how to use a pseudonym in a case study

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Suggestions for picking pseudonyms for research participants

Title : “*Pseudonyms Are Used Throughout”: A Footnote, Unpacked

Author : Janet Heaton

Author’s institution : University of the Highlands and Islands

Journal : Qualitative Inquiry (2021) [closed access]

The first time I did a qualitative research project, I was a first year graduate student. I didn’t know too much about qualitative research at the time, but I knew that I needed to come up with some way to refer to my participants without disclosing their names. I wasn’t given too much guidance on how to do that because it’s something researchers just do. Or so I thought.

While changing the names of the participants might seem like a trivial part of the research process, how to best do it remains an open question. The goal of changing the names is to make sure that participants cannot be identified but at the same time, someone’s identity provides crucial context for their lived experiences. Thus, there exists a tension between giving enough information about the participants to properly contextualize the data but not too much that participant confidentiality might be compromised.

Unfortunately, there isn’t a simple, general answer that will work in all situations. However, the author of today’s paper provides some suggestions and recommendations for how to handle the tradeoff of context and confidentiality.

How can I hide participant’s names?

Today’s paper addresses three main methods to do so. First, and probably one of the most common in PER, is to use pseudonyms. Here, the participant’s name is replaced by a different name, which can be determined at random, alphabetically, by the participant, or through some well known fictional characters (e.g. Shakespearian or in my case, science fiction).

Alternatively, the researchers can use an epithet and use a descriptive term to describe the person or place. For example, in a study of the dynamics of a research lab, a researcher could refer to the lab’s primary investigator as P.I. or professor rather than use their name.

Finally, researchers can use codenames to represent participants. Unlike pseudonyms, codenames don’t have to be names in the traditional sense of names, but rather can be index terms such as ID04 or subject 2. A strength of codenames is that they can be combined or defined to encode certain information easily. However, they can also get complicated quickly, making it hard for a reader to follow. For example, if the P.I. is a 43 year old, Asian, woman, her codename could be PI/43/A/w.

How much information about the participant’s identity should I include?

While all of these methods work are useful for protecting confidentiality, they have various degrees of utility when it comes to providing context and respect for participants’ identities. After all, a person’s name can hold deep personal, social, and symbolic meaning as well as convey information about a person’s ethnicity, age, gender, religion, etc. For example, consider what information about a participant might be assumed by the names Helga, José, Clarence, and La’Tonia.

When it comes to pseudonyms, a researcher must decide whether to pick identifiers that match on some characteristics or avoid the issue all together and use genetic names. Likewise, when it comes to epithets, researchers must decide which characteristics are important and which not are. At the same time, the researchers must be aware of how the label might reflect on the participant. Using “low-income” or “disabled” to describe a student comes with a different set of assumptions than referring to them as “female, 22”.

One possible solution to avoid the issue would be to allow participants to pick their own method of referring to themselves. However, that doesn’t necessarily allow the researcher to avoid the issues with picking an identifier for themselves. For example, the article notes participants might chose ambiguous identifiers such as “Super woman,” which could be interpreted as showing a positive self-image or could be interpreted as having too many tasks to balance at once.

Another possible solution is to use codenames because relevant information can be explicitly mentioned. However, doing so can de-personalize the participant, reducing them to a number or code.

What about me, the researcher?

In addition to accurately capturing the identities of participants, a researcher should also consider how to capture the relationship between themselves and the participants. Data aren’t obtained in a vacuum and in many cases, result from a series of interactions with a researcher that can influence the results.

Consider for example the relationship implied by using “Sam”, “Samantha”, and “Dr. Jones.” In the first case, the implied relationship is more informal and causal while the latter two names reflect a more formal relationship that might not be the case if the participant and the researcher had been interacting for many months during the study.

Alternatively, using an informal name might be seen as disrespectful, especially if the participant’s title is neglected or there exists an unbalanced power dynamic between the researcher and participant.

In the case of common names like “Sam,” repeated use of the name can lead the participant to be seen as a Jane Doe or John Smith (or in physics-speak, an Alice or a Bob ) rather than as a individual.

Concerns such as these aren’t only limited to the participant, however. How to refer to the researcher is just as important.

In many cases, the interviewer is simply referred to as “interviewer,” without reference who is doing the interviewing. Yet, doing so ignores potentially useful information about the dynamic between the researcher and participant. Previous work has documented cases where the identity of the interviewer affected what the participant was comfortable sharing.

In addition, moving away from using an ambiguous “interviewer” can also make it clear whether there was a single interviewer or team. In this sense, the use of the interviewer’s names (or other identifier) humanizes the interviewer rather than depicting them as a single background observer.

When should I worry about all this?

In addition to thinking about the strategy for preserving participant’s identities while maintaining confidentiality, it is also important to think about when it should happen. Should identities be changed before data collection, after data collection, after analysis, or only in passages that appear in publications?

As you might have guessed, the answer also depends. Changing later in the research process means that there are likely more people who know the true identity of the participant while changing identities earlier in the process might mean that important information is lost or opportunities for building rapport are lost. For example, if people and places are referred to by pseudonyms during the interview, the participant might not feel like they are allowed to share as much personal information while if pseudonyms are introduced before analysis, a researcher could misinterpret a quote due to a lack of context.

What am I supposed to do then?

Rather than give a specific recommendation on how to anonymize participants, the author of today’s paper suggests that researchers follow a two-step process.

First, researchers should talk with the participants in their study about their preferences and concerns for maintaining privacy while avoiding erasing their identities.

Second, researchers should include information about the process in their publications. As the title points out, this information is often relegated to a footnote saying it happened without any details. Instead, researchers could include how they de-identified data, what choices they made, and how those choices might strengthen or weaken the conclusions of their research.

I am a postdoc in education data science at the University of Michigan and the founder of PERbites. I’m interested in applying data science techniques to analyze educational datasets and improve higher education for all students

Using pseudonyms in reporting research

A topic in research methodology

It is a common convention in reporting research to assign assumed names or pseudonyms to research participants (and often to people they talk about in the research) to use when writing up the study.

This is usually considered an important ethical safeguard , to prevent the identification of individuals who contributed to the research. Although anonymity is not always possible, and indeed not always desirable , the default assumption should be that research participants are wherever possible offered anonymity and assured that the data they provide will remain confidential.

"Student B was observed to…"

In some forms of research, generally those drawing upon paradigmatic commitments associated with positivistic and nomothetic positions (EPR1), participants may simply be denoted as ‘A’ or ‘teacher 4’ etc.

"Tajinder told me that…"

However, in interpretive and idiographic research (ERP2), where the importance of the individual subjectivity of different people is an important consideration, it is usually considered best practice to use authentic (but false) names to reflect the status of a participant as a unique and idiosyncratic person.

Even though this is a widely observed convention, it is appropriate to include a statement along the lines " assumed names have been assigned to maintain the anonymity of participants " to make this clear (both because honesty and full reporting are important in reporting research, and because it demonstrates an ethical stance is being observed).

My introduction to educational research:

Taber, K. S. (2013). Classroom-based Research and Evidence-based Practice: An introduction (2nd ed.). London: Sage.

What’s in a name? The influence of pseudonyms on research activities

As researchers, we are ethically commanded to assure anonymity for participants engaging in research activities (BERA, 2018) . Anonymisation often results in selection of participant pseudonyms by researchers to assist in preventing identification. An alias, or code name is assumed, often chosen by the research author without consultation with participants. The origin of the meaning alias resides in Latin as ‘ at another time, elsewhere’ (Wordsense, 2021) which suggests an alternative identity is assumed, particularly because it should be distinct from participants’ real names. This can be particularly challenging within the field of social science when positive, professional relationships with participants brings potential for gathering valuable, rich data, to say nothing of perpetuating power imbalances between researcher and participant. Pseudonyms can therefore be a barrier to establishing participant relationships. It seems the idea of pseudonyms warrants careful consideration, though, because a name can be more important than first conceived.

Participants’ heritage and culture are often embodied in their name. Names can be inter-generationally adopted to demonstrate family attachments and respect for predecessors. Participants may not want to lose this sense of belonging with their family, particularly when researching sensitive subjects. Emotional connections with family can support and affirm the value of participants’ contributions to the research study which could help retention. Conversely, pseudonyms which are representative of family members who have brought disrepute on the family could risk alienating participants from the study. The negative association with these names would not necessarily be known to the researcher. Worse still are pseudonyms which are codes, such as numbers or letters. This depersonalises participants and removes their identity as well as extracting their name from fieldwork. Whilst this is arguably more influential in qualitative studies than quantitative research, the scientific study of human society and social relationships is quite possibly hampered when participant identities are altered.

Shakespeare (1597) disregarded the significance of names in Romeo and Juliet, arguing the person inside is more important than their name. But our social constructionism attaches importance to names which demonstrate who we are inside. Names are often aligned to religion, class, age, socio-economic circumstances, geographical locations and so on, and as a result influence our positionality and how we view the world. Within research, participants’ names might impact upon the research experience. In a recent study I tried to avoid these complexities by asking participants to select their own pseudonyms. Rather than avert these issues, it presented different problems. Several participants chose to use their initials, which had potential to identify them in a small, narrative study. In addressing this, one participant asked to be called by the first initial of their surname, preceded by ‘Mr’. As the only male in the study this insufficiently managed the risk of identification. The participant subsequently suggested the pseudonym Churchill , explaining this was patriotic. This names conjures various understandings, although perhaps not a general sense of awareness to social injustice. Seeking clarification, I enquired ‘Asking for a friend……. the politician or the dog?’. And the response?

by Sarah Mander

Sarah Mander is a Staff Tutor in ECYS, and Associate Lecturer for E102. Sarah is currently studying for a Doctorate in Education, researching the characteristics of child-centred practice within Early Help workforces. Her research interests emanate from a career in early intervention and preventative work in children’s services. Sarah also authors student wellbeing bulletins and leads the ECYS Student Voice and Wellbeing group.

One Reply to “What’s in a name? The influence of pseudonyms on research activities”

Way cool, some valid points! I appreciate you making this article available, the rest of the site is also high quality. Have a fun.

A rose by any other name: participants choosing research pseudonyms

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Picking Pseudonyms for Your Research Participants

When we got back from our last set of home visits, we wanted to keep our user’s names private, but still refer to them as real people. We used BabyNameVoyager to find a pseudonym for our participants. I learned this trick while working as a research assistant at Intel Research Berkeley and think it is genius.

One comment on “Picking Pseudonyms for Your Research Participants”

Lee wrote on march 22, 2013 at 4:40 pm:.

You have just solved my participant pseudonym problems in one fell swoop.

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PARTICIPANT PSEUDONYMS IN QUALITATIVE FAMILY RESEARCH: A SOCIOLOGICAL AND TEMPORAL NOTE (accepted manuscript)

2019, Families, Relationships and Societies

This article explores the pseudonyms that UK-based family sociologists have used to refer to and discuss participants in writing up their studies from the post-war to the present day. It takes a sociological and temporal perspective on the conventions for naming research participants in qualitative studies of family life. Drawing on major monographs reporting on studies of family lives across the period, I show that over time, since the 1950s and ‘60s, (pseudo)naming practice has reflected a firm trajectory towards an intimate rather than neutral research relationship, with use of personal names able to convey a sense of closeness to the particular participant by researchers to the readers. I argue that temporal disciplinary investigatory zeitgeists underpin pseudonym conventions, and that personal names have become the normalised, unspoken standard.

Related Papers

Families, Relationships and Societies

Rosalind Edwards

This article explores the pseudonyms that UK-based family sociologists have used to refer to and discuss participants in writing up their studies from the post-war to the present day. It takes a sociological and temporal perspective on the conventions for naming research participants in qualitative studies of family life. Drawing on major monographs reporting on studies of family lives across the period, I show that, over time, since the 1950s and 1960s, (pseudo)naming practice has reflected a firm trajectory towards an intimate rather than neutral research relationship, with the use of personal names able to convey a sense of closeness to the particular participant by researchers to the readers. I argue that temporal disciplinary investigatory zeitgeists underpin pseudonym conventions, and that personal names have become the normalised, unspoken standard.

Kate Mukungu

This methodology paper recommends that, when possible, qualitative research on activism should be designed to enable each participant to choose between using a pseudonym and one's actual name. The stance is informed by life history data collection encounters with women in post-conflict settings whose activism seeks to eliminate violence against women and girls (VAWG). The benefits of accommodating a mix of names make this a viable alternative to the prevalent practice of obscuring all participants' identities with pseudonyms. Writing about participants in a way that does no harm to them depends on the care and attention with which the researcher ascribes or dissociates data to or from them, regardless of the name used. Process consent is desirable as participants' consent is not fully informed prior to data collection. One aspect of informed consent worthy of attention is the need to explain the methods of data analysis and presentation of findings to life history participants. The above practices help ensure that negotiating informed consent with participants whilst acting towards the principle of doing no harm are tailored to the particular features of the life history method.

Janine Wiles

How do researchers name people respectfully in research projects? In an interview study on aspects of aging, 38 participants were invited to choose their own pseudonyms for the research. The resulting discussions show that the common practice of allocating pseudonyms to confer anonymity is not merely a technical procedure, but renaming has psychological meaning to both the participants and the content and process of the research. The care and thought with which many participants chose their names, and the meanings or links associated with those names, illuminated the importance of the process of naming. There was evidence of rules and customs around naming that further confirmed its importance both within their sociocultural worlds, and as an act of research, affected by issues of power and voice, methodology, and research outputs.We invite researchers to consider a more nuanced engagement with participants regarding choosing pseudonyms in research.

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It is often suggested that in carrying out research into the lives of LGBT people, researchers have an advantage if they share the same sexual orientation with their respondents – including greater access to respondents and the production of research accounts that perhaps have greater validity. However the process of doing research and writing up research is more complex than this suggests. In this article I seek to examine some of these assumptions in greater depth. A central (although not exclusive) concern of feminist debates is the extent to which the researcher's identity and experiences impact on the processes of doing research - and as such, the extent to which these should be made explicit. In examining some of these complexities, I draw upon these debates, the experiences of other researchers in the field of LGBT research and my own research examining the family lives of twenty lesbian parent families in the UK. I conclude that the ways in which the researcher may be po...

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International Journal of Social Research Methodology

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How and Why to Use a Pseudonym: 4 Reasons Authors Use Pen Names

Written by MasterClass

Last updated: Sep 30, 2021 • 5 min read

For centuries, the use of pseudonyms has been implemented in writing by various notable authors wanting to conceal their true identities. Writers use pseudonyms for a variety of reasons, and many successful, classic writers are more widely known by their pen names than their real ones.

Where instructors and editors talk writing.

Maintaining Confidentiality (Part 2)

Providing statistics and other data about the site :

Describing the setting : , using pseudonyms : , discussing your relationship to the study site : , redacting names : .

6 comments :

This post is very helpful. I have just finished a draft of my final study and the post has given me pause to consider certain elements and if they should be changed.

Great to hear that you found this helpful! There are so many things to consider when working on academic documents.

Hello Paul, I'm doing a quantitative study on three public schools in an island. They are the only three public school and I have used pseudonym for them. Is it okay to mention the name of the island if I'm using aggregate data for each school? Based on you post, are you saying I should delete citations/references that identify the schools/islands?

Thanks for taking the time to clear this up! From what it sounds like, there are only three schools on the island - which means if you name the island, someone could reasonably guess the three schools you are writing about, even if they have been given pseudonyms. Based on that information, I would also avoid naming the island. An editor in the Writing Center also recommends, "Instead, refer to it by a general descriptor (e.g., "a Caribbean island...") that makes it more difficult to identify the specific site. Some rounding of the data (e.g., "about 50,000 students" versus "51,234") can be used to further anonymize it, in line with the the four strategies listed on APA, p. 17 for disguising cases: -altering specific characteristics -limiting the description of specific characteristics -obfuscating case detail by adding extraneous material -using composites" (B. Considine, personal communication, March 14, 2016). I agree with all of the above, as well. There is so much to consider when it comes to this topic. (Speaking of... http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2013/08/lets-talk-about-research-participants.html) So you may find it helpful to go over this with your instructor or with one of us in the Writing Center :) Melissa Sharpe ~ Walden Writing Instructor

Thanks for sharing :) we regularly face this question as the institution has become very hot on confidentiality recently. Just to add that if you background black-out words it's important not to have the actual word behind the blackout or it's very easy to reveal - highlighting with a mouse will do that. So, we suggested simply replacing the name with the word 'anonymous' would be fine.

Very interesting point, Mike. It's amazing how fast technology changes the game when it comes to APA writing and research. We'll do our best to keep up, as long as you keep reading and sharing your wisdom. Thanks!

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How to Choose A Pseudonym – A Case Study

September 16, 2015

Denise Barnes, aka Fenella Forster Do you write under a pseudonym? Should you? And which would you choose? British indie author Denise Barnes shares the story behind her pen-name for her debut novel.

Pseudonym, Pen-name, Nom de Plume – call it what you will. Many authors use another name, sometimes multiple names, for various genres. I had written and had published a couple of memoirs and automatically used Denise Barnes, but romantic fiction seemed to require a name which was a little more flowing and…well, romantic.

I used to love writing adventure serials at primary school and my favourite heroine’s name was Fenella, so that bit was easy. Now for the surname. My debut novel, Annie’s Story, the first of The Voyagers Trilogy, is set in 1913 and continues throughout the First World War so I thought it would be nice to have some connection to the period; something that had meaning for me.

Secret Inspiration

Many years ago my mother revealed a huge family secret to my sister and me that her father (our grandfather) was not her real father. I was delighted. For various reasons I had no love for him whatsoever. ‘Then who was our real grandfather?’ was my burning question. ‘My mother had an affair with a German prisoner of war,’ she answered, ‘and she fell with me.’

Of course I pounded her with more questions but she knew very little. My grandmother only told her that his name was ‘Forster’ but not even how to spell it. She did say he was the kindest man she ever knew, so that was a relief.

What a story! I’d love to know if there are any half cousins in Germany, and how mind-blowing if I could see a photograph of my grandfather. But my sister is very worried that if I start digging I’ll uncover something awful, as he may have had sons who were involved in the terrible atrocities of the Second World War. But I prefer to give him and his family the benefit of the doubt.

Pen-name in practice

My mother has long since died but I truly believe she would have been pleased I’d taken her father’s name for my novels as she must have been curious about him. Mum’s younger sister, however, was really upset and accused me of honouring his name, but I’m not; I’m simply acknowledging him. After all, a grandfather is a very close relation. He may not even have known about my grandmother’s pregnancy. But I know he lived. And I’m very grateful because if it wasn’t for their love affair, my mother wouldn’t have been born, and neither would I!

The bonus is that it’s given me a brilliant idea for my next gritty but romantic novel. I can make it up to my heart’s content and finally meet my German ‘grandfather’ in the pages of my book, though I know I’ll have to brace myself for the reproach of my family.

The Impact of a Pen-name

I’d love to know the reasons why other authors choose their pen-names. And whether the new name has inspired them to write stories they might never have written. But my warning is to be mindful of the name you choose – it may have repercussions way beyond your fiction-writing imagination!

Thank goodness we writers have learnt to grow lovely thick skins!

OVER TO YOU If you have a pen-name, how did you choose yours? If you're sticking with your given name, would you ever write using a pseudonym? Join the conversation via the comments box!

Author: Denise Barnes

Denise always dreamed of being a full-time writer. From her experience in a German sanatorium she wrote: "From Bad to Wurst: Bavarian adventures of a veggie cook", and after selling her estate agency business to a pair of tricksters she wrote "SellerBeware: How Not To Sell Your Business". Her debut novel, "Annie’s Story, Book 1 of The Voyagers Trilogy", was published this year. "Juliet’s Story", Book 2 of the trilogy will be published in January 2016. "Kitty’s Story" will complete the trilogy. www.denisebarneswriter.com .

My mother condemns me for having published under a pen name, and one which isn’t my maiden name or something. Marina Costa is my pen name. I had wanted to publish under my own name, but my publisher told me that I have a too long name and I need a short pen name, to remain in the readers’ memory. He suggested some coming from my names, but I liked none. I asked him if Marina Costa was short enough, and he liked it. I told him that I have my media accounts on this name, and he agreed it was a good choice, so… so was it.

Marina is a name I love. If I had a daughter, I might have named her so. It is also the name of a character of mine (this was why I chose it for the media accounts). Many of my characters are named Marina, Emilia or Roxana.

Actually, for wanting privacy, I liked the fact that in other countries, Marina Costa is rather a common name. In Spain, Portugal and… former colonies, Greece. Italy and wherever these nations have emigrated. I don’t like being too unique in the world (but I am rather unique in my country, where it is not a common name).

I chose a pen name when I began writing short story memoirs….of my life as the largest marijuana dealer on the east coast in the 1990’s. I have since created a nice normal life for myself and simply don’t want to jeapordize my livelihood by using my real name. I have always had a knack for making money, and the thinking was “why rock the boat” for the mere possibility that writing could become my sole source of income.

That being said, I wanted to make sure that the reader knew I was using a pen name. So, I chose John DePlume as my alter ego!

[…] How to Choose A Pseudonym – A Case Study […]

I didn’t want to use a pen name but research found my real name (David Moody) was in use by a popular US horror novelist and a British boat builder! So pen name it was- I kept David and added Rory to suggest my red hair. I went with O’Neill – an old family name. The result David Rory O’Neill, was good but the Alli website search choked on it and I discovered a few other places that can’t cope with hyphenated of three word names. Be warned anyone going the three name route.

I have two pen names. As a Secondary School Teacher, I felt that I should keep my writing separate from my day job, so I chose to use Kira Morgana as my main pen name.

It’s unusual enough that I am top of any Google searches and actually has a meaning to me – Kira means “sun” in Persian, and Morgana is welsh for “by the sea”; I live in a welsh coastal village that gets a lot of sunshine in the summer so it seemed the perfect name. I publish Fantasy and Children’s books using it.

My secondary name is the one that I use for more adult themes and things like horror / paranormal. I decided to have a second pen name more so that I could keep my genres straight in my head.

I might amalgamate the work from the second into the first at some point though.

Hi Kathy. From what you’ve told me I think you should definitely have a pen-name. As you know, I took my unknown grandfather’s name. But someone who’s replied to this post took the name of the town they were born in as their surname. And another author I know chose the street of the first house her family lived – ‘Redcliffe’ – which I thought a great surname.

Do you have a middle name you could use? If you love cats you could be a ‘Kitty’ which is not far from your own name. Names seem to spring out in unexpected ways – often better than trolling through the phone book.

Do let me know what you come up with. And good luck!

I love the meaning of your name and Kira is so pretty. Sounds perfect for you. And yes, I understand why you have a secondary pen-name. For what my advice is worth, I think you’d be wise to keep both of them as they serve a different purpose.

Thanks so much for replying.

I tried to write to you before now but instead it reprinted another reply to Kathy above! Anyway, I was intrigued with your main pen-name, Kira Morgana and its meaning. Lovely! I can see why you needed a second one for you horror stuff!

I think you’d be wise to keep them both separate!

Thanks so much for commenting. All the best.

Thank you for replying!

I’m a freelance sports writer who covers hockey and I’ve written a series about a fictional hockey team, so I’ve been considering publishing under a pen name because I don’t want my fictional (and sexy) stories to be tied to my factual interactions and interviews with real players and teams. There’s always the possibility that people will automatically link one to the other and wonder about my professionalism as a journalist, etc. I’m not sure what to do at this point, and coming up with a pen name has been much harder than I ever thought it would be. Where do you start?!

Shoshanna Evers is a pen name. I always knew I’d write under a pen name, for three reasons: 1. No one can pronounce my real name properly. 2. I write erotic romance novels but I live in a small church town in Idaho. 3. Even before my books became more popular, I was wary of needing privacy/safety for me and my family. I chose the name before my first book was published in 2010. I searched everywhere for it (including Google, domain names, social media handles, Amazon etc) and determined the name could be all mine. Since then there is a German model who uses the same name spelled with one n, I believe. It no longer feels like a “fake” name, it’s just who I am. I answer to it, I get mail to it, etc etc. Only in my home town do I introduce myself as my married name. Everywhere else I am Shoshanna Evers 🙂

Hello, Shoshanna. I really enjoyed the story of your pen-name but am curious as to know your real name. And it sounds to me as though the German model made her own search, came across yours, and thought it would fit if she dropped an ‘n’. Very flattering. I am getting used to ‘Fenella’ now, but family think I’m barmy. They just don’t understand the wonderful world of writers.

Thanks for replying.

[…] Denise Barnes Do you write under a pseudonym? Should you? And which would you choose? British indie author Denise […]

Jon Moorthorpe is my chosen pen name. My full real name is John Edward Sykes and I have been writing for only the past two years.

When I reached the stage where I felt I should have my own website I first tried John Sykes and quickly had three thousand hits only to find that John Sykes was lead guitarist with Thin Lizzy, Whitesnake, amongst many others. Fell at the first hurdle… I should have learned from this, but

I then tried John Edward which had four thousand hits within two weeks only to find that John Edward the Psychic Medium at least equalled John Sykes in popularity. I know where I feature in the pecking order.

My partner Jean then asked where was my birthplace – result Jon Moorthorpe.

I have now learned the value of research!

Oh, dear. You really had some competition there, John. Jon Moorthorpe sounds and looks great as a writer’s name. I’ve heard some other names used where people were born. My birthplace was March (very confusing when people ask me – they immediately say, ‘No, where you were born.’ I just repeat ‘March’ again and they usually remain very puzzled.) I can’t see myself as Denise March, or even Fenella March, but with your birthplace it’s perfect. It’s strange how our names and pseudonyms define us and even give people a clue as to what sort of person we are.

Seems you must listen to Jean even more carefully in the future!

Thanks for writing in. It made me laugh.

More people now know me by my pseudonym than my real name, which is Áine McCarthy. Outside Ireland, people find it difficult to pronounce (it’s “awn-ya”, folks!) and when I started out as a novelist, my then publisher thought a short and easy (i.e. phonetic in English) name would be better. That evening, I was calling upstairs to my two children – ‘Ornagh! Ross! Dinner’s ready!’ – and I went, ooooh! It felt the perfect name had delivered itself. I asked them if they’d mind, they said fire ahead and Orna (anglicised version) Ross was born. Thanks so much for this post, Denise. I find writers reasons for choosing pseudonyms so interesting. Every writer is engaged in a creative double-act, between the writing and the life. For me, having a pseudonym keeps those two separate in a way that works for me.

Oh, what fun, Orrrrrna! That’s such a great putting-together-of-an-author name and obviously suits you and your personality.

You’re so right about the duo personality thing. I did a talk the other day on a business book I wrote under my own name: Seller Beware: How Not To Sell Your Business, and decided to put a few of my novels out on the table for sale as well. I’m pleased to say I sold all of them. But the attendees all bought the business book and I had to sign two different names in the space of a minute. It was weird but still feels write to be Fenella, and not Denise, for my novels.

I thought I’d get a few interesting replies but they’re all so different. Thanks so much for sharing yours.

Great story Denise. I have also chosen to write under a pseudonym. Not unlike yourself, I wanted to connect in some way to a grandparent I never knew, in this case, my maternal grandmother who died when my own mother was only 11 years old.

Throughout my childhood various stories were told and re-told, perhaps embellished by my mother, as she recalled her grief as a young girl mourning the loss of a cherished parent, but nevertheless encapsulating the kind of a person my grandmother was. I’m sure you can resonate with the sort of exclamations …you have your grandmother’s eyes, or …just now, the way you smiled, was just like your grandmother, and on it would go.

My grandmother’s maiden name was Guyton, one of the many European families to arrive on the first ships to New Zealand, but the only family with the name Guyton. I possessed a fertile imagination as a child and frequently invented stories surrounding the pioneer spirit of my Guyton ancestors and the interest in my grandmother, who I felt I knew intimately after all those stories, provided the inspiration for my pseudonym.

My debut novel “Consequences” is the result of eight long years of perseverance! Choosing to go down the route of Indie publishing has not been without its trials, but I’m so glad I have the control and independence that self publishing offers. Good luck with your book.

Morning, Adriana. I like your first name as well. So pleased you have the connection now with your grandmother. It think it’s so important. I bet you watch ‘Who Do You Think You Are’. Guyton is unusual and sounds right for an author.

I started Annie’s Story 10 years ago! If I’d known it was going to take that long I would never have attempted it. But I did have Book 2 ready as the two books were one very thick one when I first finished the novel. And the sequel I thought I was writing became Book 3, the completed trilogy, after I split Annie and Juliet, the granddaughter. The things we writers go through to try and perfect our work!

I wish you lots of luck on your book, too.

You were very creative with your name, Rebecca. It really is satisfying to create yourself as an author. I honestly feel like a Fenella – sort of romantic and writerly – when I’m signing the novel, so I know exactly what you mean. So different from when I’m all suited up and signing the business book, Seller Beware: How Not To Sell Your Business, which I wrote under my own name of Denise Barnes.

I like the way you’ve melded both names into one unusual but much simpler surname. And you’ve pleased both sides of the family – no mean feat 🙂

Lots of luck!

What a beautiful story!

My real name is already hyphenated, so I carry both sides of my family with me wherever I go. I had considered choosing one or the other when publishing, as it’s tedious to constantly correct the spelling and pronunciation.

Instead, I smushed it all together. Dier-McComb | D-M | Diem.

I enjoyed the latin connotations and I had both my names in one. And having my pen name acts as a kind of stage persona as well. It actually helps boost my confidence (and overcome some anxiety) when connecting with fans.

Hello, Edward. Thank you for reminding any readers of the post who are contemplating using a pseudonym to check first on Google. I did do a search on Amazon and no one by that name came up so I felt quite happy. Now, you’ve made me think I should have Googled it as well. So I’ll do it now. I’ll be really cheesed off if there’s another Fenella Forster author out there. 🙁

That was a fascinating story, Denise – and it’s one that immediately sparks the imagination! I also understand completely why you would choose to use your grandfather’s name, in spite of soe of the family’s concerns – and why you would want to write a story around it. In the process of writing your novel, did you ever manage to dig out anymore information on your grandfather?

I have something similar in my family history, but one generation further back with my great grandfather. He was baptised as ‘McDermot’ – but he was illegitimate (his mother a Gallagher), and his father never acknowledged him further. Great, great Granny Gallagher was a maid at local business, and young Mr McDermot was the owner’s son.

So, via my great grandfather the immediate side of my Irish family became ‘McDermot’s’.

Back in the late 70’s, my mother made a trip to Ireland and tried to re-connect with the ‘legitimate’ side of the family, but although the relationship was acknowledged as fact, the family were still extremely uncomfortable about it (three generations later!) and did not want to maintain any ties or contact.

I suspect things might be different now, but I’m not sure if I tried to reach out again to the if any of the younger generations will even know the true story. Even so, I chose to use McDermot as my pen-name in remembrance of my gran – who knows, one day I might adapt her father’s story into fiction.

Piper was my mother’s maiden name (my grandmother’s married name) and I like the combination it makes with McDermot, and what both represent to me. A google search didn’t turn up anyone with the same name, so hopefully I’m good to go 🙂

I loved your story too, Piper. There could never be another combination such as yours! So pleased you’re using the two family names, so you completely understand why I chose my maternal grandfather’s name. I felt it was really important to acknowledge him.

Annie’s Story, the novel that’s just published, was inspired by my paternal grandparents. They went as servants to Australia to ‘better themselves’ which is exactly what my heroine in ‘Annie’ does with her new husband. But I’m determined to write the story of my German grandfather after the current rom-com I’m writing as it might bring me closer to him when doing the research.

I think you should do the same, and write your great-grandfather’s story. We can compare notes!

So nice to hear from you.

That’s a deal! 🙂 It’s surprising what a trove of material family histories can be, such as in your ‘Annie’s Story’. For me, that’s exactly the kind of hook that sparks my interest in reading.

Once you’ve chosen a pseudonym, you should do a Google search on it. You don’t want a name that another writer is already using! But also, you don’t want close matches and those are harder to search for. For example, Fenella Forster is a great name for a romance novelist but what if there is another writer named Fenella Foster? Many readers could get confused Ask librarians or the members of ALLI if they can think of other names that are similar.. Good luck with your next gritty but realistic novel.

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Case Studies Show Positive Youth Development Empowers Young Workers

Happy young concierge talking to African American man who is checking in at the hotel.

A new Child Trends series explores how employers can use positive youth development practices to better support young workers.

Comprised of three case studies, the series details promising practices for ensuring young people succeed in the workplace . They draw on insights from focus groups at Generation Work sites in Chicago, Illinois, and Birmingham, Alabama, as well as interviews with workforce development practitioners.

“ Young adults are an integral part of America’s workforce, and employers play an important role in their success,” said Ranita Jain , a senior associate with the Annie E. Casey Foundation. “ Using direct input from employers and young adults, Child Trends has shared valuable recommendations for creating workplaces where young people can learn, grow and thrive.”

Child Trends is a key partner in the Foundation’s Generation Work initiative , which partners with employers to connect young adults — especially young people of color and those from low-income families — with stable jobs.

Young Adult Workers’ Professional Development

Promising Practices for Incorporating Positive Youth Development Into Young Adult Workers’ Professional Development recommends four professional development strategies that incorporate positive youth development principles.

Create a structured, supportive and safe environment. By creating workplaces where young adults can ask questions and take responsibility for their training and work, employers foster a sense of belonging and commitment.
Ensure managers and young adults work together toward shared goals. This includes having managers set clear professional goals with their young employees and ensuring managers meet with them throughout the year to help them accomplish those goals.
Provide young workers with internal and external training opportunities. Internally, employers can connect young people to on-the-job training and workshops that help them build important skills and gain valuable experience. External training opportunities from a third party or postsecondary institution help mold young people into valuable long-term employees.
Establish clear pathways and processes for promotion. Employers with transparent and well-defined policies for advancement create trust and motivation among their young employees.

Young Adult Worker Voice

Promising Practices for Incorporating Positive Youth Development Into Young Adult Worker Voice Initiatives outlines three ways employers can seek out and incorporate young adults’ feedback.

Normalize collecting feedback as a part of day-to-day operations. Solicit thoughts from each team member — including staff who are just beginning their careers — and ensure feedback is collected at designated intervals during projects.
Recognize young workers for their contributions. Publicly acknowledge and reward good ideas or helpful suggestions.
Position leadership and management to provide feedback to workers early in their careers. This empowers young workers to speak out when issues arise and provides them with coaching and mentoring that will benefit their careers in the long term.

Young Adult Worker Supervision

Promising Practices for Incorporating Positive Youth Development Into Supervision of Young Adult Workers urges workforce practitioners to leverage their unique understanding of supervision structures to encourage employers to adopt practices that build on young adults’ strengths. This case study highlights four employer supervision practices that can enrich young workers’ experiences on the job.

Set clear expectations for young workers. Outline expectations as early as the first job interview and initial onboarding to develop a shared understanding of work responsibilities. When employers find that young workers are struggling with work-related duties, they can identify ways to support workers.
Get to know younger employees as people. Understand young people’s goals, interests, strengths and personalities and treat them as valued team members.
Equip managers with what they need to be good managers. Employers can provide formal management training on topics ranging from racial equity and inclusion to goal setting. Train managers to create environments where young workers feel comfortable.
Encourage professional relationships with management-level staff. By establishing relationships between young workers and multiple managers or mentors, employers can ensure young team members are heard and supported. In turn, managers better understand the needs of younger employees.

Learn more about positive youth development approaches

This post is related to:

Frontline Practice
Generation Z
Positive Youth Development
Workforce Development
Youth and Young Adult Employment

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Case studies for safe working in general practice

Case study: a realistic rota, how it works.

We limit consultations to 13 per session.
Have a number of appointments that are pre-bookable either by the GP or by patients with different timeframes from when they are available.
The duty doctor then calculates how many on the day appointments are available that day. The duty list is then capped at this number.
This includes the duty doctor doing 10 consultations as well as the triage, but these are for simple things like med3s rather than complex care
Comments are added to the duty list in the morning of when to move to the pm duty list
The pm duty list has a comment adding at what point to turn off online consulting and another comment added, typically about 10 slots further down, stating 'emergencies only discuss with duty doctor prior to booking'. Typically we have 10-15 of these slots.
The 111 list sits separate to this with 2 appts in the morning and 2 in afternoon but the duty doctor will move these to the triage list if they are going to need a consultation so that they are included in the capacity count.
When we move over to emergencies only, the telephone message changes to make the patient aware that we only have emergency appointments that day so that they are not on hold for 30+ minutes to be told we have nothing left for that day.
We don't hold a waiting list, if we are at the points of emergencies only, the patient doesn't need an emergency appointment and there are no pre-bookable appointments available, the patient has the option to put in an econsult the next day, call for an appointment the next day or if they feel it can't wait contact 111, IUC etc. This is the one bit of our system that I don't like as I would like a solution that doesn't require a patient to call back. The reason we don't add them to the list for the next day is that a sig proportion never call back and we can't fill up the following days capacity as the system fails.
We do use apex Edenbridge to monitor our appointments, as I think it would be hard to challenge our approach if we are also demonstrating that we are offering more than the average number of appointments per 1000 patients per week than the other practices in our ICB.

This has made a huge difference to our clinicians. We spend longer with patients but it is based on a realistic rota which also enables us to do the clinical administrative work and complete all tasks in the allotted time so I no longer work 2 sessions in a day which actually take 11 hours to complete, this use to be the case.

Case study: Standard and on-call days

Standard gp day.

Morning

12 x 15mins consultations (face-to-face or phone) - split between advance and on-the-day.
2 x 15mins consultations for GPs to book into (eg. Telcon with DN or task necessitating them to initiate call to patient).

Lunch

1x visit maximum (unless at care home, where may be 2x).

Afternoon

12 x 15mins consultations, as per morning.

On-call GP day

As per standard day.
As per standard day but ONLY visits if all others have a visit already (duty triages requests).
6x 15mins advance-booked consultations.
3x 15mins 111-bookable slots.
Rest of afternoon for admin, answering queries from reception and urgent (EOL/hot kids/DN calls), also reviews and actions any abnormal bloods/urgent scripts coming in after 5pm.

Case study: Practice example using triage

This practice serves 20,000 patients in a deprived, multi-cultural population using a GP led total clinical triage called CAS (clinical assessment screen) GPs.

Patients access appointments via reception, telcon or accuRx.
GP appointments default to telephone: 11 telcons and 3 face-to-face per session. If more face-to-face sessions are needed, telcons are blocked.
Slot types are either red (same day), amber (1 week), amber (2 weeks), or routine.
AHPs such as ANPs/paramedics/MHP are used for face-to-face appointments only.
CAS GPs have no booked appointments - they make clinical decisions on RAG rating of clinical triage and use F12 protocol to communicate this. Routine patients may go on a waiting list if there are not enough appointments.
CAS screen is capped at either 3:30pm or when each CAS GP has clinically triaged 50 patients per session (which may happen earlier at 2pm). When the cap is reached, all on-line access is closed and patients are told it's urgent only, which are first triaged by care navigators and then CAS GP.
GPs much happier
Continuity much higher
Complaints have gone up as patients don't like waiting when it's not urgent.

Case study: Fully online triage

Breakdown by day .

12 patient consultations every 4 hours (counted as one session).
Face-to-face majority, couple of phonically, and 2 GP Follow ups (mainly MH and continuity of care).
13-minute appointments.
One third protected admin time.
15-minute break per session worked.

System was fully online triage:

initially Egerton and then switch to Accurx
clinical triage by GP in the morning (previously did two sets of triage, am and pm, but this proved difficult to manage workload and demand, as too open ended and labour intensive in terms of GP time and resource)
window for online triage forms open from 7.30am to 11.00am - clear communication to patients re timings (used to be open over the weekend and all day, but risky in terms of safety if people ignore the red flags, and demand management)
closed earlier if capacity reached, or if staff sickness etc.

Capacity is mapped out, and a RAG (Red/Amber/Green) rating approach taken according to clinical prioritisation, patients with specific needs and vulnerabilities have alerts on system:

on the day urgent: red
less urgent but not routine: amber (48 hours)
routine - next available: green (safe to wait, no clinical urgency).

Appointments capacity mapped out in terms of:

clinicians
practice - in house
enhanced access - GP Fed - on the day evening and any the weekend (routine)
PCN: mole clinic, women's health, minor surgery, social prescriber, physio (this is in addition to the city wide FPOC physio)
straight to physio (FPOC city wide offer)
external services eg Pharmacy first, minor ailments.

We stopped the PCN MHPs, and reverted to direct practice ones as the MH trust offer didn't really address our needs.

Booking of appointments

Patients are sent booking links to self-book face to face on the day via Accurx (this helps reduce DNAs as patients can pick the most convenient time).
Appointments can be booked in via telephone for nurse and bloods/smears etc (helps prevent inappropriate booking).
If patients are unable to use online triage, the forms are completed on their behalf by reception or direct booking into an appointment.

In tandem with the above, we use an Oncall GP:

they have a lighter clinic in place, with empty slots for ad hoc queries
their capacity would be used only if the on the day capacity had been reached, and for those patients that could not wait
they would also deal with urgent docman (usually mental health or safe guarding. cases), third party queries and review urgent bloods that needed to be actioned for those clinicians that were not in
the workload of the on call has greatly reduced since the introduction of total triage ( I used to do the Mondays and art times would have 26 urgent consultations in addition to usual workload, from the morning!)
if the urgent, moderately urgent and routine appointments are all used up patients are either signposted to other services or, if not appropriate, informed that they will be allocated an appointment once this becomes available
all text messages including failed contacted have safety netting advice included with NHS111 contact information.

Case study: A new system for patients

This example is from a practice that services 23.5k patients, semi-rural, deprived population with no UCC locally.

We are not quite down to 25 contacts a day yet but at 28 on routine days and 15 per session for on call clinicians (mix of GPs and ANPs).

Some routine appointments are pre-bookable, some embargoed for on the day use (more embargoed on Mondays). 14 appointments per session, about half face to face although many of us convert telephone/online slots to face-to-face if needed. All appointments are fifteen minutes.

Triage hub

2-3 clinicians per session in a triage hub with receptionists. 2 clinicians ‘on call’ seeing the urgent face to face appointments booked by the hub clinicians - 15-minute appointments.

Can flex clinicians if needed to/from triage/on call.

We switch off incoming electronic forms when the hub clinicians judge that we have no more slots to book into. Usually they go off around three pm but can be earlier or later depending on demand and clinical capacity. Patients can then ring in and will be triaged if emergency/directed to 111 if absolutely no capacity left.

Recently we’ve changed so that if we are on maximum clinicians off for leave we load more on the day appointments.

Separate appointments

We have separate twenty-minute appointments for coils, implants, first menopause appointments and joint injections. We have a GP with an hour blocked for visits (and visiting matrons) and one with an hour blocked to deal with the blood results of any clinician not in that day.

Clinicians are generally happier than when we had unending duty demand. Patients objected at first but now seem to be mostly okay with the system.

Training Industry

The impact of case studies on safety training.

female technician engineer checking automation robotics at industrial modern factory.

Experience is the greatest teacher of all and there is nothing like learning from our mistakes. But, in many critical industries, making a mistake can lead to grave injuries — or possibly even death. Whatever your industry, safety should be at the heart of everything you do. By committing to innovation and new, more effective ways to approach online training, your people will be more prepared to make safer, smarter and better decisions on the job.

Making Compliance Training Engaging

Learning from the mistakes of someone else — without actually having to make that mistake yourself — is an invaluable tool when it comes to adult learning. In fact, eLearning courses developed from real-life scenarios that highlight to learners what went wrong can help prevent similar injuries from occurring in the future.

In this article, we’ll review some top tips on integrating case studies into your health and safety training programs, and how this can help save lives in the workplace.

3 tips for designing (or selecting) case study courses.

Select case studies with care.

Not all examples of workplace incidents are relevant for all trainees. That’s why you should start by identifying any employee skills gaps and training needs. You’ll also want to ensure you’re selecting or designing case studies that grab the attention of those who engage with the narrative.

Here are just a few questions to consider while developing safety training for employees:

Is there a particularly compelling voice that can share this story?
Is there a clear lesson that can be learned from this experience?
How can this particular case study help develop problem-solving skills in learners?
Is there an interactive element that can be included in a training based on this case study?

Ensure to choose topics that are relevant to employees and the work environment, and that learners can connect with personally. The importance is to ensure that the training content is memorable.

Structure training for engagement.

As you are designing or selecting case studies for training courses, you’ll need to consider the best way to communicate a real-life narrative. This is not the same as storytelling or explaining what not to do. Instead, you will need to structure the training so that it immerses learners into the experience. Combine different features to create a blended learning experience, like interviews and/or a 3D recreation of the incident with explanations by an expert on how the incident could’ve been prevented. This can drive home the point of occupational safety and hazard association (OSHA) training.

Include interactive elements.

Interactive multimedia elements are also imperative to creating an immersive learning experience. You can also structure the content so learners can problem-solve their way through the experience while you narrate it. For example, add scenarios like “branching” or choose-your-own-adventure activities so they can see how the situation plays out based on their selection. Don’t overdo it with the entertaining elements. The point of adding immersive features is to make an authentic impact on your learners.

3 key benefits of using case studies in training.

Better buy-in.

When it comes to safety training, buy-in from stakeholders is a must and completing online courses should be more than checking boxes for compliance requirements. The best way to do that is explain the value of the training. Most adults have a higher sense of self-direction and motivation, which is why many adult learners learn because they need it and/or recognize the benefit. We know that humans learn better when they connect their training to a narrative. Case studies have the power to make what may otherwise feel like a series of do’s and don’ts come to life with a compelling story based on real-life events.

Learners can better understand the importance of safety training when its personable and relevant to their role. Transforming mandatory compliance health and safety training from abstract concepts into lessons grounded in the real-world can not only maximize the impact of training, but also help safeguard lives.

#adult learning
#case studies in training
#compliance training
#engaging eLearning
#health and safety programs
#interactive safety training.
#OSHA training
#prevent workplace injuries
#safety training
#workplace safety

Michael Ojdana

Michael Ojdana is the chief learning officer at Vector Solutions. He leads the content team and has a rich background in all aspects of content development. In his role, Ojdana strives to guide his team to create engaging, innovative courses that meet customer needs, positively change behaviors and help make employees safer.

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Assessing Tropical Cyclone Destruction Using Landsat Satellite Imagery: A Case Study in Bangladesh

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Published: 05 September 2024

Detecting rare earth elements using EnMAP hyperspectral satellite data: a case study from Mountain Pass, California

Saeid Asadzadeh 1 ,
Nicole Koellner 1 &
Sabine Chabrillat 1 , 2

Scientific Reports volume 14 , Article number: 20766 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Economic geology

Rare earth elements (REEs) exhibit diagnostic absorption features in the visible-near infrared region, enabling their detection and identification via spectroscopic methods. Satellite-based remote sensing mapping of REEs, however, has not been attainable so far due to the necessity for high-quality hyperspectral data to resolve their narrow absorption features. This research leverages EnMAP hyperspectral satellite data to map REEs in Mountain Pass, California—a mining area known to host bastnaesite-Ce ore in sövite and beforsite carbonatites. By employing a polynomial fitting technique to characterize the diagnostic absorption features of Neodymium (Nd) at ∼ 740 and ∼ 800 nm, the surface occurrence of Nd was successfully mapped at a 30m pixel resolution. The relative abundance of Nd was represented using the continuum-removed area of the 800 nm feature. The resulting map, highlighting hundreds of anomalous pixels, was validated through laboratory spectroscopy, surface geology, and high-resolution satellite imagery. This study marks a major advancement in REE exploration, demonstrating for the first time, the possibility of directly detecting Nd in geologic environments using the EnMAP hyperspectral satellite data. This capability can offer a fast and cost-effective method for screening Earth’s surfaces for REE signature, complementing the existing exploration portfolio and facilitating the discovery of new resources.

A 2D hyperspectral library of mineral reflectance, from 900 to 2500 nm

Application of hyperspectral remote sensing for supplementary investigation of polymetallic deposits in Huaniushan ore region, northwestern China

A multi-disciplinary approach for uranium exploration using remote sensing and airborne gamma-ray spectrometry data in the Gebel Duwi area, Central Eastern Desert, Egypt

Introduction.

Rare Earth Elements (REEs) are essential to many modern technologies, including electric vehicles, wind turbines, and smartphones 1 , 2 , 3 . This broad range of applications, combined with increasing demands and disruptions in the supply chain, has transformed REEs into strategic commodities and critical raw materials 4 . REEs are a group of metallic elements with similar chemical properties comprising the lanthanides (atomic number 57 to 71) plus Y (39), commonly divided into light (LREE) and heavy (HREE) subgroups, comprising La to Eu and Gd to Lu + Y, respectively 5 .

REEs naturally occur in a diverse array of minerals, including carbonates, phosphates, silicates, and oxides of which carbonates and phosphates constitute the most abundant and economically valuable minerals 2 . The REE carbonates include the fluorocarbonate minerals bastnaesite, synchysite, and parisite 6 . The RE 2 O 3 content of these minerals is exceptionally high, reaching up to 75 wt.% in bastnaesite 7 . LREEs typically concentrate in carbonates (i.e., bastnaesite; (Ce,La)(CO 3 )F) and phosphates (i.e., monazite; (Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO 4 ), whereas HREEs are commonly hosted by oxides and, partly, by phosphates, including xenotime ((HREE,Y)PO 4 ). Due to chemical similarity (ionic radii and oxidation states), REEs often substitute for one another and co-occur within the same mineral species 5 .

Contrary to their name, REEs are relatively abundant in the Earth's crust, though economically viable deposits are uncommon. Several deposit classes are recognized to host REEs 2 , with carbonatites being the predominant sources, accounting for more than 70% of global REO (Rare Earth Oxides) production. Two notable examples of such deposits are the Bayan Obo mine in China and the Mountain Pass in the US 8 . Carbonatites are defined as rocks with > 50% primary magmatic carbonates. Geologically, they occur in continental settings and based on their mineralogy and petrographic texture are divided into three distinct classes: calcitic (also referred to as sövite), dolomitic (beforsite), and ankeritic (ferrocarbonatite) 2 , 5 . Carbonatites predominantly host LREEs such as La, Ce, Pr, and Nd, with bastnaesite being the primary mineral exploited in many related deposits 5 , 7 .

The technique of reflectance spectroscopy has recently emerged as a fast and cost-effective analytic tool for detecting and quantifying REEs. Several REEs, including Nd 3+ , Pr 3+ , Sm 3+ , Dy 3+ , Er 3+ , Ho 3+ , and potentially Eu 3+ and Tm 3+ exhibit diagnostic absorption features in the visible-near-infrared (VNIR; 400–1000 nm) and partly in the shortwave-infrared (SWIR; 1000–2500 nm) wavelengths, allowing them to be detected via spectroscopic methods 6 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 . The narrow absorption bands of REEs observed in the VNIR, as exemplified in Fig. 1 , are attributed to 4f-4f intra-configurational electron transitions 6 , 11 , 15 .

Spectral signature of the rare-earth mineral bastnaesite in the VNIR–SWIR range. The spectrum of monazite is shown for comparison—data sourced from the USGS spectral library 21 . The key absorption features of Nd in the VNIR range are bolded. The inset graph provides a closer view of bastnaesite’s absorbing bands between 700 and 910 nm (marked by the solid bar), covering three diagnostic absorption features. The gray columns represent the spectral ranges used for polynomial fitting and remote sensing mapping of Nd in the study area.

Despite the effective shielding of the 4f orbitals by the 5s and 5p closed shells, the corresponding energy levels in the mineralogic phases are not fixed and rather undergo subtle changes, depending on the ligand type, coordination number, and polyhedron asymmetry. This variability leads to shifts in the position of absorbing bands within mineral phases, typically on the order of ∼ 10 nm in the VNIR range 6 , 15 , 17 . In other words, while the absorbing bands arise from REE ions, the host mineralogy plays an important role in determining the exact position of the absorption features and their intensities. The spectral behaviors of rare-earth minerals are already cataloged in several specialized spectral libraries 6 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 .

A growing number of studies have shown that Nd is the most spectrally active and readily detectable REE via spectroscopic methods 9 , 12 , 14 , 22 . The identification of Nd typically relies on the characterization of its most prominent and defining absorption features at ∼ 580, ∼ 740, ∼ 800, and ∼ 865 nm (see Fig. 1 ). By leveraging these distinctive features, the hyperspectral imaging technology has been able to detect Nd across various scales and conditions, spanning from close-range scanning of thin sections 23 and hand specimens in laboratory settings 6 , 24 to the mapping of vertical outcrops on the ground 25 , 26 and open-pit mines from airborne platforms 27 , 28 . More recently, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-based imaging systems have been employed to map REE-rich veins and outcrops at very high spatial resolutions 29 .

In contrast, direct detection of REEs by spaceborne satellite systems, such as ASTER and WorldView-3 multispectral instruments, has been unachievable, mainly due to the coarse spectral resolutions of multispectral datasets, rendering them unable to resolve the sharp yet narrow absorption features of REEs (Fig. 1 ), regardless of their spatial resolution 28 , 30 . While previous laboratory-based spectral simulations have demonstrated the potential of hyperspectral instruments, including the EnMAP satellite system, for direct REE detection 9 , the capability of the corresponding dataset has remained untested in real-world conditions.

This paper aims to bridge this gap and pave the way for further research by analyzing the EnMAP imaging spectroscopic data collected over the Mountain Pass REE mine in California, USA. Our study aims to prove the concept and recognize the potentials and limitations of spaceborne hyperspectral datasets for the direct detection and mapping of REEs. This is accomplished by studying the well-exposed, high-grade REE mine of the Mountain Pass area using the EnMAP imaging data at 30 m spatial resolution. Furthermore, the study seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of spectroscopic-based processing methods for REE detection aiming to provide a reliable site-independent mapping technique applicable to EnMAP and analogous hyperspectral remote sensing datasets.

Geology of the Mountain Pass area

Mountain Pass is located in southeastern California, approximately 65 km southwest of Las Vegas, in the Mojave Desert. Geologically, the area comprises a collection of Mesoproterozoic alkaline silicate intrusions (ca. 1.41 Ga) ranging in composition from mafic (shonkinite) through syenite to alkali granite. This suite is associated with a series of contemporaneous carbonatite dikes and intrusions 31 . The northern and eastern parts of the area consist of Proterozoic schists and gneisses, granitoids, and minor carbonatite intrusions. In contrast, the south and southeast are characterized by Paleozoic limestone, dolostone, and sandstone intruded by Jurassic granitic rocks and Cretaceous granodiorites 28 . The central and western parts are covered by folded, thrust-faulted Paleozoic carbonate and quartzose rocks 28 . A more detailed description of the area’s geology can be found in Castor 32 , Mars 30 , Mariano and Mariano 33 , and Watts, et al. 31 .

The carbonatites and the associated alkaline plutons constitute a suite of roughly tabular to lenticular, moderately west-dipping intrusions trending north-northwest within the ultrapotassic intrusive rocks 32 . The largest body, known as the Sulphide Queen carbonatite, is located in the center of the area, measuring 700 m in width and up to 150 m in thickness 10 and hosting the largest REE deposit in the US 7 , 31 . The Sulphide Queen carbonatite primarily consists of bastnaesite-barite sövite (calcitic) and bastnaesite-barite-dolomite (beforsite), or a mixture of both (dolomitic sövite), with the dolomitic carbonatite being more prevalent 32 .

Although the size of the Sulphide Queen carbonatite is modest, the orebody is highly enriched in LREE. The ore, which is recognized to be of igneous origin, typically contains 10–15% bastnaesite-Ce, 65% calcite/dolomite, and 20–25% barite. The bastnaesite mineral crystals are coarse-grained, typically measuring 300 µm in diameter with an average REE composition of 45.50% Ce, 15.82% Nd, 4.65% Pr, and 1.83% Sm, with lower quantities of Eu, Gd, Dy, Ho, and Er 32 . Other LREE-bearing accessory minerals are parisite, synchysite, monazite, and, less often, allanite 33 . Mining activities in the Sulphide Queen stock started in 1952 and ceased by 2002, leaving a reserve of > 20 million metric tons of ore at an average grade of 8.9% REO in place 34 . By 2007, the extraction of selected REE commodities from stockpiles resumed, and since 2018, the mine has been reactivated in response to the increased demand for REEs and geopolitical forces 31 .

Besides the main carbonatite body, there are numerous steeply inclined carbonatite dikes in the area, with the majority occurring in the vicinity of the Sulphide Queen orebody. Several of these dikes, particularly those adjacent to the mine, are known to contain bastnaesite, although most have low REO contents. A fenitized zone approximately 4 km southeast of the mine is also reported to host REE prospects containing allanite and bastnaesite minerals 32 .

The target area has been the focus of several remote sensing studies, primarily aimed at lithologic mapping using different multi- and hyperspectral datasets 28 , 30 , 35 . Based on field observations, vegetation covers between 10 to 30% of the surface, making it suitable for remote sensing studies.

The EnMAP data successfully resolved the REE- and carbonate-related features in the VNIR and SWIR ranges (Fig. 2 ). In the VNIR, it identified four diagnostic absorption features at ∼ 580, ∼ 740, ∼ 800, and ∼ 870 nm (Fig. 2 a). Within the SWIR range, it detected a deep carbonate feature at 2335 nm and two characteristics features related to bastnaesite at 2255 and 2316 nm (Fig. 2 b). The contained carbonate was identified as calcium carbonate, distinguished by a pronounced absorption feature at 2335 nm and the absence of a ferrous iron feature in the VNIR.

Continuum-removed reflectance spectra from EnMAP (in black) over the Sulphide Queen Mine compared to the laboratory-based spectrum of bastnaesite-rich ore from the mine site. The spectra are plotted in the VNIR ( a ) and SWIR ( b ) spectral ranges in native resolution. The laboratory spectrum, acquired using an ASD spectrometer, is sourced from the datasets published by Neave, et al. 9 . The vertical gray column in ( a ) highlights the EnMAP band affected by oxygen’s residual absorption feature at 760 nm. The minimum wavelengths were calculated by the polynomial fitting technique described in section " Processing methodology ". Note that the two graphs have different Y-axis scales.

The representative pixel spectrum over the open-pit mine shows good agreement with the laboratory spectroscopy of the orebody. Both datasets exhibit a comparable spectral pattern with the same number of absorption features and intensities across the VNIR and SWIR ranges, following continuum removal (Fig. 2 ). Notably, the positions of absorption minimums for the 580, 740, and 800 nm features are nearly identical in both datasets and for the characteristic features of bastnaesite, the difference is in the order of 1–2 nm (2255 vs. 2254 nm and 2216 vs. 2218 nm). However, the minimum wavelength differences for the 870 and 2330 nm features are significant. In the EnMAP data, the Nd feature occurs at a slightly longer wavelength (871 vs. 865 nm), and the carbonate feature appears at a shorter wavelength (2335 vs. 2342 nm) (Fig. 2 ). The latter is likely due to the spectral mixture of calcic carbonate with bastnaesite absorption features at the EnMAP ground sampling distance of 30 m. It is noteworthy that the bastnaesite spectrum depicted in Fig. 1 exhibits a different pattern compared to the laboratory plot in Fig. 2 b. The features at 2254, 2318, and 2342 nm appear respectively at 2249, 2314, and 2327 nm in Fig. 1 , possibly due to the complex/mixed mineralogy of the sample from the Mountain Pass. The 2255 nm feature observed in Fig. 2 b is speculated to arise from the hydroxyl bond in bastnaesite 6 .

Further distinctions include variations in the width of absorption features, which tend to be broader in the EnMAP data. Additionally, the right side of the 740 nm absorption feature in the EnMAP data is affected by a widespread residual O 2 absorption feature (Fig. 2 a). EnMAP also resolves an additional feature at 2200 nm, likely linked to clay minerals (Fig. 2 b). It is worth noting that the laboratory spectrum of this study closely resembles the spectral plot (published in Mars 30 i.e., Spectrum A in Fig. 7).

The distribution and relative abundance of Nd across the Mountain Pass area is illustrated in Fig. 3 a. Here, the spectral signature of Nd was mapped not only over the open-pit mine but also over the stockpiles, tailings storages, evaporation ponds, the crusher site, and the concentrator facilities (Fig. 3 b). The anomalies detected over the concentrator facility are probably the result of REE-bearing dust being transported westward from the mine crusher by the prevailing wind direction in the Mojave Desert. The Nd signature was also detected in several localities beyond the mining site, including at the edge of the Colosseum mine northward (Fig. 3 c) and over carbonate rocks in the west and southwest of the study area (Fig. 3 d–f). However, unlike the anomalies observed in the mining area, which form clusters of connected pixels, the peripheral anomalies are generally limited to a few pixels. In total, 740 pixels encompassing an area of 880,000 m 2 were identified to exhibit Nd features. The most prominent absorption feature was observed over the evaporation ponds, while the faintest was detected above the tailing storages (Fig. 3 b). The mapping method detected no anomalies over the fenitized zone southeast of the mining area (Fig. 3 a).

The spatial distribution and relative abundance of REEs in the Mountain Pass area, California. ( a ) Nd anomaly map (blue-red) yielded from spectral analysis of EnMAP hyperspectral data overlaid on enhanced albedo imagery. The area of the 800 nm absorption feature is used to indicate the relative abundance of Nd in the mapped pixels. The relative abundance of iron oxide and carbonate minerals are depicted in the background by orange and purple-red colors, respectively. ( b – f ) The same Nd anomalies from ( a ) overlaid on high-resolution satellite imagery of the area available on Google Earth. The data are from 29 th March 2021 at a ground sampling distance of ∼ 1 m. White rectangles in ( a ) define the outline of the images shown in ( b ) to ( f ). Major faults are shown by solid/dashed black lines.

In Fig. 3 a, the relative abundance of iron oxide minerals (i.e., hematite and goethite) and carbonates (i.e., calcite and dolomite) are depicted in orange and purple-red colors, respectively. Iron oxides are predominantly found in the NW to SE of the area, whereas carbonates are more abundant westward.

The statistical relationships between different spectral parameters within the mapped pixels are summarized in the scatterplots of Fig. 4 . During the spectral processing, it was noted that the minimum wavelengths of the 740 and 800 nm features vary within the ranges of 735–755 and 793–805 nm, respectively. These features exhibit a strong correlation in terms of absorption depth (R 2 = 0.88; Fig. 4 a), with the 800 nm feature appearing to be slightly deeper (see also Fig. 2 a). The interfering effect of residual O 2 absorption (Fig. 2 a) seems to be largely mitigated after excluding the corresponding band from the calculations.

Scatterplots of the spectral parameters of the Nd-bearing pixels derived from EnMAP data over the Mountain Pass area. ( a ) plot of the absorption depth at ∼ 740 nm (740D) against 800D. ( b ) plot of the absorption area at ∼ 740 nm (740A) against 580A. ( c ) plot of the absorption depth at ∼ 740 nm (740D) against 865D. ( d ) Plot of the minimum wavelength of the carbonate absorption feature against its depth for the pixels containing REE absorption features. The plotted data corresponds to the Nd anomalies mapped in Fig. 3 a. The solid red and dashed gray lines depict the best-fitted line to the data and the 1-to-1 line, respectively.

In contrast, the less prominent Nd feature at ∼ 580 nm (Fig. 2 a), while visually discernible in several Nd-bearing pixels, was found unsuitable for Nd mapping. This is primarily due to significant interferences from other scene components comprising green vegetation, causing noticeable shifts in the feature’s minimum wavelength making it difficult to track the via processing method. Nevertheless, the area of this feature correlates well with the area of the 740 nm feature (R 2 = 0.74; Fig. 4 b) and the 800 nm feature (R 2 = 0.66; not shown). The feature at ∼ 865 nm, although noticeable in some pixels over the orebody (Fig. 2 a), was not well-developed and therefore not resolvable in the EnMAP data. Statistically, it shows a weak correlation (R 2 = 0.36) with the depths of the absorption features at ∼ 740 and ∼ 800 nm (Fig. 4 c).

Figure 4 d depicts the plot of carbonate minimum wavelength against its depth for the pixels mapped in Fig. 3 a. In this plot, pixels from over the mining area and orebody exhibit wavelengths ranging from 2335 to 2350 nm and a relatively shallow carbonate absorption, typical of bastnaesite-rich calcic carbonatite. Pixels with similar absorption depths but shorter wavelength ranges (2310 to 2330 nm) were interpreted to arise from REE-bearing dolomitic carbonatite. The third cluster in Fig. 4 d represents isolated pixels mapped at the periphery of the mining area over carbonate rocks (highlighted in Fig. 3 d–f). These pixels are characterized by very shallow features at ∼ 740 and ∼ 800 nm but a deeper carbonate feature at wavelengths ranges between 2320 to 2340 nm. Verifying the presence of REEs/Nd in these pixels would indeed require ground truthing.

For reliable detection of REEs using spectral remote sensing data, it is essential to resolve multiple absorption features within the dataset. While some studies have successfully used three and occasionally four of the diagnostic absorption features of Nd 23 , 24 , 36 , many others have shown that not all the distinctive absorption features in the VNIR range, particularly those at ∼ 580 and ∼ 870 nm (refer to Figs. 1 and 2 a), are consistently present and resolvable in spectral data, even under optimal laboratory conditions 12 , 14 , 18 , 22 , 37 . Consequently, it is not surprising that the EnMAP data can only resolve the most prominent absorption features of Nd at ∼ 740 and ∼ 800 nm. This is consistent with the results of other remote sensing studies conducted to map REEs under open-air conditions using a UAV platform 29 . Conversely, relying solely on a single absorption feature can introduce large uncertainty in Nd detection 12 .

As demonstrated in this study, the minimum wavelength of the absorption features is as important and informative as the feature depth for REE detection. However, the minimum wavelengths of the absorption features are highly variable in spectral data. In laboratory studies, the minimum wavelengths of the 580, 740, and 800 nm features have been reported to vary from 575 to 590 nm, 740 to 747 nm, and 799 to 805 nm, respectively 9 . The variations retrieved from the EnMAP data, however, cover a wider range varying from 581 to 597 nm, 735 to 755 nm, and 793 to 805 nm, respectively. This wide range could be attributed to various factors, including intrinsic variations in the minimum wavelength of bastnaesite (typically on the order of ∼ 10 nm, as stated in the introduction), the co-occurrences of other REE-bearing minerals such as parisite, synchysite, and monazite inside the pixel footprint, the intimate/areal mixture of rare-earth minerals with other lithologic/background constituents (see below), the uncertainty of the retrieval method, and above all, limitations in the spectral sampling interval of EnMAP (i.e., 6.5 nm) compared to laboratory data.

It is important to note that each of these absorption features results from the superposition of several absorbing bands. For instance, the pronounced absorption feature at ∼ 740 nm is the result of at least six narrow absorbing bands centered at 733, 738, 741, 749, 755, and 762 nm (see the inset plot in Fig. 1 ), of which only four (i.e., at 734, 741, 747, and 757 nm) are discernible in the laboratory data of Fig. 2 a. A thorough analysis of these features can help characterize the mineralogical state of REEs and potentially unravel the presence of other REEs beyond Nd in spectral data.

In general, the ability to detect REEs spectrally could be affected by the following factors:

The overall albedo of the target and the contrast of the REE host with its background constituents . High proportions of opaque minerals such as magnetite (and allanite in non-carbonatite deposits) have been observed to dampen the spectral signal, contributing to low reflectance levels from the samples/surfaces and thus difficulty in REE detection 9 , 14 . In contrast, brighter backgrounds, exemplified here by the dominance of calcic carbonatite, can facilitate the detection of REEs.

The relative proportion of ferric (Fe 3 + ) iron minerals . The broad and intense absorption features of iron oxide minerals (i.e., hematite and goethite) in the VNIR region are reported to suppress the REE features significantly 10 , 12 , 22 , 25 . Simulated experiments have shown that even 1 wt.% of iron oxides can attenuate REE-related features, with the 580 and 870 nm features being particularly susceptible to suppression. In the range of 2 to 5 wt.%, iron minerals can readily dampen the features arising from 0.5 wt.% Nd, and at the 10 wt.% level, the REE features disappear entirely due to the dominance of ferric iron absorptions in the VNIR range 13 , 22 . As a general rule, the two weaker absorptions at ∼ 580 and ∼ 870 nm are more vulnerable and often go undetected in many spectral measurements (Todd Hoefen, personal communication). In the Mountain Pass area, although iron oxides are scarce over the open-pit mine, they are prevalent in the surrounding area, particularly over the alkaline intrusions eastward of the major fault lines (Fig. 3 a), contributing to the suppression of potential Nd features.

The fraction of vegetation cover . The presence of the green peak and chlorophyll absorption, respectively at ∼ 550 and ∼ 590 nm can undermine the REE feature at 580 nm. Presumably, the interference from vegetation in this area has impeded the mapping of the 580 nm feature in the EnMAP data, despite its existence and reasonable correlation with the 740 nm feature (Fig. 4 b). This is supported by the observation that pixels with the highest incidence of false-positives when using only the 580 nm feature for Nd mapping, are spatially associated with the highest Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values calculated from the same data. The interference from chlorophyll absorption may also explain the shift in the minimum wavelength of the 580 nm feature towards longer wavelengths (581 to 597 nm in EnMAP vs 575 to 590 nm in laboratory data). Further studies are required to understand the sensitivity of REE features to vegetation coverage/fraction.

The atmospheric correction effects . As illustrated in Fig. 2 a, the distinct O 2 -related absorption at 760 nm can interfere with the 740 nm feature of Nd. When the 740 nm feature surpasses the residual O 2 absorption, excluding the corresponding band from calculations, as demonstrated in this study, offers a simple yet effective solution to the problem. However, in situations where the feature is weakly developed and oxygen’s residual absorption predominates, excluding the band may not resolve the issue and could potentially lead to miscalculations of the spectral parameters, affecting the Nd mapping results. In contrast to O 2 , the residual water vapor effect appears as noise beyond 890 nm suppressing the 870 nm feature of Nd. While it is likely that the 870 nm feature may not be well-developed in the first place, the impact of water vapor residuals in weakening this feature within the EnMAP data needs to be considered. A more robust atmospheric correction procedure could certainly lead to better retrieval of REE signatures from EnMAP data.

The grain size effect. The size of REE-bearing grains is another factor affecting the intensity of Nd absorption features and, consequently, its detectability. Larger grain sizes absorb more light, leading to deeper absorption features 9 . In the Mountain Pass area, the relatively large bastnaesite grains, with an average diameter of 300 μm 32 , could be the reason behind the increased depth and width of absorption features in the EnMAP data (Fig. 2 a). However, variability in Nd grade and the scale effect (30 m image pixel vs point-scale ASD data) may have also played a role in this behavior.

The proportion of Nd (and total REEs) . Since the intensity of absorption features is proportional to the concentration of Nd in a sample/pixel, a higher concentration results in more pronounced absorption features, thereby facilitating spectral detection 9 , 12 , 14 , 17 . Based on this premise, while the exceptionally high concentration of Nd in the Mountain Pass area appears to have facilitated the remote sensing mapping, it is noteworthy that Nd was also detected over the tailings and waste storage sites (Fig. 3 b), indicating the detectability of lower grades of Nd via EnMAP data. In contrast, EnMAP was unsuccessful in mapping any Nd signatures over the fenitized zone and the adjacent areas (encircled in Fig. 3 a). This can be attributed to the small size of the carbonatite veins in this zone, the low content of REEs (Nd), as reported by Castor 32 , and the prevalence of iron oxides (see Fig. 3 a). Similarly, no carbonate signatures were detected over these veins using EnMAP's SWIR bands.

It's important to note that the depth of Nd's absorption features is reportedly influenced by the Nd to ΣREE (total REE) proportion, with higher ratios resulting in more pronounced absorption features 29 . The smallest REE-bearing target detectable at the 30 m pixel size of EnMAP, as well as the lowest level of Nd detectable spectrally (corresponding to the detection limit of EnMAP data), is currently unknown and should be addressed in future studies considering the noted factors. However, since reflectance spectroscopy has demonstrated a relatively low detection limit for Nd, ranging from 1000 to < 200 ppm 9 , 10 , 12 , 29 , it can be expected that under optimal environmental conditions, the EnMAP instrument will be sensitive to low grades of Nd/REEs in a pixel (see below).

The sensor effects. While EnMAP data exhibits excellent quality in both the VNIR and SWIR ranges, it is acknowledged that the bands at the longer wavelength end of the VNIR detector display erratic nonlinear behavior due to the fringing effect (EnMAP's unpublished internal report). The challenges faced by EnMAP in resolving the 870 nm feature may, in part, be attributed to this phenomenon, particularly beyond 900 nm, where the right shoulder of the feature is located.

Comparing the outcomes of this study with the analysis conducted by Mars 30 using WorldView-3 data underscores the significance of spectral resolution over spatial resolution in mapping REEs. Because despite WorldView-3's exceptional spatial resolution, it could not map Nd occurrences in the area. In contrast, EnMAP, with a spatial resolution of 30 m, succeeded due to its high spectral resolution and calibration accuracy. Certainly, high spatial resolution hyperspectral data can enable the detection and mapping of meter-scale veins in geologic outcrops. However, for spaceborne remote sensing data with restrictions in spatial resolution, enhancing the SNR and spectral resolution can increase their sensitivity and utility for REEs.

The spectral processing method. After testing various spectral processing methods, which included multiple target detection algorithms, similarity measures, feature fitting algorithms, and a support vector machine classifier 38 , it was observed that the choice of processing method has implications for successful Nd detection. Remarkably, none of the tested methods were able to generate results comparable to the map shown in Fig. 3 a (using the mapped pixels as endmembers/training data), highlighting the superiority of the absorption feature analysis and polynomial fitting technique for REE detection. This may explain why prior attempts to map REEs in the area using airborne data e.g., 28 , 35 were not very successful. The main advantage of the approach employed in this paper is that it does not require a priori knowledge about REE occurrences in a given area and rather it relies on the spectroscopic knowledge of rare-earth minerals for remote sensing mapping.

In summary, the ability to detect REEs using hyperspectral remote sensing data depends on geological and instrumental constraints. Geologically, it depends on the size of the target, its exposure level, the contained level of REEs, and the composition of accompanying minerals. Instrumentally, it primarily depends on the imaging system's SNR and spectral resolution, followed by spatial resolution, and the quality of atmospheric correction and processing methods.

While in this study, hundreds of pixels were identified to contain Nd, in similar remote sensing studies in the future, the detection of REE signatures, even in a single image pixel, should be considered promising for subsequent field studies. While identifying the rare-earth mineralogic host, as achieved here, may not be always practical or necessary for remote sensing studies, detecting the carbonate signature (via SWIR bands) in a carbonatite host 39 , 40 could further support the presence of REE in a target. It is important to note that as a remote sensing method, our methodology can only detect REE signatures at the surface without the ability to penetrate to depth.

This study demonstrated that EnMAP hyperspectral satellite data can directly and efficiently detect REEs in geological environments. EnMAP successfully resolved the distinctive absorption features of Nd at 740 and 800 nm arising from the Nd-rich bastnaesite ore in the Mountain Pass area. While EnMAP could resolve the feature at ∼ 580 nm, the feature was not suitable for REE mapping due to its low intensity and interference with iron oxides and the chlorophyll absorption feature occurring at ∼ 590 nm. EnMAP data was unable to confidently resolve the feature at ∼ 870 nm. The absorption feature analysis and polynomial fitting technique proved to be a superior and effective processing method for characterizing the prominent REE absorption features and mapping the occurrences and relative abundances of Nd in imaging spectroscopic data.

Detecting the spectral signature of REEs by spaceborne imaging spectroscopic data can take exploration activities for REEs to another level. Conventionally, carbonatite bodies, as the primary hosts of LREEs, have been explored through geophysical methods relying on airborne magnetic and radiometric surveys 41 . Introducing a remote sensing approach capable of detecting the contained REEs directly and mapping the underlying host mineralogy and alteration aureoles can complement the existing exploration portfolio, facilitating the discovery of new carbonatite bodies and REEs resources.

The EnMAP satellite data with its global coverage can be used to screen large areas for REE signatures. However, given its 30 m spatial resolution, it is expected to mainly detect well-exposed targets of sufficient Nd quantities/sizes in arid to semi-arid regions of the world. Advancements in atmospheric correction procedures and processing methods can aid in detecting lower grades and smaller Nd-bearing targets. Because REEs are often associated with each other, and because the host mineralogy does not highly modify the REE-related absorption features, remote sensing mapping of Nd should serve as an exploration pathfinder for light (and potentially heavy) REEs, irrespective of their deposit types.

Future work will involve establishing quantitative relationships between Nd grade and spectral signatures and testing the methodology across a diverse range of REE-rich deposits/prospects with varying levels of light/heavy REEs, outcrop exposures, geologic /conditions, and vegetation coverage. This could help to better understand the spectral behavior of REEs at EnMAP resolution and determine the instrument’s full capability in detecting and mapping REEs occurrences remotely.

Materials and methods

Enmap hyperspectral data.

The EnMAP (Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program) hyperspectral satellite system was launched into orbit on April 1, 2022, and since November 2022 has been in routine operation 42 . EnMAP is a German satellite mission designed and operated by the German Aerospace Center (DLR) and funded by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action (BMWK) of Germany 43 , 44 .

The EnMAP data of the study area, collected on July 7th, 2022 at 18:47:54.75 UTC (11:47 local time) was obtained from the EOWEB® portal. The data was ordered using the following settings: Level 2A data with ozone and terrain corrections enabled, with no spectral interpolation, resampled by the nearest neighbor method. The data was processed using the March 2023 version of the EnMAP processor. The Level 2A orthorectified surface reflectance data of EnMAP comprises 224 spectral bands at 30-m spatial resolution. The VNIR bands used in this study cover the spectral range between 420 and 1000 nm at a spectral sampling interval of 6.5 nm and a spectral bandwidth of 8.1 nm. The VNIR bands maintain a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) exceeding 400:1 and spectral stability better than 0.5 nm thanks to the instrument’s onboard calibration assembly 45 . These attributes render the EnMAP data an excellent choice for remote sensing mapping of REEs.

Processing methodology

We applied a curve-fitting technique using a 4th-order polynomial 46 to detect and map REEs within the L2A data product. This technique enabled us to characterize the main absorption features of Nd at ∼ 580, ∼ 740, ∼ 800, and ∼ 865 nm (depicted in Fig. 1 ), as well as the carbonate feature between 2330 to 2340 nm. To achieve this, the local continuum was first removed between 520 to 900 nm for the VNIR and between 2230 to 2400 nm for the SWIR bands. Then, separate polynomials were fitted to the continuum-removed spectra within the ranges of 720–778, 770–825, 565–605, 825–895, and 2305–2365 nm (Fig. 1 ). Subsequently, the (real) root of the explicit first derivative was used to determine the wavelength of minimum reflectance (minimum wavelength). The coefficients of the fitted polynomial were also used to retrieve the depth, area, and width of the diagnostic absorption features. To eliminate the interfering effects of O 2 , the EnMAP band corresponding to oxygen’s residual absorption feature at 764 nm (band 62) was omitted from the calculations.

The retrieved spectral parameters then were subsequently employed in a stepwise decision-making process to identify Nd-bearing pixels. Initially, the pixels meeting the following criteria were isolated:

where λW and λD are the minimum wavelength and depth of the absorption feature centered at wavelength λ (nm). These results were further refined by retaining only the pixels that were linearly aligned in the scatterplot of 740D against 800D. Subsequently, the area of the 800 nm feature was used to represent the relative abundance of Nd in the mapped pixels. The relative abundance of carbonate rocks in the area was mapped based on the carbonate feature at ∼ 2340 nm (D > 0.13). The distribution of iron oxides was also mapped using \(\frac{{\lambda }_{690(nm)}}{{\lambda }_{450(nm)}}>\) 2.5. Finally, to better understand the spectral and statistical variability of the mapped pixels, 2D scatterplots were prepared from the retrieved spectral parameters. All these processes were applied to a spatial subset of the mosaicked EnMAP data covering the Sulphide Queen mine and the surrounding areas.

The obtained results were validated in three ways: (i) by comparing the EnMAP spectra to laboratory-based spectral measurements of a hand specimen collected from the Sulphide Queen mine, (ii) by superimposing the yielded anomalies over high-resolution satellite images of the area, available on Google Earth, and (iii) by matching the anomalies with local geologic data. The reflectance spectral data was collated from the datasets published by Neave, et al. 9 . The corresponding specimen (CR36), containing 30,848 ppm ( ∼ 3%) Nd, has been measured using an ASD Field-Spec Pro FR spectroradiometer, with sampling intervals of 1.4 and 2 nm between 350–1000 and 1000–2500 nm, respectively. The final spectrum has resulted from averaging tens of evenly spaced repeat measurements taken from across the sample surface so that the 1σ of the spectrum was < 0.5% relative 9 .

Data availability

All EnMAP data are freely available through the EnMAP data access portal at the following link: https://www.enmap.org/data_access/ . The EnMAP data are licensed products of DLR [2022], all rights reserved.

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This study was supported by the EnMAP science program (grant numbers 50EE1923 and 50EE2401) from the DLR Space Agency.

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Saeid Asadzadeh, Nicole Koellner & Sabine Chabrillat

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Asadzadeh, S., Koellner, N. & Chabrillat, S. Detecting rare earth elements using EnMAP hyperspectral satellite data: a case study from Mountain Pass, California. Sci Rep 14 , 20766 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-71395-2

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