.

2. The right menu

Many QSR operations open early and stay open late — even 24/7. They can display menus depending on what is available during certain times. For example, they might offer a specific breakfast menu in the morning, lunch menu mid-day, dinner menu in the evening and late-night menu at night. Because some of those items may be unavailable after certain hours, there’s a possibility of disappointing customers if they can’t get something they see, especially if menus are static and unchangeable.

Digital menus for QSRs solve that problem by allowing easy changes any time of day via restaurant content management system software, such as Samsung VXT . This allows you to daypart menus so breakfast items disappear from screens at a specified time or when certain ingredients run out. Inside the store, self-service kiosks can do the same and improve the customer experience by allowing customers to make an order and complete the transaction at their convenience without face-to-face interaction. Operators can also adjust menus to highlight promotions and upsell products, increasing basket size .

3. Instant, ensured accuracy

A mix-up in an order can negatively impact a QSR. Not only does it make such a bad impression on the customer that they may not return, but efforts to correct the error hold up the line for the customers waiting behind, thereby impacting the customer experience for all. Indeed, 20% of respondents in one survey said they wouldn’t order from the restaurant again after an inaccurate order.

Digital displays offer a powerful tool to reduce inaccuracies in orders, and the benefits are already visible. One study of digital displays at McDonald’s showed an increase in accuracy of 15%. Considering the average accuracy rate of major chains is 86% , a digital display can effectively close the gap, leading to higher customer satisfaction.

4. Curbside pickup

Order-ahead and off-premises dining are now the norm in the QSR and fast-casual restaurant sectors. Curbside pickup is a key element of this and offers the same level of speed and convenience without reconfiguring the restaurant’s physical footprint.

To make it work, motorists need to know where to pull up and what to do. High-brightness displays in restaurant windows or weather-protected outdoor enclosures with self-service kiosks can relay these instructions clearly and vividly, making it easy for all. When tied into order and management systems, displays can also provide real-time order updates, so customers know when to expect their curbside order.

5. Faster service

A main priority for QSR operators is throughput — the speed at which orders are processed and delivered. During busy hours like lunchtime, particularly in drive-thrus, faster service means more orders and revenue, and shorter lines lower customers’ likelihood of going elsewhere.

Digital displays have a large role in speeding service. Paper signs need to show every item available, from breakfast through late night. Digital displays can remove items no longer available or being offered, reducing the options diners need to scan through and speeding their decision-making. AI and technology databases can increase speed even more, such as by using sensors that scan drive-thru motorists and optimize menus to match their predictive characteristics.

6. Tailored, targeted messaging

Machine learning-based tools — like license plate readers and pattern detection of vehicle types — analyze approaching customers and show them optimized menus. For example, if sales and loyalty data show, for example, that people in half-ton trucks tend to order combos, then the most attractive combo options are dynamically displayed on screens, increasing the speed of decision. That’s why QSRs like Wendy’s are spending millions on digital menu board enhancements that include AI.

Visual beacons drive sales

QSR outdoor digital signage is a mission-critical aspect of the modern drive-thru that connects to many of the industry’s leading trends. The increasing suite of tools and capabilities makes it almost indispensable to winning a larger customer share, burnishing the brand image, and expanding profits.

Learn more about why digital signage has become essential to the QSR industry in this free white paper . And explore Samsung’s range of indoor and outdoor QSR solutions designed to make the restaurant and in-store experience as compelling as possible.

Dave Haynes

Dave Haynes is a well-known veteran in the digital signage industry. He consults to some of the world’s largest brands on their digital signage strategy and technical needs, but also spends time mentoring start-ups. A former daily newspaper journalist, Haynes has for the past decade written a highly-respected blog about digital signage, Sixteen:Nine . Follow Dave on twitter @sixteennine

• digital menu board
• digital menu boards
• digital signage
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