physical education school physical activity school sports and academic performance

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The association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance: a systematic review of the literature

Affiliation.

1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Highway, NE MS: K-33, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA. [email protected]
PMID: 21291905
DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.01.027

Objective: The purpose of this review is to synthesize the scientific literature that has examined the association between school-based physical activity (including physical education) and academic performance (including indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors, and academic achievement).

Method: Relevant research was identified through a search of nine electronic databases using both physical activity and academic-related search terms. Forty-three articles (reporting a total of 50 unique studies) met the inclusion criteria and were read, abstracted, and coded for this synthesis. Findings of the 50 studies were then summarized.

Results: Across all the studies, there were a total of 251 associations between physical activity and academic performance, representing measures of academic achievement, academic behavior, and cognitive skills and attitudes. Slightly more than half (50.5%) of all associations examined were positive, 48% were not significant, and 1.5% were negative. Examination of the findings by each physical activity context provides insights regarding specific relationships.

Conclusion: Results suggest physical activity is either positively related to academic performance or that there is not a demonstrated relationship between physical activity and academic performance. Results have important implications for both policy and schools.

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Open access
Published: 25 February 2008

Physical education, school physical activity, school sports and academic performance

François Trudeau 1 &
Roy J Shephard 2

International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity volume 5 , Article number: 10 ( 2008 ) Cite this article

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The purpose of this paper is to review relationships of academic performance and some of its determinants to participation in school-based physical activities, including physical education (PE), free school physical activity (PA) and school sports.

Linkages between academic achievement and involvement in PE, school PA and sport programmes have been examined, based on a systematic review of currently available literature, including a comprehensive search of MEDLINE (1966 to 2007), PSYCHINFO (1974 to 2007), SCHOLAR.GOOGLE.COM, and ERIC databases.

Quasi-experimental data indicate that allocating up to an additional hour per day of curricular time to PA programmes does not affect the academic performance of primary school students negatively, even though the time allocated to other subjects usually shows a corresponding reduction. An additional curricular emphasis on PE may result in small absolute gains in grade point average (GPA), and such findings strongly suggest a relative increase in performance per unit of academic teaching time. Further, the overwhelmingly majority of such programmes have demonstrated an improvement in some measures of physical fitness (PF). Cross-sectional observations show a positive association between academic performance and PA, but PF does not seem to show such an association. PA has positive influences on concentration, memory and classroom behaviour. Data from quasi-experimental studies find support in mechanistic experiments on cognitive function, pointing to a positive relationship between PA and intellectual performance.

Given competent providers, PA can be added to the school curriculum by taking time from other subjects without risk of hindering student academic achievement. On the other hand, adding time to "academic" or "curricular" subjects by taking time from physical education programmes does not enhance grades in these subjects and may be detrimental to health.

The purpose of this paper is to review relationships between physical education (PE), school physical activity (PA), school sports and academic performance. These relationships have been the subject of extensive discussion between advocates and skeptics of PE, school PA and school sports programmes. Both elements of this discussion (academic achievement and physical activity) are independent determinants of a child's health. Our intent in this article is to assess the effects on academic achievement of school PA programmes (including PE and school sports), in both elementary and high schools. Previous reviews have examined relationships between PA and academic achievement. [ 1 – 4 ] Recent research results, echoed in the media, suggest that such activity may have a positive impact on learning and memory. It is now fairly well-recognized that PA is associated with the maintenance of cognitive function in older adults [ 5 ] and offers some protection against Alzheimer's disease. [ 6 ] Cognitive dysfunctions in older adults is becoming an urgent public health problem, given the ever-rising average life expectancy and the associated growth in the proportion of old and very old individuals in most societies. A positive association between PA and cognitive health is also suspected in younger subjects, but is not as well documented in this age group. Nevertheless, any positive influence of PA on the cognitive functions of children is important for at least 2 reasons: 1) It is a potential argument for increasing PE and/or other types of school PA without risk of decreasing academic progress, and 2) It may offer a way to reduce disruptive behaviour at school and the drop-out from educational programmes. Furthermore, an important by-product of an increased participation to school PA would be an enhanced level of physical fitness.

Search methods

The databases searched included MEDLINE (1966 to 2007), PSYCHINFO (1974 to 2007), SCHOLAR.GOOGLE.COM, and ERIC, as well as the extensive personal databases of the authors. The reference lists of the articles thus identified were also consulted to identify additional potentially-relevant research. Publications in languages other than English were considered where appropriate. For the purpose of this review, we use the term academic achievement to encompass academic success, school performance and all combinations of these terms.

The outcomes of school PA/PE and academic achievement, success or performance were actual or self-reported grade point average (GPA) and determinants of GPA that could potentially be changed by the interventions (concentration, learning, classroom behaviour, engagement in learning, self-esteem, etc.). The terms physical education, physical activity and sports are, for the purposes of this review, restricted to programmes offered within the school context (i.e. instructional physical education and extracurricular physical activity, including in-school physical activity programmes, intraschool and intramural sport).

Quasi-experimental and longitudinal studies

It is not surprising that no randomized controlled trials were identified, as they are not practicable in this type of research setting. Quasi-experimental protocols are usually indicated when causality cannot be tested by a random controlled trial in milieux such as the school setting. Seven quasi-experimental studies were identified (Table 1 ). Cross-sectional studies were also considered, as well as experimental or laboratory experiments on the determinants of academic performance (i.e. learning concentration, classroom behaviour, etc.).

The first documented quasi-experimental study relevant for to this paper was the Vanves (France) investigation; this involved a small group of schoolchildren tested during the 1950's. [ 7 ] Schoolchildren who spent mornings in the classroom and afternoons doing PE were said to perform better academically than children from a control class, but no further details were given. [ 7 ] Unfortunately, the specifics of these observations were not described in peer reviewed journals.

A second quasi-experimental study conducted in the Trois-Rivières region (Québec) between 1970 and 1977 involved 546 primary school students; this noted that students involved in an experimental 5 hours of physical education per week had a higher academic performance than their control counterparts who were enrolled in the normal school program for 40 min per week [ 8 ]. The supplemental 260 minutes allocated to PE was necessarily taken from time for other academic teaching (i.e. an average 14% curtailment of academic instruction). Despite this curricular change, during the last 5 years of primary school, the overall academic performance of the experimental students improved relative to the controls. During standardized Provincial examinations, children receiving the 5 hours/week of PE had higher scores in mathematics, but lower scores in English (their second language), despite the fact that 33 minutes were removed from mathematics instruction and none from English. [ 3 ]

A 2-year quasi-experimental study followed 759 Californian children in the 5th and 6th grades. [ 9 ] Subgroups of children were taught PE by either a professional physical educator (n = 178), a trained homeroom teacher (n = 312), or in the normal programme (n = 165). The professional physical educators, the trained teachers, and normal programmes offered, respectively, 80, 65, and 38 minutes per week of PE. As expected, those taught by the professional physical educators achieved greater fitness (cardiovascular and muscle endurance). [ 10 ] Also, the groups taught by the professional physical educators and trained teachers had smaller declines in academic performance despite allocating more time to PE. Four of 8 statistical comparisons disclosed an advantage for students in the experimental groups; one comparison was advantageous to control students, while the remaining 3 were equal. The group who spent the most time on PE (i.e. those with a professional physical educator) showed no negative effects on academic achievement and indeed the decline of academic results during the 2 years of the intervention was smaller than that observed in the control subjects. [ 9 ]

In South Australia, the 500-student SHAPE trial added 1.25 hours per day of endurance fitness training to the curriculum of 10-year-old primary school students. [ 11 ] Over the first 14 weeks of the study, the experimenatl group showed gains in physical work capacity and decreases in body fat relative to controls. Arithmetic and reading scores were not adversely affected by the substantial reallocation of curricular time in favour of PE. These physical benefits appeared to be maintained over the succeeding 2 years in a follow-up of 216 participants. These follow-up evaluations showed (non-significant) trends for better arithmetic and reading grades in experimental students, as well as beneficial changes in teachers' ratings of classroom behaviour. [ 12 ]

The 16-month Action School BC! project involved a population of 287 British Columbian primary school children (4th and 5th years: 9–11-years olds). PA was delivered by classroom teachers, amounting to 47 minutes more per week in interventional than in control schools (139 ± 62 vs. 92 ± 45 minutes, P < 0.001). [ 13 ] Despite a corresponding decrease in academic time, the academic performance of the experimental group, as measured by the Canadian Achievement Test, remained unchanged; indeed, data analysis revealed a trend towards an enhanced academic performance in the intervention schools (the average score rising from 1,595 to 1,672 units).

Another interventional study of 6 th grade (11 year-old) students covered a single school term. Fifty-five minutes/day of PE were included in the curriculum, vs. the same allocation of time for arts or computer sciences; the two groups performed equally well in mathematics, sciences and English. [ 14 ] Finally, an intervention in Israel involved 92 preschool and 266 first grade children. [ 15 ] The experimental manipulation here was a school-based movement education programme, and children in the experimental group showed greater reading skills and arithmetic scores than controls. [ 15 ]

Taken together, these quasi-experimental data suggest that the enriched PE programmes demanded a substantial reduction in the time allocated for academic tuition. Since the children achieved at least equally despite the reduced teaching time, the evidence seems strong that the efficiency of learning was enhanced. [ 3 ] Despite the variety of programme durations and locations, a common and valuable by-product was a significant increase in various measures of physical fitness (PF).

Cross-sectional studies

Cross-sectional studies commonly have difficulty in controlling for potential biases, particularly socio-economic status (SES). SES remains the strongest predictor of academic achievement [ 16 ] and is also one of the strongest predictors of PA participation in children (e.g. in Canada [ 17 ]; Italy [ 18 ] and Estonia [ 19 ]). Cross-sectional studies generally indicate a positive association with academic achievement. Some of these studies did control for confounders such as SES, and still most of them found a positive association between physical activity and academic achievement (Table 2 ).

Positive results on GPA

Nelson and Gordon-Larsen [ 20 ] analyzed results from the US National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health; they observed that adolescents who were active in school were more likely to have high grades. Even after adjustment for demographics and SES, the risk ratio of higher grades was 1.20 for mathematics and 1.21 for English among adolescents who were active at school. Within middle to upper middle SES categories, a cross-sectional study of suburban high school seniors (52 girls and 37 boys) found that the more active group had higher GPA. [ 21 ]

4,690 Hong Kong children from primary 5 to secondary 7 (i.e. grades 5 to 12) completed a pre-validated questionnaire relating their sports and exercise participation to perceived academic performance. [ 22 ] Low correlations were seen for the whole sample (r = 0.10, P < 0.01; r = 0.17, P < 0.01 for females; r = 0.06, NS for males). GPA was not a significant correlated with PA participation when all school bands were confounded; however, the high band showed a positive link between GPA and PA participation, whereas students in the low band showed a negative relationship between PA participation and GPA. [ 23 ] These reports suggest that the relationship between PA and academic performance is influenced by the type of students and/or the school that they attend. Deliberate stratification of students by learning ability is by no means universal, but we cannot exclude the possibility that spontaneous, unplanned banding may also influence the strength of observed relationships.

Dwyer et al. [ 24 ] made a cross-sectional survey of 9000 Australian schoolchildren between the ages of 7 and 15 years (500 in each age/sex stratum drawn from 109 schools, i.e. 10 girls and 10 boys per school). Depending on the group, a linear regression analysis with good control of confounding variables demonstrated a significant association between academic achievement and PA (a combination of lunchtime PA and minutes of PA the preceding week). In all subjects aged 9–12 years, school performance was positively associated with ratings of PA during the preceding week. In girls 10–15 years old and boys 8–15 years old, academic achievement was also positively associated with the estimates of lunchtime PA. The correlation coefficients between PA and academic achievement, although low (r = 0.08 to 0.19) were statistically significant, suggesting that PA was contributing to academic achievement in both boys and girls. Data from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey likewise showed that a perception of little or no involvement in PA was associated with a perception of low academic performance. [ 25 ] Another cross-sectional study from England also controlled for SES; this again reported a positive association between school sports participation and academic achievement. [ 26 ]

Researchers from Iceland designed a study included other health behaviours. [ 27 ] They found small but significantly positive univariate associations of PA with self-reported school performance (r = -0.11 with absenteeism and r = 0.09 with grades). When confounders were considered, these associations were further weakened, but nevertheless remained statistically significant predictors if selected health behaviours and psychological variables were included in the prediction model. [ 27 ]

Negative or null outcomes on GPA

In 6,923 grade 6 New Brunswick children (age 11 years), PA showed a weak inverse association with academic achievement, but a positive association with self-esteem. [ 28 ] A study on 232 English boys and girls (13–16 years old) found no relationship between self-reported PA and GPA. Moreover, in children aged 13, 14, or 16 years, the durartion of PA was negatively correlated with marks for English (r = -0.29 to -0.30). [ 29 ] To our knowledge, these are the only 2 studies to observe negative associations between PA (but not PE) and academic achievement.

A survey of 117 Australian primary schools found no deterioration of literacy and numeracy results in primary school grades 3, 5 and 7 when more time was allocated to PE. [ 30 ] SES was the strongest predictor of both literacy and numeracy scores. A recent analysis of Hong Kong pre-adolescent boys reported that a high level of PA at school was associated with high self-esteem, but not with academic achievement. [ 31 ]

Even studies that failed to find a positive relationship between PA/PE and GPA have generally found no decrease in academic achievement as a consequence of increased participation in PA (Table 2 ). Clearly, the absence of an elevation in GPA should not be interpreted as a negative outcome. This is well illustrated by a survey conducted in Virginia's primary schools. [ 32 ] A reduction in the time allocated for PE (or the arts) did not improve performance in other subjects like mathematics or reading. Moreover, increasing the time allocated to PE (or the arts) at the expense of other academic subjects was not detrimental to test scores in these subjects. [ 32 ] Taken together, these observations suggest that if academic achievements are maintained while spending less time on a specific discipline, the intervention has increased academic efficacy.

Effects of PA on elements considered to favour academic performance

Many factors like classroom behaviour, self-esteem, self-image, school satisfaction and school connectedness have been postulated as determinants of academic achievement.

Classroom behaviour

Self-identification as a school athlete vs. a «jock» is associated with a lower rate of reported misconduct at school [ 33 ], with the exception of binge drinking. [ 34 ] In the American linguistic context, the word "jock" refers to an individual whose life is oriented toward sport; it is not necessarily a pejorative term. However, it should not be confused with the focused and planned life of a typical athlete.

In the Trois-Rivières study, competencies linked to behaviour were similar overall in the experimental vs. the control group. [ 35 ] A German cross-sectional study (CHILT) compared 12 intervention schools (n = 668) vs. 5 control schools (n = 218), finding that PF was associated with concentration in 6–7 years old children. [ 36 ]

Evans et al. [ 37 ] reported a lower rate of inappropriate talking among emotionally, or behaviourally-disturbed children who were participating in a jogging and football exercise programme. Furthermore, a meta-analysis on the effect of exercise prior to classes led to the conclusion that most exercise interventions significantly reduced disruptive behaviours in disturbed students. [ 38 ] These effects could reflect in part better teacher attitudes towards these children, as seen in the Trois-Rivières [ 3 ] and the Australian [ 1 ] quasi-experimental studies.

Other psychosocial effects

Better self-esteem or self-image [ 20 , 39 ] and body image [ 40 ] are commonly associated with high levels of PA. Many studies have also linked school sport or PA programmes with other psychosocial outcomes, such as school satisfaction and school connectedness, regardless of ethnic group [ 41 ]. Both school connectedness and school satisfaction are factors preventing drop-out from school. [ 42 ]

A recent analysis of data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health [ 20 ] found evidence of a positive association between PA and components of mental health, including self-esteem, emotional well-being, spirituality, and future expectations. When participation in PA/sports also included parental involvement, the behavioural risk profile became even more positive.

A cross-sectional questionnaire study of 245 Finnish adolescents [ 43 ] observed no association between PA level and school satisfaction and the trend to a weak correlation between PA level and problems at school was not statistically significant. However, PA was correlated with global school satisfaction (r = -0.21 for boys) and absence of a depressive mood state (-0.20 and -0.26 for girls and boys, respectively).

What are the acute effects of PA on cognitive function?

Many authors have documented the acute effects of PA on cognitive function. Three recent reviews and/or meta-analyses examined these studies. [ 44 – 46 ] In a meta-analysis of 44 studies, Sibley and Etnier [ 45 ] concluded that PA was positively associated with better cognitive functioning in children. Some groups, particularly middle school students (grades 6–8, aged 11–13 years) and younger, seemed to benefit more from PA. Sibley and Etnier [ 45 ] noted that unpublished studies had a higher effect size than published reports, suggesting that no bias had occurred from a failure to publish non-significant results.

Brisswalter et al. [ 44 ] reviewed published studies into the effects of exercise on various tasks. They concluded that the optimal intensity for decisional tasks covered a wide range (~40–80% VO 2 max). An exercise duration of more than 20 minutes was most efficient in increasing the performance of perceptual and decisional tasks. [ 44 , 46 ] Tomporowki [ 47 ] suggested an upper limit of 60 minutes might arise from the adverse effects of dehydration on cognitive functions.

The literature generally suggests a positive effect of acute physical exercise on cognition. Other activities, like involvement in music also have the potential to increase reading skills, although in this case there is no positive influence on PF. [ 48 ]

Relationship of PF with academic achievement

What is the effect of a high level of PF on academic performance? Is good cognitive functioning associated with above average PF? If so, is this a consequence of PF per se, or of better overall physical health? When analyzed globally, the literature does not indicate any clear linkage between PF and either academic achievement or intellectual performance. As early as 1969, Railo found no relationship between PF and either of these outcomes. [ 49 ] More recently, Etnier et al. [ 50 ] concluded from a meta-regression analysis that the empirical literature did not support a link between cardiovascular PF and academic achievement. However, this meta-analysis revealed a weakness in the literature: there was little data on the relationship between PF and academic achievement in school-aged children. Indeed, only 1 of the 37 studies identified included this age group.

When the definition of PF includes aspects other than cardiovascular fitness, there seems evidence of positive correlations between various measures of psychomotor performance, cognitive abilities and academic achievement. [ 51 , 52 ] Psychomotor performance shares many common neurological mechanisms with cognitive functions.

A 2001 cross-sectional study on California children disclosed a positive relationship between reading and mathematics results (as measured by Stanford Achievement Test-9) and results on a field test of physical fitness (the Fitnessgram). Despite a huge sample of students from grades 5, 7 and 9 (n = 954,000), potential selection biases were not considered, making it difficult to conclude that PA was linked to increased academic performance. [ 53 ] When found, any effects of PF were small. Another weak association between PF and academic achievement was observed in South Korean children (grades 5, 8, and 11); in this study, the association was much smaller than that between academic achievement and regular meal eating. [ 54 ] Dwyer et al. [ 24 ] measured muscle fitness in 9,000 Australian students. They found significant but weak associations, ranging from r = -0.10 to -0.19 for running distances of 50 m and 1.6 km, and from r = 0.10 to 0.22 for sit-ups and standing long jump, respectively.

School sports and academic achievement

The connection between school sports and intellectual achievement has been a long-standing issue since Davis and Cooper [ 55 ] first reported a positive association between school sports participation and academic achievement. It remains the subject of recent investigations. The competitive dimension of most sports introduces particular problems, even in the school context, as the educational dimension tends to be relegated to a secondary level. The literature comprises mainly cross-sectional data and the results are more equivocal than for PA; unfortunately, most of the earlier studies did not control for biases common to athletic and academic achievements. [ 56 , 57 ]

Data from the longitudinal Maryland Adolescent Development in Context Study included 67% African-Americans and 33% European-Americans; it found that participation in extracurricular PA was a significant predictor of better academic results and of higher academic expectations. [ 58 ] Furthermore, sports participation by 8th grade African-American males resulted in aspirations to continue their studies toward college, with less likelihood of acting inappropriately in school. [ 59 ] In their female counterparts, sports participation also resulted in higher aspirations and in a reduction of absenteeism.

Cooper et al. [ 60 ] found that even after eliminating confounding factors, extracurricular activities, including sports and PA were predictors of better academic achievement in 2,200 American high school students. Their conclusion is in line with the point that Marsh made in 1992, that such activities may have an effect on academic achievement by increasing motivation and investment in school. [ 61 ] Another study of 11,957 American adolescents found that even after standardization for SES, sports participation with parental presence was associated with an increased probability of good grades in English and mathematics, the Adjusted Relative Risk being 1.23 for both subjects. [ 20 ] Dexter [ 62 ] examined the relationship between sports knowledge, sport performance and academic ability, the last being measured by scores on the British General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). They observed a small but significant positive correlation between sports performance and GCSE score for both mathematics and English.

Melnick et al. [ 63 ] detected no relationship between academic achievement and sports participation in 3,686 African-American and Hispanic students from the "High-school and Beyond Study". However, sports participation was associated with a lower drop-out rate. Therefore, they suggested that if sports participation contributes to academic achievement, it may do so indirectly, by encouraging retention in school. Fisher et al. [ 64 ] also observed no association between sports involvement and self-reported grades in an ethnic mix of 838 grade 9 to 12 students (predominantly 63% African-American and 27% Hispanic).

Harvard students involved in varsity teams had a slightly lower GPA than their peers, but reported a higher degree of satisfaction with their university experience. [ 65 ] This also seemed the case in other institutions examined by Light. Athletes have more friends and a stronger sense of belonging to their institution. They are, according to Light, "the happiest on campus". Generally, this same trend is seen among high-school athletes. Students engaged in extracurricular PAs do not achive different academic scores than their peers, but they feel a greater engagement with their institution. [ 66 , 67 ] This may reflect in part the greater attention directed towards these specific students. Indeed, participants in extracurricular activities (including sports) have more interactions with significant adults than non-participants. [ 66 ]

Sport is a very complex phenomenon. There are many cultures within school sports, and any effect on academic achievement is influenced by gender, race, type of sport, type and level of athletic involvement. White and McTeer [ 68 ] suggested that the status of a given sport may influence its effect on academic achievement. Their results showed that high-status sports had a positive influence on English grades but they saw no evidenceof an effect of such sports on mathematics grades. They suggested that academic performance was more likely to be affected by cultural factors in subjective subjects like English than in mathematics. Any influence of school sports participation may also differ between girls and boys [ 33 ], and between various ethnic and cultural groups. [ 69 ]

In conclusion, the available literature suggests that sport is more likely to benefit academic achievement if offered in school rather than in other sport contexts, given the proximity of educational resources and environment. This may be particularly important for team sports, which often seem associated with risky behaviours, particularly binge drinking of alcohol. [ 70 ] When sports-involved students identify themselves as athletes rather than «jocks», such risky behaviours seem less prevalent. [ 67 ] Greater academic coaching of school athletes could be a factor favouring their academic achievement. [ 67 ] School sports should be monitored closely, with the intent of avoiding a drift away from educational objectives. It appears that satisfaction with sports vs. satisfaction with school work is predicted by a differing psychological domain (perceived ability vs. task orientation). [ 71 ] It may be helpful to create an environment where both types of endeavour find common ground, i.e. school may be the best setting in which sports can be directed towards task orientation and skills acquisition, without decreasing the pleasure and satisfaction of being good at sports and PA. As noted in various long-term follow-ups, elite and varsity level athletes later tend to experience greater educational and labour market success than non athletes. [ 34 , 67 , 72 , 73 ] Current evidence suggests that this effect may be mediated by racial group. [ 74 ]

Populations with special educational needs

Academic integration of children with various behavioural and developmental problems is a growing trend in industrialized countries. The question arises in terms of their academic achievement. Reviews of exercise programmes for children with learning disabilities [ 75 , 76 ] have suggested that in order to increase the likelihood of positive outcomes, such programmes should have a low student-instructor ratio. Benefits (with the exception of increased PF) may reflect increased attention toward the participants.

In hyperactive impulsive children, PA is associated with global satisfaction in boys and an absence of depressive emotions in both sexes. [ 77 ] An outdoor education programme also decreased behavioural problems in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. [ 78 ]

In children with reading disabilities, a school-based programme of balance and coordination training, throwing, catching, and stretching produced significant improvements in both reading and semantics. [ 79 ] Positive changes were maintained for at least 18 months following the programme, reducing the likelihood of a Hawthorne effect. [ 80 ]

Four pupils with emotional and behavioural disorders were directly studied before and after a 10-week PE intervention. Back in class, there was an increase (13.8%, or a little more than 23 minutes) in the amount of time spent focused on the tasks they were supposed to be performing. [ 81 ] A 10-week PA intervention in children with learning disabilities improved classroom behaviour and the perception of academic competence was increased. [ 76 ] However, a similar outcome was seen in the control group, indicating that there had been no specific effect from the programme.

The effects of school PA upon children with learning problems thus remains an open field for research.

Is the potential beneficial effect of PE, school PA and sport supported by fundamental research?

The positive association observed between PA and intellectual performance among children in quasi-experimental studies should be supported by mechanistic, experimental evidence. No one can deny the important role of neurosciences in the comprehension of academic achievement. [ 82 ] Most research on the relationships between PA and cognition has centered on the hippocampus, a brain region that mediates memory and learning in mammals, and on changes in the cerebral circulation. The hippocampus has an important role in the consolidation of memory. One major mechanism essential to its functions is long-term potentiation, or LTP. LTP leads to an enhancement of nervous influx following a first series of stimuli.

Exercise and learning mechanisms

Hippocampal LTP is the most credible physiological explanation for learning and memory in mammals, including humans. [ 83 ] LTP leads to an increase of synaptic efficacy following an increase of synaptic traffic. [ 83 ] It was shown recently that PA favours hippocampal LTP. [ 84 ] Chronic exercise favourably influences the hippocampus through 3 mechanisms:

1) Heightened neurogenesis, i.e. an increased formation of new neurons after chronic PA, as demonstrated in the adult mouse [ 85 , 86 ],

2) Augmented LTP itself, i.e. enhanced neuronal transmission in the hippocampus. Different methods employed to measure cognitive functions, and scores on these tasks are well correlated with a better performing hippocampus [ 87 ]. Radial maze learning, i.e. an hippocampal spatial learning, is increased in both male and female rats exercised by voluntary running. The performance of this task does not seem to be influenced by changes in fitness of the animal, as is the case for the Morris water maze. However, if the water maze is used, it remains possible to control for an animal's level of fitness. Other studies using the Morris water maze have also reported improved performance. [ 85 , 88 ] Exercise has no effect on glutamate receptors in the hippocampus in aged rats [ 89 ], reinforcing the view that post-receptor mechanisms are responsible for stronger LTP in active animals. However, this point remains to be confirmed in the hippocampus of younger animals,

3) Chronic exercise creates a favourable environment for LTP by increasing the hippocampal concentrations of neuroprotective factors like brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) [ 90 ] and of other growth factors such as insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1), nerve growth factor, and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2).

The brain concentration of some antioxidants is also increased in trained animals, thus protecting hippocampal cells from oxidative damage. [ 91 ] Radak et al. [ 92 ] studied the acute effects of exercise (2 hours). Oxidative damage to macromolecules was reduced through an increase of glutathion synthetase activity and a reduction in the deleterious, inactivity-related efflux of glutamate (the neurotransmitter of learning in the hippocampus). Acute exercise also normalized certain memory functions, particularly orientation time to novelty and passive avoidance reactions.

To our knowledge, these mechanisms of enhanced learning and memory have never been explored in animals at a developmental stage corresponding to school-age children. We hypothesize that, given the higher brain plasticity of childhood, the changes seen in older brains may have an even greater magnitude in the developing brain. The data suggest that the brain structures involved in learning and memory, although more complex, function much like skeletal muscle. To enhance function (i.e. increase memory and learning), periods of stimulation must be followed by a recovery period when supercompensation can take place, and the new proteins associated with learning and memory consolidation can be synthesized.

Discussion and Conclusion

Available data suggest that school PA (PE instruction, free time PA or school sport) could become a consistent component of PA to meet current guidelines for children and adolescents without impairing academic achievement, even if curricular time for so-called academic subjects is curtailed. In his classical work "The Adolescent Society," James S. Coleman advanced the concept of a zero-sum model. [ 93 ] This hypothesized that if time was taken from academic programmes to allow other pursuits, academic achievement would suffer. This concept may be applicable if time is spent in paid employment while attending school [ 94 ], but it does not seem to apply to extracurricular activities like sports or curricular PE. [ 95 ] In contrast, such activities are likely to increase attachment to school and self-esteem which are indirect but important factors in academic achievement.

Parents concerned about decreases in study and homework time may be better advised to question the time their children spend on TV and computer games rather than the time that they devote to PE, PA or sports in school. Indeed, the more children watch TV, the greater the decline in their academic results. [ 96 ] At least one Canadian study found that the time devoted to PA was positively associated with the time that school-aged children spent in reading. [ 97 ] Parents interested in the health and academic success of their offspring should focus on the increased prevalence of various metabolic pathologies in which sedentary behaviour plays a key etiologic role, for example, obesity and type 2 diabetes, both of which are beginning at an ever younger age. [ 98 ] Such pathologies have the potential to affect school performance adversely, although this is an area where more research is needed. [ 99 ] In one recent article, obese 3 rd grade girls (8 years old) did not have poorer academic results after control for SES, but relative to normal weight girls they exhibited more displaced behaviours like arguing and fighting, as well as more depressive symptoms like loneliness and sadness [ 100 ].

Engagement in PE instruction would probably be increased if grades were allocated for performance in PE, particularly in high school. The engagement of girls, particularly, decreases when PE is not considered incalculating their GPA. [ 101 , 102 ] However, between grade 8 and 12, the school drop-out rate for adolescents of both sexes is reduced by sport participation [ 103 ]

Another problem that remains to be resolved, despite a call for action from the Surgeon General in 1996, is the heterogeneity in provision of PE [ 104 ], extracurricular sports and other school PA programmes [ 105 ], schools with a low SES being particularly disadvantaged. School sport would appeal to more students if emphasis was placed on its educational potential rather than its competitive side. Potential drifting of objectives should be monitored to avoid a «subversion» of the educational mission and ensure a maximisation of positive effects such as academic achievement and long term adherence to physical activity. The current emphasis on a limited range of team sports should be modified to provide opportunities for students who are interested in and have the skills relevant to other sport ventures, thus attracting a wider range of students.

Many questions remain to be clarified on the relationship between academic performance, PE, school PA and sports. However, to paraphrase Eccles et al. [ 67 ], "We now know enough about the kinds of programs likely to have positive effects on children and adolescents' development." The literature strongly suggests that the academic achievement, physical fitness and health of our children will not be improved by limiting the time allocated to PE instruction, school PA and sports programmes.

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Published: 10 August 2024

The role of physical activity and fitness for children’s wellbeing and academic achievement

Julia Jaekel ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6123-3375 1 , 2 , 3 , 4

Pediatric Research ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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It is well known that physiological, psychological, and cognitive factors contribute to children’s wellbeing and school success, but studies assessing these domains simultaneously are surprisingly rare. Visier-Alfonso et al. expand on our existing knowledge base and report different pathways to academic achievement for girls and boys. Specifically, girls with higher cardiorespiratory fitness had better psychological wellbeing, and this was associated with higher academic achievement. Boys were more academically successful if they had higher cognitive flexibility. Boys with higher cardiorespiratory fitness also had better psychological wellbeing. According to this current evidence, cardiorespiratory fitness has both direct and indirect beneficial effects beyond physical health on psychological wellbeing and academic achievement. Health practitioners, education professionals, and parents should focus on increasing opportunities for daily physical activities that will benefit children’s cardiorespiratory fitness.

In today’s world, finding a good balance between screen time and physical activity is key to child health, wellbeing, and school performance. At least that is what most health practitioners, education professionals, and parents will likely agree on. However, despite the real-life importance of these domains, there is surprisingly little scientific evidence on how they are independently and simultaneously associated with each other. Study findings of how screen time affects child development and academic outcomes at school age have been mixed, 1 , 2 especially when adjusted for families’ socio-cultural backgrounds and level of education. Visier-Alfonso et al. do not only expand on our existing knowledge base of how physiological, psychological, and cognitive factors contribute to children’s school success, they also provide new details on the strength (or their absence) of underlying associations. In their observational study of 519 school-aged children in Spain, the different domains were operationalised via well-established, reliable, multi-informant measures, e.g. cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) was assessed with the 20-metre shuttle run test, recreational screen time use was reported by parents, psychological well-being was assessed from children themselves with the Kidscreen-27, 3 and cognitive flexibility via the computerised Dimensional Change Card Sort Test. 4 The selection and intentional combination of these measures allows a comparison of the current findings with other previous studies from different settings and world regions – a precondition for meaningful contributions to understanding developmental mechanisms.

Human development is shaped by complex multidirectional cascades over time. 5 , 6 , 7 In research, it is important to design studies that allow us to include relevant variables and constructs in one model, in order to estimate and test hypothesised associations that mirror the true complexity of development. On the contrary, if relevant constructs and their associations are not included in statistical models, researchers risk overestimating certain direct associations by neglecting others. With regard to these methodological aspects, Visier-Alfonso et al.’s study is a step forward. They demonstrate how to apply fit indices provided by structural equation and path modelling to adapt hypothesised associations to a collected data sample. This data-based model fitting process is especially helpful when a sample is large enough to provide sufficient statistical power and assumed to be representative of a population.

Accordingly, Visier-Alfonso et al. report different pathways from CRF to academic achievement by biological sex, suggesting intriguing differences between girls and boys. Specifically, girls with higher CRF reported better psychological wellbeing, and this was associated with higher academic achievement. Boys, on the other hand, were more academically successful if they had higher cognitive flexibility. In addition, the authors report a total negative effect of screen time on academic achievement among boys, however it is small and only marginally significant. Boys with higher CRF also had better psychological wellbeing, but there were no associations of these variables with their academic achievement. These sex differences in associations between domains may be partly influenced by the current sample’s descriptive differences: on average, boys used screens more often and were more fit, but they had lower cognitive flexibility than girls. While these sex differences in mean values are in line with many other studies worldwide, the current results of different mechanisms still need replication in other samples and populations.

The oldest participants in the sample were 11 years at the time of data collection - on the cusp of adolescence. The fundamental hormonal and neurodevelopmental changes they will be undergoing throughout puberty will shape their physiological, psychological, and cognitive characteristics, and indirectly affect their future academic performance. Because of these changes, puberty represents a critical time of transition with a window of risk but also of opportunity: to set individuals on healthy trajectories of wellbeing and academic success. Visier-Alfonso et al.’s study provides pointers for some of the underlying mechanisms that may be changed through intervention during late childhood. The primary years of formal schooling trigger challenges for all children across multiple areas, including the expectation to pay attention and sit still for long periods of time, inhibit unwanted behaviours, and to self-regulate their own emotions, for example. 8 , 9 In educational and developmental psychology research, children’s CRF, physical activity, and motor skills have traditionally been paid little attention to. 10 , 11 However, these domains play an important role as part of the typical developmental cascades shaping preschool and early school age. 12 , 13 Accordingly, in recent years, there has been a growing awareness of the critical role of visual-motor coordination and circumscribed motor coordination disorders, referred to as Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), 14 , 15 , 16 as well as childhood obesity. 17 Motor skills develop along a continuum in close association with other domains such as executive functions and social behaviour. For instance, coordination, balance, and handwriting involve complex skills 15 , 18 , 19 and are part of everyday activities at school. Difficulties with holding and moving a pencil, putting on shoes during lesson breaks, or clumsiness in group-based games can impact school performance and social participation. Not surprisingly, children’s motor abilities have been found to affect their self-esteem, well-being, acceptance by peers, and academic achievement. 18 , 20 , 21 In the context of the current findings, CRF may be an indicator of children’s day-to-day levels of physical activity, which are not only paramount for motor skills and overall health but also play an important role in social interactions and inclusion in games among children. In Visier-Alfonso et al.’s models, the one and only stable and significant association across both sexes is the path from CRF to psychological wellbeing. This underscores that physical activity is universally foundational for participation and peer acceptance at school age, and thereby affects trajectories of long-term academic success and wellbeing.

After a close look at Visier-Alfonso et al.’s findings, the main takeaway is perhaps that health practitioners, education professionals, and parents should stress less about limiting screen time and instead focus on increasing opportunities for daily physical activities that will benefit children’s CRF. According to the current evidence, better CRF then has both direct and indirect beneficial effects beyond physical health on today’s children’s psychological wellbeing and academic achievement.

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Julia Jaekel

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The 5 Key Benefits of Physical Education in Schools

Introduction.

Physical Education (PE) is an essential component of the educational curriculum. Far from being just an outlet for physical activity, PE in schools offers a multitude of benefits for students. This blog post explores five significant benefits of incorporating physical education in school curricula.

1. Physical Health and Fitness

Developing Healthy Bodies: PE plays a crucial role in promoting physical health and fitness. Regular physical activity helps students maintain a healthy weight, build and strengthen muscles, and improve cardiovascular health. This physical development is crucial during the formative school years.

2. Mental and Emotional Well-being

Boosting Mental Health: Physical education contributes significantly to mental and emotional well-being. Exercise is known to release endorphins, the body�s natural mood lifters, which can reduce stress and anxiety. PE provides an outlet for releasing tension and promoting mental clarity, contributing to overall emotional balance.

3. Social Skills and Teamwork

Enhancing Social Interaction: PE fosters social skills and teamwork. Participating in team sports and activities teaches students about cooperation, leadership, and effective communication. These social skills, developed through physical education, are vital for personal and professional success.

4. Academic Performance

Supporting Cognitive Functions: There is a strong link between physical activity and improved academic performance. Regular physical activity is known to enhance cognitive functions, such as concentration, memory, and creativity, leading to better performance in academic subjects.

5. Instilling Lifelong Habits

Promoting Lifelong Fitness: Physical education instills lifelong habits of regular exercise. By exposing students to various sports and physical activities, PE encourages them to find physical activities they enjoy, fostering a lifelong commitment to health and fitness.

Additional Benefits of Physical Education

Developing motor skills.

PE helps in the development of motor skills. Activities like throwing, catching, jumping, and running enhance hand-eye coordination, balance, and agility, which are essential for overall physical development.

Building Self-Esteem and Confidence

Physical education can significantly boost self-esteem and confidence. Achievements in sports and physical activities provide a sense of accomplishment, while also helping students understand and appreciate their bodies' capabilities.

Addressing Health Challenges

With rising concerns over childhood obesity and sedentary lifestyles, PE plays a critical role in addressing these health challenges. It provides a structured environment for engaging in regular physical activity, combating the risks associated with a sedentary lifestyle.

Encouraging Inclusivity and Respect

PE promotes inclusivity and respect. Inclusive PE classes where students of all abilities participate together foster an environment of mutual respect and understanding.

Physical Education is not just an ancillary part of the school curriculum but a vital component that offers extensive benefits. From enhancing physical health to improving mental well-being, fostering social skills, boosting academic performance, and instilling lifelong fitness habits, the importance of PE in schools cannot be overstated. It prepares students not only for academic success but for a healthier, balanced, and fulfilling life.

Kinaesthetic learning: unveiling its importance in education, comparing school curricula: ib, american, or british - which is right for your child, 3 reasons igcse is a perfect fit for your child.

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Physical Education School Specialty • Jul 20, 2017 • Last Modified: Dec 20, 2018

How Does Physical Activity Affect Academic Performance?

Phospholipid bilayers? Pythagorean Theorem? The Lusitania? Kennedy Who?

And so it goes. Students in every grade level at schools across the country are struggling in class. It’s not because they’re underachievers, they’re not smart, or they don’t care. It’s because we’re working against them. The longer children and teens are forced to sit and grow roots in their chairs, the harder it will be for them to bloom.

More Physical Activity May Mean Improved Student Scores

There is myriad research that proves that students need adequate amounts of physical activity throughout the school day—not only does it prevent obesity and obesity-related issues, but students also perform better academically.

Just ask the CDC, Columbia University, the New York City Health Department and Department of Education, the Universities of Illinois, West Virginia, and California.

They’ve all published research that stands behind the need for physical education in the school system.

The CDC states, “…physical activity can have an impact on cognitive skills and attitudes and academic behavior, all of which are important components of improved academic performance. These include enhanced concentration and attention as well as improved classroom behavior.”

And there’s more. Active Living Research says, “In some cases, more time in physical education leads to improved grades and standardized test scores.” In schools that are under government mandates to bridge the achievement gap (and when those mandates encourage “teaching to the test”), physical education can actually help improve students’ scores.

Unfortunately, many schools cut physical education class and PE funding with the belief that more rigid classroom time would somehow stimulate students to learn more. It’s an incorrect belief, and there’s scientific evidence to prove it.

Exercise is Important to Development of Academic & Social Skills

Exercise directly impacts the behavior and development of the brain. “It is likely that the effects of physical activity on cognition would be particularly important in the highly plastic developing brains of youth,” according to a 2010 essay penned by Charles Basch of Columbia University.

He summarized how exercise may affect executive functioning:

Increased oxygen flow to the brain
Increased brain neurotransmitters
“[Increased] brain-derived neurotrophins that support neuronal differentiation and survival in the developing brain.” Neurotrophins assure the survival of neurons in areas responsible for learning, memory, and higher thinking.

Physical activity has benefits beyond improved grades, too. Basch extrapolates current research and connects physical activity to absenteeism, drop-out rates, and social connectedness.

“Drop-out rates were lower for youth who consistently participated in interscholastic sports,” he writes, though he cautions that forcing kids to join sports won’t solve the drop-out problem that plagues many inner city schools, it simply may foster an environment of connectedness that could keep at-risk students attending school.

That’s the core of it all; that’s why we’re here. We want our students to get a quality education, even though their life situation or choices often make it difficult. But every child, regardless of financial background, should have equal access to excellent education.

It’s not good enough to push them through the school system and let them fend for themselves in the real world. We must use their formative years to give them the tools they can use to survive and provide for their own families. When they have children, they’ll be able to pass on knowledge we gave them. We’re creating a positive future for generations to come.

Responding to Research on the Importance of PE

So what can school districts do to inject more activity and movement into the school day?

First, administrators must let go of the dated idea that PE must take a backseat.

“There is currently no evidence indicating that this strategy is, in fact, effective in increasing standardized test scores,” according to the Columbia University essay. “In fact, a growing body of evidence shows that increased time for physical education and other school-based physical activity programs is associated with either a neutral or positive impact on academic outcomes.”

By the way, Columbia University is ranked among the leaders in the top-tier of best research universities in the U.S.

The evidence is clear. Physical activity should have a place in the curriculum of every school that’s serious about teaching its kids.

SHAPE America recommends 60 minutes of physical activity each day for children and adolescents. Schools should provide 150 minutes per week of instructional physical education for elementary school children, and 225 minutes per week for middle and high school students throughout the school year.

Adequate PE curriculum can help children achieve these numbers, in turn creating healthy bodies and eager-to-learn minds. Adequate physical education doesn’t stop there; it sets children up for a healthy adulthood, perpetuating a cycle of well-being for generations to come.

What’s the missing link between reducing obesity and increasing America’s ability to compete in a tough global economy? Physical education.

More PE Teacher Tips and Inspiration

Looking for more ways to get your students engaged and active? Help to teach your students the value of physical health and wellness by giving them positive experiences in PE class. Not only will these learning experiences help to encourage a healthier lifestyle, but it will also play a positive role in boosting academic performance and learning capabilities well beyond the PE classroom.

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Association of Practice of Sports in and out-of-school with Scholar Performance – Evidence from Moscow and Saint Petersburg: a Longitudinal Study

Edgar Demetrio Tovar-García
Published 2017

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Int J Environ Res Public Health

Relationship between Physical Fitness and Academic Performance in University Students

Laura redondo-flórez.

1 Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, 28670 Madrid, Spain

Domingo Jesús Ramos-Campo

2 Department of Health and Human Performance, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Martin Fierro Street, s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain

Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez

Associated data.

Not applicable.

Several studies involving students have been developed with the objective to analyse the influence of different factors on academic performance. Nevertheless, all these studies were focused on stress and sympathetic modulation response instead of contemplating other physiological parameters that may affect academic performance. The aim of the present study was to analyse body composition, cardiovascular, sleep habits and physical activity factors related to the academic performance of university students. Two hundred and sixty-one students with bachelor’s degrees in physical activity and sports science participated in the present study (age: 22.49 ± 3.84 years; weight: 73.94 ± 11.4 kg; height: 176.28 ± 7.68 cm; 87.7% males). Participants were divided into two groups according to their academic performance: low academic performance group (LAPG) and high academic performance group (HAPG). Body composition, blood pressure, physical activity and sleep habits were measured, and maximum oxygen uptake was estimated by the Cooper’s 12 min run test. The results show that students with a high academic performance presented a higher VO 2 max than the LAPG (LAPG = 40.32 ± 6.07; HAPG = 47.91 ± 6.89 mL/kg/min; p < 0.001), as well as lower diastolic blood pressure (LAPG = 72.44 ± 14.27; HAPG = 67.48 ± 13.50 mmHg; p < 0.01) and insomnia levels caused by breathing problems (LAPG = 0.37 ± 0.8; HAPG = 0.13 ± 0.42 a.u.; p = 0.046). Therefore, we found a relevant association between academic performance and VO 2 max, diastolic blood pressure, and insomnia caused by breathing problems. These results highlight the importance of applying different programmes that may improve these factors, especially those related to physical activity and sleep habits in order to improve academic achievement.

1. Introduction

Academic performance could be a useful tool to evaluate learning in a university environment. In this context, several factors have been highlighted as important determinants of academic performance. Firstly, physical activity is thought to be a key element that may have a great impact on academic performance, since previous researchers indicated an improvement in different cognitive skills, such as execution, decision, perception, concentration and memory, which would aid regular activity practice [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Furthermore, previous researchers found a positive correlation between vigorous physical activity and higher academic performance [ 4 ]. Secondly, stress has also been highlighted as an important component that could have a negative impact on academic performance. Previous research described how acute stress led to a reduced blood flow in the prefrontal cortex, triggering a reduction in oxygen and nutrients in this area, causing concentration difficulties, lower memory potential and more decision making [ 5 , 6 ].

Additionally, stress compromises synaptic efficacy as well as cortical plasticity [ 7 ], which might hinder the learning process. Regarding stress, anxiety is also associated with academic achievement, since previous researchers found a negative association between high scores in trait anxiety (a measure of the anxiety levels) and academic performance in young students [ 8 ], showing that students with higher levels of anxiety have a worse academic performance. In this context, with the objective to determine anxiety levels and their influence on psychophysiological response, several authors measured heart rate in order to evaluate the sympathetic modulation of students in different academic fields [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. High anxiety levels are related to autonomic activation [ 10 ], suggesting that greater anxiety levels led to higher autonomic modulation and lower academic achievement. Thirdly, cultural context may also have a great impact on learning since it has been found that students who work and study simultaneously or who live with their parents were more likely to abandon their academic studies [ 12 , 13 ].

On the contrary, some researchers found that family members provided both affective and economical support for students; students who had a higher perception of family support were more focused on achieving their academic objectives [ 14 , 15 ]. Regarding migration issues, previous studies described how migrant students who had fewer difficulties facing a host culture had more opportunities to earn better academic achievements [ 16 ]. Finally, another key factor that might affect academic performance is body mass index (BMI). Previous researchers found a negative association between high values of BMI and worse academic performance [ 17 , 18 ]. These high values of BMI could also be related to decreased physical activity, longer screen time or playing videogames [ 19 , 20 , 21 ], as well as unhealthy nutritional habits, including the consumption of sugary beverages and high-calorie foods [ 22 ]. According to these findings, nutrition is also a considerable factor that may compromise BMI and, consequently, academic performance.

In order to consider the importance of physical activity and its impact on academic performance, previous researchers indicated the presence of a substance that might improve academic achievement. Recent literature suggested the presence of a brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), whose synthesis is improved by cardiorespiratory fitness and whose activity could affect academic performance [ 23 , 24 ]. BDNF plays an important task in different brain functions and processes [ 25 ], such as providing synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus, modulating the creation of neuronal circuits, influencing emotional decision-making performance and helping to establish long-term memory [ 26 , 27 , 28 ]. Furthermore, lower levels of BDNF have been found in obese children and adolescents [ 29 , 30 ], suggesting the possibility of reduced academic performance. Additionally, previous researchers found a positive association between high academic performance and healthy physical condition, measured through different physical tests, such as short abs, long jump to feet together, forward trunk flex, elbows flexo-extension and the course Navette test. Students who had greater academic performance showed higher scores in these tests [ 31 ].

Several studies on students have been developed with the objective to analyse the influence of different factors on academic performance. Previous researchers evaluated in school students the impact of age, weight, body mass index and anxiety in academic grades, showing a negative correlation between these factors and academic performance [ 32 ]. In children of North African descent, the influence of nationality on autonomical nervous system stress markers, physical activity levels and academic performance was analysed, although without showing the differences between these children and their non-immigrant counterparts [ 33 ]. For university students, the psychophysiological stress response and general stress associated with writing a final dissertation in either their native language or a non-native language might affect cortical arousal and academic achievement, regardless of the psychophysiological response to different languages, which is increased in any case [ 34 , 35 ]. Nevertheless, all of these studies strongly focused on stress and sympathetic modulation response instead of contemplating other physiological parameters that may affect academic performance. The aim of the present study was to analyse body composition, cardiovascular function, sleep habits and physical activity factors related to the academic performance of university students. The initial hypothesis was that high-academic-performance students would present lower BMI and blood pressure levels, as well as having a greater physical activity and better sleep habits than students with lower academic performance.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. design.

A descriptive and non-experimental study was performed. The study analysed anthropometric and physiological variables, physical activity and sleep quality habits and academic performance in exercise physiology matter in university students.

2.2. Participants

Two hundred and sixty-one students with bachelor’s degrees in physical activity and sports science voluntarily participated in the present study (age: 22.49 ± 3.84 years; weight: 73.94 ± 11.4 kg; height: 176.28 ± 7.68 cm; 87.7% males and 12.3% females). All of them were students of the subject “exercise physiology” in this study. To achieve the main objective of the present research, participants were divided in two groups of equal size according to their academic performance (percentile 50). The low academic performance group (LAPG: n = 130) included scores between 0.2 and 5.0 of 10, and the high academic performance group (HAPG: n = 131) included scores between 5.0 and 9.4 of 10. Prior to the test, the procedures of the study were explained to all subjects, and they provided signed informed consent following the Helsinki Declaration (as revised in Brazil, 2013). All the data were anonymously collected, and the procedure was approved by the European University of Madrid Ethical Committee (CIPI/18/074).

2.3. Procedures

All measurements were taken one week before the experiment and the end of the academic year. All the tests were completed in one testing session. During the testing session, anthropometric variables, blood pressure, physical activity questionnaire, Pittsburg sleep quality questionnaire [ 36 ], and Cooper’s 12 min run test [ 37 ] were performed.

When participants arrived at the athletics track, the height and weight of the students were measured with a portable Seca stadiometer 208 (Vogel & Halke, Hamburg, Germany) and with a portable Seca 762 scale (Vogel & Halke, Hamburg, Germany), respectively. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated using the classic formula: weight(kg)/height(m) 2 . Both measurements were taken 3 h after the last meal, with the participants dressed in light clothing without shoes. After that, brachial blood pressure was measured twice after at least 5 min of rest in a seated position, with an appropriately sized cuff placed on the right arm, using a validated digital electronic tensiometer (Omron M4, Omron Corp., Kyoto, Japan). To analyse physical activity profiles, the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) was employed [ 38 ]. In addition, sleep patterns were analysed using Pittsburg sleep quality questionnaire [ 36 ]. Both physical activity and sleep questionnaires were answered by self-reporting. Once participants had filled out the questionaries, they performed a Cooper’s 12 min run test [ 37 ]. The Cooper test was performed on a 400 m synthetic athletic track with the supervision of the research team. Before the test began, participants performed a 15 min warm-up, including running at low intensity, joint mobility, dynamic stretching, and progressive running sets. Subsequently, the participants carried out the classic test protocol, which consisted of covering the maximum possible distance for 12 min. Then, the total distance covered after 12 min by the experimental subjects was measured in metres. VO 2 max was predicted using the following formula [ 39 ]: VO 2 max (mL/kg/min) = (22.351 × distance covered in kilometres) − 11.288.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

A statistical analysis was carried out using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were calculated. Before using para-metric tests, the assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity were verified using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test.

An independent t -test was conducted to explore differences between groups in the analysed variables. For all procedures, a level of p ≤ 0.05 was selected to indicate statistical significance.

Table 1 presents the summary statistics for the results of anthropometric, physiological variables and sleep patterns in the LAPG and HAPG. No significant differences were found in body composition variables and in physical activity habits between groups. However, the HAPG group had significantly higher VO 2 max values (LAPG = 40.32 ± 6.07; HAPG = 47.91 ± 6.89 mL/kg/min; p < 0.001) and lower diastolic blood pressure than the LAPG (LAPG = 72.44 ± 14.27; HAPG = 67.48 ± 13.50 mmHg; p < 0.01). Finally, a significantly lower value of insomnia caused by breathing problems was found in HAPG in comparison with LAPG (LAPG = 0.37 ± 0.8; HAPG = 0.13 ± 0.42 a.u.; p = 0.046). No significant differences were found in other sleep quality variables.

Anthropometric and physiological variables and physical activity and sleep habits differences between low academic performance group (LAPG) and high academic performance group (HAPG).

					95% Confidence
Variables	LAPG	HAPG	T	-Value	Lower	Upper
Grade	3.72 ± 0.91	6.57 ± 1.03	−23.52	<0.01	−3.08	−2.60
Height (cm)	176.37 ± 8.05	176.2 ± 7.31	0.177	0.860	−1.71	2.04
Weight (kg)	73.95 ± 11.17	73.92 ± 11.67	0.018	0.986	−2.76	2.81
Body mass index (kg/m )	23.70 ± 2.81	23.72 ± 3.03	−0.036	0.971	−0.73	0.70
Physical activity (hours per week)	7.71 ± 4.58	7.74 ± 4.27	−0.06	0.953	−1.11	1.04
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)	116.20 ± 19.23	114.67 ± 19.88	0.625	0.533	−3.30	6.38
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)	72.44 ± 14.27	67.48 ± 13.50	2.84	<0.01	1.52	8.40
VO max (mL/kg/min)	40.32 ± 6.07	47.91 ± 6.89	−9.313	<0.01	−9.19	−5.98
Time to fall asleep (min)	28.24 ± 26.16	24.22 ± 23.14	0.826	0.411	−5.64	13.69
Estimated hours of sleep	7.08 ± 1.03	7.42 ± 1.10	−1.567	0.120	−0.76	0.09
Insomnia caused by not falling asleep	1.17 ± 0.89	1.32 ± 0.93	−0.83	0.408	−0.516	0.211
Insomnia caused by night waking	1.05 ± 0.97	1.02 ± 0.97	0.17	0.864	−0.352	0.42
Insomnia caused by incontinence	0.93 ± 1.03	0.83 ± 0.97	0.482	0.631	−0.3	0.490
Insomnia caused by breathing problems	0.37 ± 0.8	0.13 ± 0.42	2.02	0.046	0.005	0.477
Insomnia caused by coughing and snoring	0.33 ± 0.73	0.34 ± 0.81	−0.85	0.930	−0.326	0.299
Insomnia caused by cold feeling	0.63 ± 0.83	0.63 ± 0.76	0.021	0.983	−0.308	0.315
Insomnia caused by hot feeling	0.85 ± 0.93	0.66 ± 0.80	1.15	0.252	−0.142	0.537
Insomnia caused by nightmares	0.66 ± 0.76	0.69 ± 0.79	−0.185	0.853	−0.339	0.281
Insomnia caused by pain feeling	0.34 ± 0.61	0.340.60	0.025	0.98	−0.235	0.241

4. Discussion

The aim of the present study was to analyse body composition, cardiovascular function, sleep habits and physical activity factors related to the academic performance of university students. The initial hypothesis was partially confirmed since students with a higher academic performance presented a higher VO 2 max than students with a lower academic performance, as well as lower diastolic blood pressure and insomnia levels caused by breathing problems.

VO 2 max is the maximal rate of pulmonary oxygen uptake during the practice of a physical activity that requires sufficient muscle mass [ 40 ]. Furthermore, VO 2 max has been highlighted as an inverse parameter related to cardiovascular disease, with lower rates of VO 2 max being linked to a greater cardiovascular risk [ 41 , 42 , 43 ]. Lower VO 2 max levels are also associated with a worse physical activity condition, as indicated by previous authors and seen in the lower VO 2 max (maximum oxygen consumption capacity) and aerobic capacity demonstrated by subjects [ 44 ]. Regarding the influence of VO 2 max and academic achievement, higher VO 2 max rates were also found to be positively correlated with academic performance in university students [ 45 ], and our findings agree with these results since the high academic performance group showed greater VO 2 max rates. This is explained by the fact that maximum oxygen consumption capacity correlates with better physical activity conditions and, consequently, with better academic achievement, likely due to the benefits of physical activity. These benefits may be explained by several factors. Firstly, these benefits could be justified by the presence of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), whose synthesis is enhanced by cardiorespiratory fitness and whose activity could improve academic performance [ 23 , 24 ]. Secondly, this difference in physical activity benefits may also be supported by the higher levels of exercise in the high academic performance group. Finally, this is also explained by the fact that, if there were higher rates of VO 2 max, there would be greater O 2 concentrations available to different tissues, including CNS, and this would improve prefrontal cortex functions due to increased oxygen availability, as previous authors have suggested [ 46 ].

Regarding blood pressure and academic performance, the low academic performance group showed significantly higher values of diastolic blood pressure. Nevertheless, we found several discrepancies around this issue, since no significant differences were found between academic performance and diastolic blood pressure in previous research [ 47 ].

Furthermore, previous research described how high values of blood pressure, without specifying if it was systolic or diastolic, were significantly associated with lower mean academic performance scores in school students studying some subjects [ 48 ]. The results of the present study were consistent with this study, and the difference between students’ ages—which may constitute a confounding factor, as well as the fact that our results for diastolic blood pressure could not been defined as clinically greater—was only significantly higher between both performance groups. Regarding systolic blood pressure, i previous researchers described how systolic blood pressure was significantly negatively associated with academic achievement [ 49 ], but no significant differences were found in the present study related to systolic blood pressure and academic performance. When contemplating all of these discrepancies, we suggest that more research is conducted on the relationship between blood pressure and academic success.

Regarding insomnia and its impact on academic performance, it has been widely reported that insomnia may significantly reduce academic achievement [ 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 ]. The results of the present study are consistent with these studies since those in the low academic performance group experienced more episodes of insomnia. In the present study, a positive association was found between lower academic performance and insomnia caused by breathing problems. This relationship was consistent with previous studies such as [ 54 , 55 ], where snoring or obstructive sleep apnoea were related to poorer academic performance. However, this finding simply reveals a relationship between the variables and does not establish the direction of causation or eliminate the influence of an intervening variable, some causal explanations are more likely than others. A likely explanation of the relationship between insomnia and academic achievement could be that poor sleep is associated with a lack of concentration and incapability to effectively operate during the day [ 56 , 57 ], which may have a negative impact on academic performance. Additionally, previous researchers also found that lower VO 2 max rates were associated with worse sleep quality [ 58 ]. The results of the present study agree with this study since a positive relation was found between students in the low academic performance, who showed fewer VO 2 max rates and insomnia problems. Thus, the fact that the low academic performance group showed poorer academic achievement may suggest a relationship between low rates in VO 2 max, insomnia and academic performance. Nevertheless, previous researchers also pointed out that there is no association between academic achievement and insomnia problems [ 59 ]. This controversy may indicate that more studies are needed to establish this relationship.

4.1. Practical Applications

Physical activity is indicated as an important key factor of academic performance since it improves brain neurotrophic factors, brain development, and overall health status.

Additionally, sleep habits have also been highlighted as important elements of academic achievements since successful sleep quality and time is related to better academic achievement.

Therefore, it is possible to consider the implementation of student programmes, through the utilization of seminars, talks and different communication routes, with the aim of providing advice and recommendations to help improve their exercise and sleep habits; consequently, they would be able to enhance their academic performance.

4.2. Limitation of the Study and Future Research Lines

The main limitation of the present research was the lack of biological measures of neurotrophin family proteins (BDNF) due to resource availability. Future research may address these issues, as it would improve the total knowledge of physical activity effect on academic performance.

Additionally, another limitation of the study was that we did not consider the effect that stress may have on sleep disorders, considering it in a SUDS (Subjective Units of Distress) scale. Regarding academic performance parameters, only grades were considered as indicators of academic achievement, but it would be interesting to consider the use of different skills, such as communication, teamwork, creativity or critical thinking, in order to contemplate different aspects of the university experience. Future studies may contemplate these issues.

Moreover, another limitation of this study was its low number of participants, since increasing the study population may offer a better extrapolation of results to the general student population. Future research may contemplate increasing the number of participants.

The final limitation of the present study was that we did not consider gender in the study. Considering that the sample was so symmetrically distributed (49.8% males and 50.2% females), it would have been really interesting to see if the discovered differences and correlations are maintained by gender.

Future lines of research should consider the use of effective sleep habits and physical activity interventions that may enhance overall health status, as well as academic performance in students.

5. Conclusions

We found a relevant correlation between academic performance and VO 2 max, diastolic blood pressure and insomnia caused by breathing problems, showing that the low academic performance group had significantly higher diastolic blood pressure and insomnia levels, as well as significantly lower VO 2 max scores. These results highlight the importance of applying different programmes that may improve these factors, especially those related to physical activity and sleep habits, with the aim of enhancing academic achievement.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge the significant contribution of the participants and professors for collaborating in the study. We would also like to acknowledge the involvement of the predoctoral research assistants.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.J.R.-C. and V.J.C.-S.; methodology, D.J.R.-C.; software, L.R.-F.; formal analysis, D.J.R.-C.; investigation, D.J.R.-C.; resources, D.J.R.-C.; writing—original draft preparation, L.R.-F.; writing—review and editing, D.J.R.-C. and V.J.C.-S.; supervision, V.J.C.-S.; project administration, D.J.R.-C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the local ethics committee (reference: CIPI/18/074).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Association of Practice of Sports in and out-of-school with Scholar Performance - Evidence from Moscow and Saint Petersburg: a Longitudinal Study

December 2017
Revista de Educação Física / Journal of Physical Education 86(4)

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lationship between physical activity and academic performance. Adolescents who reported either participating in school-based physical activities, such as PE and team sports, or playing sports with their parents were 20 percent more likely than. ink higher levels of physical fitness withstronger ac. demicimproved academic performance amo.
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Two hundred and sixty-one students with bachelor's degrees in physical activity and sports science participated in the present study (age: 22.49 ± 3.84 years; weight: 73.94 ± 11.4 kg; height: 176.28 ± 7.68 cm; 87.7% males). ... were significantly associated with lower mean academic performance scores in school students studying some ...
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between indicators of physical activity and academic performance were then summarized. Results Across all 50 studies (reported in 43 articles), there were a total of 251 associations between physical activity and academic performance, representing measures of academic achievement, academic behavior, and cognitive skills and attitudes.
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The 5 Key Benefits of Physical Education in Schools

1. Physical Health and Fitness

2. Mental and Emotional Well-being

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5. Instilling Lifelong Habits

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Building Self-Esteem and Confidence

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1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods

2.2. Participants

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2.4. Statistical Analysis

4. Discussion