gender literacy essay

How our education system undermines gender equity

Subscribe to the brown center on education policy newsletter, and why culture change—not policy—may be the solution, joseph cimpian jc joseph cimpian associate professor of economics and education policy - new york university @joecimpian.

April 23, 2018

There are well-documented achievement and opportunity gaps by income and race/ethnicity. K-12 accountability policies often have a stated goal of reducing or eliminating those gaps, though with questionable effectiveness . Those same accountability policies require reporting academic proficiency by gender, but there are no explicit goals of reducing gender gaps and no “hard accountability” sanctions tied to gender-subgroup performance. We could ask, “Should gender be included more strongly in accountability policies?”

In this post, I’ll explain why I don’t think accountability policy interventions would produce real gender equity in the current system—a system that largely relies on existing state standardized tests of math and English language arts to gauge equity. I’ll argue that although much of the recent research on gender equity from kindergarten through postgraduate education uses math or STEM parity as a measure of equity, the overall picture related to gender equity is of an education system that devalues young women’s contributions and underestimates young women’s intellectual abilities more broadly.

In a sense, math and STEM outcomes simply afford insights into a deeper, more systemic problem. In order to improve access and equity across gender lines from kindergarten through the workforce, we need considerably more social-questioning and self-assessment of biases about women’s abilities.

As soon as girls enter school, they are underestimated

For over a decade now, I have studied gender achievement with my colleague Sarah Lubienski, a professor of math education at Indiana University-Bloomington. In a series of studies using data from both the 1998-99 and 2010-11 kindergarten cohorts of the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, we found that no average gender gap in math test scores existed when boys and girls entered kindergarten, but a gap of nearly 0.25 standard deviations developed in favor of the boys by around second or third grade.

For comparison purposes, the growth of the black-white math test score gap was virtually identical to the growth in the gender gap. Unlike levels and growth in race-based gaps, though, which have been largely attributed to a combination of differences in the schools attended by black and white students and to socio-economic differences, boys and girls for the most part attend the same schools and come from families of similar socio-economic status. This suggests that something may be occurring within schools that contributes to an advantage for boys in math.

Exploring deeper, we found that the beliefs that teachers have about student ability might contribute significantly to the gap. When faced with a boy and a girl of the same race and socio-economic status who performed equally well on math tests and whom the teacher rated equally well in behaving and engaging with school, the teacher rated the boy as more mathematically able —an alarming pattern that replicated in a separate data set collected over a decade later .

Another way of thinking of this is that in order for a girl to be rated as mathematically capable as her male classmate, she not only needed to perform as well as him on a psychometrically rigorous external test, but also be seen as working harder than him. Subsequent matching and instrumental variables analyses suggested that teachers’ underrating of girls from kindergarten through third grade accounts for about half of the gender achievement gap growth in math. In other words, if teachers didn’t think their female students were less capable, the gender gap in math might be substantially smaller.

An interaction that Sarah and I had with a teacher drove home the importance and real-world relevance of these results. About five years ago, while Sarah and I were faculty at the University of Illinois, we gathered a small group of elementary teachers together to help us think through these findings and how we could intervene on the notion that girls were innately less capable than boys. One of the teachers pulled a stack of papers out of her tote bag, and spreading them on the conference table, said, “Now, I don’t even understand why you’re looking at girls’ math achievement. These are my students’ standardized test scores, and there are absolutely no gender differences. See, the girls can do just as well as the boys if they work hard enough.” Then, without anyone reacting, it was as if a light bulb went on. She gasped and continued, “Oh my gosh, I just did exactly what you said teachers are doing,” which is attributing girls’ success in math to hard work while attributing boys’ success to innate ability. She concluded, “I see now why you’re studying this.”

Although this teacher did ultimately recognize her gender-based attribution, there are (at least) three important points worth noting. First, her default assumption was that girls needed to work harder in order to achieve comparably to boys in math, and this reflects an all-too-common pattern among elementary school teachers, across at least the past couple decades and in other cultural contexts . Second, it is not obvious how to get teachers to change that default assumption. Third, the evidence that she brought to the table was state standardized test scores, and these types of tests can reveal different (often null or smaller) gender achievement gaps than other measures.

On this last point, state standardized tests consistently show small or no differences between boys and girls in math achievement, which contrasts with somewhat larger gaps on NAEP and PISA , as well as with gaps at the top of the distribution on the ECLS , SAT Mathematics assessment, and the American Mathematics Competition . The reasons for these discrepancies are not entirely clear, but what is clear is that there is no reason to expect that “hardening” the role of gender in accountability policies that use existing state tests and current benchmarks will change the current state of gender gaps. Policymakers might consider implementing test measures similar to those where gaps have been noted and placing more emphasis on gains throughout the achievement distribution. However, I doubt that a more nuanced policy for assessing math gains would address the underlying problem of the year-after-year underestimation of girls’ abilities and various signals and beliefs that buttress boys’ confidence and devalue girls, all of which cumulatively contributes to any measured gaps.

More obstacles await women in higher education and beyond

Looking beyond K-12 education, there is mounting evidence at the college and postgraduate levels that cultural differences between academic disciplines may be driving women away from STEM fields, as well as away from some non-STEM fields (e.g., criminal justice, philosophy, and economics). In fact, although research and policy discussions often dichotomize academic fields and occupations as “STEM” and “non-STEM,” the emerging research on gender discrimination in higher education finds that the factors that drive women away from some fields cut across the STEM/non-STEM divide. Thus, while gender representation disparities between STEM and non-STEM fields may help draw attention to gender representation more broadly, reifying the STEM/non-STEM distinction and focusing on math may be counterproductive to understanding the underlying reasons for gender representation gaps across academic disciplines.

In a recent study , my colleagues and I examined how perceptions on college majors relate to who is entering those majors. We found that the dominant factor predicting the gender of college-major entrants is the degree of perceived discrimination against women. To reach this conclusion, we used two sources of data. First, we created and administered surveys to gather perceptions on how much math is required for a major, how much science is required, how creative a field is, how lucrative careers are in a field, how helpful the field is to society, and how difficult it is for a woman to succeed in the field. After creating factor scales on each of the six dimensions for each major, we mapped those ratings onto the second data source, the Education Longitudinal Study, which contains several prior achievement, demographic, and attitudinal measures on which we matched young men and women attending four-year colleges.

Among this nationally representative sample, we found that the degree to which a field was perceived to be math- or science-intensive had very little relation to student gender. However, fields that were perceived to discriminate against women were strongly predictive of the gender of the students in the field, whether or not we accounted for the other five traits of the college majors. In short, women are less likely to enter fields where they expect to encounter discrimination.

And what happens if a woman perseveres in obtaining a college degree in a field where she encounters discrimination and underestimation and wants to pursue a postgraduate degree in that field, and maybe eventually work in academia? The literature suggests additional obstacles await her. These obstacles may take the form of those in the field thinking she’s not brilliant like her male peers in graduate school, having her looks discussed on online job boards when she’s job-hunting, performing more service work if she becomes university faculty, and getting less credit for co-authored publications in some disciplines when she goes up for tenure.

Each of the examples here and throughout this post reflects a similar problem—education systems (and society) unjustifiably and systematically view women as less intellectually capable.

Societal changes are necessary

My argument that policy probably isn’t the solution is not intended to undercut the importance of affirmative action and grievance policies that have helped many individuals take appropriate legal recourse. Rather, I am arguing that those policies are certainly not enough, and that the typical K-12 policy mechanisms will likely have no real effect in improving equity for girls.

The obstacles that women face are largely societal and cultural. They act against women from the time they enter kindergarten—instilling in very young girls a belief they are less innately talented than their male peers—and persist into their work lives. Educational institutions—with undoubtedly many well-intentioned educators—are themselves complicit in reinforcing the hurdles. In order to dismantle these barriers, we likely need educators at all levels of education to examine their own biases and stereotypes.

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Gender equality and education

Gender equality is a global priority at UNESCO. Globally, 122 million girls and 128 million boys are out of school. Women still account for almost two-thirds of all adults unable to read.

UNESCO calls for attention to gender equality throughout the education system in relation to access, content, teaching and learning context and practices, learning outcomes, and life and work opportunities. The  UNESCO Strategy for gender equality in and through education (2019-2025)  focuses on a system-wide transformation to benefit all learners equally in three key areas: better data to inform action, better legal and policy frameworks to advance rights and better teaching and learning practices to empower. 

What you need to know about education and gender equality

"her education, our future" documentary film.

Released on 7 March for 2024 International Women’s Day, “Her Education, Our Future” is a documentary film following the lives of Anee, Fabiana, Mkasi and Tainá – four young women across three continents who struggle to fulfill their right to education. 

This documentary film offers a spectacular dive into the transformative power of education and showcases how empowering girls and women through education improves not only their lives, but also those of their families, communities and indeed all of society. 

Key figures

of which 122 million are girls and 128 million are boys

of which 56% are women

for every 100 young women

Empowering communities: UNESCO in action

Keeping girls in the picture

Everyone can play a role in supporting girls’ education

UNESCO’s new drive to accelerate action for girls’ and women’s education

2022 GEM Report Gender Report: Deepening the debate on those still left behind

Capacity building tools

• From access to empowerment: operational tools to advance gender equality in and through education
• Communication strategy: UNESCO guidance on communicating on gender equality in and through education
• Communication tools
• Keeping girls in the picture: youth advocacy toolkit
• Keeping girls in the picture: community radio toolkit

Monitoring SDG 4: equity and inclusion in education

Resources from UNESCO’s Global Education Monitoring Report.

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Gender Studies: Foundations and Key Concepts

Gender studies developed alongside and emerged out of Women’s Studies. This non-exhaustive list introduces readers to scholarship in the field.

Gender studies asks what it means to make gender salient, bringing a critical eye to everything from labor conditions to healthcare access to popular culture. Gender is never isolated from other factors that determine someone’s position in the world, such as sexuality, race, class, ability, religion, region of origin, citizenship status, life experiences, and access to resources. Beyond studying gender as an identity category, the field is invested in illuminating the structures that naturalize, normalize, and discipline gender across historical and cultural contexts.

At a college or university, you’d be hard pressed to find a department that brands itself as simply Gender Studies. You’d be more likely to find different arrangements of the letters G, W, S, and perhaps Q and F, signifying gender, women, sexuality, queer, and feminist studies. These various letter configurations aren’t just semantic idiosyncrasies. They illustrate the ways the field has grown and expanded since its institutionalization in the 1970s.

This non-exhaustive list aims to introduce readers to gender studies in a broad sense. It shows how the field has developed over the last several decades, as well as how its interdisciplinary nature offers a range of tools for understanding and critiquing our world.

Catharine R. Stimpson, Joan N. Burstyn, Domna C. Stanton, and Sandra M. Whisler, “Editorial.” Signs , 1975; “Editorial,” off our backs , 1970

The editorial from the inaugural issue of Signs , founded in 1975 by Catharine Stimpson, explains that the founders hoped that the journal’s title captured what women’s studies is capable of doing: to “represent or point to something.” Women’s studies was conceptualized as an interdisciplinary field that could represent issues of gender and sexuality in new ways, with the possibility of shaping “scholarship, thought, and policy.”

The editorial in the first issue of off our backs , a feminist periodical founded in 1970, explains how their collective wanted to explore the “dual nature of the women’s movement:” that “women need to be free of men’s domination” and “must strive to get off our backs.” The content that follows includes reports on the Equal Rights Amendment, protests, birth control, and International Women’s Day.

Robyn Wiegman, “Academic Feminism against Itself.” NWSA Journal , 2002

Gender studies developed alongside and emerged out of Women’s Studies, which consolidated as an academic field of inquiry in the 1970s. Wiegman tracks some of the anxieties that emerged with the shift from women’s to gender studies, such as concerns it would decenter women and erase the feminist activism that gave rise to the field. She considers these anxieties as part of a larger concern over the future of the field, as well as fear that academic work on gender and sexuality has become too divorced from its activist roots.

Jack Halberstam, “Gender.” Keywords for American Cultural Studies, Second Edition (2014)

Halberstam’s entry in this volume provides a useful overview for debates and concepts that have dominated the field of gender studies: Is gender purely a social construct? What is the relationship between sex and gender? How does the gendering of bodies shift across disciplinary and cultural contexts? How did the theorizing of gender performativity in the 1990s by Judith Butler open up intellectual trajectories for queer and transgender studies? What is the future of gender as an organizing rubric for social life and as a mode of intellectual inquiry? Halberstam’s synthesis of the field makes a compelling case for why the study of gender persists and remains relevant for humanists, social scientists, and scientists alike.

Miqqi Alicia Gilbert, “Defeating Bigenderism: Changing Gender Assumptions in the Twenty-First Century.” Hypatia , 2009

Scholar and transgender activist Miqqi Alicia Gilbert considers the production and maintenance of the gender binary—that is, the idea that there are only two genders and that gender is a natural fact that remains stable across the course of one’s life. Gilbert’s view extends across institutional, legal, and cultural contexts, imagining what a frameworks that gets one out of the gender binary and gender valuation would have to look like to eliminate sexism, transphobia, and discrimination.

Judith Lorber, “Shifting Paradigms and Challenging Categories.” Social Problems , 2006

Judith Lorber identifies the key paradigm shifts in sociology around the question of gender: 1) acknowledging gender as an “organizing principle of the overall social order in modern societies;” 2) stipulating that gender is socially constructed, meaning that while gender is assigned at birth based on visible genitalia, it isn’t a natural, immutable category but one that is socially determined; 3) analyzing power in modern western societies reveals the dominance of men and promotion of a limited version of heterosexual masculinity; 4) emerging methods in sociology are helping disrupt the production of ostensibly universal knowledge from a narrow perspective of privileged subjects. Lorber concludes that feminist sociologists’ work on gender has provided the tools for sociology to reconsider how it analyzes structures of power and produces knowledge.

bell hooks, “Sisterhood: Political Solidarity between Women.” Feminist Review , 1986

bell hooks argues that the feminist movement has privileged the voices, experiences, and concerns of white women at the expense of women of color. Instead of acknowledging who the movement has centered, white women have continually invoked the “common oppression” of all women, a move they think demonstrates solidarity but actually erases and marginalizes women who fall outside of the categories of white, straight, educated, and middle-class. Instead of appealing to “common oppression,” meaningful solidarity requires that women acknowledge their differences, committing to a feminism that “aims to end sexist oppression.” For hooks, this necessitates a feminism that is anti-racist. Solidarity doesn’t have to mean sameness; collective action can emerge from difference.

Jennifer C. Nash, “re-thinking intersectionality.” Feminist Review , 2008

Chances are you’ve come across the phrase “intersectional feminism.” For many, this term is redundant: If feminism isn’t attentive to issues impacting a range of women, then it’s not actually feminism. While the term “intersectional” now circulates colloquially to signify a feminism that is inclusive, its usage has become divorced from its academic origins. The legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw created the term “intersectionality” in the 1980s based on Black women’s experiences with the law in cases of discrimination and violence. Intersectionality is not an adjective or a way to describe identity, but a tool for analyzing structures of power. It aims to disrupt universal categories of and claims about identity. Jennifer Nash provides an overview of intersectionality’s power, including guidance on how to deploy it in the service of coalition-building and collective action.

Treva B. Lindsey, “Post-Ferguson: A ‘Herstorical’ Approach to Black Violability.” Feminist Studies , 2015

Treva Lindsey considers the erasure of Black women’s labor in anti-racist activism , as well as the erasure of their experiences with violence and harm. From the Civil Rights Movement to #BlackLivesMatter, Black women’s contributions and leadership have not been acknowledged to the same extent as their male counterparts. Furthermore, their experiences with state-sanctioned racial violence don’t garner as much attention. Lindsey argues that we must make visible the experiences and labor of Black women and queer persons of color in activist settings in order to strengthen activist struggles for racial justice.

Renya Ramirez, “Race, Tribal Nation, and Gender: A Native Feminist Approach to Belonging.” Meridians , 2007

Renya Ramirez (Winnebago) argues that indigenous activist struggles for sovereignty, liberation, and survival must account for gender. A range of issues impact Native American women, such as domestic abuse, forced sterilization , and sexual violence. Furthermore, the settler state has been invested in disciplining indigenous concepts and practices of gender, sexuality, and kinship, reorienting them to fit into white settler understandings of property and inheritance. A Native American feminist consciousness centers gender and envisions decolonization without sexism.

Hester Eisenstein, “A Dangerous Liaison? Feminism and Corporate Globalization.” Science & Society , 2005

Hester Eisenstein argues that some of contemporary U.S. feminism’s work in a global context has been informed by and strengthened capitalism in a way that ultimately increases harms against marginalized women. For example, some have suggested offering poor rural women in non-U.S. contexts microcredit as a path to economic liberation. In reality, these debt transactions hinder economic development and “continue the policies that have created the poverty in the first place.” Eisenstein acknowledges that feminism has the power to challenge capitalist interests in a global context, but she cautions us to consider how aspects of the feminist movement have been coopted by corporations.

Afsaneh Najmabadi, “Transing and Transpassing Across Sex-Gender Walls in Iran.” Women’s Studies Quarterly , 2008

Afsaneh Najmabadi remarks on the existence of sex-reassignment surgeries in Iran since the 1970s and the increase in these surgeries in the twenty-first century. She explains that these surgeries are a response to perceived sexual deviance; they’re offered to cure persons who express same-sex desire. Sex-reassignment surgeries ostensibly “heteronormaliz[e]” people who are pressured to pursue this medical intervention for legal and religious reasons. While a repressive practice, Najmabadi also argues that this practice has paradoxically provided “ relatively safer semipublic gay and lesbian social space” in Iran. Najmabadi’s scholarship illustrates how gender and sexual categories, practices, and understandings are influenced by geographical and cultural contexts.

Susan Stryker, Paisley Currah, and Lisa Jean Moore’s “Introduction: Trans-, Trans, or Transgender?” Women’s Studies Quarterly , 2008

Susan Stryker, Paisley Currah, and Lisa Jean Moore map the ways that transgender studies can expand feminist and gender studies. “Transgender” does not need to exclusively signify individuals and communities, but can provide a lens for interrogating all bodies’ relationships to gendered spaces, disrupting the bounds of seemingly strict identity categories, and redefining gender. The “trans-” in transgender is a conceptual tool for interrogating the relationship between bodies and the institutions that discipline them.

David A. Rubin, “‘An Unnamed Blank That Craved a Name’: A Genealogy of Intersex as Gender.” Signs , 2012

David Rubin considers the fact that intersex persons have been subject to medicalization, pathologization, and “regulation of embodied difference through biopolitical discourses, practices, and technologies” that rely on normative cultural understandings of gender and sexuality. Rubin considers the impact intersexuality had on conceptualizations of gender in mid-twentieth century sexology studies, and how the very concept of gender that emerged in that moment has been used to regulate the lives of intersex individuals.

Rosemarie Garland-Thomson, “Feminist Disability Studies.” Signs , 2005

Rosemarie Garland-Thomson provides a thorough overview of the field of feminist disability studies. Both feminist and disability studies contend that those things which seem most natural to bodies are actually produced by a range of political, legal, medical, and social institutions. Gendered and disabled bodies are marked by these institutions. Feminist disability studies asks: How are meaning and value assigned to disabled bodies? How is this meaning and value determined by other social markers, such as gender, sexuality, race, class, religion, national origin, and citizenship status?

The field asks under what conditions disabled bodies are denied or granted sexual, reproductive, and bodily autonomy and how disability impacts the exploration of gender and sexual expression in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood historical and contemporary pathologization of genders and sexualities. It explores how disabled activists, artists, and writers respond to social, cultural, medical, and political forces that deny them access, equity, and representation

Karin A. Martin, “William Wants a Doll. Can He Have One? Feminists, Child Care Advisors, and Gender-Neutral Child Rearing.” Gender and Society , 2005

Karin Martin examines the gender socialization of children through an analysis of a range of parenting materials. Materials that claim to be (or have been claimed as) gender-neutral actually have a deep investment in training children in gender and sexual norms. Martin invites us to think about how adult reactions to children’s gender nonconformity pivots on a fear that gender expression in childhood is indicative of present or future non-normative sexuality. In other words, U.S. culture is unable to separate gender from sexuality. We imagine gender identity and expression maps predictably onto sexual desire. When children’s gender identity and expression exceeds culturally-determined permissible bounds in a family or community, adults project onto the child and discipline accordingly.

Sarah Pemberton, “Enforcing Gender: The Constitution of Sex and Gender in Prison Regimes.” Signs , 2013

Sarah Pemberton’s considers how sex-segregated prisons in the U.S. and England discipline their populations differently according to gender and sexual norms. This contributes to the policing, punishment, and vulnerability of incarcerated gender-nonconforming, transgender, and intersex persons. Issues ranging from healthcare access to increased rates of violence and harassment suggest that policies impacting incarcerated persons should center gender.

Dean Spade, “Some Very Basic Tips for Making High Education More Accessible to Trans Students and Rethinking How We Talk about Gendered Bodies.” The Radical Teacher , 2011

Lawyer and trans activist Dean Spade offers a pedagogical perspective on how to make classrooms accessible and inclusive for students. Spade also offers guidance on how to have classroom conversations about gender and bodies that don’t reassert a biological understanding of gender or equate certain body parts and functions with particular genders. While the discourse around these issues is constantly shifting, Spade provides useful ways to think about small changes in language that can have a powerful impact on students.

Sarah S. Richardson, “Feminist Philosophy of Science: History, Contributions, and Challenges.” Synthese , 2010

Feminist philosophy of science is a field comprised of scholars studying gender and science that has its origins in the work of feminist scientists in the 1960s. Richardson considers the contributions made by these scholars, such as increased opportunities for and representation of women in STEM fields , pointing out biases in seemingly neutral fields of scientific inquiry. Richardson also considers the role of gender in knowledge production, looking at the difficulties women have faced in institutional and professional contexts. The field of feminist philosophy of science and its practitioners are marginalized and delegitimized because of the ways they challenge dominant modes of knowledge production and disciplinary inquiry.

Bryce Traister’s “Academic Viagra: The Rise of American Masculinity Studies.” American Quarterly , 2000

Bryce Traister considers the emergence of masculinity studies out of gender studies and its development in American cultural studies. He argues that the field has remained largely invested in centering heterosexuality, asserting the centrality and dominance of men in critical thought. He offers ways for thinking about how to study masculinity without reinstituting gendered hierarchies or erasing the contributions of feminist and queer scholarship.

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• Education Shifts Power
• Ending Gender Stereotypes
• Feminist School
• Gender at the Centre Initiative
• School-related Gender-based Violence
• Transform Education

Opening doors to gender equality through literacy

• 10 Sep 2018

Literacy is a right. Implicit in the right to education, it is also an essential channel for the pursuit of many other human rights. Moreover,  to be able to read, write and ‘reckon’ opens doors  to a world of knowledge, opportunity, and personal empowerment. Yet for 750 million people worldwide, two thirds of whom are women, this door is closed, and with it, entry to full engagement in the social and economic life of their community and country. Although much progress has been made in global literacy in recent decades,  gender disparities in youth literacy rates persist  in almost one in five countries. On International Literacy Day, we consider what it will take to close the literacy gender gap, and, in the process, harness the power of literacy learning to promote gender equality.

Literacy, gender and the ‘learning crisis’

Literacy is a contested and continuously evolving term with multiple connotations. Functional literacy, as in the level of skill in reading and writing required to cope with social and economic life as an adult, is clearly different from achieving proficiency in an early grade reading assessment. The  OECD definition of literacy  includes the ability to ‘achieve one’s goals, and to develop one’s knowledge and potential.’ However, in the context of international development, literacy is increasingly equated with reading ability in a more utilitarian sense — a skill that a student possesses rather than how (s)he puts it to use.

As schools remain the main sites in which young people acquire core literacy skills, youth literacy levels are inevitably tied to education access, retention, and quality of learning. As education access levels go up, it should follow that literacy levels rise in parallel. However, figures released by UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) last year reveal a ‘learning crisis’ with  6 out of 10 children and adolescents worldwide (617 million) not achieving minimum standards in reading and mathematics . Of the 387 million primary school-aged children unable to read proficiently, 262 million (68%) are actually in school. Furthermore, about 137 million adolescents of lower secondary school age are unable to read proficiently even though they have completed primary school.

There is a pressing need for in-depth research to investigate why so many young people are finishing primary school without adequate literacy skills. And it is here that questions about the gendered nature of the learning environment, teaching materials and pedagogical approaches are of particular significance. It is noteworthy that in all countries where gender parity in literacy has been achieved,  girls actually outperform boys  in achievement levels. A critical question then is how is literacy being taken up differently by girls and boys in different regions of the world?

Harnessing the potential of literacy to promote gender equality

In her report  Girls’ empowerment through language and literacy , Jennifer Thompson emphasises the importance of differentiating between the multiple and intersecting forms of marginalisation that girls and boys face in literacy learning. Given that one of the key outcomes of literacy is personal empowerment, the process of acquiring literacy skills presents an important opportunity to promote gender equality. The question is what will it take to close the gender gap in literacy and harness its potential? In the context of Africa, Thompson’s research review points to a number of critical elements:

Teachers & pedagogy:  As key agents of change in classrooms, teachers play a central role in designing and implementing approaches to literacy which address dominant gender norms and inequalities. Critical factors in this area include teachers’ beliefs, self-awareness and levels of gender sensitivity. Teacher training programmes need to include gender-responsive teaching methods and content. Participatory, learner-centred, and bilingual approaches that include early mother tongue education, especially for girls from rural and disadvantaged communities, are shown to be particularly effective for promoting literacy learning.

Learning environment:  Gendered inequalities are too often reinforced in the structure and culture of schooling, with negative repercussions for literacy practices. Research suggests that whole-school, child-friendly, and gender-responsive approaches are effective in addressing widespread issues, such as school-related gender-based violence (SRGBV) and menstrual hygiene management, that can also significantly influence literacy learning outcomes. Critical factors for promoting girls’ literacy skills include smaller class sizes, female teachers, and parental literacy levels.

Literacy materials:  The lack of reading materials for literacy learning remains a major issue in countries where the learning crisis is most prevalent. Nevertheless, projects such as the  Global Book Alliance  present important opportunities for closing the literacy gender gap. With existing learning materials, and especially in textbooks, most research points to continued gender bias. Attention is particularly needed to the frequency and gender representation of characters — their status, roles, activities, personalities, behaviours, and more. Thompson points out that, given the central role of sexual health in changing girls’ life paths, literacy materials that address questions of sexuality are increasingly key to both survival and empowerment.

Research agenda, new literacy skills and routes forward

While we cannot afford to divert attention from issues that stand in the way of gender parity in education access, for the transformative potential of education to be realised the ‘learning crisis’ must also be addressed. And here, approaches to literacy teaching and learning are key. As Thompson notes, there is a significant research gap when it comes to addressing questions about what works to strengthen the literacy practices of girls and boys in different contexts. This gap presents important opportunities for establishing a meaningful gender and literacy research agenda, which must also take into account new literacies.

As  Plan International CEO Anne-Birgitte Albrectsen highlighted this week , a critical dimension of the gender agenda includes the need to “give girls the tools, skills and opportunities they need to succeed in and — critically — drive a digital future.” There is no doubt that gender equality cannot be achieved without gender parity in both traditional and new literacy skills. The potential for digital technologies to enhance literacy learning is great, but there is a pressing need for research to provide direction. In all these areas, much work remains to be done.

Want to learn more about secondary education, gender and literacy?

• Read the full report Girls’ empowerment through language and literacy
• Learn more about International Literacy Day
• Explore the latest literacy data from UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS)
• International Literacy Day

More to explore

Gender transformative education: the key to achieving a more just and inclusive world

Gender-responsive and disability-inclusive education for all

Transforming Social Norms to End Child Marriage and Advance Girls’ Education

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Literacy and gender

National and international research has found gender to be associated with literacy engagement. Indeed, our research shows that the link between gender and literacy is deeply complex, with both many issues and many solutions. We continue to explore this through ongoing research but here are some of our findings.

Key statistics around gender

• In 2022, fewer boys than girls said they enjoyed reading (45.6% vs. 54.9%). Boys who received FSMs had the lowest levels of reading enjoyment, with just 2 in 5 enjoying reading. Find out more .
• More girls than boys said they read daily. Only 1 in 5 (20.6%) of boys who receive Free School Meals (FSMs) read daily, compared with 1 in 3 of girls who don’t receive FSMs.
• More girls than boys said that they enjoy writing in their free time, with over 2 in 5 girls saying this compared with 1 in 3 boys. Find out more .
• Online communication can help support and empower some groups of young people: in 2022, more boys than girls feel that their online life opens up lots of possibilities for them. Find out more .

Latest research into gender

What else we know about literacy and gender

• Nearly 1 in 2 children and young people who identify their gender as other than boy or girl say that they struggle to see themselves in what they read compared with 1 in 3 boys and girls. Find out more .
• Half (49.9%) of boys who don’t enjoy reading agree that reading on screen is cooler than reading a print book. Find out more .
• Half of all girls say that poor confidence is a barrier to them achieving their aspirations compared with 2 in 5 boys. Find out more .

Our work on gender

• Jul 30, 2023
• 22 min read

Literary Theory 101: Challenging Gender Dynamics in Literature

This series examines literary criticism from all angles, examining numerous analytical frameworks, modes of interpretation, and constraints. It belongs to the degree in English Studies offered by the Complutense University of Madrid. Once the series comes to completion, the reader may be able to analyze the components that contribute to a text's literary character, such as coherence and literality, and will develop a critical approach toward contemporary literary theory. The reader of these articles might grasp the shifting paradigms of fiction analysis within this theoretical framework, establishing a link between the philosophy of language and the evolution of analytical methods in literary criticism. This series aims to offer an insight into the complex relationship between style and the cultural environment, historical factors that have shaped the idea of style as well as the changing literary canon. By examining the complex ways in which literature, language, and culture interact with one another, this series aims to help the readers develop their capacity for critical thinking and interpretation.

This Literary Theory 101 is divided into the following chapters:

Literary Theory 101: Unveiling the Collective Subconscious in Myth Criticism

Literary Theory 101: Power Structures and Cultural Studies in Literary Analysis

Literary Theory 101: Umberto Eco's Influence on Reader Response Criticism

Literary Theory 101: Power Dynamics and Postcolonial Perspectives

Literary Theory 101: Contemporary Ecocriticism

Challenging Gender Dynamics in Literature

This essay goes into the diverse realm of gender dynamics, power structures, and representations in literary texts, analyzing them via feminist critique and gender studies analytical lenses. The emphasis continues to be placed on the literary tradition of North America. Within this tradition, feminist literary criticism has found significant absorption in higher education and in some Spanish-speaking countries that have been influenced by it. Recognizing the necessity of understanding the social context of literary works, the emphasis remains on this tradition. This study criticizes repressive patriarchal systems and argues for a more equal society by reclaiming the literary contributions of women writers who are considered "proto-feminists" and pioneers of feminism. In addition, feminist studies extend beyond the literary canon since Golubov passionately fights for the reconstruction of women's history. She does this because she understands the significance of this understanding in terms of comprehending collective identities and societal structures. The influential gender theory of Judith Butler, which challenges the exclusive focus on women and highlights the culturally constructed character of gender, further deepens this conversation by bringing attention to the fact that gender is built. This revolutionary point of view advocates for the acknowledgment and celebration of multiple gender identities to foster a society that is more equal. It calls for a reevaluation of traditional assumptions about sex and gender.

This Bridge Called My Back: Radical Writings by Women of Color 1981 will be analyzed as a study case because it acts as a forceful catalyst by focusing light on the enormous impact of race, ethnicity, culture, socioeconomic background, and sexual orientation on gender inequality. It does this by combining literary analyses and gender theory with the writings of women of color who wrote them. This anthology, which was written by feminists from the third world as well as women of color, unapologetically brings to light the challenges that women of color confront when attempting to navigate the demands of society while also declaring who they truly are. It encourages inclusivity and generates vital dialogues on gender dynamics that go beyond standard binaries by welcoming multiple points of view and fostering thorough listening and comprehension. Together, these interconnected findings drive the feminist discourse toward a deeper understanding of gender and societal structures. They also underscore the urgency of fighting oppressive systems and embracing intersectionality in the pursuit of genuine empowerment and long-lasting social change. This essay aims to foster a more cohesive and inclusive vision for the future by examining literature, gender theory, and the narratives of women of color. Such a vision envisions a world in which diverse voices are heard and respected, thereby dismantling power structures that have been in place for a long time and paving the way for a society that is more just and equitable.

1. Feminist Literary Critique as a Lens

Because of the fundamental character of the problems that are being investigated and the inquisitive character of the research questions that have been raised in Feminist literary criticism, it is essential to take a methodology that draws on multiple disciplines. Golubov states that literary text cannot be disentangled from the specific sociocultural environment in which it was formed, disseminated. As a result, feminist literary criticism not only investigates the agency of female characters but also aims to challenge established gender roles and cultural standards (Golubov, 2013, p.p 8-9). Despite the fact that feminist literary criticism is practiced on a global scale, the focus of Golubov´s study is inscribed in the North American literary tradition. This is due to the accelerated integration of feminist literary criticism into higher education institutions as well as its extensive dissemination within Spanish-speaking countries, which was made possible by translation efforts (Golubov, 2013, p.8). In Golubov´s view, the field of study known as literary theory was ignored or left out of the realm of literary theory works by women writers. Thus, feminist literary criticism reclaims the literary contributions made by these authors, who are frequently seen as the forerunners or pioneers of feminism. According to Golubov, they could be classified as "proto-feminists" (Golubov, 2013, p.p 9-10). Many literary traditions have pioneers who laid the foundation for feminism. In their lives and works, one can discern a powerful critique of the oppressive system known as patriarchy. This system perpetuates social structures and practices that enable men to discriminate against, subjugate, and exert dominance over women. In them, we witness a powerful defiance against their oppressive social circumstances as they consciously choose to reject conformity (Golubov, 2013, p.10). According to Golubov´s revision of feminist literary criticism, it emerged as a potent force at the core of the women's liberation movements, with profound academic roots, especially in the United States. She remarks that it began with a strong political impetus, transforming the act of reading into a means of fundamentally revolutionizing social relations (Golubov, 2013, p.p 18-19). Golubov sheds light on the fact that in addition to a focus on reinterpreting literature, there was a larger objective of reshaping the entire universe.

She highlights that by challenging traditional norms and perceptions entrenched in literary works, feminist criticism aimed to pave the way for a more equitable and inclusive society in which gender-based inequalities would be dismantled, and women's voices and experiences would be celebrated (Golubov, 2013, p.19). She argues that the institution of the family is widely accepted as a paradigmatic representation of female enslavement. This is due to the institution of the family playing a vital role in shaping gender identity during the process of socialization and perpetuating gendered labor divisions (Golubov, 2013, p.16). In stark contrast to the logical, competitive, and generally male-dominated public sphere, the home family was considered a sentimental and intimate shelter. Golubov observes that this was due to the fact that the public sphere was traditionally male-dominated. Unfortunately, society retained the biased ideas that women lacked the intellectual and moral qualities essential to participate in political affairs. Because of these beliefs, women were denied access to the same spaces and advantages as their male counterparts. Women from middle-class families faced severe obstacles, including a dearth of opportunities to obtain a conventional education and work that paid well. As a direct consequence of this, a significant number of them had no choice but to look for a financially beneficial marriage as the sole means by which they might raise their social and economic position. This structural inequity maintained a cycle of gender-based constraints, which prevented women from reaching their full potential in a variety of areas of life (Golubov, 2013, p.12). In conclusion, Golubov's examination of feminist literary criticism sheds light on the historical neglect of works by women authors within the domain of literary theory. By reclaiming the literary contributions of these authors and acknowledging them as "proto-feminists," feminist literary criticism recognizes their role as forerunners of feminism. This analysis of literary characters exposes a potent critique of the patriarchal system, which perpetuates gender-based inequalities and social structures that marginalize women. In addition, Golubov emphasizes the transformative power of feminist literary criticism, which arose as a potent force during women's liberation movements, challenging traditional norms and fundamentally transforming social relations. Not only did it seek to reinterpret literature but also to reshape society as a whole, striving for a more equitable and inclusive world that celebrates diverse gender identities.

2. Regarding Gender as a Social Construct

Golubov argues that it is essential for feminism to reconstruct a history of women because doing so enables us to gain a better understanding of the formation of significant collective identities. This, in return, helps to strengthen the framework of cultural and material practices that have structured a great number of societies throughout history and that continue to structure a great number of societies even today (Golubov, 2013, p.10). Golubov recognizes the significance of a dilemma that Judith Butler's influential theory of gender poses. In a feminist context, Judith Butler's influential theory of gender casts light on a crucial issue regarding feminism's central focus on women. Butler observes astutely that using "women" as the central motif of feminism presents a challenge. This is primarily due to the influence of normative standards, which have historically been associated with a limited and exclusive conception of femininity. In Judith Butler's groundbreaking work, Gender Trouble 1990, the powerful influence of early feminist ideologies becomes apparent as they permeate various literary traditions. These literary figures demonstrate a critical and post-critical perspective on what is now acknowledged as patriarchy - a multifaceted system of social structures and traditions in which men enforce discrimination, subjugation, and control over women. In addition, Judith Butler's seminal work on gender theory offers valuable insights into the construction of gender and its relationship to sex. Her critique of the binary conception of sex and the performative nature of gender highlights the role of cultural invention and societal norms in shaping these concepts. These historical figures courageously challenge the oppressive shackles of their assigned social roles, fearlessly defying the confinements imposed by societal norms. Butler investigates the historical creation of the concept of sex as a binary system and poses important concerns regarding the concept's political and social ramifications throughout the course of history. Butler methodically examines the prevalent notion of sex as an inherent and fixed binary option while also questioning whether or not this construct has ever served particular political or social objectives in the past (Butler, 1990, p.11).

Butler engages with the ideas of Simone de Beauvoir in her writing. She acknowledges De Beauvoir's seminal work, The Second Sex 1979, which she regards as one of the cornerstones of feminist theory because it examines the historical and contemporary experiences of women in patriarchal societies in detail. Highly influenced by this, Butler utilizes de Beauvoir's notion of "becoming a woman" to construct her own theory of gender performativity. De Beauvoir famously stated, "A woman is not born, but rather made" (De Beauvoir, 1979). This concept challenges the notion that gender is a fixed and inherent aspect of being, arguing instead that it is socially constructed and acquired through cultural practices and norms (Butler, 1990, pp. 11-12). Thus, Butler challenges the traditional belief that gender disparities are solely the result of biological differences and consequently challenges the notion that women are inherently inferior to males. She observes Beauvoir´s approach toward gender roles in society, especially her idea that when a woman attempts to express herself outside of her traditional gender role, she is frequently criticized and accused of emulating masculine behaviors: “Man is defined as a human being and woman is defined as a female. Whenever she tries to behave as a human being, she is accused of trying to emulate the male” (Beauvoir, 1979). By engaging with de Beauvoir's work, Butler contributes to the ongoing discussion within feminism regarding the nature of gender and how it is constructed and reinforced in society. This perspective challenges traditional conceptions of gender, which are typically based on essentialist assumptions that equate gender with biological sex. Consequently, our take on the whole world and how we perceive ourselves in relation to it are intricately intertwined with the way we perform and exhibit our gender: “The body is not a thing, it is a situation: it is our grasp on the world and our sketch of our project” (De Beauvoir, 1979). In this quote by Simone de Beauvoir, she argues that the body is not a fixed or immutable entity but rather a dynamic "situation."

Butler's view echoes De Beauvoir´s assertion that the body is a type of dynamic situation. She contends that the fundamental concept of "sex," because it is a cultural construction, is one that should be open to investigation and debate. By doing so, Butler is advocating for a nuanced and critical investigation of the concept, examining its roots as well as the power dynamics that have been responsible for shaping it. She wants to highlight how the idea of "sex" has been entwined with gender, which further reinforces the inflexible standards and expectations around femininity and masculinity by unraveling the historical roots of this binary understanding. To do this, she will unravel the historical underpinnings of this binary understanding (Butler, 1990, p.p 10-11). It is clear, when viewed through the lens of Butler's perspective that the establishment of "sex" as a unique category that is inextricably related to gender is not an objective reality but rather the result of cultural invention. This knowledge encourages the fight to dismantle the oppressive institutions that are rooted in these constructs, and it calls for a reevaluation of traditional beliefs concerning sex and gender. Butler scrutinizes critically the notion that gender meanings are rigidly imprinted on bodies based on anatomical differences, depicting these bodies as passive recipients of cultural norms over which they have no control. Like the outmoded "biology is destiny" theory, this perspective perpetuates the notion that one's gender is predetermined and unchangeable: “On some accounts, the notion that gender meanings inscribed on anatomically differentiated bodies, where those bodies are understood as passive recipients of an inexorable cultural law” (Butler, 1990, p.11). Butler contends that extending representation only to those who conform to these normative norms ignores and perpetuates the exclusion of those who do not fit these predefined roles. The concept of "women" as a unitary and unproblematic identity is frequently used to promote solidarity. However, in feminist discourse, a division arises due to the distinction between sex and gender. Originally intended to challenge the notion that biology determines fate, the sex-gender distinction contends that while sex may appear to be biologically fixed, gender is culturally constructed and is therefore not causally determined by sex (Butler, 1990, p.8). Butler argues that exclusion shapes gendered subjects, resulting in the marginalization of those who do not conform to traditional notions of femininity (Butler, 1990, p.12).

Therefore, a feminist analysis must be sensitive to the spectrum of gender experiences, adopting an inclusive approach that celebrates identities beyond the binary framework. According to this perspective, gender is a complex and diverse array of sex interpretations (Butler, 1990, p.8). According to Butler's theory of gender performativity, the distinction between sex and gender threatens the coherence and unity of the subject. Instead of emphasizing biology, Butler's approach emphasizes the impact of culture and social practices on our understanding and performance of gender in daily life (Butler, 1990, pp. 11-12). According to her theory of gender, gender is not something we possess inherently, but rather a series of repeated actions and behaviors performed in accordance with societal norms and expectations. These gender performances become so engrained that they create the illusion of a fixed and stable gender identity. The body as "our sketch of our project" is consistent with Butler's emphasis on the performative character of gender. Our bodies become the canvas upon which we act out and express our gender identity, molding and reshaping it through our interactions with the world (Butler, 1990, p. 34) .

Butler's engagement with Simone de Beauvoir's ideas contributes to a deeper understanding of gender performativity and its defiance against rigid societal conventions. Both Golubov and Butler emphasize the significance of reconstructing women's history and challenging traditional norms in order to create a more inclusive and equal society. Their perspectives contribute to the ongoing evolution of feminist theory by advocating for a greater understanding of gender dynamics and the recognition of diverse experiences that transcend traditional gender binaries. The book Bodies that Matter 1993 by Butler is an important extension of her earlier groundbreaking work that has been brought for consideration. Her analysis of gender identity and performativity is taken to further levels of investigation in this book, which builds upon the core ideas she presented in her previous work. Utilizing post - structuralist and feminist theory, she defends her position and critiques the socially constructed binary notion of sex. Butler emphasizes the exclusion of intersex individuals and those with diverse body experiences. By doing so, she challenges the traditional gender binary by recognizing the complex and diverse realities of individuals outside of the confines of a fixed social framework. Butler's core argument in this work revolves around the social construction of bodies through language, culture, and discourse. Due to the inability of these political terms to definitively and exhaustively establish the precise identity they strive to define, the struggle continues.

The political terms that are meant to establish a sure or coherent identity are troubled by this failure of discursive performativity to finally and fully establish the identity to which it refers. Iterability underscores the non-self identical status of such terms; the constitutive outside means that identity always requires precisely that which it cannot abide (Butler, 1993, p.140).

The passage illuminates the complexities of using political terms to forge a consistent and enduring identity. To provide a distinct sense of self, these terms contend with the limitations of language's performative capacity. Emphasizing the concept of iterability openly reveals their fluidity, indicating that their meaning is context-dependent and, therefore, subject to change. This resistance to a fixed essence makes establishing identity through their application difficult. In addition, the concept of the constitutive outside asserts that external influences beyond the words themselves play a crucial role in identity formation, necessitating the incorporation of elements that may challenge the desired identity. Throughout the entirety of the book, Butler draws from a variety of philosophical and literary sources to examine the mechanisms of power at work in the formation and control of gender and sexuality. She argues that gender identity is not dictated by biology (Butler, 1990, p. 8. The work of Butler sheds light on the illusion that stable gender identities exist and paves the way for challenging traditional gender norms and pushing for a more open-minded and fluid definition of gender in society. This is accomplished by highlighting the illusory nature of stable gender identities:

To prescribe an exclusive identification for a multiply constituted subject, as every subject is, is to enforce a reduction and a paralysis, and some feminist positions, including my own, have problematically prioritized gender as the identificatory site of political mobilization at the expense of race or sexuality or class or geopolitical positioning/displacement. (Butler, 1993, p.78)

In the quote above, she admits that some feminist positions, including her own, have made gender the principal site of political mobilization. While gender is unquestionably an essential aspect of identity and a central focus of feminist activism, the quote suggests that focusing solely on gender identification may lead to the diminution and paralysis of other equally essential aspects of a person's identity. Given that, every individual is comprised of multiple intersecting factors, such as gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and geopolitical position, prescribing an exclusive identifier for them could pose a problem. As stated in the preceding paragraph, Judith Butler is known for her emphasis on the performative nature of gender. By focusing solely on gender, other factors such as race, sexual orientation, social class, and geopolitical position or displacement may be overshadowed or neglected. This limitation can be problematic because it does not adequately address the complexity and intersectionality of the experiences and struggles of individuals. It suggests that by narrowly concentrating on a single identity marker, there is a risk of overlooking the interconnected and overlapping forms of oppression and marginalization that individuals may experience due to various aspects of their identity. This could be interpreted as a call to expand the inclusiveness and intersectionality of feminist activism and social justice movements. Instead of focusing merely on gender, it promotes recognizing and addressing the interconnectedness of multiple identity markers and social contexts. Adopting this methodology can result in a deeper understanding of individual experiences and a more effective strategy for addressing systemic inequalities and advocating for social change.

To wrap up this section it is key to bring to attention that Butler´s work has had a significant impact on feminist theory and opened up new avenues for comprehending and challenging gender norms and expectations. Feminist scholars and activists must actively challenge the limited comprehension of femininity and gender as defined by societal norms in light of Butler's ideas. By doing so, they can cultivate an environment that empowers and validates all gender expressions, shattering outmoded stereotypes and fostering genuine gender equality and acceptance. As a movement, feminism should aspire to be more intersectional and intersectional in recognizing the unique struggles faced by individuals at the intersections of race, class, sexual orientation, and other identities, amplifying their voices, and working toward a more just and inclusive society for all.

3. Case Study

The powerful affirmation of the impact of "race," ethnicity, culture, socio-economic background, and sexual orientation on exclusion from conventional gender standards was provided by the book This Bridge Called My Back: Radical Writings by Women of Color , which was released in 1981. The objective of the anthology, which was written by feminists from the third world and women of color from the United States, was to shed light on the subtle connections that exist between different social classifications, which result in gender inequality within the context of the social hierarchy. It delved into the difficult struggles that were encountered by women of color, who frequently had to conceal or alter portions of their own selves in order to adhere to the conventions of societal expectations. Gloria Anzaldúa, along with co-editor Cherrie Moraga, co-edited the groundbreaking anthology to give a voice to women of color and address the multiple forms of oppression they confronted themselves. Anzaldúa's desire to challenge the dominant narratives that frequently erased or marginalized the experiences of women of color in feminism, academia, and society led to the publication of this book in 1981. All these pieces investigated the difficulties encountered when attempting to navigate numerous layers of identity while simultaneously pursuing self-determination and empowerment amid oppressive societal structures. Along with other feminist and postmodern authors, Anzaldúa brought attention to the lack of privileged areas for women, particularly women of color. This part of the anthology went into depth about the difficulties and contradictions that were experienced by women of color as they attempted to assert their genuine selves inside a culture that expected conformity.

The anthology made an important contribution to the development of feminist theory by including a variety of perspectives. As a result, it aided in the development of a deeper understanding of gender dynamics that went beyond the confines of traditional binaries. It renders the experiences of underrepresented populations, emphasizing their triumphs and struggles while inspiring readers to embrace their real selves and act toward meaningful social change. In addition, it showcased the accomplishments of the people that were underrepresented. As a result, the anthology served as a potent instrument in the promotion of inclusivity and the pushing for advancement in feminist debate as well as cultural ideas of gender. Not only did this confrontation revolutionize feminist theory, but it also spurred a transformation of various feminist approaches, resulting in a substantial revision of mainstream gender theory. Anzaldúa intended to elevate the voices of women of color and highlight the significance of their contributions to feminist and social justice movements by compiling a wide variety of essays, poetry, and artwork from women of color. The book became a seminal text in feminist theory, ethnic studies, and queer theory, inspiring future generations of activists and academics to recognize the significance of intersectionality and inclusivity in their efforts to create a more equitable and just world. In the second part of the book, the author investigates how women from the Third World develop a unique feminist political theory that is derived from their racial, cultural, and personal experiences. It places an emphasis on specificity, as well as the psychological freedom that is associated with gender.

The goal of gender theory is to bring about fundamental changes in contemporary society. Refusing to draw a line between gender identity and sexual orientation turns into a powerful symbol, showing the need for women of color to actively participate in more significant gender discourse and urging feminists to embrace an intersectional point of view. This highlights the necessity for women of color to actively participate in more significant gender discourse. One of the most destructive methods of disempowering women and members of minority groups is to let them to communicate freely but not genuinely listen to what it is that they have to say. This is one of the most detrimental ways of disempowering women and members of minority groups. This is one of the most covert methods of exerting power over a person. The authors and artists that contributed to "This Bridge" depict the struggle of women against many forms of oppression in its entirety. Anzaldúa has held this view ever since she was a child:

En boca cerrada no entran moscas. "Flies don't enter a closed mouth" is a saying I kept hearing when I was a child. Ser habladora was to be a gossip and a liar, to talk too much. Muchachitas bien criadas, well-bred girls don't answer back. Es una falta de respeto to talk back to one's mother or father. I remember one of the sins I'd recite to the priest in the confession box the few times I went to confession: talking back to my mother, hablar pa' 'trás, repelar. Hocicona, repelona, chismosa, having a big mouth, questioning, carrying tales are all signs of being mal criada. In my culture they are all words that are derogatory if applied to women--I've never heard them applied to men (Anzaldúa, 1987, p.76).

From a fiercely feminist perspective, "En boca cerrada no entran moscas" exemplifies the profoundly entrenched patriarchy's efforts throughout history to silence and subjugate women. This outdated proverb is a potent instrument of oppression, indoctrinating young females to suppress their voices, passions, and aspirations. By labeling women as, "habladora," "hocicona," and "chismosa," society perpetuates a toxic narrative that attempts to diminish the brilliance and fortitude of outspoken women, dismissing their intelligence and assertiveness as undesirable characteristics. Furthermore, the persistent imposition of being "muchachitas bien criadas" removes them of their autonomy, enforcing servitude and blind obedience to male authority. We must vehemently resist and dismantle these oppressive structures to forge a new reality, one in which the power of women's voices resonates unapologetically, in which questioning and speaking back are celebrated as acts of empowerment, and in which all individuals, regardless of gender, are liberated to realize their full potential and shape a world of true equality and justice. In Anzaldúa´s view, to realize true equality and justice, it is imperative that we fiercely oppose these oppressive systems and work to bring them down. She encourages the creation of a new reality in which the power of women's voices resounds unapologetically, in which questioning and speaking back are celebrated as acts of empowerment, and in which all individuals, irrespective of gender, are liberated to realize their full potential and shape a world that embraces the strength and diversity of its people. She even herself was shocked at hearing two women of distinct Hispanic backgrounds use the word nosotras, it demonstrated to her the extent to which the dominant language norms frequently erase or diminish the presence of women. This passage by Gloria Anzaldúa demonstrates how language's inherent power dynamics can perpetuate gender inequality and erode female identity. Nosotros is the plural form of "we" in Spanish, regardless of whether the group is composed of males, females, or a blend of genders. This linguistic practice effectively erases and negates women's distinct presence by subsuming their identity under the masculine plural:

The first time I heard two women, a Puerto Rican and a Cuban, say the word "nosotras," I was shocked. I had not known the word existed. Chicanas use nosotros whether we're male or female. We are robbed of our female being by the masculine plural. Language is a male discourse (Anzaldúa, 1987, p.76).

Anzaldúa's observation that Chicanas use nosotros for both genders illustrates the inherent bias in language, in which the masculine experience is assumed to be the norm and women are rendered invisible or relegated to the background. This erasure denies women recognition of their uniqueness and reinforces a patriarchal perspective that prioritizes and centers male experiences. Besides, the statement: "Language is a male discourse" highlights how historically, societal structures and cultural norms have privileged male perspectives, including language usage. The construction and application of words can reflect and perpetuate gender hierarchies, resulting in the marginalization and subordination of women's voices and experiences. Hence, Anzaldúa constantly states that it is essential to challenge and transform language so that it is more inclusive, recognizing and validating the unique experiences and identities of women. Efforts to establish gender-neutral or gender-inclusive language can assist in escaping the constraints of traditional linguistic norms and foster a society in which all genders are seen, heard, and valued equally. Through such deliberate linguistic changes, we can pave the way for a more just and equitable world, one in which women are no longer constrained or deprived of their female identity by language's inherently male-centric discourse. As has been brought to attention in this section, the contributors of the aforementioned anthology are women of color who identify as radical and share their viewpoints, experiences, and problems throughout the book. The anthology acts as a platform for their perspectives, opposing mainstream narratives that seek to marginalize women of color, including undocumented immigrants (also known "las mojadas"). The writers, via their words, bring attention to the fact that these women confront not only sexual aggression but also a physical inability to defend th emselves (Anzaldúa, 1987, p.p 34-35). T hey work together to challenge patriarchal norms, advance the rights of immigrants, and cultivate a society that is more caring and welcoming to those who are different from it:

La mojada, la mujer indocumentada, is doubly threatened in this country. Not only does she have to contend with sexual violence, but like all women, she is prey to a sense of physical helplessness. As a refugee, she leaves the familiar and safe homeground to venture into unknown and possibly dangerous terrain. (Anzaldúa, 1987, p.p 34-35)

The quote above by Anzaldúa showcases the double threat that undocumented immigrant women face in a new country: sexual violence and physical helplessness. The intersection of gender and immigration status exacerbates their vulnerability, denying them access to justice and support (Anzaldúa, 1987, p.33) . This intentional linguistic shift is essential for addressing the dual threat encountered by "la mojada" - sexual violence and physical helplessness exacerbated by the intersection of gender and immigration status, which denies them access to justice and support. Anzaldúa remarks that to address these issues, it is necessary to challenge patriarchal norms, advocate for immigrant rights, and create a society that is more inclusive (Anzaldúa, 1987, p.p 34-35) . Hence, from a feminist perspective, it is essential to challenge and transform language to be more inclusive, recognizing and validating the unique experiences and identities of women. A society that is compassionate and egalitarian, in which people of all genders and immigrants are respected equally, can be created by making efforts toward gender-inclusive language and confronting patriarchal conventions. (Anzaldúa, 1987, p.p 34-35). The feminist viewpoint of Anzaldúa asks for fundamental changes to be made in society, including the adoption of gender-inclusive terminology, the challenge of patriarchal conventions, and the advocacy for immigrant rights. She draws attention to the repressive power of language, which, by erasing women's distinct presence, fosters discourse that is male-centric. Her anthology intends to address and destroy mainstream stereotypes that marginalize women, particularly undocumented immigrants, by offering a forum for women of color to share their experiences and perspectives. Creating a culture that is compassionate, egalitarian, and appreciates people of all genders and immigration statuses equally can be accomplished through efforts toward gender-inclusive vocabulary and inclusive activism.

4. Conclusion

This essay has examined three concepts that are interrelated: the significance of feminist literary criticism; the applicability of Butler's theories to feminist literary theory, and a case study illustrating the efficacy of feminist criticism and gender studies in the process of studying literary texts. Understanding the societal background of literary works and challenging preconceived notions about gender roles and conventions is made significantly easier through the application of literary criticism. A complete examination of the intricacies of gender dynamics and power structures within literary texts requires a methodology that draws on a number of different academic disciplines. Butler's influential theories have had a substantial impact on feminist literary theory. By calling into question the binary conception of sex and underlining the performative character of gender, Butler's theories have contributed considerably to the development of feminist literary theory. Her body of work raises questions about essentialist assumptions and pushes for an understanding of gender identities that is more inclusive. Feminist scholars can create a more compassionate and intersectional approach to demolishing harmful stereotypes and fostering genuine equality if they take Butler's ideas and incorporate them into their work. The case study shows how feminist literature may provide a platform for marginalized voices, such as those of women of color, to communicate their experiences and challenge the expectations that society has placed on them. It places a strong emphasis on attentive listening as well as genuine conversation as a means to advance understanding and inclusivity within the realm of feminist discourse.

This article has sought to identify and combat prejudices that marginalize and portray women and other gender identities incorrectly. To accept the fluidity and diversity of human experiences and identities, feminist thinkers and activists can advance a more inclusive and liberating understanding of gender by adopting Butler's theories. This will allow them to work toward a more inclusive and liberating understanding of gender. We may come closer to a society that embraces and celebrates the complexity of human beings by deconstructing the binary notion of sex and acknowledging the cultural context in which it exists. This will allow us to dismantle damaging stereotypes and promote genuine equality and respect for all individuals. This kind of feminist approach not only contests the pre-existing power structures but also paves the way for methods that are more all-encompassing and compassionate in their approach to resolving the specific difficulties that persons across the gender spectrum are confronted with. In general, feminist literary criticism has the potential to transform the literary canon and build a culture that is more equal and inclusive when it is led by Butler's theories and magnified via the contributions of a varied range of perspectives. Literary criticism that takes a feminist perspective seeks to promote significant social change and a deeper understanding of the complexity of human identity by questioning accepted cultural standards and highlighting the variety of ways in which people experience gender. Feminist literary criticism continues to develop and pave the way for a society that is more just and compassionate thanks to continual investigation and conversation within the field.

Bibliographic References

Anzaldúa, G. (1987). Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza. First Edition, San Francisco: Spinsters/Aunt Luke Book Company.

Beauvoir, S. (1974). The Second Sex. Translated by H.M Parshley. New York: Vintage Books.

Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge.

Butler, J. (1993). Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. New York: Routledge.

Butler, J. (2004). Undoing Gender. New York: Routledge.

Chodorow, N. J. (1999). The Reproduction of Mothering. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Goluvob, N. (2012). La Crítica Literaria Feminista Una Introducción Práctica. Coyoacán: UNAM.

Moraga, C., & Anzaldúa, G. (2015). This bridge called my back: writings by radical women of color. Fourth edition. Albany, State University of New York (SUNY) Press.

Gaviria Stewart, E., Cuadrado Guirado, I., & López Sáez, M. (2013). Introducción a la Psicología Social. Segunda edición. Madrid: Sanz y Torres.

Rebolledo, T. D. & Rivero, E. S. (1993). INFINITE DIVISIONS An Anthology of Chicana Literature. Arizona: The University of Arizona Press.

Visual Sources

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Daniela Sandoval

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Education and Gender

Reading up for your women’s studies class? Examining the relationship between gender, power, and socioeconomic class? Penning an essay on the intersection of feminism and development? This page will outline the intimate relationship between education and gender equality.

In many countries and communities, girls are often discriminated against and the most vulnerable face multiple barriers to education, ranging from child marriage and child labour to sexual exploitation and trafficking. And while there is rightfully a focus on girls’ education, boys – particularly from disadvantaged backgrounds – are often not encouraged to complete their education and can be vulnerable to child labour, violence, gangs or extremism. Investing in relevant and quality education for girls and boys creates more equal and tolerant societies, breaking the cycle of poverty and creating a healthier, wealthier and more educated family.

Looking for questions to centre your research efforts or interesting issues or problems to explore? These research questions can help provide a path to a focused research and writing process.

• What are the benefits of investing in girls’ education?
• What are the costs and consequences of not investing in girls’ education?
• What is the relationship between education and child marriage?
• Why should we invest in boys’ education when girls are more marginalised?
• How does girls’ education improve health outcomes?
• How does girls’ education affect economic growth?
• What is the relationship between boys’ education and gender-based violence?
• How does boys’ education impact gender-equitable attitudes?
• Do disparities exist in terms of who is able to access technology or digital platforms?
• How has technology been used successfully to provide quality education?
• Can technology help to democratise education?
• If children can’t go to school full time, is it worth bothering with alternative forms of education?

Looking for clear topic sentences to express your opinion, or thesis statements to serve as the core of your essay? Theirworld’s examples can help to form the base of your argument.

Girls’ education

• Educating girls saves countries money
• Each additional year that a girl is in school increases earnings, promotes economic growth, leads to healthier families, and lowers the rate of child marriage
• The failure to educate girls costs countries a staggering amount in lost lifetime productivity and earnings
• The impact of education on poverty reduction is particularly significant for girls and women

Boys’ education

• Men with higher educational attainment have more gender-equitable attitudes, are better partners, and are less likely to engage in gender-based violence
• Harmful social and gender norms can be shifted through school-based educational interventions for boys
• Quality education for boys creates more tolerant societies

Child marriage

• The level of education a girl attains is the strongest predictor of the age at which she will marry
• Providing universal secondary education would have the single biggest impact on ending child marriage
• Quality education, especially for girls, has transformative impacts on the health of individuals and their children
• Educating girls saves lives

Seeking key messages, facts, and opinions to build your evidence base? Find the most up-to-date, pre-sourced data points to help you make a robust case for education and gender here.

• Millions of girls are out of school. It is estimated that 129 million girls and young women are not in primary or secondary school. ( UNICEF, 2022 )
• For girls, being out of school increases the risk of child marriage, teen pregnancy, gender-based violence, sexual exploitation, and child labour. During the Ebola outbreak, teen pregnancies in certain parts of Sierra Leone increased by 65%, and child labour by girls increased 19% ( UNDP, 2015 ) ( UNICEF, 2021 )
• LGBTQ+ youth are at a higher risk of dropping out of school.  In Argentina, a study found 45% of transgender students dropped out of school, either due to transphobic bullying by their peers or being excluded by school authorities. (UNESCO, 2012)
• Girls face additional burdens like childcare duties and household chores that detract from their educational opportunities and outcomes. Girls who spend one hour a day fetching water in Nepal are 17% less likely to finish primary school. ( Dhital et al., 2021 )
• In an increasingly digitised education world, girls often have decreased access to the internet and technology platforms , and have lower ICT skills, reducing their ability to access and benefit from remote learning. ( Lindsey, 2020 ) ( Fatehkia et. al., 2018 ) ( Amaro et. al., 2020 )
• Less educated girls who marry as children contribute great economic costs to governments.  If child marriage was ended and girls were in school, governments could save up to US$17 billion per year by 2030. (World Bank, 2017)
• Girls with no education are up to three times more likely to marry early than those with a secondary education.  More than 60% of girls with no education marry before the age of 18. (Girls Not Brides, 2020)
• If efforts to provide universal education and protect girls from child marriage are not accelerated, 950 million girls will be married in childhood by 2030.  To eliminate child marriage by 2030, global progress needs to be 12 times faster than the rate over the past decade. ( UNICEF, 2014 ) ( UNICEF, 2018 )
• Child marriage reduces girls’ expected earnings in adulthood by 9%.  The World Bank estimated that lost earnings associated with child marriage for 15 high prevalence countries could reach US$26 billion in 2015. (World Bank, 2017)
• The Covid-19 pandemic jeopardises progress made in reducing child marriage. An estimated 10 million additional girls are at risk of early marriage over the next decade due to the pandemic. School closures have increased the risk of child marriage by 25% per year. ( UNICEF, 2021 ) ( UNICEF, 2021 )
• There are large gaps in access to the internet for girls and those living in rural areas. Women are 17% less likely than men to use the internet in the Arab States and Asia and 25% less likely in Africa. ( GEM, 2020 )
• The gender gap in the digital divide is more pronounced in poorer countries.  Girls and women are 23% less likely than boys and men to be able to use mobile internet in low and middle-income countries. (Save the Children, 2020)
• The benefits of education for all will not be fully realised without quality education for all. Great inequities exist in learning and the quality of education provided — even for children with a primary education — with learning outcomes often the lowest for children from disadvantaged backgrounds. In low- and middle-income countries, only 18 of the poorest youth complete secondary school for every 100 of the richest youth. In at least 20 countries, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa, hardly any poor rural young women complete secondary school. ( GEM, 2020 ) ( UNICEF, 2015 )
• As digital skills become essential for the future of work, the gender gap persists.  In the European Union in 2016, only one in six students in information and communications technology (ICT) were female. (ILO, 2020)
• There is a long way to go to fully address the education gap between girls and boys. Just 49% of all countries have achieved gender parity in primary education. ( UNICEF, 2022 )
• The intersection between gender and poverty in determining digital literacy is especially worrying.  In seven low- and lower-middle income countries, fewer than 1% of women in the poorest 60% have spreadsheet skills. (GEM, 2020)

Economic costs

• The cost of not providing education is staggering. Limited educational opportunities and barriers for girls cost the world economy between US$15 trillion and US$30 trillion. In nine countries, the cost of out-of-school children was estimated to be greater than the value of an entire year of GDP growth. ( World Bank, 2018 )  ( Thomas & Burnett, 2013 )
• Failure to educate girls is costly.  Ongoing barriers to girls’ education are costing countries between US$15 trillion to US$30 trillion in lost lifetime productivity and earnings. (World Bank, 2018)
• Girls who are educated and not married as children are healthier and pass those benefits to their children.  Children born to mothers who are not child brides are 60% less likely to die in the first year of their life. (IWHC, 2020)
• Educated men are more likely to be healthier.  Young men who had participated in group educational activities were more likely to be tested for HIV, seek medical care, be vaccinated, avoid contracting an STI, and use condoms. ( ICRW, 2011 ) ( Parker et al., 2017 )
• Better educated mothers have healthier children and families. If all mothers completed secondary school, the likelihood that their children will contract malaria would be 36% lower. ( Brookings, 2016 )
• Literate mothers have healthier families.  When a mother can read, her children are 50% more likely to live past the age of five, twice as likely to attend school, and 50% more likely to be immunized. (Education Cannot Wait, 2019)
• Educating girls saves lives.  If all women in India and Nigeria had completed secondary education, the under-five mortality rate would have been 61% lower in India and 42% lower in Nigeria, saving 1.35 million children’s lives. (EFA GMR, 2013)
• Girls’ education saves lives.  Around one-third of the reductions in adult mortality and nearly 15% of the reductions in infant mortality from 1970 to 2010 can be attributed to gains in female schooling. (Jamison & Schaferhoff, 2016)
• A marginal increase in education yields tremendous decreases in pneumonia cases, the leading cause of child death worldwide. One additional year of maternal education reduces the pneumonia death rate by 14%, saving 160,000 child lives every year. ( EFA GMR, 2014 )
• Education is a cost-effective tool for preventing HIV transmission, providing the knowledge to reduce the risk of infection.  If all young adults completed primary education, there would be seven million fewer new cases of HIV per decade. Girls out of school are three times more likely to be infected with HIV than those in school. Staying in secondary school can reduce HIV infection rates by as much as 60%. ( Malala Fund, 2015 ) ( Grepin & Bharadwaj, 2015 ) ( De Neve et al., 2015 )
• Pairing education with complementary health care services in schools increases the benefits a mother’s education transfers to her child.  Children in Ethiopia whose mother had attended a primary school coupled with access to antenatal care were 39% less likely to be stunted at the age of one than children with a mother who had attended a primary school with little or no access to antenatal care. (Sabates, 2013)
• Girls’ education is vital to prevent the impaired development and growth that accompanies malnutrition. If all women completed primary education, 1.7 million fewer children would be affected with stunted growth. If all women completed secondary education, this number would rise to 11.9 million. In Bangladesh, the odds of a child being stunted were 54% lower when both parents had a primary education. ( EFA GMR, 2014 ) ( Semba et al., 2008 )
• Children of educated mothers are better nourished.  A mother’s education furthers her child’s nutritional wellbeing, even after taking into account additional factors linked to better nutrition, such as breastfeeding practices, water and sanitation, and household wealth. (EFA GMR, 2014)
• An educated mother is more likely to breastfeed, a key tool in the prevention of malnutrition.  Exclusive breastfeeding provides children with all of the nutrition they need for healthy growth and brain development, while providing protection from respiratory infections, and diarrheal disease. It can also help to prevent obesity, and non-communicable diseases like diabetes, later in life. ( Heck et al., 2006 ) ( Acharya & Khanal, 2015 )
• Education helps to ensure a diverse and healthy diet that includes micronutrients — a vital component to proper nutrition and disease prevention.  In Tanzania, children whose mothers had at least a secondary education were twice as likely to consume food rich in micronutrients in comparison to mothers with a primary education or less. Young children lacking key nutrients like vitamin A and iron are more likely to be malnourished and more prone to infections like measles, diarrhoea and anaemia, that affect their cognitive development. (EFA GMR, 2014)

Boys education

• Education creates more equitable and caring partners and fathers.  Men who have completed at least some secondary education are more likely to take on a fair share of domestic work and childcare, and take paternity leave. (ICRW., 2011)
• Boys’ education reduces gender-based violence.  Better educated boys and young men are less likely to perpetrate physical violence against an intimate partner, and are more likely to report sexual harassment or violence. ( Fulu et al., 2013 ) ( El Feki et al., 2017 )
• Boys’ education deters recruitment as a child soldier.  More than 90% of boys in the Democratic Republic of Congo believed that being in school would make them less likely to be targeted by child soldier recruitment. (Save the Children, 2014)
• Harmful social and gender norms can be shifted through school-based educational interventions for boys.  Well-designed and delivered educational programmes can increase knowledge and awareness, helping to promote gender equality, and shift harmful social norms that are recognised as primary drivers of gender-based violence. ( Ellsberg et al., 2014 ) ( Fula et al., 2013 )
• Quality education for boys creates more tolerant societies.  Boys and young men with higher levels of education tend to have less homophobic attitudes. (ICRW, 2011)
• Education deters boys from early entry to low-skilled work.  Direct familial and societal pressure and a prevalence of low-skill job opportunities puts pressure on boys to join the labour force at an early age, leading to early withdrawal from school. Young men who have completed early secondary education reported greater job security and choice, earnings, happiness, and health in comparison to those who had left school earlier ( Ahmed, 2011 ) ( Jha & Kelleher, 2006 ) ( International Labour Organization, 2006 )

Social benefits

• Early childhood education and increased childcare availability helps parents, especially mothers, re-enter the workforce.  A low-cost, universal childcare programme in Quebec increased labour force participation by 12.3%. ( MacEwan, 2013 ) ( Lefebvre & Merrigan, 2005 )
• Increasing girls’ education decreases violence.  If girls and boys had equal access to education, the chance of violence and conflict would decrease by 37%. (Education Cannot Wait, 2019)
• Educating girls means they can earn more and have more secure working conditions. Women with good literacy skills in Pakistan earn 95% more than women with weak literacy skills. ( EFA GMR, 2013 )
• Educating women is key to breaking intergenerational poverty. The evidence is clear that an educated mother brings substantial health, nutrition, caregiving, and education benefits to her children. ( Brookings, 2015 ) ( Theirworld, 2016 )
• Educating boys makes us safer.  The higher a young man’s educational attainment, the less the probability they have participated in criminal behaviour, been involved in a physical altercation, or been imprisoned. (ICRW, 2011)
• Education empowers individuals to advocate for themselves.  In 54 countries, women with only a primary education are four times more likely to lack control over household resources compared with women with a secondary education. (Sperling & Winthrop, 2015)
• Expanding access to schools reduces child labour.  In Guatemala, each additional 10 minutes of travel time to school increases the chances a girl will be involved in child labour by 2.2%. (UCW, 2003)

Economic benefits

• A single additional year of education yields great economic gains . In some cases, an additional year of education has generated as much as 35% higher GDP per capita and a 10% increase in income, with larger gains for women. ( Patrinos & Psacharopoulos, 2013 ) ( UNICEF, 2015 )
• Educating girls and women is one of the most efficient ways to promote economic growth.  Increasing the number of women with a secondary education by 1% could increase a country’s economic growth by 0.3%. (Brookings Institution, 2016)
• Literacy matters.  If all young people acquired functional literacy skills within the next 15 years, middle-income countries would achieve economic gains equivalent to more than eight times their current GDP over the next 80 years. In Pakistan, women with strong literacy skills earn 95% more than those with weak literacy skills. ( EFA GMR, 2013 ) ( OECD, 2015 )
• One additional year of school can increase a girl’s earnings by up to 20% – reaping benefits for the girls themselves, their future families and their communities. ( EFA GMR, 2013 )
• Educating girls leads to economic growth.  Even a 1% increase in the number of women completing secondary education can increase a country’s economic growth by 0.3%. (Brookings, 2016)
• Educating girls raises earnings.  Each additional year of schooling helps a woman increase her wages by about 12%. (Brookings, 2016)
• Financial literacy raises earnings.  Women with high financial literacy skills received 95% more income than women with little or no literacy skills. (EFA GEM, 2014)
• Education raises individual income, especially for women. Each additional year of schooling can raise an individual’s earnings by 8-10%, with larger gains for women. ( World Bank, 2018 )
• Educating girls leads to economic growth. Even a 1% increase in the number of women completing secondary education can increase a country’s economic growth by 0.3%. Educating girls to the same level as boys could benefit developing countries to the tune of US$112 billion a year. ( Brookings, 2016 ; UNICEF 2021 )
• Ensuring equity in teaching improves girls’ lives.  Increasing the ratio of female teachers improved girls’ access to education and achievement in 30 developing countries, particularly in remote areas. (Huisman and Smits, 2009)
• Education leads to more respect for equity as well as the rights of women and other marginalised groups.  A cross-national survey of men in Brazil, Croatia, India, Mali, Mexico, and Rwanda found that men with at least a secondary education are more likely to have gender-equitable attitudes and practices than those without. (ICRW, 2011)
• Providing universal secondary education would essentially end child marriage.  In all regions of the world, girls with higher levels of education are less likely to marry as children. (ICRW, 2006)
• Increasing school enrolment is an effective way to reduce child marriage.  In India and Pakistan, increased enrolment has been associated with a reduction in child marriage among girls younger than 14. ( Hussain & Bittles, 1999 ) ( Mathur et al., 2003 )
• Simply providing school materials can reduce child marriage.  In Ethiopia, providing school materials increased enrolment and reduced the likelihood of Ethiopian girls being married as children by 90%. (Erulkar et al., 2017)
• Reducing child marriage provides savings for education. In Niger, the country with the highest prevalence of child marriage, ending child marriage and early child birth in 2015 would have created US$327 million in savings to the education budget by 2030. ( World Bank, 2017 )
• Education prevents child marriage.  Universal secondary education for girls can virtually eliminate child marriage. In 18 of the 20 countries with the highest rates of child marriage, girls with a secondary education are six times less likely to be married as a child compared to girls with no education. (World Bank, 2018)

Teaching and learning

• Schools are effective platforms for delivering critical knowledge and awareness to prevent sexual violence.  A systemic review of 65 interventions to reduce boys’ use of sexual violence found 90% of interventions were school based, with most changing attitudes effectively. Participating students committed significantly less sexual and physical dating violence and were less likely to endorse rape myths compared with control groups. ( Ricardo et al., 2011 ) ( Foshee et al., 2004 ) ( De La Rue et al., 2014 )
• Higher educational attainment is associated with increased financial literacy . Women with less education displayed disproportionately lower levels of financial knowledge in all stages of life, from youth to old age. ( Hasler & Lusardi, 2017 ) ( GFLEC Testimonies, 2013 )

Environmental benefits

• Girls’ education is one of the most effective tools we have to fight climate change.  Using UNESCO data, projections show that educating girls could result in a massive reduction in emissions of 51.48 gigatons by 2050. (Project Drawdown, 2017)
• Slowing population growth through education can reduce carbon emissions . A woman with 12 years of schooling has four to five fewer children than a woman with zero years of schooling, equivalent to a 25 metric ton reduction of carbon emissions. ( Kharas, 2016 ) ( Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, 2017 )
• Disaster resilience increases with girls’ education. For each additional year of schooling a girl receives, her country’s resilience to climate disasters can be expected to improve by 3.2 points on the ND-GAIN Index, which measures climate change vulnerability. ( Brookings Institution, 2017 )

Key opinions

Education, especially for girls, is the best investment we can make for sustainable development. Gender equality is a human right and it is also smart economics. It is therefore crucial that we continue our efforts to secure education for all in the midst of the Covid-19 pandemic. Guy Ryder, ILO Director Gender

Education is the key to addressing the root causes of sexual violence and to ending practices of toxic femininity and masculinity. If these issues are addressed from a young age, we will begin to see a world where women will occupy positions of power at the same rate as men and will know that they too belong in those spaces. Nadia Murad, UN Goodwill Ambassador and 2018 Nobel Peace Prize Laureate

Education is the single best investment a country can make to raise the most pressing challenges of our time. In an interconnected world, an educated population – especially girls – is an insurance policy for every aspect of a country’s future development, with wide-ranging benefits extending to health, economic growth, peace and stability. However, economic pressures brought on by the Covid-19 pandemic are squeezing education budgets around the world, just as investments are needed more than ever before. Sustaining domestic and global education budgets around the world is the key to a shared future fit for our children. Alice Albright, CEO of Millennium Challenge Corporation

Searching for more in-depth reporting or quick refreshers on the relationship between gender and education? Check out Theirworld’s groundbreaking reports and explainers that examine the issue in further detail.

This page looks at why girls and young women miss out on school - even though educating girls has huge benefits for health, prosperity and security. This page explains more about the impact of a safe, quality education for girls and examines the barriers that prevent them from getting an education.

Explainer series.

• Girls’ education

In conflict, natural disasters, and other emergencies, girls face particular vulnerabilities and barriers that can frequently prevent them from realising their right to education. Displacement, poverty and the breakdown of familial and social protection mechanisms can place girls at higher risk of sexual abuse, violence, exploitation and early forced marriage.

Read the report.

• Building a better future: Syrian girls’ education in Turkey (October 2016)

This report offers a snapshot of early childhood development in Africa. This snapshot of equity shows how much more there is to do to ensure every child has the best start in life.

• Millions of children left behind at every developmental milestone (October 2016)

This page is about the issues around pregnancy and childbirth and what can be done to ensure a safe and healthy start in life for all children

• Safe pregnancy and birth

Global Business Coalition for Education

The Journey of a Girl: Opportunities for Business Investment in Girls’ Education

Released on the International Day of the Girl Child, ‘The Journey of a Girl’ shows how businesses must invest at every stage of a girl’s education journey to overcome the many barriers that keep her from reaching her full potential. This working paper, commissioned by GBC-Education, surveyed 32 companies investing in girls’ education, and found that while there is a strong focus on empowering girls in the secondary years, less than 10% of corporate education budgets are directed to pre-primary education.

Get the report

Prefer an audio medium to better understand the connection between education and gender? Listen to Theirworld’s Better Angels podcasts, featuring stories from globally renowned campaigners, Nobel Prize winners, celebrities, politicians and remarkable young people who are experts in the field.

The Importance of Girls’ Education

In this Better Angels episode focusing on the importance of girls’ education, Sarah Brown talks to an array of inspirational guests including Deputy  Secretary-General of the United Nations Amina Mohammed, former Australian Prime Minister and Chair of the Global Partnership for Education Julia Gillard, young education champions Shazia Ramzan and Kainat Riaz, and co-founder of HOPE for Children Cameroon and Theirworld Global Youth Ambassador Joannes Yimbesalu

UN Special #6: Theo Sowa Interview

Theo Sowa, CEO, The African Women’s Development Fund, talks to Sarah Brown about the rampant inequalities around the world which are depriving children of a better future

Hanzade Doğan Boyner and Vuslat Doğan Sabanci: Interview Special

Top Turkish business women Hanzade Dogan Boyner and Vuslat Dogan Sabanci and their efforts to promote girls’ education through private public partnerships are featured in this interview special

Live Special – Theirworld’s International Women’s Day London Event

Live from Theirworld’s International Women’s Day breakfast event in London and hosted by Sarah Brown and U.S. activist and youth skills campaigner Jamira Burley, this Better Angels episode features inspiring women from a variety of sectors joining together to discuss safe schools and how to break down barriers to girls’ education

International Women’s Day 2021 Special #2: Live from Theirworld’s virtual event

In this episode, we hear some highlights from Theirworld’s International Women’s Day event and speak with some of the event’s attendees about girls’ education and gender equality

More episodes here

Theirworld’s commitment to education spans sectors and subjects. See what we are working on at the intersection of education and gender:

A Safe Place to Learn:

Every child has the right to an education free from fear of discrimination, violence or attack. We work to provide refugees, girls, children with disabilities and other underserved young people with the education they deserve

Trauma Informed Schools, Turkey

Theirworld partners with Maya Vakfi in Turkey to deliver a programme which helps students cope with traumatic experiences and gives teachers the skills to understand and address their needs

My Best Start, Lebanon

Theirworld works with agencies on the ground in Lebanon to provide children, parents and teachers with tools and resources to provide valuable early childhood education

Heal Together, Greece

Theirworld works with the Amna Refugee Healing Network on a sustainable approach to the delivery of early childhood education to refugee children

The intertwined benefits of education and gender touch a diversity of related subjects. Explore the below subject pages for additional ideas and information. 

• Education and Sociology
• Education and Teaching and Learning  

Take Action. Get Involved.

Theirworld is committed to ending the global education crisis and unleashing the potential of the next generation. Inspired to unlock big change? Support our campaigns, fundraise with us or join our Global Youth Ambassadors programme.

To end the global education crisis we’re going to need everyone to do their part, help build the pressure needed to make change.

Support our campaigns

Our network of 2,000 young people in more than 100 countries across the globe working together to end the global education crisis.

Join the Global Youth Ambassador programme

Raising money for Theirworld is another great way to help us.

Fundraise with us

Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls

Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right, but a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous and sustainable world. There has been progress over the last decades, but the world is not on track to achieve gender equality by 2030.

Women and girls represent half of the world’s population and therefore also half of its potential. But gender inequality persists everywhere and stagnates social progress. On average, women in the labor market still earn 23 percent less than men globally and women spend about three times as many hours in unpaid domestic and care work as men.

Sexual violence and exploitation, the unequal division of unpaid care and domestic work, and discrimination in public office, all remain huge barriers. All these areas of inequality have been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic: there has been a surge in reports of sexual violence, women have taken on more care work due to school closures, and 70% of health and social workers globally are women.

At the current rate, it will take an estimated 300 years to end child marriage, 286 years to close gaps in legal protection and remove discriminatory laws, 140 years for women to be represented equally in positions of power and leadership in the workplace, and 47 years to achieve equal representation in national parliaments.

Political leadership, investments and comprehensive policy reforms are needed to dismantle systemic barriers to achieving Goal 5 Gender equality is a cross-cutting objective and must be a key focus of national policies, budgets and institutions.

How much progress have we made?

International commitments to advance gender equality have brought about improvements in some areas: child marriage and female genital mutilation (FGM) have declined in recent years, and women’s representation in the political arena is higher than ever before. But the promise of a world in which every woman and girl enjoys full gender equality, and where all legal, social and economic barriers to their empowerment have been removed, remains unfulfilled. In fact, that goal is probably even more distant than before, since women and girls are being hit hard by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Are they any other gender-related challenges?

Yes. Worldwide, nearly half of married women lack decision-making power over their sexual and reproductive health and rights. 35 per cent of women between 15-49 years of age have experienced physical and/ or sexual intimate partner violence or non-partner sexual violence.1 in 3 girls aged 15-19 have experienced some form of female genital mutilation/cutting in the 30 countries in Africa and the Middle East, where the harmful practice is most common with a high risk of prolonged bleeding, infection (including HIV), childbirth complications, infertility and death.

This type of violence doesn’t just harm individual women and girls; it also undermines their overall quality of life and hinders their active involvement in society.

Why should gender equality matter to me?

Regardless of where you live in, gender equality is a fundamental human right. Advancing gender equality is critical to all areas of a healthy society, from reducing poverty to promoting the health, education, protection and the well-being of girls and boys.

What can we do?

If you are a girl, you can stay in school, help empower your female classmates to do the same and fight for your right to access sexual and reproductive health services. If you are a woman, you can address unconscious biases and implicit associations that form an unintended and often an invisible barrier to equal opportunity.

If you are a man or a boy, you can work alongside women and girls to achieve gender equality and embrace healthy, respectful relationships.

You can fund education campaigns to curb cultural practices like female genital mutilation and change harmful laws that limit the rights of women and girls and prevent them from achieving their full potential.

The Spotlight Initiative is an EU/UN partnership, and a global, multi-year initiative focused on eliminating all forms of violence against women and girls – the world’s largest targeted effort to end all forms of violence against women and girls.

Facts and figures

Goal 5 targets.

• With only seven years remaining, a mere 15.4 per cent of Goal 5 indicators with data are “on track”, 61.5 per cent are at a moderate distance and 23.1 per cent are far or very far off track from 2030 targets.
• In many areas, progress has been too slow. At the current rate, it will take an estimated 300 years to end child marriage, 286 years to close gaps in legal protection and remove discriminatory laws, 140 years for women to be represented equally in positions of power and leadership in the workplace, and 47 years to achieve equal representation in national parliaments.
• Political leadership, investments and comprehensive policy reforms are needed to dismantle systemic barriers to achieving Goal 5. Gender equality is a cross-cutting objective and must be a key focus of national policies, budgets and institutions.
• Around 2.4 billion women of working age are not afforded equal economic opportunity. Nearly 2.4 Billion Women Globally Don’t Have Same Economic Rights as Men  
• 178 countries maintain legal barriers that prevent women’s full economic participation. Nearly 2.4 Billion Women Globally Don’t Have Same Economic Rights as Men
• In 2019, one in five women, aged 20-24 years, were married before the age of 18. Girls | UN Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence Against Children

Source: The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023

5.1 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere

5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation

5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation

5.4 Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate

5.5 Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decisionmaking in political, economic and public life

5.6 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences

5.A  Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws

5.B Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women

5.C Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels

He for She campaign

United Secretary-General Campaign UNiTE to End Violence Against Women

Every Woman Every Child Initiative

Spotlight Initiative

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

UN Population Fund: Gender equality

UN Population Fund: Female genital mutilation

UN Population Fund: Child marriage

UN Population Fund: Engaging men & boys

UN Population Fund: Gender-based violence

World Health Organization (WHO)

UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights

UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

UN Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)

UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Gender Statistics

Fast Facts: Gender Equality

Infographic: Gender Equality

The Initiative is so named as it brings focused attention to this issue, moving it into the spotlight and placing it at the centre of efforts to achieve gender equality and women’s empowerment, in line with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

An initial investment in the order of EUR 500 million will be made, with the EU as the main contributor. Other donors and partners will be invited to join the Initiative to broaden its reach and scope. The modality for the delivery will be a UN multi- stakeholder trust fund, administered by the Multi-Partner Trust Fund Office, with the support of core agencies UNDP, UNFPA and UN Women, and overseen by the Executive Office of the UN Secretary-General.

Related news

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113 Gender Roles Essay Topics & Examples

Looking for gender roles essay topics? This field is hot, controversial, and really worth exploring!

• 🔝 Top 10 Gender Topics
• 📝 Gender Essay: Writing Tips
• 🏆 Gender Essay Examples & Topic Ideas

✍️ Gender Argumentative Essay Topics

❓ research questions about gender roles.

In your gender role essay, you might want to focus on the issues of gender equality in the workplace. Another exciting option is to write about gender stereotypes in education. Finally, you can elaborate on how traditional gender roles are changing.

In this article, you’ll find a list of gender argumentative essay topics, ideas for papers on gender and society, as well as top gender roles essay examples.

🔝 Top 10 Gender Roles Topics

• Gender stereotypes and the way they affect people
• Fighting gender stereotypes and sexism
• Gender equality in the workplace
• Gender stereotypes in education
• Gender schema theory
• Is gender socially constructed?
• Social learning theory and gender
• Gender roles and sexual orientation
• Body image and gender
• Social gender construction in the media

📝 Gender Roles Essay: Writing Tips

Essays on gender roles present students’ understanding of the similarities, differences, and aspects of gender roles in society.

Writing gender roles essays helps learners to understand the significance of topics related to gender roles and the changes in societal norms. Students should be highly aware of the problems associated with traditional gender roles. For example, there are many periods in world history, in which people did not have equal rights.

Moreover, some aspects of gender roles may be associated with discrimination. To make an essay on this problem outstanding, you should discuss the problem in detail and present your points clearly. A useful tip is to develop a good structure for your paper.

Before starting to work on the paper, you should select the problem that is most interesting or relevant to you.

Gender roles essay topics and titles may include:

• The history of gender roles and their shifts throughout the time
• Male and female roles in society
• Gender roles in literature and media
• How a man and a woman is perceived in current society
• The causes and outcomes of gender discrimination
• The problem of ‘glass ceiling’
• The problem of social stratification and its outcomes
• The revolution in the concept of gender

After selecting the issue for discussion, you can start working on the essay’s structure. Here are some useful tips on how to structure your paper:

• Select the topic you want to discuss (you can choose one from the list above). Remember to pay attention to the type of essay you should write. If it is an argumentative essay, reflect on what problem you would want to analyze from opposing perspectives.
• Gender roles essay titles are important because they can help you to get the reader’s attention. Think of something simple but self-explanatory.
• An introductory paragraph is necessary, as it will present the questions you want to discuss in the paper. Remember to state the thesis of your essay in this section.
• Think of your gender roles essay prompts. Which aspects of the selected problem do you want to focus on? Dedicate a separate section for each of the problems.
• Remember to include a refutation section if you are writing an argumentative essay. In this section, you should discuss an alternative perspective on the topic in 1-2 paragraphs. Do not forget to outline why your opinion is more credible than the alternative one.
• Avoid making the paragraphs and sentences too long. You can stick to a 190 words maximum limit for one paragraph. At the same time, make sure that the paragraphs are longer than 65 words. Try to make all sections of the body paragraphs of similar length.
• Check out examples online to see how you can structure your paper and organize the information. Pay attention to the number of paragraphs other students include.
• Remember to include a gender roles essay conclusion. In this paragraph, you will discuss the most important claims of your paper.
• Do not forget to add a reference page in which you will include the sources used in the paper. Ask your professor in advance about the types of literature you can utilize for the essay.

Do not forget that there are free samples on our website that can help you to get the best ideas for your essay!

🏆 Gender Roles Essay Examples & Topic Ideas

• Gender Roles in Antigone Essay This will be seen through an analysis of the other characters in the play and the values of ancient Greeks. Indeed this central character appears to be at odds with the inclinations of the other […]
• Conflict of Gender Roles in Munro’s “Boys and Girls” Munro’s “Boys and Girls” is a story about a puzzled girl who struggles to find the balance between the battles of her inner female-housewife side, like her mother, and a boyish character who likes to […]
• Gender Roles in “The Glass Menagerie” by Tennessee Williams In the play The Glass Menagerie, Tennessee Williams has written the story of the Wingfield family that lived in St Louis during the 1940s.
• Gender Roles Set in Stone: Prehistoric and Ancient Work of Arts In the prehistoric and ancient works of art, the representation of women and men reveals a massive imbalance in gender equity that favors men over women.
• Gender Roles and Stereotyping in Education Teachers should be trained to give clear and useful instruction to students on the issue of gender roles in modern society.
• Gender Roles: Changes From the Late 1800’s to Today The definition of who is a male or a female depends on the types of gender roles one was exposed to during the early ages. In today’s society, we have a greater number of women […]
• Athena and Gender Roles in Greek Mythology According to Eicher and Roach-Higgins, the elements of her dress were important because they immediately communicated specific ideas about her character that was as contradictory as the physical gender of the birthing parent.”In appropriating the […]
• Gender Roles in “Bridge to Terabithia” by Paterson The theme of gender roles is consistently present in the novel, starting with character origins and becoming the central concept as they mature to defy archetypal perceptions of feminine and masculine expectations in order to […]
• Gender Roles and Family Systems in Hispanic Culture In the Hispanic culture, amarianismo’ and amachismo’ are the terms used to determine the various behavioral expectations among the family members.
• Gender Roles in the 19th Century Society: Charlotte Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper However, the narrator’s developing madness can also act as the symbolical depiction of the effects of the men’s dominance on women and the female suppression in the 19th-century society.”The Yellow Wallpaper” was first published in […]
• Gender Roles in Society One might think that a child is born with the idea of how to behave in relation to gender while in the real sense; it is the cultivation of the society that moulds people to […]
• Gender Roles in The Yellow Wallpaper & Trifles The two texts; the short story ‘The Yellow Wallpaper’ by Charlotte Perkins and the play ‘Trifles’ by Susan Glaspell strategically illustrate this claim since they both aim at attracting the reader’s attention to the poor […]
• Gender Roles in Brady’s “Why I Want a Wife” and Sacks’ “Stay-at-Home Dads” Yet, there are some distinctions Judy Brady believes that women are often viewed as unpaid house servants who have to take care of husbands’ needs, whereas Glenn Sacks argues that gender roles begin to transform […]
• Gender roles in the Wind in the Willows For instance, in the case where both the mole and the rat make comments to the toad that are full of women critics.
• Gender Roles Inversion: The Madonna Phenomenon At the same time partial narrowing of the gender gap in the context of economic participation did not lead to the equality of men and women in the field of their occupations.
• Gender Roles in Social Constructionism The reality, in the view of sociologists, is a social attitude in connection with which a personality is formed that adapts to the requirements of the world.
• Women’s Gender Roles in American Literature The stories written by Constance Woolson Fenimore, Mary Wilkins Freeman, and Jaqueline Bishop highlight the harmful gender roles and discrimination that still remains a major topic for disputes and illustrate the fate of oppressed women.
• Gender Roles in Toy Stores According to Fisher-Thompson et al, two of the major differentiating factors in toys for girls and boys are color and nature.
• Fashions, gender roles and social views of the 1950s and 1960s Fashion was highly valued and this can be seen in the way the clothes worn by the wives of the presidential candidates in America hit the headlines. In the 1950s, the role of housekeeping and […]
• The Concepts of Gender Roles and Sexuality by John Money and Judith Butler These categories of feminists are united in the belief of existence of many children and little sex. This paper explains the concepts and ideologies relating to gender roles and sexuality.as advocated by John Money and […]
• Gender Roles and Body Image in Disney Movies In this research, attention will be paid to gender roles and body images of Disney princesses to understand the popularity of the franchise and its impact on child development.
• Cohabitation and Division of Gender Roles in a Couple Cohabitation is perceived in the society as the form of relationships which is an effective alternative to the traditional marriage because of focusing on the principles of flexibility, freedom, and equality, but few couples can […]
• Changing Gender Roles in Families Over Time The division of labor and traditional gender roles in the family usually consists of men doing the work while women take care of the children, other relatives, and housekeeping.
• China’s Gender Roles in Mo Yan’s and Shen Fu’s Works Six Records of a Floating Life is a multi-faceted chronicle which helps to comprehend the difficulties and the features of Shen Fu’s life and the romance between him and his beloved Chen Yun.
• Gender Roles in Brady’s and Theroux’s Works In the satire “Being a Man” by Paul Theroux, the author demonstrates to readers the essence of how a particular manifestation of masculinity is extolled in American society.
• Aspects of Gender Roles and Identity The breadth of her practice in transgender issues suggests that every choice Bowers makes is ethical, requiring her to be respectful and highly responsible.
• Gender Roles, Expectations, and Discrimination Despite Isaac being the calmest boy in the school, he had a crush on Grace, a beautiful girl in the school who was from a wealthy family.
• Gender Roles and Stereotypes in Straightlaced Film One might conclude that gender neutrality and abstraction in offices are only a cover to maintain the basis of gender injustice.
• Biology and Gender Roles in Society Thus, it may be more convenient for society to justify the imposition of certain gender roles on men and women using biology-related arguments, which, in reality, are more related to culture and social development.
• Children’s Views of Gender Roles Today, both parents and teachers see the positive impact of the attempts to integrate anti-biased gender-related education on young children as they get more freedom to express themselves and grow up less aggressive.
• The Construction of Gender Roles However, it is wrong to consider women exposed to the domestic work powerless, as they have the opportunity to informally or implicitly influence men and the decisions they make.
• Sociology of the Family: Gender Roles Thus, the societal predisposition and notion that women are lesser in the community should be abandoned, and greater emphasis should be placed on the critical functions they perform in the household. These assertions, equivocations, and […]
• Femininity and Masculinity: Understanding Gender Roles The understanding of how gender roles are portrayed in the media and the general perception of the expected behavior for men and women communicated non-verbally in the society is the basis on which children build […]
• Injustice Within Strict Gender Roles There is still no clear answer to how a person can find his or her destiny and place in the world, and understand the opportunities and prospects, considering the opinion of the dominant number of […]
• Gender Roles and How People Perceive Them However, all of the survey participants indicated that their families would be inclined to differentiate between the toys for a child based on the latter’s sex and the corresponding perceived gender role.
• Gender Roles: From Prehistoric Era to Modern Society Since each gender was assigned a particular role in the past due to the differences in the biological makeup between a man and a woman in the prehistoric era, the modern process of communication between […]
• Gender Roles in TV Commercials and Values in the Society Each of them will watch, code, and analyze the TV commercials separately; at the end of the procedure, their results will be compared in order to ensure the inter-observer reliability of the chosen research method.
• Gender Roles in Contemporary Society The conditions of life are tough and it is presumed that only men are able to carry out such hardships and limitations of a soldier life.
• Gender Roles in ‘Mr. Green’ by Robert Olen Butler Green Butler uses the character of the grandfather to develop the theme of gender roles within the culture. The character of the grandfather is extremely sound for the cultural beliefs the author conveyed through all […]
• Culture and History: Gender Roles Over the Past 50 or So Years It is not that there were no women in the workforce; it was just that she had to choose one over the other, juggling the two was quite rare and unheard of.
• Gender Roles and Sexuality in Media: Cosmopolitan & Maxim The woman portrayed in these sites is supposed to look ‘hot’ and sexy in order to be attractive to a man.
• The Problem of Gender Roles in Society Based on Plays by Glaspell and Ibsen The men in the play are constantly showing their self-importance, they are trying to act like real detectives, and they do not even realize that Mrs. But, all of a sudden, the moment of repaying […]
• Social Element in Gender Roles I learned of the origins of gay and lesbian studies, as well that of the confining of such studies in earlier times to specific institutions.
• Equality: The Use of TV to Develop Our Gender Roles In this sense, when it is the men who predominantly work outside of the home, they will usually see the home as a place of leisure and so use the TV as a source of […]
• Family Unit and Gender Roles in Society and Market The role of molding the infant into an adult belonged to the family in the ancient society. In the past, the father was expected to be the breadwinner of the family.
• Gender Roles and Social Classes in Wartime The message is as simple as “The women of Britain say ‘Go.’” It points to the role of both men and women in wartime.
• The Necessity for Gender Roles The potential change from the elimination of the differences in gender may affect every perceived part of one’s life. Such factors as one’s occupation, status, and appearance may also contribute to the creation of stereotypes.
• Changing Gender Roles Between Boys and Girls In the twenty-first Century, girls have greatly stepped up and assumed some of the roles that were considered to be boy’s while boys have done the same leading to an interchange of roles.
• Nomadic Society’s Gender Roles and Warrior Culture On the one hand, it was clear that the 1100s and the 1200s included the period of male power. It was wrong to assume that all women were similar and treat them in the same […]
• “Beside Oneself” by Judith Butler: Gender Roles Following the views of the author, who states that choice in the formation of gender and sexuality is not transparent, and a key role is still played by others in the form of expectations and […]
• Gender Roles in Couples and Sex Stereotypes Altogether, the last reconsiderations of the nature of relations promoted the appearance of numerous debates related to the role of partners and their right to be the leader.
• Gender Roles in South Korean Laws and Society At the same time, all custody is traditionally granted to husbands and fathers in a case of a divorce” though the anxiety about the high divorce rate and the nasty endings of relationships is more […]
• Understanding the Social Element in Gender Roles When saying that gender is a binary construction, one implies that there are two genders, namely, the masculine and the feminine one, and two corresponding types of social behaviour, which are predetermined by the existing […]
• Gender Roles in Tango: Cultural Aspects However, one should not assume that the role of women in tango is inferior because they create the most aesthetic aspects of this dance.
• Discussing Gender Roles in the Interaction Perspective It is the purpose of this issue to discuss the concept of gender roles using the sociological perspective of symbolic interaction.
• Women in Hip-Hop Music: A Provocative and Objectified Gender Roles It is one thing that men want women to be in music videos and play a particular role, but women are willing to participate in the videos.
• Content Analysis of Gender Roles in Media In the critical analysis of the article, the point of disagreement is that of under-representation of women in the media. How do the media subordinate and relegate roles of women in society?
• Effects of Media Messages about Gender Roles Media articles, such as the Maxim Magazine and the Cosmopolitan Magazine, socialize individuals to believe that women are very different from men as regards to dressing, behaving, and eating.
• The Change of Gender Roles This similarity is one of the most important to focus on the structure of the narrative. In both plays, the main actions of the characters are not directly described by the authors.
• Gender Equality: Male Dominance The simple reason is that gender inequality exists in affluent societies wherein women are free to do what they want, have access to education, and have the capacity to create wealth.
• “The Odd Women” and “Women in Love”: Evolving Views of Gender Roles An effort is also made to track the changes of the roles of women in the social fabric in the Victorian era by considering The Odd Women by George Gissing written in 1893.
• Gender Roles: Constructing Gender Identity In the course of the twentieth century and at the threshold of the twenty-first century, the images and roles of gender have constantly been changing.
• Analysis of the Peculiarities of Gender Roles Within Education, Families and Student Communities Peculiarities of gender aspect within the education system and labour market Attitude for marriage of men and women as one of the major aspects within the analysis of gender roles Family relations as a significant […]
• Ideology of Gender Roles In the world of literature, ideology has played a vital role in depicting the condition of the society. In this scenario, Kingston reveals that the men out-live their roles in the society, and they are […]
• Concepts of Gender Roles As a result of these, the war on gender inequality and sexism has failed, because of the failure of these agents of change to promote gender equality and eliminate discriminative notions held by the society.
• Gender Roles in the United States Over the Last Century The men’s perception towards this idea was negative, and this consequently resulted to a conflict with the men claiming that the roles of the women were in the kitchen.
• Gender Roles by Margaret Mead Once the a rift defining men and women develops this way, it goes further and defines the positions, which men and women occupy in the society, basing on these physical and biological differences, which form […]
• Cheating, Gender Roles, and the Nineteenth-Century Croquet Craze The author’s main thesis is, “Yet was this, in fact, how the game was played on the croquet lawns of the nineteenth century?” Whereas authors of croquet manuals and magazines emphasize so much on the […]
• Gender Roles in Cartoons Though the males are portrayed to be logical, but it is shown that the females are more successful because of simple blunders or miscalculations which males fail to understand, females are able to beat males […]
• The Industrial Revolution Impact on the Gender Roles The population growth combined with the increased productivity of small parts of the country and the migration of the now landless people in search of work opportunities led to the phenomena of urbanization.
• How Does Aristophanes Represent Gender Roles in Lysistrata?
• Are Gender Roles and Relationships More Equal in Modern Family Life?
• How Do Children Develop Gender Roles?
• Does Men’s Fashion Reflect Changes in Male Gender Roles?
• How Did Colonialism Resonate With Gender Roles and Oppression?
• Are Gender Roles Damaging Society?
• How Did Revolutions Affect Gender Roles?
• Are Gender Roles Defined by Society or by Genetics?
• How Have Family Structure and Gender Roles Changed?
• Are Gender Roles Fluid When Dealing With Death and Tragedy?
• How Do Gender Roles Affect Communication?
• Are Gender Roles Natural?
• How Do Gender Roles Affect Immigrants?
• Are Gender Stereotyped Roles Correct?
• How Do Gender Roles Affect the Physical and Emotional Health?
• Have Gender Roles Played a Big Part in the History?
• How Do Gender Roles and Extroversion Effects How Much People Talk?
• What Are Gender Roles? How Are They Defined?
• How Are Gender Roles Predetermined by the Environment?
• What Drives the Gender Wage Gap?
• How Has Gender Roles Changed Over the Last Centuries?
• What Factors Influence Gender Roles?
• How Have Gender Roles in Japanese Theatre Influenced and Affected Societal View on Homosexuality and Masculinity?
• What Society Norms for Gender Roles Should Be Conceived?
• How Have Traditional Gender Roles Been Stressful?
• What Was Distinctive About Gender Roles in the Nineteenth Century?
• How Has Hegemonic Masculinity Set Ideas of Gender Roles?
• How Do Media and Politics Influence Gender Roles?
• Where Does the Truth on Gender Roles Lie in Nahua and Mayan Civilizations?
• How Radical Are the Changes to the Gender Roles in Carter’s “The Company of Wolves”?
• Masculinity Topics
• Social Stratification Essay Titles
• Sexism Essay Ideas
• Women’s Movement Questions
• Feminism Questions
• Cultural Relativism Questions
• Domestic Violence Paper Topics
• Sociological Perspectives Titles
• Chicago (A-D)
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TOP 100 Gender Equality Essay Topics

Table of Contents

Need ideas for argumentative essay on gender inequality? We’ve got a bunch!

… But let’s start off with a brief intro.

What is gender equality?

Equality between the sexes is a huge part of basic human rights. It means that men and women have the same opportunities to fulfil their potential in all spheres of life.

Today, we still face inequality issues as there is a persistent gap in access to opportunities for men and women.

Women have less access to decision-making and higher education. They constantly face obstacles at the workplace and have greater safety risks. Maintaining equal rights for both sexes is critical for meeting a wide range of goals in global development.

Inequality between the sexes is an interesting area to study so high school, college, and university students are often assigned to write essays on gender topics.

In this article, we are going to discuss the key peculiarities of gender equality essay. Besides, we have created a list of the best essay topic ideas.

What is the specifics of gender equality essay?

Equality and inequality between the sexes are important historical and current social issues which impact the way students and their families live. They are common topics for college papers in psychology, sociology, gender studies.

When writing an essay on equality between the sexes, you need to argue for a strong point of view and support your argument with relevant evidence gathered from multiple sources.

But first, you’d need to choose a good topic which is neither too broad nor too narrow to research.

Research is crucial for the success of your essay because you should develop a strong argument based on an in-depth study of various scholarly sources.

Equality between sexes is a complex problem. You have to consider different aspects and controversial points of view on specific issues, show your ability to think critically, develop a strong thesis statement, and build a logical argument, which can make a great impression on your audience.

If you are looking for interesting gender equality essay topics, here you will find a great list of 100 topic ideas for writing essays and research papers on gender issues in contemporary society.

Should you find that some topics are too broad, feel free to narrow them down.

Powerful gender equality essay topics

Here are the top 25 hottest topics for your argumentative opinion paper on gender issues.

Whether you are searching for original creative ideas for gender equality in sports essay or need inspiration for gender equality in education essay, we’ve got you covered.

Use imagination and creativity to demonstrate your approach.

• Analyze gender-based violence in different countries
• Compare wage gap between the sexes in different countries
• Explain the purpose of gender mainstreaming
• Implications of sex differences in the human brain
• How can we teach boys and girls that they have equal rights?
• Discuss gender-neutral management practices
• Promotion of equal opportunities for men and women in sports
• What does it mean to be transgender?
• Discuss the empowerment of women
• Why is gender-blindness a problem for women?
• Why are girls at greater risk of sexual violence and exploitation?
• Women as victims of human trafficking
• Analyze the glass ceiling in management
• Impact of ideology in determining relations between sexes
• Obstacles that prevent girls from getting quality education in African countries
• Why are so few women in STEM?
• Major challenges women face at the workplace
• How do women in sport fight for equality?
• Women, sports, and media institutions
• Contribution of women in the development of the world economy
• Role of gender diversity in innovation and scientific discovery
• What can be done to make cities safer for women and girls?
• International trends in women’s empowerment
• Role of schools in teaching children behaviours considered appropriate for their sex
• Feminism on social relations uniting women and men as groups

Gender roles essay topics

We can measure the equality of men and women by looking at how both sexes are represented in a range of different roles. You don’t have to do extensive and tiresome research to come up with gender roles essay topics, as we have already done it for you.

Have a look at this short list of top-notch topic ideas .

• Are paternity and maternity leaves equally important for babies?
• Imagine women-dominated society and describe it
• Sex roles in contemporary western societies
• Compare theories of gender development
• Adoption of sex-role stereotyped behaviours
• What steps should be taken to achieve gender-parity in parenting?
• What is gender identity?
• Emotional differences between men and women
• Issues modern feminism faces
• Sexual orientation and gender identity
• Benefits of investing in girls’ education
• Patriarchal attitudes and stereotypes in family relationships
• Toys and games of girls and boys
• Roles of men and women in politics
• Compare career opportunities for both sexes in the military
• Women in the US military
• Academic careers and sex equity
• Should men play larger roles in childcare?
• Impact of an ageing population on women’s economic welfare
• Historical determinants of contemporary differences in sex roles
• Gender-related issues in gaming
• Culture and sex-role stereotypes in advertisements
• What are feminine traits?
• Sex role theory in sociology
• Causes of sex differences and similarities in behaviour

Gender inequality research paper topics

Examples of inequality can be found in the everyday life of different women in many countries across the globe. Our gender inequality research paper topics are devoted to different issues that display discrimination of women throughout the world.

Choose any topic you like, research it, brainstorm ideas, and create a detailed gender inequality essay outline before you start working on your first draft.

Start off with making a debatable thesis, then write an engaging introduction, convincing main body, and strong conclusion for gender inequality essay .

• Aspects of sex discrimination
• Main indications of inequality between the sexes
• Causes of sex discrimination
• Inferior role of women in the relationships
• Sex differences in education
• Can education solve issues of inequality between the sexes?
• Impact of discrimination on early childhood development
• Why do women have limited professional opportunities in sports?
• Gender discrimination in sports
• Lack of women having leadership roles
• Inequality between the sexes in work-family balance
• Top factors that impact inequality at a workplace
• What can governments do to close the gender gap at work?
• Sex discrimination in human resource processes and practices
• Gender inequality in work organizations
• Factors causing inequality between men and women in developing countries
• Work-home conflict as a symptom of inequality between men and women
• Why are mothers less wealthy than women without children?
• Forms of sex discrimination in a contemporary society
• Sex discrimination in the classroom
• Justification of inequality in American history
• Origins of sex discrimination
• Motherhood and segregation in labour markets
• Sex discrimination in marriage
• Can technology reduce sex discrimination?

Most controversial gender topics

Need a good controversial topic for gender stereotypes essay? Here are some popular debatable topics concerning various gender problems people face nowadays.

They are discussed in scientific studies, newspaper articles, and social media posts. If you choose any of them, you will need to perform in-depth research to prepare an impressive piece of writing.

• How do gender misconceptions impact behaviour?
• Most common outdated sex-role stereotypes
• How does gay marriage influence straight marriage?
• Explain the role of sexuality in sex-role stereotyping
• Role of media in breaking sex-role stereotypes
• Discuss the dual approach to equality between men and women
• Are women better than men or are they equal?
• Sex-role stereotypes at a workplace
• Racial variations in gender-related attitudes
• Role of feminism in creating the alternative culture for women
• Feminism and transgender theory
• Gender stereotypes in science and education
• Are sex roles important for society?
• Future of gender norms
• How can we make a better world for women?
• Are men the weaker sex?
• Beauty pageants and women’s empowerment
• Are women better communicators?
• What are the origins of sexual orientation?
• Should prostitution be legal?
• Pros and cons of being a feminist
• Advantages and disadvantages of being a woman
• Can movies defy gender stereotypes?
• Sexuality and politics

Feel free to use these powerful topic ideas for writing a good college-level gender equality essay or as a starting point for your study.

No time to do decent research and write your top-notch paper? No big deal! Choose any topic from our list and let a pro write the essay for you!

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Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Gender Roles — Gender Roles In Society

Gender Roles in Society

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Published: Mar 13, 2024

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Gender Literacy: Learning strategies for identifying societal gender "rules" and discerning one's own beliefs and values.

Gendered narratives in society  are absolutely everywhere and touch almost every aspect of our lives. Not only do these messages tell us that gender is determined by our genitals, they also insist that we ought to act certain ways based on what ours happens to look like (for example: men have to be strong and emotionless, while women have to be delicate and submissive, and so forth). These are called gender roles, and they can be particularly distressing to people who identity as TGNC. This is because being a TGNC person inherently conflicts with these narratives, and the cost for not following them often turns out to be forms of stigma and discrimination.

Because of a range of factors  (generational differences, family dynamics, geographical location, for example), the ways in which we internalize these gendered narratives may differ. Gender Literacy focuses on developing the awareness and skill sets to critically think about socially  constructed embedded gendered narratives.

This is where Gender Literacy comes in , which is all about developing the awareness and skill set to critically think about these gendered narratives. Being “gender literate” means being able to name these gender “rules” while at the same time being aware of what can happen if you don’t follow them. If we can externalize these rules instead of internalizing them, we can more easily decide if we want to adhere to them or not. We can develop a critical conscious towards aspects of toxic masculinity and recognize how femininity is often required and devalued at the same time.

We believe that gender literacy  is a part of building resiliency because being able to validate your own identity amongst negative gendered narratives can help support the development of a positive self-image and healthy and effective coping strategies.

Gender literacy is also about  helping people to see that sex assigned birth doesn’t define your gender identity, gender expression, or your sexual orientation. Being gender literate means that you can take your subjective experience of each of these pieces, and put them together in a way that works for your own, integrated self.

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Gender and Literacy

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This article reviews the ways in which gender and literacy have been linked in educational contexts, and the different patterns of intervention this has led to. In particular it will highlight the switch in the literature from a focus on the formation of (girls') gendered identities to a focus on (boys') gendered patterns of attainment within the literacy curriculum. The emergence of boys’ underachievement in literacy as a policy problem will be linked to the current dominance of performance‐management cultures within governments, and the accompanying processes of large‐scale education reform which they have led to around the globe. Often such interventions are designed with the aim of securing maximum homogeneity in outcomes from education. This provides a new context in which to consider the range of social explanations for inequalities in educational performance, their currency, and the challenges this new more managerial landscape in education poses for a feminist...

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The Persistence of Gender Bias in Student Evaluations of Teaching: The Role of Gender Stereotypes

• Oshrit Kaspi Baruch
• Published in Journal of Academic Ethics 5 June 2024
• Education, Sociology, Psychology

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Gender Roles in Literature: Guide & Examples

Wouldn’t it be great if people of all genders could enjoy equal rights? When reading stories from the past, we can realize how far we’ve made since the dawn of feminism. Books that deal with the theme of gender inspire us to keep fighting for equality.

In this article, our custom-writing team will.

• define gender as a theme;
• examine the representation of women in literary works;
• present the top 20 gender-related essay topics.
• ♀️ ♂️ Gender in Literature
• 👩 Representation of Women
• The Yellow Wallpaper
• To Kill a Mockingbird
• ✍️ Essay Topics

🔍 References

♀️♂️ gender in literature: definition.

In literature, gender refers to how authors and characters define themselves and how society evaluates them based on their gender. Sex, gender, and sexuality shape narrative texts and readers’ understanding of them in many ways.

Gender Roles in Society

Gender roles serve as individual codes of behavior determined by societal expectations of different sexes. It’s important to understand that sex , gender , and sexuality are not the same thing:

• Sex is a biological concept determined by primary sex characteristics.
• Gender refers to the identities, values, and roles which individuals ascribe to different sexes.
• Sexuality refers to the orientation of desire towards a particular sex.

Strict gender roles resulted in a system that privileged straight white men over other categories of people. It affected individuals’ access to education, financial support, and career. Eventually, feminism has emerged worldwide to advocate for political, economic, social, and personal equality of all genders.

Gender Roles in Literature

Literature is a powerful instrument that allows authors to either reinforce or subvert gender roles specific to one time and place.

In the past, certain books negatively affected individuals’ perception of themselves in several ways:

Due to these factors, literature served as a backdrop for the emerging of gender criticism . This field of study had a significant impact on how people perceived gender roles.

Gender criticism is an extension of literary criticism, focusing on how cultures use symbols to define and impose the traits of a particular gender on a person. Here are some of the things that it addresses:

• Gendered language. For example, it includes using masculine pronouns (he, him, his) to refer to people in general. This tendency occurred as a result of the historical patriarchy where being a man was a norm, and a woman was marked as “the other.”
• Choice of characters . Male characters often took the leading role, establishing their masculinity and physical power. Female characters had to accept authority without any choice of freedom and independence.
• Perception of the author’s gender . Men writers had a serious advantage in telling their own stories. In contrast, women’s writing was considered immoral, treated with bias, and harshly criticized. As a result, they had to publish under male pseudonyms to have a chance of professional acceptance among writers.

Gender Stereotyping in Literature

Literature had a significant impact on the promotion of gender stereotypes. For a long time, history books only contained biographies of men and ignored stories of women. As female authors were rare, most books that featured women put them in stereotypical roles.

Analysis of such texts can help us single out several categories of female stereotyping :

Gender stereotyping also led to a limited view of masculinity in literature . This, in turn, had a negative impact on how society raised boys. Men were often portrayed as dominant, authoritative, competitive, and aggressive. This depiction put a lot of pressure on men and prohibited a wide range of emotional expression.

Reverse Gender Roles in Literature

In an age when men were expected to be strong and decisive, and women passive and submissive, Shakespeare raises questions about the standard portrayal of genders. In his play Macbeth , he makes a submissive man and his dominant wife the two main antiheroes. He depicts two people who are unwilling to accommodate themselves to society’s expectations.

Shakespeare merged femininity and masculinity in his characters to show that people of each gender could possess both sets of traits. Modern literature has a more liberated approach to the subversion of gender roles, taking cues from Shakespeare and other great authors.

👩 Representation of Women in Literature

In the following sections, we will discuss how the representation of female characters in literature has evolved throughout history. We will also look into examples of how women authors were marginalized by the era in which they were living. Their vision and courage had a significant impact on the literary world and beyond.

Women in Medieval Literature

Throughout the Medieval period, women were treated as second-class citizens, and their needs were largely ignored. Despite the suppression, many literary works included women characters.

If we analyze literary texts from that period, we will find common female archetypes of medieval society. Here are some of the most prominent ones:

• The Virgin is a pure woman whose primary function is to get married.
• The Mother is a woman who does everything to support her children and her man.
• The Witch is a wise, non-conforming, or unusually beautiful woman who is punished for her “otherness.”
• The Whore is a woman considered lower than men, deviant, and unworthy of having a job.

One of the examples of an archetypal female character in medieval literature is Grendel’s mother from Beowulf . She subverts society’s ideals by protecting her son, who is a foe of humankind.

Women in Gothic Literature

Gothic authors allowed female characters to break free of stereotypical constraints. It also helped to add depth and suspense to a plot. There are two prominent female roles in Gothic literature: a predator and a victim .

• The predator is dangerous yet powerfully attractive. According to an article on Research Gate, this role is connected to pain/pleasure paradox in Gothic literature , which is the endless search for happiness that prevents one from obtaining it.
• The victim is vulnerable and fragile. This role gives the male heroes someone to save. Women who fill this role are often able to sympathize with monsters.

Gothic writers often blurred the line between the two types. Usually, they did it to show the tragedy of women trapped in their gender roles. For example,  The Yellow Wallpaper  by Charlotte Perkins Gilman is a story about female madness caused by patriarchal oppression.  

Many gothic women writers were able to portray domestic entrapment and female sexuality in interesting and expressive ways. Authors such as the Bronte sisters, Mary Shelley, and Ann Radcliffe played a central part in popularizing women’s writing. 

Strong Women in Literature

World literature has given us a variety of strong female characters. These fictional women took a radical stance for themselves and broke through the conventional boundaries of gender. Have a look at the examples of literature’s most inspiring women below:

Black Women in Literature

Black women writers first appeared in 1859 as a part of a general renaissance of black literature. Writing became a way to voice their rejection of slavery and racism, as well as their claim to freedom and equality.

In the mid-1800s, Harriet Jacobs’  Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl  became an early example of a black woman’s strength over oppression. In the 20 th  century, a growing number of black women artists emerged throughout the civil rights movement of the 1960s.  

Black women’s literature inspired many people worldwide and had a major impact on the consciousness of African-American women. Toni Morrison’s slave novel Beloved became the most influential work of African-American literature of the late 20th century. Maya Angelou’s memoir I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings inspired generations of 21 st -century women writers.

📚 Gender Roles in Literature: Examples

In the following sections, we will unravel some examples of traditional gender roles from famous literary works. This analysis will help you examine your understanding of masculinity and femininity from a different angle.

Gender & Feminism in The Yellow Wallpaper

Charlotte Gilman’s gothic tale The Yellow Wallpaper was an early feminist indictment of Victorian Patriarchy. The author gives an account of a woman driven to madness by a Victorian “rest-cure.” According to the article from The Conversation, “rest-cures” were periods of inactivity prescribed to women with nervous conditions. This therapy was prescribed to Charlotte Gilman herself.

Although the autobiographical aspect of The Yellow Wallpaper is compelling, it is the symbolism that adds a lot of meaning to the story. The narrator’s husband puts his “hysteric” wife in a nursery room with yellow wallpapers. Charlotte Gilman uses the analogy of entrapment to critique the position of women within the institution of marriage.

All in all, the constraints placed upon the narrator by her husband are what drove her insane. She is forced to become passive and repress her emotional state. The protagonist has no choice but to retreat into her obsessive fantasy—the only place she can control.

If you found this topic interesting, you can learn more from our article on themes in The Yellow Wallpaper .

The Yellow Wallpaper: Gender Roles Quotes

Let’s look at the examples of some powerful quotes from the short story. They reflect the helplessness of a woman deprived of authority to execute her will:

I suppose I shall have to get back behind the pattern when John does not know how much I really suffer. He knows there is no REASON to suffer, and that satisfies him. It comes night, and that is hard! ( The Yellow Wallpaper)

So I take phosphates or phosphites—whichever it is, and tonics, and journeys, and air, and exercise, and am absolutely forbidden to “work” until I am well again. Personally, I disagree with their ideas. ( The Yellow Wallpaper)

It is so pleasant to be out in this great room and creep around as I please! ( The Yellow Wallpaper)

Theme of Gender in Othello

In his famous play Othello, Shakespeare juxtaposes female and male characters to expose the negative impact of gender stereotypes. Othello is a noble military general whose jealousy and anxiety get him to kill his wife and then himself.

The theme of Shakespeare’s play stems from men’s misunderstanding of women and women’s inability to protect themselves from society’s judgment. Othello kills his wife Desdemona because of the false rumors about her unfaithfulness. These rumors are spread by Iago—a misogynist jealous of Othello’s relationship with Desdemona. The Moor’s failure to trust his innocent and loving wife and identify his deceiver is what destroys him.

But what was the actual source of Othello’s anxieties? Society of that time believed that men with traditionally feminine characteristics such as empathy and trust were weak. Othello possessed these qualities, and it made him a victim of his own insecurity. He is an example of toxic masculinity—a man who was destroyed by the true nature of patriarchy.

Gender is only one of the play’s many fascinating topics. If you want to learn more about them, check out our article on themes in Othello .

Othello Quotes on Gender

Here are a few meaningful quotes from Othello for you to analyze and see what toxic masculinity is all about:

Reputation, reputation, reputation! Oh, I have lost my reputation! I have lost the immortal part of myself, and what remains is bestial. ( Othello, Act 2 Scene 3)

Men in rage strike those that wish them best. ( Othello, Act 2 Scene 3)

O curse of marriage, that we can call these delicate creatures ours And not their appetites! I had rather be a toad And live upon the vapor of a dungeon Than keep a corner in the thing I love For others’ uses. Yet ’tis the plague of great ones; Prerogatived are they less than the base. ’Tis destiny unshunnable, like death. ( Othello Act 3 Scene 3)

Gender Roles in To Kill a Mockingbird

Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird is a story about a wrongly accused black man and a lawyer confronting racial injustice. It also focused on the journey of a girl named Scout who challenges gender stereotypes and wants to be a tomboy.

Harper Lee explores the overcomplicated social hierarchy of the American South through differences in status. The rigid social divisions led to a man being falsely accused of rape because of the color of his skin.

In this setting, society dictates what’s suitable for each gender. As a result, people rarely cross the barrier between masculinity and femininity. Scout Finch rejects the feminine in her because she wants to grow up on her own terms. She sees femininity as a trap and believes that masculinity doesn’t have as many rules. Scout’s view of femininity changes when she learns that being a woman takes just as much courage as being a man.

Gender Quotes from To Kill a Mockingbird

If you were thinking about checking out To Kill a Mockingbird , here are the most famous quotes on gender that will inspire you to read it:

[Calpurnia] seemed glad to see me when I appeared in the kitchen, and by watching her I began to think there was some skill involved in being a girl. ( To Kill a Mockingbird, Chapter 12)

I felt the starched walls of a pink cotton penitentiary closing in on me, and for the second time in my life I thought of running away. ( To Kill a Mockingbird, Chapter 14)

I was not so sure, but Jem told me I was being a girl, that girls always imagined things, that’s why other people hated them so, and if I started behaving like one I could just go off and find some to play with. ( To Kill a Mockingbird, Chapter 4)

✍️ Gender Essay Topics & Questions

If you have a task to write a paper on a gender-related matter, this list of topics will be helpful for you. Check out the following list and find a topic that will interest you the most:

• Role of educational institutions in teaching children appropriate gender behaviors .
• Gender inequality in academic careers.
• Is gender natural or acquired?
• Women in the US military.
• Gender parity in parenting .
• Sex roles in contemporary western societies.
• Feminism as a uniting power for all genders.
• What does it mean to be transgender?
• Men and depression.
• Gender equality in Disney animation movies.
• Social status of women and men in ancient Athens.
• The roles of a mother and a father throughout history.
• Should gender equality be taught in elementary schools? 
• The future of gender norms .
• Women in today’s sports. 
• How are the concepts of masculinity and femininity defined in modern society?
• Gender-neutral schools in Sweden.
• Would humanity be more developed if gender stereotypes never existed?
• Gender norms in dating.
• Sexism in the perception of emotions. 

Thank you for reading our guide! We hope you enjoyed looking at the importance of gender equality through the prism of literature. Feel free to share your thoughts and ideas with us in the comments section below.

❓ Gender in Literature FAQ

The way authors represent boy and girl characters in children’s literature can influence a child’s identity. Many fairy tales contain gender stereotyping towards masculinity and femininity, while modern children’s literature often subverts gender.

Shakespeare portrays men and women as deriving power from different sources. Men in Macbeth gain control through political and military means, while women do it through manipulation. He portrays women as the force behind all the events that lead men to gain or lose control.

Jane Austen suggests that fundamental differences between gender roles are due to the different social expectations and opportunities for men and women. Women have to remain passive, while men can earn money and have power and mobility.

Lorraine Hansberry explores the controversial side of abortion, marriage, and limiting gender roles for women and men. Each of the Youngers takes a different attitude towards shifting gender roles but finds something that unites them all by the end of the play.

Sylvia Plath’s  The Bell Jar  presents a complex portrait of what it means to be a woman in 1950s America. Women were born to be housewives and mothers. They had to devote their energy to their husbands. They had no sexual freedom and no chance to pursue a professional career.

• Feminist Criticism: Writing Commons
• Feminist Perspectives on Sex and Gender: Stanford University
• Gender Criticism: Master’s in Communications
• Gender Bias and Stereotyping in Young Adult Literature: Brigham Young University
• Revisiting Shakespeare and Gender: Virginia Tech
• Women in Medieval Literature and Society: University of Delaware
• Gender Represented in the Gothic Novel: IOSR Journal
• Was there Ever a “Female Gothic”?: Nature.com
• Black Women in Art and Literature: History.com
• Feminist Gothic in “The Yellow Wallpaper”: Lone Star College
• For Daws to Peck At: Gender Roles in Shakespeare’s Othello: Arizona State University
• Gender Equality Themes: Council of Europe
• Feminist Criticism and Gender Studies: William Shakespeare: Britannica
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I’m sorting through the never-ending pile of art supplies, beads, yarn and other detritus strewn about the living room when I come across a trans pride flag. I smile at the pastel stripes as I hold it up. “Should we hang onto this?” I ask my youngest child.

“Sure,” they answer, barely glancing over.

Not long ago, this flag — and the others we accrued as my child moved through a myriad of gender identities — was a prized possession. My child would wear them like capes and race down our neighborhood streets, letting their literal flags fly to convey their gender identity of the moment. 

They went through many moments, many flags and many identities. 

But now, three years after first coming out as gender-fluid — a non-fixed gender identity that can change over time and shift depending on the situation — they seem indifferent about it all.

“What pronouns should I use for you?” I ask.

“I don’t care,” they answer, exasperated with me in ways that 14-years-olds can uniquely express. 

Still, I think it’s important to ask. I want to ensure my child feels seen. 

I’m also trying to understand what this all means, when a child like mine comes out and spends a couple years exploring different identities, only to return to their original gender. 

One evening, my youngest confided in me: She was in a text group chat with her older sister and her sister’s friends, and some people in the chat had changed their names and pronouns. They hadn’t told their parents yet. But within the friend group, new identities were being carved.

I could see in my child’s face that she might be considering a change of her own.

Then one morning a few weeks later, my child came downstairs, handed me a note, and suddenly was no longer a daughter or sister. Or a her. Or Annika, the name I had given her at birth.

They were Nico.

“I am genderfluid,” the note read. “Please call me Nico from now on. It is my top choice for a new name. I have made a basic guide to answer any questions. … 1. If you are talking about me and I’m not there, please use they/them pronouns. 2. Please ask what my pronouns are. 3. You can share this with other people or post it on Facebook because that’s what you do when you think something is cute.”

It’s a strange thing, to have your child reject the gender you’ve known as immovable since a 20-week ultrasound. I felt a pang as I read the note that erased the name I’d selected with such care. 

But mostly, I felt so proud of my child. I marveled at how assertive they were in expressing their new identity. And I felt grateful they trusted me to share their new truth with the world  —  which is exactly what I did, in a Facebook post later that day. 

For the next year or so, the identities whirled past  —  gender-fluid, nonbinary, trans , pansexual , neoboy —  as Nico explored their way across the gender and sexuality spectrum with a sense of curiosity and abandon. My child painted, crocheted and beaded art that aligned to their ever-changing flag colors. 

Nico was out and proud. Suddenly, my timid child wanted to tell the world their truth. When they changed their name, I wondered how I should let their school know. Before I figured it out, I realized I didn’t need to; my child had done the work already. That’s how effectively they advocated for themself. It was astonishing, frankly, in the best of ways.

The pandemic isolation passed, and Nico’s frenzied gender pace slowed. 

By age 13, Nico told me to “use whatever pronouns you want.” They also gave me permission to refer to them as “daughter” and “sister” again, which made me smile.

I’d missed those words — a lot.

Now Nico is 14, and I flip between “she” and “they” pronouns for them. Her androgynous bowl haircut has grown out to shoulder length, and she’s traded shapeless sweaters for Brandy Melville tank tops. Nico’s friend group is a gaggle of girls who watch the “Hunger Games,” act in school plays and paint their nails. My child is happy.

As her/their mother, I’m happy too. 

I had reservations about sharing Nico’s story, as I don’t want it to discredit anyone else’s gender journey. I feared it could embolden the wrong side of the political aisle, who might try to claim my child as a victim of so-called “social contagion,” the notion that gender dysphoria spreads via social media and peer influence. 

I’m a cishet ( cisgender and heterosexual) Gen X mom and a lifelong LGBTQ+ ally who doesn’t want to do harm to the community. I don’t claim to have all the answers about gender fluidity . What I do know is that we parents came of age believing gender was fixed and binary. It can be hard to wrap our brains around the cultural shift that’s moved gender from one’s physicality to one’s internal world. But whether we grasp it or not, for our kids, the shift is very real. According to a 2024 Public Religion Research Institute report , nearly 30% of Gen Z adults (ages 18-25) identify as LGBTQ, dwarfing all other generations.

It can be hard to wrap our brains around the cultural shift that’s moved gender from one’s physicality to one’s internal world. But whether we grasp it or not, for our kids, the shift is very real.

So if your child is gender curious, they’re not alone. 

As parents, we need to be able to have nuanced conversations about what gender identity means to our kids in order to best support them. I’m still unsure how to define my child’s experience, and what it means. But I know it’s not a contagion. I prefer to think of it as just another form of adolescent exploration. 

Tween and teen years are when we explore identity. In my day, we claimed bands and fashion trends to define ourselves: We were metalheads, new wavers, jocks, punks, rockers or stoners. My over-the-top obsession with Journey formed a major part of who I was and how I moved through my school ecosystem. Am I still obsessed with Journey now? No. Did identifying as an arena rock girl help mold me into the music-writer creative I am today? Absolutely.

For some kids, coming out reveals who they’ve always been on the inside; it’s the first step to living in their true gender identity. But for others, it’s simply a modern coming-of-age identity exploration: something to try on, experience and then move on to whatever’s next.

How can you know, as a parent, which is the case for your child? 

The answer? You can’t. 

It’s impossible to know, until your child lives through it.

And really, it doesn’t matter. For either path, our job as parents is the same. We listen. We support them with unconditional love. We protect them by discouraging “one-way doors’’ in terms of gender care until the change is consistent over time. We need to stay informed, interested and engaged. It’s our love and support that’s going to buoy them as they grow into their young adult selves, and figure out who they are along the way.

This was always our role as parents. 

I look up from my keyboard as Nico bounds into my room, beaming, a sparkling glint visible inside their left hand.

“I made a new necklace. Want to see?”

Of course I do. My child continues to create incessantly, only her jewelry has moved on from Pride themes and now focuses on Taylor Swift for inspo. 

Nico’s necklace is a beauty, featuring chunky, faceted, Earth-toned beads with an oblong amber pendant. Their work has evolved so much since their rainbow creations from three years ago.

“Sweetie, it’s lovely,” I tell her.

“Can you tell which record inspired it?” they ask. Nico’s been quizzing me on my Taylor knowledge, and I’m her best student.

“‘Folklore,’ right?” I guess. 

Nico smiles. 

She feels seen. I hope she can see how I’m trying to keep up.

Dana DuBois is a Gen X word nerd living in the Pacific Northwest who enjoys storytelling at the intersection of relationships, music and parenting. She’s the founder and editor of Pink Hair & Pronouns , a pub for parents of gender-nonconforming kids, and Three Imaginary Girls , a music ‘zine. You can read her work on Medium and Substack , and contact her via Linktree . 

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The Big List of Essay Topics for High School (120+ Ideas!)

Ideas to inspire every young writer!

High school students generally do a lot of writing, learning to use language clearly, concisely, and persuasively. When it’s time to choose an essay topic, though, it’s easy to come up blank. If that’s the case, check out this huge round-up of essay topics for high school. You’ll find choices for every subject and writing style.

• Argumentative Essay Topics
• Cause-and-Effect Essay Topics
• Compare-Contrast Essay Topics
• Descriptive Essay Topics
• Expository and Informative Essay Topics
• Humorous Essay Topics

Literary Essay Topics

• Narrative and Personal Essay Topics
• Personal Essay Topics
• Persuasive Essay Topics

Research Essay Topics

Argumentative essay topics for high school.

When writing an argumentative essay, remember to do the research and lay out the facts clearly. Your goal is not necessarily to persuade someone to agree with you, but to encourage your reader to accept your point of view as valid. Here are some possible argumentative topics to try. ( Here are 100 more compelling argumentative essay topics. )

• The most important challenge our country is currently facing is … (e.g., immigration, gun control, economy)
• The government should provide free internet access for every citizen.
• All drugs should be legalized, regulated, and taxed.
• Vaping is less harmful than smoking tobacco.
• The best country in the world is …
• Parents should be punished for their minor children’s crimes.
• Should all students have the ability to attend college for free?
• Should physical education be part of the standard high school curriculum?

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• Schools should require recommended vaccines for all students, with very limited exceptions.
• Is it acceptable to use animals for experiments and research?
• Does social media do more harm than good?
• Capital punishment does/does not deter crime.
• What one class should all high schools students be required to take and pass in order to graduate?
• Do we really learn anything from history, or does it just repeat itself over and over?
• Are men and women treated equally?

Cause-and-Effect Essay Topics for High School

A cause-and-effect essay is a type of argumentative essay. Your goal is to show how one specific thing directly influences another specific thing. You’ll likely need to do some research to make your point. Here are some ideas for cause-and-effect essays. ( Get a big list of 100 cause-and-effect essay topics here. )

• Humans are causing accelerated climate change.
• Fast-food restaurants have made human health worse over the decades.
• What caused World War II? (Choose any conflict for this one.)
• Describe the effects social media has on young adults.

• How does playing sports affect people?
• What are the effects of loving to read?
• Being an only/oldest/youngest/middle child makes you …
• What effect does violence in movies or video games have on kids?
• Traveling to new places opens people’s minds to new ideas.
• Racism is caused by …

Compare-Contrast Essay Topics for High School

As the name indicates, in compare-and-contrast essays, writers show the similarities and differences between two things. They combine descriptive writing with analysis, making connections and showing dissimilarities. The following ideas work well for compare-contrast essays. ( Find 80+ compare-contrast essay topics for all ages here. )

• Public and private schools
• Capitalism vs. communism
• Monarchy or democracy
• Dogs vs. cats as pets

• Paper books or e-books
• Two political candidates in a current race
• Going to college vs. starting work full-time
• Working your way through college as you go or taking out student loans
• iPhone or Android
• Instagram vs. Twitter (or choose any other two social media platforms)

Descriptive Essay Topics for High School

Bring on the adjectives! Descriptive writing is all about creating a rich picture for the reader. Take readers on a journey to far-off places, help them understand an experience, or introduce them to a new person. Remember: Show, don’t tell. These topics make excellent descriptive essays.

• Who is the funniest person you know?
• What is your happiest memory?
• Tell about the most inspirational person in your life.
• Write about your favorite place.
• When you were little, what was your favorite thing to do?
• Choose a piece of art or music and explain how it makes you feel.
• What is your earliest memory?

• What’s the best/worst vacation you’ve ever taken?
• Describe your favorite pet.
• What is the most important item in the world to you?
• Give a tour of your bedroom (or another favorite room in your home).
• Describe yourself to someone who has never met you.
• Lay out your perfect day from start to finish.
• Explain what it’s like to move to a new town or start a new school.
• Tell what it would be like to live on the moon.

Expository and Informative Essay Topics for High School

Expository essays set out clear explanations of a particular topic. You might be defining a word or phrase or explaining how something works. Expository or informative essays are based on facts, and while you might explore different points of view, you won’t necessarily say which one is “better” or “right.” Remember: Expository essays educate the reader. Here are some expository and informative essay topics to explore. ( See 70+ expository and informative essay topics here. )

• What makes a good leader?
• Explain why a given school subject (math, history, science, etc.) is important for students to learn.
• What is the “glass ceiling” and how does it affect society?
• Describe how the internet changed the world.
• What does it mean to be a good teacher?

• Explain how we could colonize the moon or another planet.
• Discuss why mental health is just as important as physical health.
• Describe a healthy lifestyle for a teenager.
• Choose an American president and explain how their time in office affected the country.
• What does “financial responsibility” mean?

Humorous Essay Topics for High School

Humorous essays can take on any form, like narrative, persuasive, or expository. You might employ sarcasm or satire, or simply tell a story about a funny person or event. Even though these essay topics are lighthearted, they still take some skill to tackle well. Give these ideas a try.

• What would happen if cats (or any other animal) ruled the world?
• What do newborn babies wish their parents knew?
• Explain the best ways to be annoying on social media.
• Invent a wacky new sport, explain the rules, and describe a game or match.

• Imagine a discussion between two historic figures from very different times, like Cleopatra and Queen Elizabeth I.
• Retell a familiar story in tweets or other social media posts.
• Describe present-day Earth from an alien’s point of view.
• Choose a fictional character and explain why they should be the next president.
• Describe a day when kids are in charge of everything, at school and at home.

Literary essays analyze a piece of writing, like a book or a play. In high school, students usually write literary essays about the works they study in class. These literary essay topic ideas focus on books students often read in high school, but many of them can be tweaked to fit other works as well.

• Discuss the portrayal of women in Shakespeare’s Othello .
• Explore the symbolism used in The Scarlet Letter .
• Explain the importance of dreams in Of Mice and Men .
• Compare and contrast the romantic relationships in Pride and Prejudice .

• Dissect the allegory of Animal Farm and its relation to contemporary events.
• Interpret the author’s take on society and class structure in The Great Gatsby .
• Explore the relationship between Hamlet and Ophelia.
• Discuss whether Shakespeare’s portrayal of young love in Romeo and Juliet is accurate.
• Explain the imagery used in Beowulf .

Narrative and Personal Essay Topics for High School

Think of a narrative essay like telling a story. Use some of the same techniques that you would for a descriptive essay, but be sure you have a beginning, middle, and end. A narrative essay doesn’t necessarily need to be personal, but they often are. Take inspiration from these narrative and personal essay topics.

• Describe a performance or sporting event you took part in.
• Explain the process of cooking and eating your favorite meal.
• Write about meeting your best friend for the first time and how your relationship developed.
• Tell about learning to ride a bike or drive a car.
• Describe a time in your life when you’ve been scared.

• Share the most embarrassing thing that ever happened to you.
• Tell about a time when you overcame a big challenge.
• Tell the story of how you learned an important life lesson.
• Describe a time when you or someone you know experienced prejudice or oppression.
• Explain a family tradition, how it developed, and its importance today.
• What is your favorite holiday? How does your family celebrate it?
• Retell a familiar story from the point of view of a different character.
• Describe a time when you had to make a difficult decision.
• Tell about your proudest moment.

Persuasive Essay Topics for High School

Persuasive essays are similar to argumentative , but they rely less on facts and more on emotion to sway the reader. It’s important to know your audience, so you can anticipate any counterarguments they might make and try to overcome them. Try these topics to persuade someone to come around to your point of view. ( Discover 60 more intriguing persuasive essay topics here. )

• Do you think homework should be required, optional, or not given at all?
• Everyone should be vegetarian or vegan.
• What animal makes the best pet?
• Visit an animal shelter, choose an animal that needs a home, and write an essay persuading someone to adopt that animal.
• Who is the world’s best athlete, present or past?
• Should little kids be allowed to play competitive sports?
• Are professional athletes/musicians/actors overpaid?
• The best music genre is …

• Is democracy the best form of government?
• Is capitalism the best form of economy?
• Students should/should not be able to use their phones during the school day.
• Should schools have dress codes?
• If I could change one school rule, it would be …
• Is year-round school a good idea?

A research essay is a classic high school assignment. These papers require deep research into primary source documents, with lots of supporting facts and evidence that’s properly cited. Research essays can be in any of the styles shown above. Here are some possible topics, across a variety of subjects.

• Which country’s style of government is best for the people who live there?
• Choose a country and analyze its development from founding to present day.
• Describe the causes and effects of a specific war.
• Formulate an ideal economic plan for our country.
• What scientific discovery has had the biggest impact on life today?

• Analyze the way mental health is viewed and treated in this country.
• Explore the ways systemic racism impacts people in all walks of life.
• Defend the importance of teaching music and the arts in public schools.
• Choose one animal from the endangered species list, and propose a realistic plan to protect it.

What are some of your favorite essay topics for high school? Come share your prompts on the WeAreTeachers HELPLINE group on Facebook .

Plus, check out the ultimate guide to student writing contests .

We Are Teachers

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Table of Contents

Which social media platforms are most common, who uses each social media platform, find out more, social media fact sheet.

Many Americans use social media to connect with one another, engage with news content, share information and entertain themselves. Explore the patterns and trends shaping the social media landscape.

To better understand Americans’ social media use, Pew Research Center surveyed 5,733 U.S. adults from May 19 to Sept. 5, 2023. Ipsos conducted this National Public Opinion Reference Survey (NPORS) for the Center using address-based sampling and a multimode protocol that included both web and mail. This way nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race and ethnicity, education and other categories.

Polls from 2000 to 2021 were conducted via phone. For more on this mode shift, read our Q&A.

Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and  its methodology ­­­.

A note on terminology: Our May-September 2023 survey was already in the field when Twitter changed its name to “X.” The terms  Twitter  and  X  are both used in this report to refer to the same platform.

YouTube and Facebook are the most-widely used online platforms. About half of U.S. adults say they use Instagram, and smaller shares use sites or apps such as TikTok, LinkedIn, Twitter (X) and BeReal.

Note: The vertical line indicates a change in mode. Polls from 2012-2021 were conducted via phone. In 2023, the poll was conducted via web and mail. For more details on this shift, please read our Q&A . Refer to the topline for more information on how question wording varied over the years. Pre-2018 data is not available for YouTube, Snapchat or WhatsApp; pre-2019 data is not available for Reddit; pre-2021 data is not available for TikTok; pre-2023 data is not available for BeReal. Respondents who did not give an answer are not shown.

Source: Surveys of U.S. adults conducted 2012-2023.

Usage of the major online platforms varies by factors such as age, gender and level of formal education.

% of U.S. adults who say they ever use __ by …

• RACE & ETHNICITY
• POLITICAL AFFILIATION

This fact sheet was compiled by Research Assistant  Olivia Sidoti , with help from Research Analyst  Risa Gelles-Watnick , Research Analyst  Michelle Faverio , Digital Producer  Sara Atske , Associate Information Graphics Designer Kaitlyn Radde and Temporary Researcher  Eugenie Park .

Follow these links for more in-depth analysis of the impact of social media on American life.

• Americans’ Social Media Use  Jan. 31, 2024
• Americans’ Use of Mobile Technology and Home Broadband  Jan. 31 2024
• Q&A: How and why we’re changing the way we study tech adoption  Jan. 31, 2024

Find more reports and blog posts related to  internet and technology .

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Guest Essay

Melinda French Gates: The Enemies of Progress Play Offense. I Want to Help Even the Match.

By Melinda French Gates

Ms. French Gates is a philanthropist and the founder of the charitable organization Pivotal.

Many years ago, I received this piece of advice: “Set your own agenda, or someone else will set it for you.” I’ve carried those words with me ever since.

That’s why, next week, I will leave the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , of which I was a co-founder almost 25 years ago, to open a new chapter in my philanthropy. To begin, I am announcing $1 billion in new spending over the next two years for people and organizations working on behalf of women and families around the world, including on reproductive rights in the United States.

In nearly 20 years as an advocate for women and girls, I have learned that there will always be people who say it’s not the right time to talk about gender equality. Not if you want to be relevant. Not if you want to be effective with world leaders (most of them men). The second the global agenda gets crowded, women and girls fall off.

It’s frustrating and shortsighted. Decades of research on economics , well-being and governance make it clear that investing in women and girls benefits everyone. We know that economies with women’s full participation have more room to grow. That women’s political participation is associated with decreased corruption. That peace agreements are more durable when women are involved in writing them. That reducing the time women spend in poor health could add as much as $1 trillion to the global economy by 2040.

And yet, around the world, women are seeing a tremendous upsurge in political violence and other threats to their safety, in conflict zones where rape is used as a tool of war, in Afghanistan where the Taliban takeover has erased 20 years of progress for women and girls, in many low-income countries where the number of acutely malnourished pregnant and breastfeeding women is soaring.

In the United States, maternal mortality rates continue to be unconscionable , with Black and Native American mothers at highest risk. Women in 14 states have lost the right to terminate a pregnancy under almost any circumstances. We remain the only advanced economy without any form of national paid family leave. And the number of teenage girls experiencing suicidal thoughts and persistent feelings of sadness and hopelessness is at a decade high.

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