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• Student Guide: Information Literacy | Meaning & Examples

Student Guide: Information Literacy | Meaning & Examples

Published on May 13, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

Information literacy refers to the ability to find, evaluate, and use sources effectively. The term covers a broad range of skills, including the ability to:

• Navigate databases
• Find credible sources
• Cite sources correctly

Table of contents

Why is information literacy important, information literacy skills, finding sources, evaluating sources, citing sources, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about information literacy.

The vast amount of information available online means that it can be hard to distinguish accurate from inaccurate sources. Published articles are not always credible and sometimes reflect a biased viewpoint intended to sway the reader’s opinion.

Outside of academia, think of the concept of fake news : deliberately spreading misinformation intended to undermine other viewpoints. Or native advertising , designed to match other content on a site so that readers don’t notice they’re reading an advertisement.

It’s important to be aware of such unreliable content, to think critically about where you get your information, and to evaluate sources effectively, both in your research and in your media consumption more generally.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Information literacy is really a combination of skills and competencies that guide your research. Each stage of a research project, from choosing a thesis statement to writing your research paper , will require you to use specific skills and knowledge.

Being information literate means that you:

• Know how to find sources
• Can assess the authority and credibility of a source
• Can distinguish biased from unbiased content
• Can use relevant sources to inform your research
• Understand what constitutes plagiarism
• Know how to cite your sources correctly

An early stage in the research process is finding relevant sources. It’s important to understand how to search for these sources efficiently.

First, you need to consider what kind of sources you’re looking for. This will depend on the topic and focus of your project, and what stage you are at in the research process.

In the beginning, you may be looking for definitions or broad overviews of a topic. For this, you might use a tertiary source , like an encyclopedia or a dictionary, that is just for your own understanding. Further along, you might look for primary and secondary sources that you will actually cite in your paper. It’s important to ensure that all sources you consult are reliable.

• Websites: Look for websites with legitimate domain extensions (.edu or .gov).
• Search engines: When using search engines to find relevant academic journals and articles, use a trusted resource, like Google Scholar .
• Databases: Check your institution’s library resources to find out what databases they provide access to. Consider what databases are most appropriate to your research.

Finding the right sources means:

• Having a clear research problem
• Knowing what databases and journals are relevant to your research
• Knowing how to narrow and expand your search

Once you have a well-defined research problem, specific keywords, and have chosen a relevant database, you can use Boolean operators to narrow or expand your search. With them, you can prioritize and exclude keywords and search for exact phrases.

Evaluating the quality and credibility of a source is an important way of filtering out misinformation. A reliable source will be unbiased and informed by up-to-date research, and it will cite other credible sources.

You can evaluate the quality of a source using the CRAAP test . “CRAAP” is an acronym that informs the questions you should ask when analyzing a source. It stands for:

• Currency: Is the source recent or outdated?
• Relevance: Is it relevant to your research?
• Authority: Is the journal respected? Is the author an expert in the field?
• Accuracy: Is the information supported by evidence? Does the source provide relevant citations?
• Purpose: Why was the source published? What are the author’s intentions?

How you evaluate a source based on these criteria will depend on the specific subject. In the sciences, conclusions from a source published 20 years ago may have been disproven by recent findings. In a more interpretive subject like English, an article published decades ago might still be relevant.

Just as you look for sources that are supported by evidence and provide correct citations, your own work should provide relevant and accurate citations when you quote or paraphrase a source.

Citing your sources is important because it:

• Allows you to avoid plagiarism
• Establishes the credentials of your sources
• Backs up your arguments with evidence
• Allows your reader to verify the legitimacy of your conclusions

The most common citation styles are:

• APA Style : Typically used in the behavioral and social sciences
• MLA style : Used in the humanities and liberal arts
• Chicago style : Commonly used in the sciences and for history

It’s important to know what citation style your institute recommends. The information you need to include in a citation depends on the type of source you are citing and the specific citation style you’re using. An APA example is shown below.

You can quickly cite sources using Scribbr’s free Citation Generator .

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

Information literacy refers to a broad range of skills, including the ability to find, evaluate, and use sources of information effectively.

• Know how to find credible sources
• Use relevant sources to inform your research

It can sometimes be hard to distinguish accurate from inaccurate sources , especially online. Published articles are not always credible and can reflect a biased viewpoint without providing evidence to support their conclusions.

Information literacy is important because it helps you to be aware of such unreliable content and to evaluate sources effectively, both in an academic context and more generally.

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test  and follow these guidelines:

• The information should be up to date and current.
• The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
• The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
• For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

The CRAAP test is an acronym to help you evaluate the credibility of a source you are considering using. It is an important component of information literacy .

The CRAAP test has five main components:

• Currency: Is the source up to date?
• Relevance: Is the source relevant to your research?
• Authority: Where is the source published? Who is the author? Are they considered reputable and trustworthy in their field?
• Accuracy: Is the source supported by evidence? Are the claims cited correctly?
• Purpose: What was the motive behind publishing this source?

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Ryan, E. (2023, May 31). Student Guide: Information Literacy | Meaning & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved June 9, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/information-literacy/

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Classroom Q&A

With larry ferlazzo.

In this EdWeek blog, an experiment in knowledge-gathering, Ferlazzo will address readers’ questions on classroom management, ELL instruction, lesson planning, and other issues facing teachers. Send your questions to [email protected]. Read more from this blog.

Ways to Strengthen Students’ Information-Literacy Skills

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(This is the final post in a two-part series. You can see Part One here .)

The new question-of-the-week is:

What are the best ways teachers can help students combat “fake news” and develop information-literacy skills?

In Part One, we heard responses from Carla Truttman, Josh Perlman, Jennifer Casa-Todd, Bryan Goodwin, and Frank W. Baker.

Today, this series will finish up with suggestions from Elliott Rebhun, Michael Fisher, Dr. Barbara R. Blackburn, Dr. Laura Greenstein, and Douglas Reeves. I also include comments from readers.

Response From Elliott Rebhun

Elliott Rebhun is the editor-in-chief of Scholastic’s Classroom Magazine Group. He started at Scholastic in 2003 as the editor of The New York Times UPFRONT®, the company’s high school social studies news magazine. Prior to Scholastic, he worked at The Times, both in print and digital, and at Newsweek . He has a B.A. from the College of Arts and Sciences and a B.S. from the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania:

Media literacy has become a focus of instruction nationwide, and while teaching our students that staying informed is important, we also have a responsibility to make sure that kids know how and where to obtain accurate, unbiased information and think critically about that information. P-12 teachers find themselves addressing this daily as they share with their students the skills needed to problem solve and empathize when thinking about issues within our global society, as well as to discern whether the information they obtain is factual or fictional.

Teachers may ask themselves what they can do to weave media literacy into their daily classroom instruction so that students learn how to seek credible information. Students should know the value of reading the news, and facilitating regular classroom discussions about current events is a wonderful way to enhance the culture of literacy within a classroom. News articles written specifically for students across different grade levels and free online resources with civics and media-literacy content such as We the People provide a context for talking about current events and media literacy as an important part of citizenry.

We should also encourage students to seek information on topics of interest, providing kids with opportunities to learn about the world around them and engage in their communities. As part of this, it’s important for educators to explain to their students what fake news is and demonstrate how they should responsibly analyze facts and interpret news to discern what is true and what is false. We cover this topic extensively in Scholastic Classroom Magazines across genres, including news, science, and health. To start, there are four simple strategies that educators of all grade levels can utilize to help their students become conscious and thoughtful consumers of news.

• Be critical. You can’t trust all of the content that you find online, even when someone you know sends it to you. It’s important to think critically about what you read on the internet.
• Search for indicators. Analyze the sources that a news piece cites and be observant of advertisements that can reveal a lot about any hidden goals of an outlet.
• Corroborate. Spend time doing research of your own. Make sure that the source is credible and see if you can verify other sources of the same news.
• Check to be sure. Nonpartisan fact-checking sites such as Factcheck.org and Politifact.com are tools that can help you verify what is true and uncover what is false.

Media-literacy lessons are valuable for students across grade levels, and age-appropriate news content is a wonderful resource to begin these conversations in classrooms. It’s never too late to make media literacy a priority so that our students become good citizens who are knowledgeable, who participate in society, and who work to make it better, because the future belongs to them, and they deserve a great one.

Response From Michael Fisher

Michael Fisher is a former teacher who is now a full-time author and instructional coach. He works with schools around the country, helping to sustain curriculum upgrades, design curriculum, and modernize instruction in immersive technology. His latest book is The Quest for Learning: How to Maximize Student Engagement , published by Solution Tree. For more information, visit The Digigogy Collaborative ( digigogy.com ) or find Michael on Twitter ( @fisher1000 ):

In our book, The Quest for Learning , Marie Alcock, Allison Zmuda, and I discuss concerns with working so openly on the web with networks, resources, and multimedia. We use the acronym VIA to think about information literacy and source validity. The V in VIA stands for “Verifiable Details.” The I stands for “Intuition,” and the A stands for “Authoritative Connection.”

Verifiable Details: Students should get into the habit of comparing resources and corroborating information. For instance, it’s interesting to look at how different news sources handle breaking news. Students can look for similarities in the different sources to determine what information is the most believable. Students can use tools like NewsPaperMap.com to see news sources from all over the world. This gives them the opportunity to look at other countries’ perspectives on the news that our domestic sources are reporting on. They should also be noticing whether or not the sources have links to additional information, references for their claims, citations, and quotes from verifiable sources.

Intuition : If a source sounds salacious or outlandish or too good to be true—then it probably isn’t true. Beyond verifiable details, students should also learn to go with their gut—if a resource seems to be off or misleading, then it probably is. If the resource is demonstratively different from other sources on the same topic, then it is likely questionable. If the source was paid for by a special-interest group, then that might also be a red flag.

Authoritative Connection: What is the affiliation of the creator of the source? What is the parent source of the material? Students should be able to recognize known credible sources. They should also know something about the author that is creating material that is shared online and in print. Does the author have knowledge of the subject matter or topic? What else has the author written or experienced around the topic? Does the author or the parent source have any dubious actions in their background? What is the domain of the source? If it ends in an unfamiliar domain like .biz, .coop, .info, or .club, then the authoritative connection may be thin or nonexistent.

Trustworthy work comes from critical thinking VIA students’ thinking about validity and truth. Students need these cues to prevent them from “researching” and reporting on whatever the first five results in a Google search are.

Also, students could benefit from learning how to use Snopes.com or websites like Politifact to verify the claims that an entity or author might make.

Response From Dr. Barbara R. Blackburn

Dr. Barbara R. Blackburn, ranked #4 in the Top 30 Global Gurus in Education, is the author of 18 books on rigor, motivation, instruction, and leadership. She regularly collaborates with schools and districts for professional development. She can be reached through her website, www.barbarablackburnonline.com :

Years ago, prior to the “fake news” environment of today, I taught my students the difference between fact and opinion. This was important because I used USA Today instead of a textbook for my struggling students and I wanted them to move beyond taking articles at face value. First, we analyzed news stories and identified key facts, which we tried to confirm from another source. Next, we moved into opinions/perspective columns. I particularly liked (and still do) USA Today because they always publish an opposing view to their editorial. In small groups, students read both sides of the issues, listed the facts that supported the author’s opinions, chose the side they agreed with, completed additional research, and then debated another group. This forced them to see the differences between what is news and what is a person’s perspective. I believe this is foundational as students try to determine what is actually fact-based news, whether it comes from a newspaper, website, podcast, talk show, or TV.

Once students know the basic differences between factual news stories and opinions, we need to address whether factual news is really factual. What do I mean? I recently talked with a student who said that the moon landing never occurred. That’s an example of “fake news.” The student showed me the website he used to find that information, but he simply assumed that, since it was on the internet, it was true.

Our next step is to teach students how to evaluate the credibility of the source providing the “facts.” After leading a discussion on how to determine if a source is credible, show two examples of stories, one fake, one real. Work together to identify the source, research information about the source, and determine its credibility. Next, students, working in small groups, are assigned a fake-news topic or story that has been shared on the internet, either via Facebook, Twitter, or via a Google search. Students must research the source, determine if it is fake or real, and write their opinion of the credibility of the source, using at least three pieces of valid evidence to support their opinion. As an extension, after further discussion, students can write blog entries to rebut the fake-news claims.

Response From Dr. Laura Greenstein

A lifelong educator, Dr. Laura Greenstein has served as a teacher and school leader, professor and professional-development specialist. Her passion for excellence in assessment is evident in her numerous books, articles, and blogs on the topic:

ASSESSING INFORMATION LITERACY

Is all the news really bogus? If it’s hard for adults to sort through all of it, imagine how hard it is for students to grasp the idea that people they are told to respect and admire are trying to fill their minds with untruths.

Rather than fretting over all the news that’s not fit to print, it is more important that our students are able to evaluate information and sources. Assessment of what one sees, hears, reads, and views requires an understanding of its origin and intent.

Distinguishing truth from lies, accuracy from misrepresentation, and the full facts from distortion is difficult for even the most media-savvy adults. The goal of information literacy is for students to acquire, analyze, and use information. Rubrics and annotated checklists can accompany this RAP.

R eliability : How does the author support, defend, and further her statements, claims, or position? Can it be verified? Do other sources have similar or contradictory information?

A uthority : Who is the source/author, and what are the individuals’ or organizations’ credentials?

P urpose : What is the author trying to convince me to believe, do, or think? Does he seem to have a preference or bias in his writing?

There are numerous teacher resources on developing student’s information literacy. Equally, if not more important, is assessing student’s information literacy. One option is FACTITIOUS that presents headlines and stories for students to analyze and swipe either real or fake. However, it is more relevant for students to evaluate material related to their current learning goals: a specific period of history, scientific research, healthy-living advice, or biographical information. This may begin with a whole-class review of source material using the RAP model, followed by individual or small-group review of references and further research.

Follow-up with individual or small-group projects on selected subtopics of their interest. Students can accompany their presentations with statements for the audience to evaluate as real or fake.

A. Using e-cigarettes can be just as dangerous as smoking. B. Vitamin cigarettes will add years to your life. C. Robassia is now selling a natural product to counteract the toxic effects of tobacco.

As time and learning intentions allow, students can develop their own fake-news site using low or high tech. Here are some professionally designed examples: All About Explorers , Pacific Northwest Tree Octopus , and DHMO: Dihydrogen Monoxide Research Division . Students present their work and their audience, peers, teacher, or larger community evaluates the sites.

Extend learning beyond content knowledge by asking students to make recommendations, compare divergent ideas, synthesize ideas from multiple sources, and present and defend informed arguments. Fortify information literacy by weaving it directly into teaching, learning, and assessing rather than setting it apart.

Exit Slip: In the era of “fake news,” choosing the right answer is still a basic tenet of assessment. Which answer is correct?

A. The more you study, the higher your test scores. B. Assessment derives from the Latin, “Assidere.” C. Test scores in the United States continue to rise.

The correct answer is B. Assidere, meaning to sit beside and guide another. A. Review, drill, and practice may raise specific test scores, but assessment is intended to reliably gauge a student’s progress and inform educational responses. C. It depends which test scores and for what purpose.

Response From Douglas Reeves

Douglas Reeves is the author of more than 30 books and 100 articles on educational leadership, teaching, and student achievement. His videos and articles are all free downloads at CreativeLeadership.net . Doug Tweets @DouglasReees and can be reached at [email protected] :

My rule is that the internet is a hypothesis, not a conclusion. Students may start with a source that takes a point of view and makes claims about a political, educational, economic, or other issue. They then have the obligation to find at least two additional sources, one of which opposes the original claim and another one which either supports the original claim or perhaps offers an alternative claim. The student’s job is to evaluate the credibility of each source and make an argument about which sources are more and less credible. Primary-grade students can sniff out misleading claims in advertisements, and I think the same approach should be at the heart of graduate-level classes in research and statistics, particularly those classes taken by educators and administrators.

Responses From Readers

Jeff Norris:

I teach Higher Level IB Biology. During the students’ first year, I have them write a Literature Review, despite it not really being directly related to the syllabus or their exam scores.

HOWEVER, the ability to research sources, synthesize ideas, and write about them is a fundamental skill that I PREACH to them. These skills will help them with their Internal Assessments (practicals) in science classes, and their Extended Essays which are diploma requirements. More importantly, these are skills they’ll need at the next level and beyond when having to prepare “papers” or “reports.”

The task: anywhere between 500-1250 words on any topic they can relate back to biology or specifically the syllabus, sources (at least 5 or more primary) need to be fully and properly cited in text and listed in the lit. cited section at the end. We go over these and look at students statements, perspectives, and the sources used to support their claims. We differentiate between primary and secondary or even tertiary sources (i.e., blogs written by people only reading news outlets). We also delve into which sources are more reliable or even just “sound” more believable in the context of the Lit Review. It’s one of my favorite tasks, assignments despite not being required or directly related to their exams. We all learn new things (i.e., facts/knowledge/information) and whether or not such things are believable, supported, or just personal opinions, ideas, or beliefs.

Thanks to Elliott, Laura, Michael, Barbara, and Doug, and to readers, for their contributions.

Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post.

Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at [email protected] . When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it’s selected or if you’d prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.

You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo .

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Information Literacy

11 A Beginner’s Guide to Information Literacy

By emily metcalf.

Introduction

Welcome to “A Beginner’s Guide to Information Literacy,” a step-by-step guide to understanding information literacy concepts and practices.

This guide will cover each frame of the “ Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education ,” a document created by the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) to help educators and librarians think about, teach, and practice information literacy (see Figure 11.1). The goal of this guide is to break down the basic concepts in the Framework and put them in accessible, digestible language so that we can think critically about the information we’re exposed to in our daily lives.

To start, let’s look at the ACRL definition of “information literacy,” so we have some context going forward:

Information Literacy is the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning.

Boil that down and what you have are the essentials of information literacy: asking questions, finding information, evaluating information, creating information, and doing all of that responsibly and ethically.

We’ll be looking at each of the frames alphabetically, since that’s how they are presented in the framework. None of these frames is more important than another, and all need to be used in conjunction with the others, but we have to start somewhere, so alphabetical it is!

In order, the frames are

• Authority is constructed and contextual
• Information creation as a process
• Information has value
• Research as inquiry
• Scholarship as conversation
• Searching as strategic exploration

Just because we’re laying this out alphabetically does not mean you have to go through it in order. Some of the sections reference frames previously mentioned, but for the most part you can jump to wherever you like and use this guide however you see fit. You can also open up the framework using the link above or in the attached resources to read the framework in its original form and follow along with each section.

The following sections originally appeared as blog posts for the Texas A&M Corpus Christi’s library blog. Edits have been made to remove institutional context, but you can see the original posts in the Mary and Jeff Bell Library blog archives .

Authority is Constructed and Contextual

The first frame is “ Authority is Constructed and Contextual .” There’s a lot to unpack in that language, so let’s get started.

Start with the word “authority.”

At the root of “authority” is the word “author.” So start there: who wrote the piece of information you’re reading? Why are they writing? What stake do they have in the information they’re presenting? What are their credentials (You can straight up google their name to learn more about them)? Who are they affiliated with? A public organization? A university? A company trying to make a profit? Check it out.

Now let’s talk about how authority is “constructed.”

Have you ever heard the phrase “social construct”? Some people say gender is a social construct or language, written and spoken, is a construct. “Constructed” basically means humans made it up at some point to instill order in their communities. It’s not an observable, scientifically inevitable fact. When we say “authority” is constructed, we’re basically saying that we as individuals and as a society choose who we give authority to, and sometimes we might not be choosing based on facts.

A common way of assessing authority is by looking at an author’s education. We’re inclined to trust someone with a PhD over someone with a high school diploma because we think the person with a PhD is smarter. That’s a construct. We’re conditioned to think that someone with more education is smarter than people with less education, but we don’t know it for a fact.

There are a lot of reasons someone might not seek out higher education. They might have to work full time or take care of a family or maybe they just never wanted to go to college. None of these factors impact someone’s intelligence or ability to think critically.

If aliens land on South Padre Island, TX, there will be many voices contributing to the information collected about the event. Someone with a PhD in astrophysics might write an article about the mechanical workings of the aliens’ spaceship. Cool; they are an authority on that kind of stuff, so I trust them.

But the teenager who was on the island and watched the aliens land has first-hand experience of the event, so I trust them too. They have authority on the event even though they don’t have a PhD in astrophysics.

So, we cannot think someone with more education is inherently more trustworthy or smarter or has more authority than anyone else. Some people who are authorities on a subject are highly educated, some are not.

Likewise, let’s say I film the aliens landing and stream it live on Facebook. At the same time, a police officer gives an interview on the news that says something contradicting my video evidence. All of a sudden, I have more authority than the police officer. Many of us are raised to trust certain people automatically based on their jobs, but that’s also a construct. The great thing about critical thinking is that we can identify what is fact and fiction, and we can decide for ourselves who to trust.

The final word is “contextual.”

This one is a little simpler. If I go to the hospital and a medical doctor takes out my appendix, I’ll probably be pretty happy with the outcome. If I go to the hospital and Dr. Jill Biden, a professor of English, takes out my appendix, I’m probably going to be less happy with the results.

Medical doctors have authority in the context of medicine. Dr. Jill Biden has authority in the context of education. And Doctor Who has authority in the context of inter-galactic heroics and nice scarves.

This applies when we talk about experiential authority, too. If an eighth-grade teacher tells me what it’s like to be a fourth-grade teacher, I will not trust their authority. I will, however, trust a fourth-grade teacher to tell me about teaching fourth grade.

The Takeaway

Basically, when we think about authority, we need to ask ourselves, “Do I trust them? Why?” If they do not have experience with the subject (like witnessing an event or holding a job in the field) or subject expertise (like education or research), then maybe they aren’t an authority after all.

P.S. I’m sorry for the uncalled-for dig, Dr. Biden. I’m sure you’d do your best with an appendectomy.

Ask Yourself

• In what context are you an authority?
• If you needed to figure out how to do a kickflip on a skateboard, who would you ask? Who’s an authority in that situation?

Information Creation as a Process

The second frame is “ Information Creation as a Process .”

Information Creation

So first of all, let’s get this out of the way: everyone is a creator of information. When you write an essay, you’re creating information. When you log the temperature of the lizard tank, you’re creating information. Every Word Doc, Google Doc, survey, spreadsheet, Tweet, and PowerPoint that you’ve ever had a hand in? All information products. That YOU created. In some way or another, you created that information and put it out into the world.

One process you’re probably familiar with if you’re a student is the typical research paper. You know your professor wants about five to eight pages consisting of an introduction that ends in a thesis statement, a few paragraphs that each touch on a piece of evidence that supports your thesis, and then you end in a conclusion paragraph which starts with a rephrasing of your thesis statement. You save it to your hard drive or Google Drive and then you submit it to your professor.

This is one process for creating information. It’s a boring one, but it’s a process.

Outside of the classroom, the information-creation process looks different, and we have lots of choices to make.

One of the choices you’ll need to make is the mode or format in which you present information. The information I’m creating right now comes to you in the mode of an Open Educational Resource . Originally, I created these sections as blog posts. Those five-page essays I mentioned earlier are in the mode of essays.

When you create information (outside of a course assignment), it’s up to you how to package that information. It might feel like a simple or obvious choice, but some information is better suited to some forms of communication. And some forms of communication are received in a certain way, regardless of the information in them.

For example, if I tweet “Jon Snow knows nothing,” it won’t carry with it the authority of my peer-reviewed scholarly article that meticulously outlines every instance in which Jon Snow displays a lack of knowledge. Both pieces of information are accurate, but the processes I went through to create and disseminate the information have an effect on how the information is received by my audience.

And that is perhaps the biggest thing to consider when creating information: your audience.

The Audience Matters

If I just want my twitter followers to know Jon Snow knows nothing, then a tweet is the right way to reach them. If I want my tenured colleagues and other various scholars to know Jon Snow knows nothing, then I’m going to create a piece of information that will reach them, like a peer-reviewed journal article.

Often, we aren’t the ones creating information; we’re the audience members ourselves. When we’re scrolling on Twitter, reading a book, falling asleep during a PowerPoint presentation—we’re the audience observing the information being shared. When this is the case, we have to think carefully about the ways information was created.

Advertisements are a good example. Some are designed to reach a 20-year old woman in Corpus Christi through Facebook, while others are designed to reach a 60-year old man in Hoboken, NJ over the radio. They might both be selling the same car, and they’re going to put the same information (size, terrain, miles per gallon, etc.) in those ads, but their audiences are different, so their information-creation process is different, and we end up with two different ads for different audiences.

Be a Critical Audience Member

When we are the audience member, we might automatically trust something because it’s presented a certain way. I know that, personally, I’m more likely to trust something that is formatted as a scholarly article than I am something that is formatted as a blog. And I know that that’s biased thinking and it’s a mistake to make that assumption.

It’s risky to think like that for a couple of reasons:

• Looks can be deceiving. Just because someone is wearing a suit and tie doesn’t mean they’re not an axe murderer and just because something looks like a well-researched article, doesn’t mean it is one.
• Automatic trust unnecessarily limits the information we expose ourselves to. If I only ever allow myself to read peer-reviewed scholarly articles, think of all the encyclopedias and blogs and news articles I’m missing out on!

If I have a certain topic I’m really excited about, I’m going to try to expose myself to information regardless of the format and I’ll decide for myself (#criticalthinking) which pieces of information are authoritative and which pieces of information suit my needs.

Likewise, as I am conducting research and considering how best to share my new knowledge, I’m going to consider my options for distributing this newfound information and decide how best to reach my audience. Maybe it’s a tweet, maybe it’s a Buzzfeed quiz, or maybe it’s a presentation at a conference. But whatever mode I choose will also convey implications about me, my information creation process, and my audience.

You create information all of the time. The way you package and share it will have an effect on how others perceive it.

• Is there a form of information you’re likely to trust at first glance? Either a publication like a newspaper or a format like a scholarly article?
• Can you think of some voices that aren’t present in that source of information?
• Where might you look to find some other perspectives?
• If you read an article written by medical researchers that says chocolate is good for your health, would you trust the article?
• Would you still trust their authority if you found out that their research was funded by a company that sells chocolate bars? Funding and stakeholders have an impact on the creation process, and it’s worth thinking about how this can compromise someone’s authority.

Information Has Value

Onwards and upwards! We’re onto frame 3: “ Information Has Value .”

What Counts as Value?

There are a lot of different ways we value things. Some things, like money, are valuable to us because we can exchange them for goods and services. On the other hand, some things, like a skill, are valuable to us because we can exchange them for money (which we exchange for more goods and services). Some things are valuable to us for sentimental reasons, like a photograph or a letter. Some things, like our time, are valuable because they are finite.

The Value of Information

Information has all kinds of value.

One kind is monetary. If I write a book and it gets published, I’m probably going to make some money off of that (though not as much money as the publishing company will make). So that’s valuable to me.

But I’m also getting my name out into the world, and that’s valuable to me too. It means that when I apply for a job or apply for a grant, someone can google me and think, “Oh look! She wrote a book! That means she has follow-through and will probably work hard for us!” That kind of recognition is a sort of social value. That social value, by the way, can also become monetary value. If I’ve produced information, a university might give me a job, or an organization might fund my research. If I’ve invented a machine that will floss my teeth for me, the patent for my invention could be worth a lot of money (plus it’d be awesome. Cool factor can count as value.).

In a more altruistic slant, information is also valuable on a societal level. When we have more information about political candidates, for example, it influences how we vote, who we elect, and how our country is governed. That’s some really valuable information right there. That information has an effect on the whole world (plus outer space, if we elect someone who’s super into space exploration). If someone is trying to keep information hidden or secret, or if they’re spreading misinformation to confuse people, it’s probably a sign that the information they’re hiding is important, which is to say, valuable.

On a much smaller scale, think about the information on food packages. If you’re presented with calorie counts, you might make a different decision about the food you buy. If you’re presented with an item’s allergens, you might avoid that product and not end up in an Emergency Room with anaphylactic shock. You know what’s super valuable to me? NOT being in an Emergency Room!

But if you do end up in the Emergency Room, the information that doctors and nurses will use to treat your allergic reaction is extremely valuable. That value of that information is equal to the lives it’s saved.

Acting Like Information is Valuable

When we create our own information by writing papers and blog posts and giving presentations, it’s really important that we give credit to the information we’ve used to create our new information product for a couple of reasons.

First, someone worked really hard to create something, let’s say an article. And that article’s information is valuable enough to you to use in your own paper or presentation. By citing the author properly, you’re giving the author credit for their work, which is valuable to them. The more their article is cited, the more valuable it becomes because they’re more likely to get scholarly recognition and jobs and promotions.

Second, by showing where you’re getting your information, you’re boosting the value of your new information product. On the most basic level, you’ll get a higher grade on your paper, which is valuable to you. But you’re also telling your audience, whether it’s your professor or your boss or your YouTube subscribers, that you aren’t just making stuff up—you did the work of researching and citing, and that makes your audience trust you more. It makes the audience value your information more.

Remember early on when I said the frames all connect? “Information Has Value” ties into the other information literacy frames we’ve talked about, “Information Creation as a Process” and “Authority as Constructed and Contextual.” When I see you’ve cited your sources of information, then I, as the audience, think you’re more authoritative than someone who doesn’t cite their sources. I also can look at your information product and evaluate the effort you’ve put into it. If you wrote a tweet, which takes little time and effort, I’ll generally value it less than if you wrote a book, which took a lot of time and effort to create. I know that time is valuable, so seeing that you were willing to dedicate your time to create this information product makes me feel like it’s more valuable.

Information is valuable because of what goes into its creation (time and effort) and what comes from it (an informed society). If we didn’t value information, we wouldn’t be moving forward as a society, we’d probably have died out thousands of years ago as creatures who never figured out how to use tools or start a fire.

So continue to value information because it improves your life, your audiences’ lives, and the lives of other information creators. More importantly, if we stop valuing information a smarter species will eventually take over and it’ll be a whole Planet of the Apes thing and I just don’t have the energy for that right now.

• Can you think of some ways in which a YouTube video on dog training has value? Who values it? Who profits from it?
• Think of some information that would be valuable to someone applying to college. What does that person need to know?

Research as Inquiry

Easing on down the road, we’ve come to frame number 4: “ Research as Inquiry .”

“Inquiry” is another word for “curiosity” or “questioning.” I like to think of this frame as “Research as Curiosity,” because I think it more accurately captures the way our adorable human brains work.

Inquiring Minds Want to Know

When you think to yourself, “How old is Madonna?” and you google it to find out she’s 62 (as of the creation of this resource), that’s research! You had a question (“how old is Madonna?”), you applied a search strategy (googling “Madonna age”) and you found an answer (62). That’s it! That’s all research has to be!

But it’s not all research can be. This example, like most research, is comprised of the same components we use in more complex situations. Those components are a question and an answer, inquiry and research, “how old is Madonna?” and “62.” But when we’re curious, we go back to the inquiry step again and ask more questions and seek more answers. We’re never really done, even when we’ve answered the initial question and written the paper and given the presentation and received accolades and awards for all our hard work. If it’s something we’re really curious about, we’ll keep asking and answering and asking again.

If you’re really curious about Madonna, you don’t just think, “How old is Madonna?” You think “How old is Madonna? Wait, really ? Her skin looks amazing! What’s her skincare routine? Seriously, what year was she born? Oh my god, she wrote children’s books! Does my library have any?” Your questions lead you to answers which, when you’re really interested in a topic, lead you to more and more questions. Humans are naturally curious ; we have this sort of instinct to be like, “huh, I wonder why that is?” and it’s propelled us to learn things and try things and fail and try again! It’s all research as inquiry.

And to satisfy your curiosity, yes, the library I currently work at does own one of Madonna’s children’s books. It’s called The Adventures of Abdi , and you can find it in our Juvenile Collection on the second floor at PZ8 M26 Adv 2004. And you can find a description of her skincare routine in this article from W Magazine: https://www.wmagazine.com/story/madonna-skin-care-routine-tips-mdna . You’re welcome.

Identifying an Information Need

One of the tricky parts of research as inquiry is determining a situation’s information need. It sounds simple to ask yourself, “What information do I need?” and sometimes we do it unconsciously. But it’s not always easy. Here are a few examples of information needs:

• You need to know what your niece’s favorite Paw Patrol character is so you can buy her a birthday present. Your research is texting your sister. She says, “Everest.” And now you’re done. You buy the present, you’re a rock star at the birthday party. Your information need was a short answer based on a three-year old’s opinion.
• You’re trying to convince someone on Twitter that Nazis are bad. You compile a list of opinion pieces from credible news publications like the Wall Street Journal and the New York Times , gather first-hand narratives of Holocaust survivors and victims of hate crimes, find articles that debunk eugenics, etc. Your information need isn’t scholarly publications, it’s accessible news and testimonials. It’s articles a person might actually read in their free time, articles that aren’t too long and don’t require access to scholarly materials that are sometimes behind paywalls.
• You need to write a literature review for an assignment, but you don’t know what a literature review is. So first you google “literature review example.” You find out what it is, how one is created, and maybe skim a few examples. Next, you move to your library’s website and search tool and try “oceanography literature review,” and find some closer examples. Finally, you start conducting research for your own literature review. Your information need here is both broader and deeper. You need to learn what a literature review is, how one is compiled, and how one searches for relevant scholarly articles in the resources available to you.

Sometimes it helps to break down big information needs into smaller ones. Take the last example, for instance: you need to write a literature review. What are the smaller parts?

• Information Need 1: Find out what a literature review is
• Information Need 2: Find out how people go about writing literature reviews
• Information Need 3: Find relevant articles on your topic for your own literature review

It feels better to break it into smaller bits and accomplish those one at a time. And it highlights an important part of this frame that’s surprisingly difficult to learn: ask questions. You can’t write a literature review if you don’t know what it is, so ask. You can’t write a literature review if you don’t know how to find articles, so ask. The quickest way to learn is to ask questions. Once you stop caring if you look stupid, and once you realized no one thinks poorly of people who ask questions, life gets a lot easier.

So, let’s add this to our components of research: ask a question, determine what you need in order to thoroughly answer the question, and seek out your answers. Not too painful, and when you’re in love with whatever you’re researching, it might even be fun.

• When you have a question, ask it.
• When you’re genuinely interested in something, keep asking questions and finding answers.
• When you have a task at hand, take a second to think realistically about the information you’ll need to accomplish that task. You don’t need a peer-reviewed article to find out if praying mantises eat their mates, but you might if you want to find out why.
• What’s the last thing you looked up on Wikipedia? Did you stop when you found an answer, or did you click on another link and another link until you learned about something completely different?
• If you can’t remember, try it now! Search for something (like a favorite book or tv show) and click on linked words and phrases within Wikipedia until you learn something new!
• What was the last thing you researched that you were really excited about? Do you struggle when teachers and professors tell you to “research something that interests you”? Instead, try asking yourself, “What makes me really angry?” You might find you have more interests than you realized!

Scholarship as Conversation

We’ve made it friends! My favorite frame: “ Scholarship as Conversation .” Is it weird to have a favorite frame of information literacy? Probably. Am I going to talk about it anyway? You betcha!

What does “Scholarship as Conversation” mean?

Scholarship as conversation refers to the way scholars reference each other and build off of one another’s work, just like in a conversation. Have you ever had a conversation that started when you asked someone what they did last weekend and ended with you telling a story about how someone (definitely not you) ruined the cake at your mom’s dog’s birthday party? And then someone says, “but like I was saying earlier…” and they take the conversation back to a point in the conversation where they were reminded of a different point or story? Conversations aren’t linear, they aren’t a clear line to a clear destination, and neither is research. When we respond to the ideas and thoughts of scholars, we’re responding to the scholars themselves and engaging them in conversation.

Why do I Love this Frame so Much?

Let me count the ways.

I really enjoy the imagery of scholarship as a conversation among peers. Just a bunch of well-informed curious people coming together to talk about something they all love and find interesting. I imagine people literally sitting around a big round table talking about things they’re all excited about and want to share with each other. It’s a really lovely image in my head. Eventually the image kind of reshapes and devolves into that painting of dogs playing poker, but I love that image too!

It harkens back to pre-internet scholarship, which sounds excruciating and exhausting, but it was all done for the love of a subject. Scholars used to literally mail each other manuscripts seeking feedback. Then, when they got an article published in a journal, scholars interested in the subject would seek out and read the article in the physical journal it was published in. Then they’d write reviews of the article, praising or criticizing the author’s research or theories or style. As the field grew, more and more people would write and contribute more articles to criticize and praise and build off of one another.

So, for example, if I wrote an article that was about Big Foot and then Joe wrote an article saying, “Emily’s article on Big Foot is garbage; here’s what I think about Big Foot,” Sam and I are now having a conversation. It’s not always a fun one, but we’re writing in response to one another about something we’re both passionate about. Later, Jaiden comes along and disagrees with Joe and agrees with me (because I’m right) and they cite both me and Joe. Now we’re all three in a conversation. And it just grows and grows and more people show up at the table to talk and contribute, or maybe just to listen.

Reason Three

You can roll up to the table and just listen if you want to. Sometimes we’re just listening to the conversation. We’re at the table, but we’re not there to talk. We’re just hoping to get some questions answered and learn from some people. When we’re reading books and articles or listening to podcasts or watching movies, we’re listening to the conversation. You don’t have to do groundbreaking research to be part of a conversation. You can just be there and appreciate what everyone’s talking about. You’re still there in the conversation.

Reason Four

You can contribute to the conversation at any time. The imagery of a conversation is nice because it’s approachable: just pull up a chair and start talking. With any new subject, you should probably listen a little at first, ask some questions, and then start giving your own opinion or theories, but you can contribute at any time. Since we do live in the age of internet research, we can contribute in ways people 50 years ago never dreamed of. Besides writing essays in class (which totally counts because you’re examining the conversation and pulling in the bits you like and citing them to give credit to other scholars), you can talk to your professors and friends about a topic, you can blog about it, you can write articles about it, you can even tweet about it (have you ever seen Humanities folk on Twitter? They go nuts on there having actual, literal scholarly conversations). Your ways for engaging are kind of endless!

Reason Five

Yep, I’m listing reasons.

Conversations are cyclical. Like I said above, they’re not always a straight path and that’s true of research too. You don’t have to engage with who spoke most recently; you can engage with someone who spoke ten years ago, someone who spoke 100 years ago, you can even respond to the person who started the conversation! Jump in wherever you want. And wherever you do jump in, you might just change the course of the conversation. Because sometimes we think we have an answer, but then something new is discovered or a person who hadn’t been at the table or who had been overlooked says something that drastically impacts what we knew, so now we have to reexamine it all over again and continue the conversation in a trajectory we hadn’t realized was available before.

Lastly, this frame is about sharing and responding and valuing one another’s work. If Joe, my Big Foot nemesis, responds to my article, they’re going to cite me. If Jaiden then publishes a rebuttal, they’re going to cite both Joe and me, because fair is fair. This is for a few reasons: 1) even if Jaiden disagrees with Joe’s work, they respect that Joe put effort into it and it’s valuable to them. 2) When Jaiden cites Joe, it means anyone who jumps into the conversation at the point of Jaiden’s article will be able to backtrack and catch up using Jaiden’s citations. A newcomer can trace it back to Joe’s article and trace that back to mine. They can basically see a transcript of the whole conversation so they can read Jaiden’s article with all of the context, and they can write their own well-informed piece on Big Foot.

There’s a lot to take away from this frame, but here’s what I think is most important:

• Be respectful of other scholars’ work and their part in the conversation by citing them.
• Start talking whenever you feel ready, in whatever platform you feel comfortable.
• Make sure everyone who wants to be at the table is at the table. This means making sure information is available to those who want to listen and making sure we lift up the voices that are at risk of being drowned out.
• What scholarly conversations have you participated in recently? Is there a Reddit forum you look in on periodically to learn what’s new in the world of cats wearing hats? Or a Facebook group on roller skating? Do you contribute or just listen?
• Think of a scholarly conversation surrounding a topic—sharks, ballet, Game of Thrones. Who’s not at the table? Whose voice is missing from the conversation? Why do you think that is?

Searching as Strategic Exploration

You’ve made it! We’ve reached the last frame: Searching as Strategic Exploration .

“Searching as Strategic Exploration” addresses the part of information literacy that we think of as “Research.” It deals with the actual task of searching for information, and the word “Exploration” is a really good word choice, because it’s evocative of the kind of struggle we sometimes feel when we approach research. I imagine people exploring a jungle, facing obstacles and navigating an uncertain path towards an ultimate goal (Note: the goal is love and it was inside of us all along). I also kind of imagine all the different Northwest Passage explorations, which were cool in theory, but didn’t super-duper work out as expected.

But research is like that! Sometimes we don’t get where we thought we were headed. But the good news is this: You probably won’t die from exposure or resort to cannibalism in your research. Fun, right?

Step 1: Identify a Goal

The first part of any good exploration is identifying a goal. Maybe it’s a direct passage to Asia or the diamond the old lady threw into the ocean at the end of Titanic. More likely, the goal is to satisfy an information need. Remember when we talked about “Research as Inquiry?” All that stuff about paw patrol and Madonna’s skin care regimen? Those were examples of information needs. We’re just trying to find an answer or learn something new.

So great! Our goal is to learn something new. Now we make a strategy.

Step 2: Make a Strategy

For many of your information needs you might just need to Google a question. There’s your strategy: throw your question into Google and comb through the results. You might limit your search to just websites ending in .org, .gov, or .edu. You might also take it a step further and, rather than type in an entire question fully formed, you just type in keywords. So “Who is the guy who invented mayonnaise?” becomes “mayonnaise inventor.” Identifying keywords is part of your strategy and so is using a search engine and limiting the results you’re interested in.

Step 3: Start Exploring

Googling “mayonnaise inventor” probably brings you to Wikipedia where we often learn that our goals don’t have a single, clearly defined answer. For example, we learn that mayonnaise might have gotten its name after the French won a battle in Port Mahon, but that doesn’t tell us who actually made the mayonnaise, just when it was named. Prior to being named, the sauce was called “aioli bo” and was apparently in a Menorcan recipe book from 1745 by Juan de Altimiras. That’s great for Altimiras, but the most likely answer is that mayonnaise was invented way before him and he just had the foresight to write down the recipe. Not having a single definite answer is an unforeseen obstacle tossed into our path that now affects our strategy.  We know we have a trickier question than when we first set sail.

But we have a lot to work with! We now have more keywords like “Port Mahon,” “the French,” and Wikipedia taught us that the earliest known mention of “mayonnaise” was in 1804, so we have “1804” as a keyword too.

Let’s see if we can find that original mention. Let’s take our keywords out of Wikipedia where we found them and voyage to a library’s website! At my library we have a tool that searches through all of our resources. We call it the “Quick Search.” You might have a library available to you, either at school, on a university’s campus, or a local public library. You can do research in any of these places!

So into the Quick Search tool (or whatever you have available to you) go our keywords: “1804,” “mayonnaise,” and “France.” The first result I see is an e-book by a guy who traveled to Paris in 1804, so that might be what we’re looking for. I search through the text and I do, in fact, find a reference to mayonnaise on page 99! The author (August von Kotzebue) is talking about how it’s hard to understand menus at French restaurants, for “What foreigner, for instance, would at first know what is meant by a mayonnaise de poulet, a galatine de volaille, a cotelette a la minute, or even an epigramme d’agneau?” He then goes on to recommend just ordering the fish, since you’ll know what you’ll get (Kotzebue 99).

So that doesn’t tell us who invented mayonnaise, but I think it’s pretty funny! So I’d call that detour a win.

Step 4: Reevaluate

When we hit ends that we don’t think are successful, we can always retrace our steps and reevaluate our question. Dead ends are a part of exploration! We’ve learned a lot, but we’ve also learned that maybe “who invented mayonnaise?” isn’t the right question. Maybe we should ask questions about the evolution of French cuisine or about ownership of culinary experimentation.

I’m going to stick with the history of mayonnaise, for just a little while longer, but my “1804 mayonnaise France” search wasn’t as helpful as I’d hoped, so I’ll try something new. Let’s try looking at encyclopedias.

I searched in a database called Credo Reference (which is a database filled with encyclopedia entries) and just searching “mayonnaise.” I can see that the first entry, “Minorca or Menorca” from The Companion to British History , doesn’t initially look helpful, but we’re exploring, so let’s click on it. It tells us that mayonnaise was invented in 1756 by a French commander’s cook and its name comes from Port Mahon where the French fended off the British during a siege ( Arnold-Baker, 2001 ). That’s awesome! It’s what Wikipedia told us! But let’s corroborate that fact. I click on The Hutchinson Chronology of World History entry for 1756, which says mayonnaise was invented in France in 1756 by the duc de Richelieu ( Helicon, 2018 ). I’m not sure I buy it. I could see a duke’s cook inventing mayonnaise, but I have a hard time imagining a duke and military commander taking the time to create a condiment.

But now I can go on to research the duc de Richelieu and his military campaigns and his culinary successes. Just typing “Duke de Richelieu” into the library’s Quick Search shows me a TON of books (16,742 as of writing this) on his life and he influence on France. So maybe now we’re actually exploring Richelieu or the intertwined history of French cuisine and the lives of nobility.

What Did We Just Do?

Our strategy for exploring this topic has had a lot of steps, but they weren’t random. It was a wild ride, but it was a strategic one. Let’s break the steps down real quick:

• We asked a question or identified a goal
• We identified keywords and googled them
• We learned some background information and got new keywords from Wikipedia and had to reevaluate our question
• We followed a lead to a book but hit a dead end when it wasn’t as useful as we’d hoped
• We identified an encyclopedia database and found several entries that support the theory we learned in Wikipedia, which forced us to reevaluate our question again
• We identified a key player in our topic and searched for him in the library’s Quick Search tool and the resources we found made us reevaluate our question yet again

Other strategies could include looking through an article’s reference list, working through a mind map , outlining your questions, or recording your steps in a research log so you don’t get lost—whatever works for you!

Exploration is tricky. Sometimes you circle back and ask different questions as new obstacles arise. Sometimes you have a clear path and you reach your goal instantly. But you can always retrace your steps, try new routes, discover new information, and maybe you’ll get to your destination in the end. Even if you don’t, you’ve learned something.

For instance, today we learned that if you can’t understand a menu in French, you should just order the fish.

• Where do you start a search for information? Do you start in different places when you have different information needs?
• If your research question was “What is the impact of fast fashion on carbon emissions?” What keywords would you use to start searching?

The Framework for Information Literacy in Higher Education is one heck of a document. It’s complicated, its frames intertwine, it’s written in a way that can be tricky to understand. But essentially, it’s just trying to get us to understand that the ways we interact with information are complicated and we need to think about our interactions to make sure we’re behaving in an ethical and responsible way.

Why do your professors make you cite things? Because those citations are valuable to the original author, and they prove your engagement with the scholarly conversation. Why do we need to hold space in the conversation for voices that we haven’t heard from before? Because maybe no one recognized the authority in those voices before. The old process for creating information shut out lots of voices while prioritizing others. It’s important for us to recognize these nuances when we see what information is available to us and important for us to ask, “Whose voice isn’t here? Why? Am I looking hard enough for those voices? Can I help amplify them?” And it’s important for us to ask, “Why is the loudest voice being so loud? What motivates them? Why should I trust them over others?”

When we think critically about the information we access and the information we create and share, we’re engaging as citizens in one big global conversation. Making sure voices are heard, including your own voice, is what moves us all towards a more intelligent and understanding society.

Of course, part of thinking critically about information means thinking critically about both this guide and the framework. Lots of people have criticized the framework for including too much library jargon. Other folks think the framework needs to be rewritten to explicitly address how information seeking systems and publishing platforms have arisen from racist, sexist institutions. We won’t get into the criticisms here, but they’re important to think about. You can learn more about the criticism of the framework in a blog post by Ian Beilin , or you can do your own search for criticism on the framework to see what else is out there and form your own opinions.

The Final Takeaway

Ask questions, find information, and ask questions about that information.

Attributions

“A Beginner’s Guide to Introduction to Information Literacy” by Emily Metcalf is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA

Writing Arguments in STEM Copyright © by Jason Peters; Jennifer Bates; Erin Martin-Elston; Sadie Johann; Rebekah Maples; Anne Regan; and Morgan White is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Secretariat
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Information Literacy

Information Literacy empowers people in all walks of life to seek, evaluate, use and create information effectively to achieve their personal, social, occupational and educational goal.

Information literacy and lifelong learning have been described as the beacons of the information society, illuminating the courses to development, prosperity and freedom.

Information literacy empowers people in all walks of life to seek, evaluate, use and create information effectively to achieve their personal, social, occupational and educational goals. Information-literate people are able to access information about their health, their environment, their education and work, and to make critical decisions about their lives. 

In a digital world, information literacy requires users to have the skills to use information and communication technologies and their applications to access and create information. Closely linked are two other related literacies: computer literacy (ICT skills) and media literacy (understanding of various kinds of mediums and formats by which information is transmitted). For example, the ability to navigate in cyberspace and negotiate hypertext multimedia documents requires both the technical skills to use the Internet and the literacy skills to interpret the information. 

IFAP is promoting actions aimed at raising awareness of the importance of information literacy and supporting projects that build the literacy skills of users.

What is Information Literacy?

Why is Information Literacy Important?

“Information literacy” is a term you’ll hear a lot during your college years. It means that all students (and all people, really) should be able to find and use reliable information and source materials and that they should be able to find the right material for whatever it is they’re doing or whatever questions they have (see the glossary of terms ).

Finding dependable information is especially important in the digital/internet age, where millions of ideas can be discovered in half a second but where much of that information is outdated or worthless.

Handling the materials correctly is important, too; this includes giving full credit when using materials created by others.

Here are a few of the questions we’ll explore:

• Why is information literacy important and necessary?
• How can I learn to find reliable, high-quality information and texts?
• How can I build my reading skills?
• How can I read, understand, and use texts effectively?
• How can I use my reading skills as a springboard to writing?
• What is plagiarism, and how do I avoid it?
• How can I cite source materials correctly in my college work?

 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

As a college student, it’s important that you can find reliable sources for your class work and assignments. It’s also essential that you know how to correctly use and handle the sources when you make them part of your own work.

Outside of school, most of us also feel it’s important to be informed about current issues and ideas. Knowing what’s going on in the world is, arguably, a citizen’s responsibility. Plus, it feels good to join in a conversation and know the facts, or to be sure we’re sharing a meme, social media post, or news article that’s accurate and trustworthy.

Check Your Understanding: Snopes

Snopes is a widely respected, non-partisan site dedicated to investigating rumors, memes, social media statements, and news stories and then issuing decisions about whether the materials are correct or false.

Go to Snopes ’ “What’s New” page—a page that updates daily and includes the latest rumors: http://www.snopes.com/whats-new/

Scroll through the list until you find an interesting hot topic. Click and read, then write a quick paragraph that summarizes what you found. What did you learn? Were you surprised?

If this captured your interest, you may want to explore Snopes a little more. It’s a fun place to poke around and a great place to fact-check information.

As humans living in the digital age, we should know how to navigate the Web successfully, find the best materials, and evaluate and use them with confidence. Alas: in an age where a quick Google search nets millions of “hits” in half a second, evaluating the sources we choose can be trickier than it sounds. There’s a lot of great material on the Web, but there’s a lot of garbage, too. Being able to tell which is which is a digital-age-important life skill.

We also need to understand who “owns” information—whether hard copy (printed) or digital—and how and when to give credit to the owner: this keeps us safe from accidentally committing plagiarism.

Plagiarism occurs when we use someone else’s “intellectual property” without giving them credit. Intellectual property is defined as material or ideas envisioned and created by another person. There are many kinds of intellectual property, including books, articles, essays, stories, poems, films, photographs, works of art or craft, or even just ideas. If someone else thought of an idea and brought it into the world, they own it, and if you use their idea in your work, you have to acknowledge them as the actual owner. If you don’t? You’ve committed plagiarism. That’s not a good idea—and we’ll talk more about this in the “ Learning about Plagiarism ” section, later in this Information Literacy portion of the text.

Check Your Understanding: Plagiarism

There are a number of different practices which could lead to or be defined as plagiarism, so it’s important that you understand what constitutes plagiarism and what doesn’t. Which of these would be a kind of plagiarism?

• Copying written material from the Web and pasting it into your paper so it would look like you wrote it.
• Overhearing someone’s great idea while riding in an elevator and then later sharing the idea and saying it was yours.
• Finding a beautiful photograph on the Web and using it as your profile picture on social media without showing the photographer’s name.
• Citing lines of poetry in a blog post without mentioning the poet.

See the Appendix, Results for the “Check Your Understanding” Activities , for answers.

The Word on College Reading and Writing Copyright © by Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What is Information Literacy?

What is information literacy and what does it mean to be information literate?

The American Library Association defines information literacy as a set of abilities empowering individuals to recognize when information is needed and to be able to locate it, evaluate it, and use it effectively.

While information literacy is often talked about on college campuses in terms of doing library research for papers and annotated bibliographies and other sorts of classroom assignments, we use and need information in every aspect of our lives. Think about all of the informal research we do each day.  We look up movie and book reviews, how-to videos on YouTube, product reviews, and strategies for parenting. We Google how to fill out some field on our tax forms, we look up job ads and tips on job interviews, how to spell or define some unfamiliar word or acronym. We all have information needs, and being able to effectively identify and meet those needs is at the core information literacy. Being able to differentiate quality information from questionable information is also critical. Is that shocking article your sister posted on social media actually true? What about health advice offered by a friend? What about some surprising statistic you heard cited by a politician or political candidate?

The American Library Association asks to think about information literacy in six ways:

1. Authority Is Constructed and Contextual

When you use information, or choose one source of information over another, you presume a certain amount of expertise on the part of the information’s author on the topic they are writing about. What gives the author that authority? What makes some information more authoritative than other information? What makes a piece of information authoritative can vary from discipline to discipline and be based on context. So for example, an author may be an authority on a given topic because of extensive experience, or because of extensive education. Even without deep experience or education, an author may bring authority to their writing based on their having witnessed or participated in some major event. In both cases, their authority is contextual. A physics professor may have authority when writing within their field, but be considered far less authoritative when writing in an unrelated field.

2. Information Creation as a Process

Information appears in a variety of forms. Depending on whether it is in the form of a newspaper article, a scholarly book, or a formatted report, the creation of information requires a process.  Understanding how and why authors publish in a particular format, what those formats require in terms of fact checking, or sourcing, or expertise, what editorial oversight exists, the role of publishers—all these considerations may play into your thinking about the relevance of a particular information source to your research question.

3. Information Has Value

Information has value, and this fact has very real implications to researchers and information consumers in both how information is produced and how it is disseminated. It has economic value as a commodity, for example, as evidenced by intellectual property rights and other legal considerations, and by the considerable role of the publishing industry. Information also has educational and social value, with its ability to inform, educate, and persuade.

4. Research as Inquiry

One can think of research as an inquiry. A researcher asks a question, or identifies some gap in our current understanding of a topic, and in the process of filling that gap, new questions and new avenues for further research emerge.

5. Scholarship as Conversation

Scholarship on a given topic will grow and evolve over time. New theories, new interpretations, new experiments, new facts are always being discovered and debated. As the references or citations of any scholarly article demonstrate, every researcher is building on the work of many other researchers. Conscientious scholars will always go to great effort to indicate what previous work has informed their own work. College students are expected to adopt this practice as well, citing the work that informs their own work and situating their ideas and theories within the larger conversation taking place in their respective discipline.

6. Searching as Strategic Exploration

Over time, as you gain experience and your research needs grow more complex, you will likely develop sophisticated strategies for locating relevant information. Searching for information is rarely as simple as just plugging a keyword into a search engine or library database and getting all the books and articles you need. You’ll likely try different ways of searching for information, and in different places. You may want to brainstorm, or talk to a librarian. The five chapters in this text each look at a different aspect of information literacy but will collectively provide you with an overview of those concepts most critical to navigating today’s information environment. After each chapter you will have the opportunity to test your understanding with a brief reflection. We begin by looking at the research process.

Sources Used to Create this Chapter

The majority of the content for this section has been adapted from the following OER Material:

• Information Literacy Concepts by David Hisle and Kathryn Webb, which was published under a CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Starting the Journey: An Intro to College Writing Copyright © by Leonard Owens III; Tim Bishop; and Scott Ortolano is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• MCLA Library Home
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Why do Information Literacy?

Information literacy: why do information literacy.

• Authority is Constructed and Contextual
• Information Creation as a Process
• Information Has Value
• Research as Inquiry
• Scholarship as Conversation
• Searching as Strategic Exploration
• Assignment Design
• Computer Science
• English & Communications
• Environmental Studies
• Political Science

Information literacy, wrote Dr. Carol Kulthau in her 1987 paper “ Information Skills for an Information Society ,” is “the ability to read and to use information essential for everyday life”—that is, to effectively navigate a world built on “complex masses of information generated by computers and mass media.”

Why is information literacy important? In this Information Age, when the expansion of available information is proceeding at an unprecedented rate, clear concepts of how to access and evaluate this information are essential. National organizations, including the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U), the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), and a growing number of the regional accreditation associations are grappling with the issue of ensuring that our graduates are information literate. When citizens fail to understand how information is organized and accessed, they lose the freedom to seek and critically analyze information for themselves, the freedom to make personally informed decisions on political and social issues, and the freedom to make an enlightened contribution to the body of human knowledge. In this context, information literacy as a set of skills is much more than how to search the Internet or use the latest Microsoft product. Information literacy rises to the level of possessing a worldview that acknowledges that there is a wealth of information available and that an educated citizen should possess the ability to harness it to enhance his or her own life and the lives of those around them. Information literacy is also important in order...  

•         to empower students to learn for themselves.
•         to enable informed decision-making.
•         to equip students for success in their careers.
•         to meet needs of employers for information literate employees.
•         to promote the creation of self-sufficient researchers.
•         to encourage the careful evaluation of information sources for bias and inaccuracy.
•         to help students deal with information overload.
•         to offer strategies for using Google with discernment and for evaluating online information.
•         to meet NEASC standards.
•         to support the College mission.
•         to meet College strategic plan objectives

adapted from McKillop Library | Salve Regina University

From AAC&U -  The Information Literacy Imperative in Higher Education

From the Chronicle of Higher Education - At Sea in a Deluge of Data

This new study reveals a gap between the searching, research & comprehension skills expected by employers and what newly graduated employees deliver:

“Many employers said their fresh-from-college hires frequently lack deeper and more traditional skills in research and analysis. Instead, the new workers default to quick answers plucked from the Internet.”

The author posits that a new curriculum blending search techniques, statistical analysis, and knowledge of major research institutes & the scientific method will be needed to effectively teach students how to synthesize and support their research, both in the classroom and on the job.

From Project Information Literacy

How do first year college students make the critical information transition from high school to college? How do they begin to conduct college-level research? During the 2012-13 academic year, the PIL research team conducted interviews with 35 freshmen from six U.S. colleges and universities. Read the research report (48 pages, 6.2MB). Watch the  preview video (2:40 minutes)

AACU VALUE Rubric

• Information Literacy VALUE Rubric

The ability to know when there is a need for information, to be able to identify, locate, evaluate, and effectively and responsibly use and share that information for the problem at hand. - Adopted from the National Forum on Information Literacy -- from the AAC&U website

NEASC Standards

The New England Association of Schools and Colleges (NEASC) standards specify that graduates of New England higher education institutions should demonstrate information literacy competency including the capability for life-long learning. (See standards below)

4.12 Expectations for student achievement, independent learning, information literacy , skills in inquiry, and critical judgment are appropriate to the subject matter and degree level and in keeping with generally accepted practice.

4.15 Graduates successfully completing an undergraduate program demonstrate competence in written and oral communication in English; the ability for scientific and quantitative reasoning, for critical analysis and logical thinking; and the capability for continuing learning, including the skills of information literacy . They also demonstrate knowledge and understanding of scientific, historical, and social phenomena,and a knowledge and appreciation of the aesthetic and ethical dimensions of humankind.

Acknowledgement

Adapted from Information Literacy for Faculty by King's College

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• Last Updated: Apr 21, 2021 1:24 PM
• URL: https://library.mcla.edu/info_lit

Information Literacy Assessment

• Instruction at the Leatherby Libraries
• Social Sciences
• Bibliographies
• Standard One: The information literate student determines the nature and extent of the information needed.
• Standard Two: The information literate student accesses needed information effectively and efficiently.
• Standard Three: The information literate student evaluates information and its sources critically and incorporates selected information into his or her knowledge base and value system.
• Standard Four: The information literate student, individually or as a member of a group, uses information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose.
• Standard Five: The information literate student understands many of the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use of information and accesses and uses information ethically and legally.
• Frame: Authority Is Constructed and Contextual
• Frame: Information Creation as a Process
• Frame: Information Has Value
• Frame: Research as Inquiry
• Frame: Scholarship Is a Conversation
• Frame: Searching as Strategic Exploration
• ACRL Frameworks Appendices
• More to Explore
• Examples and Readings

Essays may be used in several ways to assess information literacy, either as a separate assignment or as part of a prompt for a larger writing assignment. This method requires students to reflect on their research practices and describe them in their own words, using a metacoginitive approach.

An advantage to using an essay to assess information literacy is that it can be incorporated into an existing research assignment. For instance, students can be asked to submit a paragraph on their research practices along with their final paper or project.

As with assessing learning outcomes with any other method, it is advisable to create a rubric with which to score the information literacy essay.

Some examples of how essays may be used to assess information literacy: 

• After completing a research assignment, students can be assigned a reflective essay about their research process. This metacognitive method can be effectively used in combination with a rubric to determine students level of competence and depth of understanding in navigating the information gathering and research process. (E.g., see the article by Nutefall in the Examples and Readings tab on this page).  
• For an example of a rubric for grading this type of essay see the Evaluation Rubric associated with the Leatherby Libraries' Kevin and Tam Ross Undergraduate Research Prize .  
• An essay can be assigned on research methods in order to assess particular information literacy knowledge practices . For instance, Daugherty and Carter (1997) asked students to write essays on their research practices both before and then after receiving library instruction to demonstrate the abilities they learned from the instruction session.   
• Essays can also be used for students to reflect on their experience and abilities after completing assigned information-seeking tasks . Dempsey and Jagman (2016) describe an assignment in which students were asked to perform certain library tasks--i.e., identify keywords for a topic according to their interests, search the library catalog, locate the physical items, and check them out--and then reflect on their experience in a two-page essay.

Potential program learning outcomes can be gleaned from the Knowledge Practices of the ACRL Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education and the  ACRL Information Literacy Competency Standards , which are described in detail on this guide.

• Daugherty, T. K., & Carter, E. W. (1997). Assessment of outcome-focused library instruction in psychology. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 24(1), 29.
• Dempsey, P. R., & Jagman, H. (2016). “I Felt Like Such a Freshman”: First-Year Students Crossing the Library Threshold. Portal: Libraries and the Academy, 16(1), 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2016.0011
• Nutefall, J. (2004). Paper Trail: One method of information literacy assessment. Research Strategies, 20(1), 89–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resstr.2005.07.004
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• Last Updated: Dec 19, 2023 8:40 AM
• URL: https://libguides.chapman.edu/IL_assessment

Table of Contents

Ai, ethics & human agency, collaboration, information literacy, writing process, information literacy – discerning quality information from noise.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - University of South Florida

Information Literacy refers to the competencies associated with locating , evaluating , using , and archiving information . In order to thrive, much less survive in a global information economy  — an economy where  information  functions as a capital good such as money or social influence — you need to be strategic about how you consume and use information .

What is Information Literacy?

Information Literacy may be refer to

• the ability to recognize “when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate and use the needed information ” (American Library Association, 1989)
• “a cluster of interconnected core activities, frameworks” that constitute information ecosystems ( ACRL 2015 )
• Consuming, evaluating, producing, managing, using, and archiving information–these are topics of ongoing scholarship in information studies, writing studies , and related disciplines. This topic is under constant evolution as new communication technologies evolve.

What is Information? Information is everything your senses perceive, including visual, auditory, or kinesthetic data ( more ).

What is Literacy? Literacy is the ability to identify, interpret signs , and communicate with signs , using whatever medium or semiotic system the audience(s) expects you to use.

Synonymous Terms

Information Literacy may also be called

• Data Information Literacy
• Science Communication
• STEM Literacy for Learning.

Related Concepts: Authority (in Speech and Writing) ; Copyright ; Critical Literacy ; Evidence ; Plagiarism ; Rhetorical Analysis ; Rhetorical Reasoning ; Semiotics ; The CRAAP Test

Why Does Information Literacy Matter?

In order to thrive, much less survive in a global information economy — an economy where information functions as a capital good such as money or social influence — you need to be strategic about how you consume and use information. If you accept what people tell you without engaging in critical literacy practices , such as evaluating the authority , accuracy , and relevance of information, you may

• receive poor grades in school and a loss of clients at work
• be spammed, tricked, or fooled by bad actors
• be uninformed about the best, most relevant information on a topic
• make decisions based on emotions rather than reason
• confuse fake news for real news
• make poor decisions, contrary to the decisions you would make if you had engaged in strategic searching .

By using critical perspectives when consuming, evaluating, or producing information, people develop competencies that have been conceptualized as “a basic human right in a digital world” (Alexandria Proclamation 2005).

What Competencies are Associated with Information Literacy?

Information Literacy refers to a cluster of competencies, including the ability

• to recognize when you need information
• to understand the type of information you need
• to know how to search for information
• to know how to interpret information and distinguish fact from opinion, textual debate over empirical observation
• to know how to engage in the research methods sanctioned by your target audience
• to know how to use and cite information
• to know how to remediate texts in new media .

Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education

Acrl frameworks (aka threshold concepts) for information literacy.

In Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education , the ACRL imagines six critical frameworks, aka mindsets, that inform clear and persuasive acts of communication:

• Authority is Constructed & Contextual
• Information Creation as a Process
• Information Has Value
• Research as Inquiry
• Scholarship as a Conversation
• Searching as Strategic Exploration

Related Resources

• Project Information Literacy:  http://www.projectinfolit.org/
• Citation Project: http://www.citationproject.net/
• Students and their sources: http://www.citationproject.net/studies/sats/

Alexandria Proclamation on Information Literacy and Lifelong Learning, 2005. Information literacy. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Retrieved from  http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/access-to-knowledge/information-literacy

Association of College and Research Libraries. “Visual Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education.” Text. Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL), October 10, 2019, http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/visualliteracy .

ACRL (Association of College and Research Libraries) (2015) Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education , http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/ilframework , 12/21/19.

CWPA 2011. Framework for Success in Postsecondary Writing, http://wpacouncil.org/aws/CWPA/pt/sd/news_article/242845/_PARENT/layout_details/false, 3/3/20.

Obama,   Barack (2009). “National Information Literacy Awareness Month”   (PDF) .

Related Articles:

ACRL Information Literacy Perspectives & Practices

Archive – What Do Writers Need to Know About the Archive?

Canon - why is the concept of the canon so important to writers.

Credibility & Authority - How to Be Credible & Authoritative in Speech & Writing

Empathetic Information Literacy

Epistemology - theories of knowledge.

Information Architecture

Information Design

Information, Data, Content - Building Blocks Of The Digital Information Age

Interpretation, Interpretative Frameworks

Textuality, intertextuality.

The CRAAP Test -  Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, Purpose

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• Joseph M. Moxley , Grace Veach

In an era where almost anything can be digitally manipulated or “spoofed,” from audio to even making visuals that deceive, you need to discern genuine sources from misleading or false...

• Joseph M. Moxley

An archive traditionally refers to a physical repository of historical documents and texts. Yet in contemporary usage, archives are perceived to be more than sources of information: they are also...

In contemporary usage, a canon is a collection of works, theories, research methods, or practices that are considered foundational and authoritative within a specific academic discipline, professional discipline or cultural...

• LeEtta M. Schmidt

Copyright refers to intellectual property laws that grant an exclusive legal right to creators to control the copying and public exhibition of their original creative works. By default, in the...

If your listeners or readers think you lack authority (aka credibility), then they are less likely to listen or read your work. This article defines the textual attributes of authoritative...

• Paul T. Corrigan

Empathetic Information Literacy is a method of engaging in information literacy in five key steps: 1. Pause; 2. Ask Questions; 3. Care; 4. Check Accuracy; 5. Act. Learn to use...

• Joseph M. Moxley , Jennifer Janechek

Evidence is necessary to substantiate claims in workplace & academic writing. Learn to reason with evidence in workplace & academic writing. Review research and scholarship on the uses of evidence....

What is information?  Note: Information may be referred to as depth, evidence, content, substance, meaning

Learn about the critical perspectives that educated, critical, audiences use to analyze the credibility and reliability of information: Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, and Purpose.  

Featured Articles

Academic Writing – How to Write for the Academic Community

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Research Foundations: Information Literacy

• Information Literacy
• The Information Timeline
• Popular, Scholarly, & Trade Publications
• Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Materials
• Information Formats
• Evaluate Information
• Chapter 1 Self Quiz
• The Pre-Research Process
• Decide on a Topic
• Find Background Information
• Refine Your Topic
• Develop a Thesis Statement
• Choose Keywords
• Create Search Statements
• Chapter 2 Self Quiz
• Search the Library Catalog
• Call Numbers
• Request Books
• Book Research Streamlined
• Viewing eBooks
• Access Media
• Chapter 3 Self Quiz
• About Library Databases
• Find Articles in Databases
• Modify Your Search
• Reading Scholarly Articles
• Chapter 4 Self Quiz
• Citation Styles
• Locate Citation Information
• Copyright & Fair Use
• Creative Commons
• Find & Attribute Images
• Chapter 5 Self Quiz

What is information literacy?

The term "information literacy" describes a set of abilities that enables an individual to acquire, evaluate, and use information. You can think of information literacy as having five components: identify, find, evaluate, apply, and acknowledge sources of information. Information literacy is a lifelong learning process, something beginning before you arrive at college and developing as you grow. While each skill is individually important, understanding how they fit together is essential to becoming an information literate person.

Acknowledge

=  Components of Information Literacy

Why is information literacy important?

Every day we encounter an increasingly large and diverse sea of information through the Web, mass media, and published works. You can find information in many different formats, from an endless number of sources. The quality of information varies greatly between the available information choices. Just think of a typical internet search; it is common to retrieve authoritative, current, and reliable sources alongside biased, outdated, misleading, or false sources. Furthermore, an online search is likely to result in more information than can be effectively handled. The sheer amount and variety of information available to us makes information literacy competencies important to master!

Information literacy skills are vital to success in your personal, professional, and academic life. In college, you use these skills to perform well on research papers, projects, and presentations. At work you will likely encounter situations where you must seek out new information to make logical decisions. In the home, you are constantly faced with deciding consumer issues and forming opinions on social and political topics. Each situation requires engagement in the information literacy process.

5 Components of Information Literacy video

The video below will walk you through the five components of information literacy including academic and real-life examples.

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• Last Updated: May 2, 2024 9:24 AM
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Information Literacy: Concepts and Teaching Strategies

Are your students drowning in information? Can they spot misinformation and "fake news?" With a plethora of information available at their fingertips, information literacy skills have never been more critical.

You have likely heard of information literacy but may be unsure how to define it. You may have questions such as: Is information literacy important for my students? What learning bottlenecks might students experience related to information literacy? How can I effectively help my students to develop their information literacy?  

This guide defines information literacy, outlines core information literacy concepts, identifies common information literacy-related challenges that students may face, and provides teaching strategies and activities aimed at helping you to incorporate information literacy into your courses.  

Defining Information Literacy 

The term information literacy has been used for over 40 years, with various definitions proposed during this period. In 2016, the Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL) published the  Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education  and included the following definition:  

Information literacy is the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning. 

In other words, information literacy involves an understanding of how information is created, accessed, shared, and valued  and the abilities and mindset necessary to be able to  locate, evaluate, use, and create information sources ethically and effectively . 

Information literacy includes:  

Conceptual understandings , such as a recognition of how and why information has value or what makes a source authoritative   

Habits of mind , or dispositions such as persistence and flexibility when searching  

Skills or practices , such as the ability to effectively use a database  

As you review the teaching strategies, remember that a single assignment or instruction session cannot fully teach students to become information literate. You are not expected to teach every information literacy concept or skill in one course. However, you can take steps in almost any course to support students' developing information literacy, even if the course does not include a traditional research paper.   

Core Information Literacy Concepts 

The  Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education  (Association of College & Research Libraries, 2016) highlights six core information literacy concepts:  

• Authority is Constructed and Contextual 
• Information Creation as a Process 
• Information Has Value 
• Research as Inquiry 
• Scholarship as Conversation 
• Searching as Strategic Exploration 

These core concepts describe understandings about the purpose and process of research and scholarship broadly shared among scholars, but that novice learners may not yet fully grasp. However, without understanding these concepts, many common academic or professional research practices may not make sense. Each core concept is briefly described below.  

Expert researchers understand that information sources have different levels of authority or credibility, and authority is related to the  expertise or credibility of the information creator . Many factors contribute to expertise, including education, experience, and social position. However, having expertise in one area does not imply expertise in others.

Experts also recognize the context in which information is needed, and will be used, can impact the level of authority needed or what would be considered authoritative. An information source that may be appropriate to use in one situation may not be considered authoritative in another situation.  

Students who grasp this concept can examine information sources and ask relevant questions about origins, context, and suitability for the information need to identify credible and relevant information sources in multiple contexts.   (ACRL, 2016) 

For additional information view the Authority is Constructed and Contextual  video. 

Experts know that information products are created by different processes and come in many formats , which reflect the differences in the creation process . Some information formats may be better suited for conveying certain types of information or meeting specific information needs. Understanding how and why an information product was created can help to determine how that information can be used. Experts recognize that the creation process for an information source and the format can influence that source's actual or perceived value.

Understanding different formats of information and the related creation processes can help students determine when and how to use a specific information source and help them make informed decisions regarding the appropriate format(s) for their own information creations. (ACRL, 2016)

For additional information view the Information Creation as a Process  video. 

Experts know that information has many types of value (financial, personal, social). Because information is valuable, several factors (political, economic, legal) influence the creation, access, distribution, and use of information. Novice learners may struggle to understand the value of information, especially as nearly all information appears to be available for free online.

Experts, however, understand their responsibilities as information consumers and creators, including making deliberate choices about how they access and share information and when to comply with—or when to contest—current legal and socioeconomic restrictions on information. Additionally, experts recognize that not everyone has equal access to information or the equal ability to make their voice heard.

Understanding this concept will help students make sense of the legal and ethical guidelines surrounding information (and the reasons they exist) and make informed decisions both as information consumers and as information creators. (ACRL, 2016) 

For additional information view the Information Has Value video. 

Experts usually consider research a process focused on problems or questions, within or between disciplines, which are unanswered or unresolved and recognize research as part of an ongoing and collaborative effort to extend knowledge .  They understand research is rarely a simple, straightforward search for one "perfect" answer or source; instead, it is an iterative, open-ended, and messy process in which finding answers often lead to new questions. Expert researchers accept ambiguity as part of the research process and recognize the need for adaptability and flexibility when they search.

Understanding this concept will help students recognize that research requires patience, persistence, and flexibility and will prepare them to make sense of the ambiguous nature of their search results rather than seeking a single "right" answer . (ACRL, 2016)

For additional information view the Research as Inquiry video. 

Scholars, researchers, and professionals within a field engage in ongoing discussions where new ideas and research findings are continually debated . In most cases, there are often multiple competing perspectives on a topic. Experts can locate, navigate, and contribute to the conversations within their discipline or field. They recognize that providing appropriate attribution to relevant previous research is considered an obligation of participating in this conversation. As they develop their information literacy, students should learn to see themselves as contributors to these conversations. However, they may first need to learn the "language" of the discipline, such as accepted research methods, standards for evidence, and forms of attribution, before they can fully participate. 

Understanding this concept will help students better evaluate the relevance of specific information sources, to make sense of many of the requirements of scholarly practice, and better understand the expectations around their own role in the conversation . (ACRL, 2016)

For additional information view the Scholarship as Conversation video. 

Searching for information is often nonlinear and iterative , requiring evaluating a range of information sources and the mental flexibility to pursue alternate directions. The information searching process is a complex process influenced by cognitive, affective, and social factors. While novice learners may only use a limited number of search tools and strategies, experts understand the properties of various information search systems and make informed choices when determining search strategy and search language. Expert searchers shape their search to fit the information need, rather than relying on the same strategies, search systems, and search language without regard for the context of the search.

Students who understand this concept will be able to make appropriate decisions about where and how they search for information in different contexts . (ACRL, 2016)

For additional information view the Searching as Strategic Exploration video. 

Information Literacy Learning Bottlenecks

Bottlenecks are where some students in a course may struggle, get stuck, be unable to complete required tasks, or move forward in their learning ( Decoding the Disciplines ; Middendorf & Baer, 2019 ). Information literacy-related bottlenecks can come in many forms. Some of the most common are outlined below and emphasize core concepts. 

Research or inquiry-based assignments are those in which students are required to find, analyze, and use various information sources to explore an issue, answer a question, or solve a problem. Although they are common assignments, they can be sources of frustration for both you and your students.

You are likely expecting students to:

• Approach research as an open-ended and inquiry-driven process (Research as Inquiry)
• Be an active participant (provide an argument, make an interpretation) in the ongoing conversations related to their topic (Scholarship as Conversation)

However, these expectations may be unfamiliar to students who are more accustomed to the idea of research as a process of compiling and summarizing information on a topic. Additionally, effectively completing research assignments requires a wide range of knowledge and skills that novice learners may not yet have developed.

Students who can effectively complete these assignments :

• Are familiar with academic jargon (e.g., scholarly journal, literature review) and understand the meaning of the various actions often required as part of these assignments (e.g., analyze, illustrate, interpret)
• Can distinguish between expectations for different types of research or inquiry-based assignments (i.e., can recognize the different goals of an empirical research paper, a literature review, or an annotated bibliography)
• Can formulate research questions by considering missing or conflicting information from the existing conversation  
• Possess the necessary background knowledge or disciplinary knowledge that allows them to navigate ongoing scholarly or professional conversations related to their topic
• Think of themselves as capable of contributing to academic or professional conversations

Related core concepts

• Research as Inquiry
• Scholarship as Conversation

Related teaching strategies

• Clarifying Expectations for Research Assignments

With so many different search tools and resources available, determining where to search for information and executing an effective search can be difficult. Identifying an appropriate search tool, crafting an effective search statement, and using initial results to guide search revisions takes significant knowledge of the properties and functions of various search tools.

Effective searching also requires students to understand the complex nature of the search process. Novice learners may, for example, approach searching as a linear process intended to find a specific number of sources as quickly as possible, rather than a strategic and complicated process for finding relevant information ( Middendorf & Baer, 2019 ).

Students who can search effectively:

• Understand how various information system, such as search engines and databases, are organized and function
• Determine when to use a search engine or a more specialized or academic database or search resource  
• Are familiar with the databases or search tools that are most relevant for their specific discipline or information need
• Use different types of search language and search options as needed  
• Revise their search strategy as needed, based on initial results, and seek assistance from information professionals
• Demonstrate flexibility and persistence, and understand that initial attempts do not always produce adequate results  

Related core concepts 

• Searching as Strategic Exploration

Related teaching strategies 

• Teaching Information Searching 

Evaluating information to identify credible sources that are relevant to their topic or research question and are appropriate for their information need is one of the most difficult challenges students face. It requires significant knowledge of various types of information sources and their characteristics, the processes by which information sources are produced and disseminated, the factors that provide or temper authority or credibility, and an understanding of how context can impact these other factors.

Students who can evaluate information effectively:

• Are motivated to find credible and relevant information sources ; m aintain an open mind when considering information from multiple perspectives  
• Can identify/distinguish different types (e.g., journal articles, news articles, book chapters, blog posts) and categories (e.g., scholarly, popular, professional) of information sources
• Can define different types of authority, such as subject expertise (e.g., scholarship), societal position (e.g., public office or title), or special experience (e.g., participating in a historic event) 
• Understand how the creation processes for various information sources can impact the way the source may be valued
• Assess information with a critical stance
• Use indicators of authority to help determine the credibility of sources while recognizing the factors that can temper authority
• Have an awareness of how their own worldview may impact how they perceive information 
• Recognize that information sources may be perceived or valued differently depending on the context
• Authority is Constructed and Contextual
• Information Creation as a Process
• Teaching Source Evaluation

Using information sources ethically is one of the most crucial habits that students need to develop, but it can also be one of the most challenging that students face. More than being able to master the basics of citations, students need to understand why information is valuable and learn to navigate the complex rules, regulations, and expectations around information use.

Students who use information ethically:

• Recognize the various ways in which information can be valuable (e.g. financial, political, personal)
• Demonstrate respect for the time, effort, and skill needed to create knowledge; give credit to the ideas of others through appropriate attribution
• Demonstrate understanding of and the ability to use of the methods of attribution that are appropriate to their discipline or field
• Are familiar with concepts such as intellectual property, copyright, fair use, plagiarism, the public domain, and open access
• Critically consider what personal information they share online and make careful decisions about how they publish or share their own information products  
• Understand that everyone does not have equal access to information or the equal ability to share information   
• Recognize how citations are used as part of ongoing scholarly or professional conversations ​​​​​​
• Information Has Value
•  Teaching Ethical Information Use 

Leverage Library Resources

Instructor Resources at University Libraries  provides guidance on incorporating library resources to support student learning in your course. Explore topics such as information literacy, academic research skills, and affordable course content, and access “ready-to-share” instructional materials including videos, Carmen content, and handouts. 

Teaching Strategies and Activities

Information literacy cannot be taught in a single instruction session or even a single course. Instead, it develops throughout a student's academic career. No instructor is expected to incorporate all the core information literacy concepts or address every potential learning bottleneck in a single course. However, there are many small steps that you can take to support students' developing information literacy.

The following approaches provide an overview of some helpful strategies that you can use to help your students overcome information literacy-related learning bottlenecks.

You can take several steps as you (re)design your research or inquiry-based assignments to support increased student learning and reduce the misunderstandings that are common between students and instructors.

• List all of the steps that students will need to take to complete the assignment. You may be surprised at how many there actually are! This can help you to identify steps that may be challenging for students but you may have initially overlooked because of your own familiarity with the research process.
• Identify the core concepts, such as Scholarship as Conversation or Research as Inquiry , that may be behind your expectations for the assignment.
• Question your purpose for including certain requirements, such as requiring a specific citation style or that students use specific types of sources. What are your requirements contributing to student learning in the course?
• Discuss the purpose of academic research and the goals of your specific research assignment with students.
• Define any academic jargon (such as "scholarly" or "peer-reviewed") and your action words (analyze, trace, illustrate).
• Clarify the distinctions between different types of research or inquiry-based assignments, such as the difference between a literature review and an annotated bibliography.
• Describe the types of sources that you consider to be appropriate or inappropriate for the assignment and explain why.
• Be sure that any requirements you have for sources align with the purpose and context of the assignment. For example, be careful not to expect students to use scholarly sources for topics where scholarly research may not exist.
• Provide step-by-step instructions and model the steps of the research process.
• Scaffold large research assignments by breaking them down into more manageable chunks and providing feedback after each part.
• Have a colleague or student review your assignment instructions, note anything that seems unclear, and highlight any jargon that may need to be explained. This can be even more helpful if it is a colleague outside of your discipline.

Sample Activity

Have students complete a quick activity in which they a nalyze the assignment instructions. Have them:

• Summarize what they must do  
• Identify any unclear terms
• Highlight key requirements
• Discuss their responses together to identify any initial misconceptions about the purpose or process for the assignment

There are many things you can do to help students become more adept at information searching:

• Identify the core concepts, such as Searching as Strategic Exploration , Research as Inquiry , and Information Creation as a Process , that may be contributing to students challenges with information searching
• The difference between a search engine and a database, and when it is appropriate to use one or the other
• The databases or search tools that are most commonly used in the discipline
• How to create an effective search statement or use databases options and limiters (advanced search, Boolean operators); how to revise a search when needed
• Recommend specific search tools. With so many tools available, including hundreds of research databases available through University Libraries, students may need guidance for where to go to start their search.
• Recommend that students use the Subject Guides available through University Libraries to identify relevant search tools and resources.
• Provide analogies or examples to help students enhance their understanding of the search process ( Middendorf & Baer, 2019).
• Model the search process by showing how you would go about searching for information on a topic or question relevant to the course.
• Build reflection on or discussion of the search process into the assignment.

As part of a research assignment, have students complete an outline or screencast video in which they describe or demonstrate how they would go about searching for information on their topic and use the results to guide a discussion of effective search strategies.

 For an example of how you can address bottlenecks related to information searching, see:

• Middendorf, J., & Baer, A., (2019). Bottlenecks of Information Literacy .  In  C. Gibson & S. Mader (Eds.), Building Teaching and Learning Communities: Creating Shared Meaning and Purpose , pp. 51-68

To help students with source evaluation, steps you can take include:

• Identify the core concepts, such as Authority is Constructed and Contextual or Information Creation as a Process , that may be contributing to challenges students experience when evaluating information
• The various factors that contribute to, or temper, source authority or credibility (many students have erroneously been taught to use surface factors, such as domain name or the look of the site, to make decisions about source credibility)
• How to differentiate between types (e.g. news articles, websites, scholarly journal articles, social media sources) and categories of information sources (scholarly, professional, popular)
• The role context plays in determining the authority needed
• The types of information sources that are considered authoritative or credible in your field
• Consider why you might require specific types of sources. If students can or cannot use specific sources types, is there a clear reason why?
• Clearly outline your expectations for appropriate sources for your assignments and explain your reasons for these requirements
• Clarify the distinction between terms such as credible, relevant, and scholarly
• Model the process that you take to determine whether or not you find a source to be credible and appropriate
• Provide evaluation criteria and outline steps that students can take or questions they need to consider as part of the source evaluation process
• The domain name (.com, .edu)
• The professionalism of the site
• The information provided in the About Us page
• Encourage students to consider factors such as the authority of the author or publisher,  motivation for publishing the source,  relevance of the source to the research question or topic, and the appropriateness of the source for the context
• Encourage your students to practice lateral reading, where they read across multiple sites as part of the source evaluation process—for example, searching for the author or publisher or site sponsor via a search engine to learn more about them rather than remaining on the same site. For more information, see What Reading Laterally Means (Caulfield, 2017).
• After receiving instructions for a research assignment, have students work together to develop class guidelines for evaluating sources, with recommendations for the types of sources that would or would not be considered appropriate to use

Other resources to support lateral reading include:

• Teaching Lateral Reading (Civic Online Reasoning)
• Evaluating Online Sources: A Toolkit (Baer & Kipnis, Rowan University)
• Lateral Reading (University of Louisville Libraries)
• Identify the core concepts, such as Information Has Value or Scholarship as Conversation , that may be contributing to challenges students experience when using information ethically
• The expectations for when and why attribution is required in academic research
• The expectations for attribution in your discipline or field
• Locating the information needed to include in a citation
• Reading a citation to identify relevant information
• The distinctions between plagiarism and copyright infringement
• Consider your purpose for requiring a specific citation style. While there can be good reasons for insisting on specific styles, doing so can also create an unnecessary burden, especially for students outside of your discipline.
• Identify the key aspect(s) of the citation process that you want to emphasize when it comes to grading (i.e. is it more important that students have the citation format perfect, or that they are using their sources effectively?)
• Provide resources, such as the University Libraries' Citation Help Guide , to help students develop their citation skills, especially if requiring a discipline-specific citation style
• Practice "reading" citations with your students—many students may struggle to identify the different parts of a citation
• Teach students to use sources/citations to locate additional citations (forward and backward citation tracing)
• Talk with your students about the ways that scholars and researchers use sources and citations to document and engage with the conversation(s) on their topic and establish their own credibility. Emphasize citation as part of the process of engaging in scholarly and professional conversations.

Provide students with a relevant sample article from which all citations have been removed or redacted. Discuss how the lack of citations contributes to their ability to evaluate the article's credibility and use the article effectively to answer a question or learn more about the topic.

Comparing Search Tools Activity

Evaluating sources using lateral reading, interpreting a research or inquiry-based activity.

• Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education (website)
• Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research (e-book)
• Choosing & Using Sources: Instructor Resources (e-book)
• Transforming information literacy instruction: Threshold concepts in theory and…
• University Libraries Information Literacy Virtual Workshop Series (videos)
• University Libraries Subject Guides (website)
• University Libraries Subject Librarians (website)

Learning Opportunities

Association of College & Research Libraries. (2016). Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education. Retrieved from  http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/ilframework .

Baer, A., & Kipnis, D. (2020). Evaluating Online Sources: A Toolkit. https://libguides.rowan.edu/EvaluatingOnlineSources .

Caulfield, M. (2017). Web Literacy for Student Fact-Checkers . Pressbooks.

Stanford University. (n.d.) Civic Online Reasoning.  https://cor.stanford.edu/curriculum/collections/teaching-lateral-reading/ .

Decoding the Discipline. (n.d.)  http://decodingthedisciplines.org/ .

Middendorf, J., & Baer, A., (2019). Bottlenecks of Information Literacy . In C. Gibson & S. Mader (Eds.), Building Teaching and Learning Communities: Creating Shared Meaning and Purpose , pp. 51-68.

Ohio State University Libraries.(n.d.) Citation Help. Retrieved from https://guides.osu.edu/citation .

TILT Higher Ed. (n.d.). Retrieved from  https://tilthighered.com/ .

Related Teaching Topics

Supporting student learning and metacognition, designing research or inquiry-based assignments, search for resources.

Essay on Media And Information Literacy

Students are often asked to write an essay on Media And Information Literacy in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Media And Information Literacy

Understanding media and information literacy.

Media and Information Literacy (MIL) is knowing how to smartly handle and use information from different sources like TV, internet, and books. It’s like learning to swim in a sea of endless news, pictures, and videos.

The Importance of MIL

It’s crucial because it helps you tell what’s true from what’s not. With MIL, you can make better choices about what to read, watch, and share. It’s like having a map in the world of media.

Learning to Check Facts

A big part of MIL is learning to check if something is correct. Before believing a story, see if trusted places also report it. It’s like double-checking your answers in a test.

Using Media Wisely

MIL teaches you to use media in a good way. It means not spending too much time on screens and knowing that not everything online is good for you. It’s about making smart media choices.

Sharing Responsibly

250 words essay on media and information literacy.

Media and Information Literacy, or MIL, is knowing how to smartly use the internet, newspapers, books, and other ways we get information. It’s like learning how to fish in a huge sea of news and facts. With MIL, you can tell which fish are good to eat and which might make you sick.

Why MIL is Important

Today, we get bombarded with tons of messages and pictures through our phones, TVs, and computers. Some of these are true, but others are not. MIL helps you sort out the truth from the lies. It’s like having a special tool that helps you know which friend is telling the truth and which is just making up stories.

One part of MIL is checking if something is true or not. Before you believe a story, ask yourself: Who wrote this? Why did they write it? Is there proof? It’s like being a detective, looking for clues to solve a mystery.

MIL also teaches you to use media in a good way. It means spending the right amount of time watching TV or playing games and also using the internet to learn new things. Think of it as a diet for your brain—you need a mix of fun, learning, and rest.

Sharing the Right Information

Lastly, MIL helps you share information the right way. Before you send a message or a picture to others, think: Is it kind? Is it necessary? Is it true? By doing this, you can be a hero who helps stop lies and spread kindness.

500 Words Essay on Media And Information Literacy

The need for media literacy.

We live in a time when we are surrounded by a sea of information. From the moment we wake up to the time we go to bed, we are bombarded with messages from our phones, TVs, and computers. With so much information coming at us, it’s important to know what is true and what isn’t. This is where media literacy comes in. It helps us tell the difference between facts and opinions, and it teaches us to ask questions about what we see and hear.

Spotting Fake News

One of the biggest challenges today is fake news. This is information that is made to look real but is actually made up to fool people. Media literacy gives us the tools to spot fake news by checking where the information comes from, who is sharing it, and whether other reliable sources are reporting the same thing. By being careful and checking the facts, we can avoid being tricked by false information.

Using Information Wisely

Advertising and persuasion.

Advertisements are everywhere, trying to persuade us to buy things or think a certain way. Media literacy helps us see the tricks advertisers use to grab our attention and make us want something. By understanding these tricks, we can make better choices about what we buy and believe.

Creating Media

Media literacy is not just about what we take in; it’s also about what we put out into the world. With smartphones and the internet, anyone can be a creator. Media literacy teaches us how to share our own stories and ideas in a clear and honest way, and how to respect other people’s rights and feelings when we do.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

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Informative Essay | Definition, Examples & Structure

Jeremy taught elementary school for 18 years in in the United States and in Switzerland. He has a Masters in Education from Rollins College in Winter Park, Florida. He's taught grades 2, 3, 4, 5 and 8. His strength is in educational content writing and technology in the classroom

Kelly earned her Master of Mass Communication from Arizona State and has taught consumer behavior and communication courses at the undergraduate level.

What is the meaning of an informative essay?

An informative essay is a non-fiction writing piece that is written to inform readers on a certain topic or subject. They are always fact-based and do not include arguments or opinions from the author.

What does an informative essay contain?

An informative essay contains an introductory paragraph that begins with a hook sentence and contains the topic sentence, or thesis. The body of the essay generally contains three to five paragraphs that expand on the introduction. The conclusion paragraph restates the main topic and summarizes the main points.

What is an example of informative writing?

There are four types of informative essay. One example would be a definition essay about gothic architecture. Another is a compare and contrast essay focusing on the similarities and differences between public and private school. An analysis essay might be about the cost of living in New York City, and a process essay might describe how to build a porch swing from pallet wood.

Table of Contents

What is an informative essay, examples of informative essays, lesson summary.

When a teacher assigns a class the task of writing an essay , the room usually fills with groans and moans. Writing essays can be hard, and there are many different kinds of essays that can be written.

An informative essay serves the single purpose of informing or educating the reader about a topic. Informative essays are non-fiction essays that deliver content to the reader in a simple manner.

There is a slight difference between an expository essay and an informative essay, and it's important to understand that difference. An expository essay is also intended to inform readers, but it is a much more complex essay that uses lots of evidence and facts to back up the main topic. Expository essays can also be argumentative or opinion-based, which informative essays cannot be.

Informative essays can be found in non-fiction books, magazines, and online content. While they don't have a specific length, they are generally not really long or detailed. Informative essays are the first type of longer writing that younger elementary students learn how to write.

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• 0:05 Defining an Informative Essay
• 1:46 Informative Essays: Definition
• 3:48 Informative Essays:…
• 5:17 Informative Essays:…
• 6:17 Informative Essays: How-To
• 6:58 Lesson Summary

When a writer decides to write an informative essay, they generally have a few different types of essays to choose from. The following are the main types of informative essays and an example of each one.

Writing Informative Essays

Writing an informative essay is a step-by-step process that should be followed in the right order to get the best results. The steps to writing an informative essay are as follows:

• Pick a Topic - It may seem like a no-brainer, but picking a good topic that is interesting for the writer and the reader is very important. Starting off with a bad topic can cause problems further in the process.
• Research - It's important to get the information correct, so doing good research and writing down sources is the next logical step. It's also important to make sure there is adequate information available on the topic chosen.
• Outline - Once the research notes have been taken, it's time to organize the information in an outline. Outlines take many forms, like bullet points, columns, or graphic organizers (see example below).
• Write the Body - It's actually easier to write out a good informative essay by writing the body first rather than starting with the introduction. Use your outline and group topics by paragraphs. Include the major and minor details and use good transitions between main ideas. Once all the vital information is written down and organized, it's easier to write the introduction and conclusion so they fit the structure of the body.
• Write the Introduction and Conclusion - The introduction paragraph should act as a preview of the information in the body. Be sure to include the overall topic and mention the sub-topics, but save details for the body paragraphs. It should give the reader an idea of what you WILL talk about in the essay. The body and introduction should all connect nicely. The conclusion is more or less a restatement of the topic and a summary of the main points. It reminds the reader of what you HAVE talked about in the essay.
• Proof and Edit - Once the essay is written, check the writing for spelling and grammar errors. It's also important to check the essay for continuity. Continuity is the flow of the essay and how well each part transitions into the other.

Informative Essay Structure

One of the reasons informative essays are taught early in the writing process is because they have a very straightforward and easy structure to follow while writing. The simple layout makes it easy for the writer to construct and for the reader to follow.

Informative Essay Topics

Finding topics for informational essays can be a bit tricky, but if you narrow down the type of essay you want to write, it makes it a bit easier. The list below will give some examples of different topics based on the types of essays.

An informative essay is written to inform the reader of a single topic or subject. They are the most common essay and the one that students learn how to write first. Informative essays are always fact-based and not based on opinion or argument. Most informative essays consist of between three and five paragraphs, but there is no minimum or maximum size.

Informative essays often come in one of four different types:

• A definition essay , which explains a single term or concept.
• A compare and contrast essay , which focuses on the similarities and differences between two things.
• An analysis essay , which uses data and numbers to explain a concept and is the simplest form of essay.
• A process essay , which explains how to do something and that often has steps in a progression.

Informative essays are best written by using the following process:

• Pick a topic,
• Research the topic,
• Outline the information,
• Write the body,
• Write the introduction and conclusion, and
• Proofread the essay.

Informative essays have a simple structure of an introduction paragraph , several body paragraphs, and a conclusion paragraph.

Video Transcript

Defining an informative essay.

It's Sunday night and you're finding any way possible to procrastinate on your English homework assignment: to write an informative essay. 'It's gotta be easy enough,' you say to yourself, remembering your English teacher's simple explanation of an informative essay - to educate your reader on a topic. The only problem is, with a definition that broad, you're having a really hard time narrowing down what exactly you'd like to inform your audience about.

Flipping channels, you come across a music awards show. You hear the announcer say one of your favorite stars growing up, Smiley Virus, is set to perform next. As Smiley takes the stage, you're completely shocked. She comes out half-dressed in some kind of stuffed animal costume, and just keeps doing the same spastic dance moves over and over again. It just keeps getting more and more bizarre. It's obvious she's trying to be 'edgy'. As the camera pans the crowd, no one is sure how to react toward her 'cutting edge' performance.

As it all ends, you immediately start thinking of a way you can turn this into an informative essay - it's just too good not to write about. Your mind begins to fill with the different options your English teacher gave you.

'Informative essays come in many forms,' she said. 'They can define a term, compare and contrast something, analyze data, or provide a how-to.' 'No matter what form you choose, remember that an informative essay does not give the writer's opinion on the topic or attempt to persuade their reader to change their beliefs,' she said. Finally excited about writing your informative essay, you begin to brainstorm your options.

Informative Essays: Definition

The definition essay is the most basic form of an informative essay. Its goal is to simply provide an explanation. Informative essays that define provide their explanation using one of three methods: They can use synonyms to explain what the new term is similar to, categories to help the reader see where the term fits in compared to others, or negation to allow the reader to understand the term by seeing what it isn't.

In addition to the three methods, there are several ways you can organize an informative essay that provides a definition. The most important thing is to present them in a logical order that makes sense, and there's not one method that's best in every case. Some organization schemes you might consider include presenting examples from most important to least or presenting them chronologically.

In your case, a definition essay might simply tell about who Smiley Virus is. You begin to work on a rough draft for a definition-focused informative essay. You know the introduction should contain a thesis along with a compelling way to draw the reader in.

'As the lights dim, the crowd waits in anticipation. Slowly a beat emerges, then, as if rising from the ashes of her child star persona, a shadowy figure appears in a cloud of smoke on stage, ready to give an infamous performance no one will soon forget. As she makes her way across the stage, the spotlight shines down, showing off a new woman. No longer a little girl, this is the new Smiley Virus, the adult pop sensation.'

'Not bad,' you think. You begin with a compelling description of what you just saw and tell your reader what you'll be defining: the new adult pop sensation, Smiley Virus. You also note how you've already started to provide your explanation, through negation - letting your reader know that Smiley is not a little girl or child star anymore - and categorizing - classifying her as an 'adult pop sensation.'

Informative Essays: Compare and Contrast

Although you think the definition of Smiley Virus, adult pop sensation, could make for a good essay, you also start to ponder some of the ways this performance is similar to other ones you've seen on the same awards show. An informative essay using compare and contrast would fit the bill here. It allows the reader to understand the topic by looking at similarities or differences compared to other subjects.

Writing a compare and contrast informative essay would allow you to focus on Smiley's performance at the awards show, rather than just simply defining her as a pop star. You could compare and contrast her controversial performance with others from the past that were also seen as scandalous at the time.

You start to craft a thesis statement for an informative essay using compare and contrast. 'Although Smiley Virus's edgy performance made top headlines Monday morning, it's not the first time a pop sensation turned heads with their awards show performance. In fact, it's nothing new at all. In 1984, rising pop star Mona Lisa shocked fans with her controversial performance.'

Organizing a compare and contrast informative essay like this is fairly straightforward. You can present your information by points of comparison - maybe comparing Mona Lisa and Smiley's outfits, then dance moves, then popularity - or just look at your topics, Mona Lisa versus Smiley, one at a time.

Informative Essays: Analyzing Data

You're just not sure you know enough about the Mona Lisa performance to do a good job on the compare and contrast option, so you move on to another choice. You think about how Smiley ended up in that position in the first place. Perhaps an informative essay that analyzes data might work. You could look at whether life as a child star leads to outlandish behavior as an adult.

When using an informative essay to analyze data , you are simply explaining how something might have happened based on data you've gathered. It's basically like looking at cause and effect with no opinions presented. In this case, it's usually easiest to look at things in chronological order. This will help your reader best follow what you are trying to explain.

It's important to have lots of supporting data and statistics to explain the cause and effect situation in an analytical essay. Realizing you don't have much more than anecdotal evidence as to why many child stars end up the way they do, you move on to your final option, the how-to.

Informative Essays: How-To

The how-to informative essay does exactly what the name says. It explains to your reader how to do something. It's most often presented in the order of the steps involved. It dawns on you - you could provide a how-to for the new, spastic dance move Smiley showcased, 'The Bizzerk.' Easy enough, if you were able to even put those spastic dance moves into words, let alone do it well enough to explain the Bizzerk step-by-step.

You pass on that option and go back to your first idea: to write your informative essay as a definition of Smiley Virus, adult pop sensation.

As you finish your informative essay, you start to expand on your explanation of who Smiley is. You give more background on the pop star category you put her in, and continue explaining how she is no longer the sweet, child star the public once thought her to be. You go through the basics your English teacher shared with you in class one more time.

An informative essay educates your reader on a topic. They can have one of several functions: to define a term, compare and contrast something, analyze data , or provide a how-to . They do not, however, present an opinion or try to persuade your reader.

Learning Outcome

After watching this lesson, you should be able to define an informative essay and explain the four formats they could be written in.

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Literacy Definition and Importance Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
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Education is an important aspect in the economy of a country. It is a measure of a country’s potential human capital. Compared to their counterparts-illiterate people, literate people in a community not only have higher social status but also enjoy better employment and wealth prospects. The higher the literacy level, the better placed is a country in terms of its ability to spear head its set development goals/objectives. This paper seeks to give a backbone of the term ‘literacy’ and its justification.

Literacy is the process of learning whereby an individual gains the ability to understand and convey written information, gain new skills from the information, teach those skills and apply the acquired knowledge and skills for the benefit of the society. Here the key words are gain, ability to understand, teach, apply, and for a benefit. However, different people have defined literacy differently in different periods. Traditionally, people defined literacy as the ability to read, appropriately use written information and appropriately write in a range of contexts (Winch, 2007, p. 20). However, there have been new aspects arising from the definition.

This definition does not involve critical thinking in the application of the information retrieved from the written sources. It remains insufficient since it does not account for several aspects that are significant as far as literacy is concerned.

Most people perceive that literacy comprises of a set of several tangible skills, which include the cognitive skills of reading and writing. These skills ought to be independent of the context of acquiring them and the background of the individual who acquires them (Adams, 1993, p. 24). The individual should be able to decode phonetics, spelling, word recognition and vocabulary. This implies that one should not depend on pictures to denote meaning. There is emphasis on both the ability to understand orally given information and the ability to present it as written literature.

In the recent past, various scholars have started using the term ‘literacy’ in a much broader metaphorical sense to refer to other skills and competencies, for example ‘information literacy’, ‘visual literacy’, ‘media literacy’, ‘computer literacy’ and ‘scientific literacy’ (Hills, 2006, p. 6). The introduction of these concepts has brought a shift from the view of literacy as a set of words but also the interpretation of signs, symbols, pictures and sounds, which vary by social context (Cope & Kalantzis, 2000, p. 5). These skills enable an individual to gather and apply knowledge in different contexts.

An addition to the contemporary definitions of literacy is that it should be a learning process in which, individuals continually acquire knowledge and skills and use those skills for the benefit of the society (Rogoff, 2003, p. 6). According to National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy, learning to read and the teaching of reading is usually included within the broader area of literacy (2005, p. 7). Therefore, the literacy learning system should focus on strategies that are investigative, reflective, tailored, tested, embedded, purposively practiced and shared.

In conclusion, literacy includes gaining knowledge, being able to understand, to teach, to apply, and to use for a specific benefit. These aspects are equally important and therefore absence of either may translate to illiteracy. For this reason, when assessing literacy level, it is important to consider all the aspects. It applies in all fields.

Adams, R. P. (1993). Juniperus: Flora of North America North of Mexico , Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Web.

Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (2000). Multiliteracies: Literacy learning and the design of social futures. London: Routledge. Web.

Hill, S. (2006). Developing early literacy: assessment and teaching . Vic: Eleanor. Web.

Curtain Pub. National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy. (2005). Report and Recommendations . Australia: Common Wealth of Australia. Web.

Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development . Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress. Web.

Winch, G. (2007). Literacy: reading, writing and children’s literature 3 rd Ed. Victoria: Oxford university press. Web.

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Children and young people’s writing in 2024

Added 04 Jun 2024

This report outlines findings from our 2024 Annual Literacy Survey, exploring children and young people’s writing enjoyment at school and in their free time.

This report is based on 76,131 responses to our Annual Literacy Survey from children and young people aged 5 to 18 in schools across the UK in early 2024. Findings show that writing enjoyment levels are at their lowest since 2010.

Key findings in 2024:

• Levels of writing enjoyment have decreased by 18.1 percentage points over the past 14 years, with levels decreasing by 5.9 percentage points over the past year alone.
• Enjoyment levels dropped for all children and young people in 2024, but the drop was particularly pronounced for boys aged 5 to 8, with levels decreasing by 11.9 percentage points between 2023 and 2024.
• Twice as many children and young people aged 8 to 18 said that they enjoyed writing at school than in their free time in 2024 (53.6% vs. 28.7%).
• Daily writing levels halved between 2023 and 2024, decreasing from 19.3% of children and young people writing daily to 11.1%.
• The drop was more pronounced for children and young people aged 11 to 16 than for those aged 5 to 8.
• Many also wrote to support their mental wellbeing, with 2 in 5 (40.4%) writing to relax and 1 in 3 (33.1%) because it made them feel happy.

Findings show that children and young people’s enjoyment of writing, and frequency of writing in their free time, is at an unprecedented low. Increasing evidence of a long-term downward trend calls for urgent action to reconnect children and young people with writing that promotes connection with creativity, self-expression and mental wellbeing.

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Correlation between digital literacy and environmental literacy of 11th-grade students

• Muhdhar, Mimien Henie Irawati Al
• Khoirina, Shinta Amrul
• Salim, Muhamad Arjuna
• Abdillah, Racy Rizky
• Hernawati, Diana
• Chaidir, Diki Muhamad
• Akbar, Muhammad Iqbal
• Mardiyanti, Lely
• Qodri, Mohammad

The rapid development of technology, information, and communication requires students to master digital literacy. In addition, the rapid development of technology also affects environmental conditions, so it is necessary to master environmental literacy to understand and interpret environmental conditions, as well as build students' awareness of environmental issues. This study aims to determine the correlation between digital literacy and student environmental literacy. The population in this research includes 11th-grade students of SMAN 1 Batu. The research sample amounted to 102 students, and the sampling technique used was purposive random sampling. Data were collected through digital literacy questionnaires, environmental literacy questionnaires, and environmental literacy tests. The data were tested for normality and homogeneity prerequisites and then analyzed using the Pearson Correlation statistical test. The results obtained show that the average digital literacy score of students is 105.1, including the high category, and the average student environmental literacy score is 279.7, included in the medium category. The high level of digital literacy will make students more critical in accessing technology and digital media. Digital literacy includes the process of finding, using multiple sources, evaluating, and using information to produce original products, with the maximum application of digital literacy, which is expected to support students' environmental literacy in providing knowledge, understanding, and building an attitude of caring for the environment. The data obtained shows that there is a positive relationship between digital literacy and environmental literacy.

• BIOLOGY EDUCATION

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Media Literacy Becomes a State Issue

Legislators across the nation are passing laws and implementing rules to help young people become better consumers of information.

by Sharon Johnson

June 3, 2024

In January 2023, New Jersey pushed back against the tide of misinformation by  becoming  the first state to pass a law  requiring  all K-12 students to receive instruction on how information is created and distributed on the Internet and other media. It calls for students to be taught the difference between facts, points of view, and opinions; learn how to access peer-reviewed print and digital library resources; and explore the economic, legal, social, and ethical issues surrounding the use of information.

“Our democracy remains under sustained attack through the proliferation of disinformation that is eroding the role of truth in our political and civic discourse,”  said  New Jersey governor Phil Murphy, a Democrat, upon signing the law. “It is our responsibility to ensure our nation’s future leaders are equipped with the tools necessary to identify fact from fiction. I am proud to sign legislation that is critical to the success of New Jersey’s students and essential to the preservation of our democracy.”

The law calls for new standards to be prepared by a committee of teachers, certified school library media specialists, and other experts, and it provides opportunities for “public input prior to their adoption by the State Board of Education.”

In an age in which misinformation (things that are incorrect) and disinformation (deliberate efforts to deceive) run rampant, the need for media literacy has never been greater. Simply put, many of the messages being generated for public consumption are wrong, and the public often lacks the skill set to discern this.

But now that may be changing. Erin McNeill, founder and chief executive officer of  Media Literacy Now , a nonprofit advocacy organization that works with grassroots groups, says media literacy movements are gaining national traction as policymakers are becoming alarmed by the impact of social media on the mental health of children and adolescents.

Last year, U.S. Surgeon General Vivek Murthy and the American Psychological Association  issued   advisories  about the effects of social media use on the mental health of young people. Murthy’s advisory  called for  “urgent action by policymakers, technology companies, researchers, families, and young people alike to gain a better understanding of the full impact of social media use, maximize the benefits and minimize the harms of social media platforms, and create safer, healthier online environments to protect children.”

Sharon Johnson

According to Media Literacy Now’s latest  annual report , “legislatures in more than half the states have held hearings or votes on media literacy education in committees or debates on the floor of statehouses.” Nineteen state legislatures have taken action since 2009, including blue states like Massachusetts as well as red ones like Utah (see sidebar). In 2023 alone, besides New Jersey, four states passed new laws, including California, home to the nation’s largest K-12 population, which the report says “passed a comprehensive media literacy law that will redirect priorities and funding to media literacy curriculum and professional development.” 

McNeill is encouraged by these developments. “Ideally, all school districts should incorporate media literacy instruction in all subjects at all grade levels,” she tells  The Progressive . “But different states have focused on different aspects, such as standards for overall curriculum, specific courses, civics, or social media. Georgia, Minnesota, New Hampshire, and Virginia have approved requirements for teacher credentialing or training.” McNeill adds: “In most cases, bills have received bipartisan support because legislators like those in New Jersey recognize that media literacy teaches young people how to think, not what to think.”

In fact, in New Jersey, Michael Testa, the Republican state senator who was a lead sponsor of that state’s law, pointedly  took issue  with those who alleged that the new law is somehow an attempt to indoctrinate students into particular ways of thinking. As he put it, “By teaching kids to not blindly trust the information they receive through the news, social media, and other sources and giving them the tools to be skeptical, questioning, independent thinkers, we make it harder for them to be indoctrinated by anyone.”

While some states are passing new laws, others are beefing up existing ones. 

Last year, Connecticut and New Mexico  passed laws  that built on previous efforts. In 2021, Connecticut required the state Department of Education to develop a model curriculum for grades K-8, which could be used by local school boards. In 2023, the state additionally required media literacy in social studies courses. New Mexico, which has permitted media literacy to be offered as an elective to fulfill high school graduation requirements since 2009, passed a measure requiring professional development in media education for teachers. 

In Florida, where battles have  raged  for years over the teaching of race and gender in schools, the state passed a new law in 2023 that emphasized digital wellness, by mandating instruction on the negative effects of social media on mental health. Signed by the state’s Republican governor, Ron DeSantis, a so-called warrior in the battle against “woke” education, it requires students in grades six to twelve to learn how social media manipulates and distributes misinformation, as well as how to maintain personal security and identify cyberbullying, predatory behavior, and human trafficking on the Internet. Last March, DeSantis again targeted social media by  signing a bill  that requires parental consent for children under sixteen to have social media accounts and requires age verification for many websites.

Critics of the laws, including Lee Ohanian, a senior fellow at the Hoover Institution, a conservative research center at Stanford University, have focused on whether the states should add media literacy requirements to the curriculum. Ohanian  expressed  his concern in an essay on the center’s website.

“The fact that lawmakers create new pet requirements, including ‘fake news’ classes, is an affront to the millions of California families whose children attend deficient public schools, children who will become adults without the skills to afford to live in the state, much less succeed in any career requiring mastery of the basics that our schools should be teaching,” Ohanian wrote.

Such resistance makes passing policies and laws to improve media literacy difficult, as advocates in Illinois learned.

Passing a law to require a “unit” on media literacy for the two million public high school students in Illinois was “no small feat,” says Michael A. Spikes, co-founder of the Illinois Media Literacy Coalition, a group of teachers and scholars who are dedicated to advancing media literacy.

The law delegated decisions about how and what to teach to local districts, which meant that the policy was open to wide interpretation. To solve the problem, the coalition  developed  a framework that could be used in subjects ranging from science to civics to art and physical education.

“The teachers were already stretched, so they appreciated having materials they could incorporate into existing lesson plans,” explains Spikes, who has taught media literacy at Northwestern University and other colleges for fifteen years. “The framework focuses on developing students’ skills to navigate media, alleviating teachers’ concerns that they might be accused of political partisanship by people in the community who objected to the use of news reports and other materials in the classroom.”

In addition to providing guidance to local districts and training teachers, the coalition partnered with libraries, universities, and museums. “Networking was extremely important because the mandate was unfunded and depended on volunteers for implementation, which was unsustainable,” Spikes says. “Networking enabled us to connect with people who could either move ideas forward on their own or connect with others who could do so to ensure that the objectives of the law were fulfilled.”

National advocates are now  coming up with  solutions to make implementation easier for the states. To aid science teachers, Media Literacy Now has created a searchable database of lesson plans, videos, and games for K-12 students. A lesson plan for general science students in middle and high school introduces them to the concept of  experimenter bias , how it operates, and its effect on the scientific process.

Another lesson plan helps high school students  evaluate measles  and its alleged effect on immunity to various diseases by asking students to read reports and ask a series of questions about the author and the credibility of the information. A standalone lesson for kindergarten pupils includes prompts and examples that the children can use to explore and think about  YouTube algorithms .

“We believe that these materials will go a long way toward developing skills that young people need to evaluate information about dieting, mental health, renewable energy, and other scientific topics,” McNeill says. “The movement will continue to evolve and come up with other solutions that young people need to be media literate in the twenty-first century.” 

The Future of Media Literacy

W. James Potter, a professor of communications at the University of California, Santa Barbara, says there is more awareness now of media literacy than ever before.

People in positions of power, including state legislators, are taking the subject more seriously, but they face many challenges in coming up with meaningful legislation because media literacy is so complex, Potter tells  The Progressive .

“To be media literate, individuals need to think deeply about their media experience, believe they are in control of media influences, and have a high degree of basic knowledge of media control, industries, and effects,” he says.

Implementation poses many barriers. State regulations for public schools are overloaded, making it difficult to fit media literacy into standards for curriculum design and teacher training. Lesson plans must be tailored to the strengths and weaknesses of each student.

“Local districts must also devote financial resources to implementation,” Potter warns. “Otherwise, media literacy will begin to be regarded as a utopian ideal and disappear from the public agenda.”

— Sharon Johnson

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Explore how Microsoft's partnership with Khan Academy is enhancing the future of education with AI innovation and tools for teachers >

• AI in education
• Published Apr 18, 2024

Smart learning: AI resources every educator should know

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On April 19 in the United States, we celebrate National AI Literacy Day , a nationwide initiative aimed at fostering understanding and engagement with AI. With developments in AI happening so quickly and new products and features launching all the time, it can be difficult to keep up. We want to equip you with the knowledge needed to navigate the world of AI. We’ve gathered some resources, activities, and training to help you get up to speed on all things AI, and how it can be useful in education. In addition to the items below, you’ll find a collection of AI for education resources and learning opportunities on the Microsoft Learn Educator Center .

AI literacy is crucial in today’s digital age, where AI technologies are increasingly integrated into our daily lives. Our latest insights from the AI in Education: Microsoft Special Report demonstrate a disconnect—use of AI in education is outpacing the understanding of the technology. There’s an urgent need to increase AI literacy and AI integration in strategic priorities, standards, policies, and professional development.

For educators, it’s about preparing your students for a future where AI will be a fundamental part of many professions. It’s also about guiding learners to use AI tools safely and responsibly, ensuring they understand the implications of AI on privacy and data security. By fostering AI literacy, we can shape a future where everyone can navigate and benefit from AI advancements confidently and responsibly. Whether you’re a teacher, parent/guardian, or curious learner, here are some valuable resources to enhance your AI literacy from Microsoft Education .

11 resources for educators to amp up your AI literacy

For National AI Literacy Day 2024, explore the AI in education professional development opportunities available from Microsoft.

AI in education professional development

• AI for Educators training : Spend a few hours on your professional development and learn about the history of AI, large language models (LLMs), generative AI, how to create a prompt, and uses of AI in education. The AI for Educators Learning Path on Microsoft Learn is made up of three modules: “Empower educators to explore the potential of artificial intelligence,” “Enhance teaching and learning with Microsoft Copilot,” and “Equip and support learners with AI tools from Microsoft.” From now until April 30, 2024, participate in the AI skills challenge for educators and benchmark your progress against fellow educators and friends.
• Flip AI for educators series : Flip offers free professional development training sessions that provide easy-to-follow instructions, best practices, and inspiration on various topics, including AI! You can catch up on the great AI for educators series events that have already happened, and be sure to register for upcoming professional development events as well.
• Microsoft Education AI Toolkit : The Microsoft Education AI Toolkit provides education leaders with relevant background knowledge, strategies, and recommendations for launching AI initiatives in K-20 settings. It also includes customer stories and technical profiles that showcase how institutions around the globe are already using AI for teaching, learning, and administration. What’s inside of the toolkit provides those in charge with the necessary information that they need to jumpstart their own AI journey. Learn more about the Microsoft Education AI Toolkit and how to use this resource in this article: Kickstart your school’s AI journey with the Microsoft Education AI Toolkit .

Get started using Microsoft Copilot in education

• Introduction to Microsoft Copilot : Learn all about Microsoft Copilot, your AI-powered assistant for education. Get an overview of how to use Copilot, as well as ideas and inspiration for how you can use Copilot to save time, differentiate instruction, and enhance student learning. You can save or print this quick guide to Microsoft Copilot to refer back to as needed.
• Copilot resources for education : Dive deeper into what Copilot can do with resources for education. Whether you’re an educator, IT professional, or parent/guardian, you’ll find helpful resources to get started using Copilot.
• Copilot lab : While it’s not specific to education, the Copilot lab is a great resource to help you learn more about Copilot, how to write a prompt, and ideas of how to get started using Copilot.

Improve your students’ AI literacy, too!

By fostering AI literacy, together we can shape a future where everyone can navigate and benefit from AI advancements.

• Classroom toolkit: Unlocking generative AI safely and responsibly is a creative resource that blends engaging narrative stories with instructional information to create an immersive and effective learning experience for educators and students aged 13-15 years. The toolkit is designed to assist educators in initiating important conversations about responsible AI practices in the classroom, such as the critical topics of content fabrications, privacy considerations, bias awareness, and mental wellbeing.
• Minecraft AI Prompt Lab : Embracing the ever-changing world of education calls for innovation and tech-savvy teaching methods. The Minecraft AI Prompt Lab is a new series of resources that demonstrates how to use Microsoft Copilot with   Minecraft Education to design amazing learning experiences. Crafted for educators like you, this game-changing guide is here to revolutionize the way you deliver educational content with Minecraft. In Prompt Lab: Module 1 , learn how to write prompts, develop learning content and assessments, and generate creative ideas for lesson plans will help you unlock the power of game-based learning with Minecraft Education. In Prompt Lab: Module 2 , learn the basics of Code Builder, the in-game coding feature of Minecraft Education.

• Minecraft Hour of Code: Generation AI : All students deserve opportunities to explore AI technology to understand its implications, access career pathways, and be empowered to safely, confidently navigate an AI-powered world. Designed for anyone ages 7 and up, Minecraft Hour of Code: Generation AI is a fun, accessible way to explore the fundamentals of coding and responsible AI. Students will venture through time to create helpful AI-powered inventions to solve problems and make daily life easier. Learn coding basics and essential principles of computer science, all while encouraging thoughtful discussions around responsible coding and AI development. With free downloadable educator resources exploring the amazing potential of AI has never been more exiting or immersive!

Online safety and information literacy are the foundation of AI literacy

• Microsoft Family Safety Toolkit : To help young people, educators, and families navigate the digital world, Microsoft has also released an online safety resource, the Microsoft Family Safety Toolkit . This toolkit provides guidance on how to leverage Microsoft’s safety features and family safety settings to support and enhance digital parenting, plus guidance for families looking to navigate the world of generative AI together. Bonus resource for young children: PBS Kids launched an educational series on AI supported by Microsoft.  
• Search Progress and Coach : Empowering learners to seek, evaluate, and use online sources responsibly is a critical step in helping them to navigate AI-generated content and the wider information ecosystem with confidence. This short course on our newest Learning Accelerators, Search Progress and Search Coach , showcases how educators can help foster information literacy skills through any research-based assignment in Microsoft Teams for Education.

Let’s celebrate knowledge, curiosity, and the transformative power of AI. Join us this National AI Literacy Day to explore these resources and take a step towards a more informed and inclusive future with AI. Whether you’re an educator looking to bring AI into the classroom or a parent guiding your child in the digital world, these resources will equip you with the knowledge to embrace AI’s potential responsibly. Let’s celebrate the day by committing to lifelong learning and curiosity in the ever-evolving field of AI.

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The Thirty-Eighth Annual Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2024) is an interdisciplinary conference that brings together researchers in machine learning, neuroscience, statistics, optimization, computer vision, natural language processing, life sciences, natural sciences, social sciences, and other adjacent fields. We invite submissions presenting new and original research on topics including but not limited to the following:

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Machine learning is a rapidly evolving field, and so we welcome interdisciplinary submissions that do not fit neatly into existing categories.

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The main text of a submitted paper is limited to nine content pages , including all figures and tables. Additional pages containing references don’t count as content pages. If your submission is accepted, you will be allowed an additional content page for the camera-ready version.

The main text and references may be followed by technical appendices, for which there is no page limit.

The maximum file size for a full submission, which includes technical appendices, is 50MB.

Authors are encouraged to submit a separate ZIP file that contains further supplementary material like data or source code, when applicable.

You must format your submission using the NeurIPS 2024 LaTeX style file which includes a “preprint” option for non-anonymous preprints posted online. Submissions that violate the NeurIPS style (e.g., by decreasing margins or font sizes) or page limits may be rejected without further review. Papers may be rejected without consideration of their merits if they fail to meet the submission requirements, as described in this document. 

Paper checklist: In order to improve the rigor and transparency of research submitted to and published at NeurIPS, authors are required to complete a paper checklist . The paper checklist is intended to help authors reflect on a wide variety of issues relating to responsible machine learning research, including reproducibility, transparency, research ethics, and societal impact. The checklist forms part of the paper submission, but does not count towards the page limit.

Please join the NeurIPS 2024 Checklist Assistant Study that will provide you with free verification of your checklist performed by an LLM here . Please see details in our  blog

Supplementary material: While all technical appendices should be included as part of the main paper submission PDF, authors may submit up to 100MB of supplementary material, such as data, or source code in a ZIP format. Supplementary material should be material created by the authors that directly supports the submission content. Like submissions, supplementary material must be anonymized. Looking at supplementary material is at the discretion of the reviewers.

We encourage authors to upload their code and data as part of their supplementary material in order to help reviewers assess the quality of the work. Check the policy as well as code submission guidelines and templates for further details.

Use of Large Language Models (LLMs): We welcome authors to use any tool that is suitable for preparing high-quality papers and research. However, we ask authors to keep in mind two important criteria. First, we expect papers to fully describe their methodology, and any tool that is important to that methodology, including the use of LLMs, should be described also. For example, authors should mention tools (including LLMs) that were used for data processing or filtering, visualization, facilitating or running experiments, and proving theorems. It may also be advisable to describe the use of LLMs in implementing the method (if this corresponds to an important, original, or non-standard component of the approach). Second, authors are responsible for the entire content of the paper, including all text and figures, so while authors are welcome to use any tool they wish for writing the paper, they must ensure that all text is correct and original.

Double-blind reviewing:   All submissions must be anonymized and may not contain any identifying information that may violate the double-blind reviewing policy.  This policy applies to any supplementary or linked material as well, including code.  If you are including links to any external material, it is your responsibility to guarantee anonymous browsing.  Please do not include acknowledgements at submission time. If you need to cite one of your own papers, you should do so with adequate anonymization to preserve double-blind reviewing.  For instance, write “In the previous work of Smith et al. [1]…” rather than “In our previous work [1]...”). If you need to cite one of your own papers that is in submission to NeurIPS and not available as a non-anonymous preprint, then include a copy of the cited anonymized submission in the supplementary material and write “Anonymous et al. [1] concurrently show...”). Any papers found to be violating this policy will be rejected.

OpenReview: We are using OpenReview to manage submissions. The reviews and author responses will not be public initially (but may be made public later, see below). As in previous years, submissions under review will be visible only to their assigned program committee. We will not be soliciting comments from the general public during the reviewing process. Anyone who plans to submit a paper as an author or a co-author will need to create (or update) their OpenReview profile by the full paper submission deadline. Your OpenReview profile can be edited by logging in and clicking on your name in https://openreview.net/ . This takes you to a URL "https://openreview.net/profile?id=~[Firstname]_[Lastname][n]" where the last part is your profile name, e.g., ~Wei_Zhang1. The OpenReview profiles must be up to date, with all publications by the authors, and their current affiliations. The easiest way to import publications is through DBLP but it is not required, see FAQ . Submissions without updated OpenReview profiles will be desk rejected. The information entered in the profile is critical for ensuring that conflicts of interest and reviewer matching are handled properly. Because of the rapid growth of NeurIPS, we request that all authors help with reviewing papers, if asked to do so. We need everyone’s help in maintaining the high scientific quality of NeurIPS.  

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Abstract Submission: There is a mandatory abstract submission deadline on May 15, 2024, six days before full paper submissions are due. While it will be possible to edit the title and abstract until the full paper submission deadline, submissions with “placeholder” abstracts that are rewritten for the full submission risk being removed without consideration. This includes titles and abstracts that either provide little or no semantic information (e.g., "We provide a new semi-supervised learning method.") or describe a substantively different claimed contribution.  The author list cannot be changed after the abstract deadline. After that, authors may be reordered, but any additions or removals must be justified in writing and approved on a case-by-case basis by the program chairs only in exceptional circumstances. 

Ethics review: Reviewers and ACs may flag submissions for ethics review . Flagged submissions will be sent to an ethics review committee for comments. Comments from ethics reviewers will be considered by the primary reviewers and AC as part of their deliberation. They will also be visible to authors, who will have an opportunity to respond.  Ethics reviewers do not have the authority to reject papers, but in extreme cases papers may be rejected by the program chairs on ethical grounds, regardless of scientific quality or contribution.  

Preprints: The existence of non-anonymous preprints (on arXiv or other online repositories, personal websites, social media) will not result in rejection. If you choose to use the NeurIPS style for the preprint version, you must use the “preprint” option rather than the “final” option. Reviewers will be instructed not to actively look for such preprints, but encountering them will not constitute a conflict of interest. Authors may submit anonymized work to NeurIPS that is already available as a preprint (e.g., on arXiv) without citing it. Note that public versions of the submission should not say "Under review at NeurIPS" or similar.

Dual submissions: Submissions that are substantially similar to papers that the authors have previously published or submitted in parallel to other peer-reviewed venues with proceedings or journals may not be submitted to NeurIPS. Papers previously presented at workshops are permitted, so long as they did not appear in a conference proceedings (e.g., CVPRW proceedings), a journal or a book.  NeurIPS coordinates with other conferences to identify dual submissions.  The NeurIPS policy on dual submissions applies for the entire duration of the reviewing process.  Slicing contributions too thinly is discouraged.  The reviewing process will treat any other submission by an overlapping set of authors as prior work. If publishing one would render the other too incremental, both may be rejected.

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After the notification deadline, accepted and opted-in rejected papers will be made public and open for non-anonymous public commenting. Their anonymous reviews, meta-reviews, author responses and reviewer responses will also be made public. Authors of rejected papers will have two weeks after the notification deadline to opt in to make their deanonymized rejected papers public in OpenReview.  These papers are not counted as NeurIPS publications and will be shown as rejected in OpenReview.

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Contemporaneous Work: For the purpose of the reviewing process, papers that appeared online within two months of a submission will generally be considered "contemporaneous" in the sense that the submission will not be rejected on the basis of the comparison to contemporaneous work. Authors are still expected to cite and discuss contemporaneous work and perform empirical comparisons to the degree feasible. Any paper that influenced the submission is considered prior work and must be cited and discussed as such. Submissions that are very similar to contemporaneous work will undergo additional scrutiny to prevent cases of plagiarism and missing credit to prior work.

Plagiarism is prohibited by the NeurIPS Code of Conduct .

Other Tracks: Similarly to earlier years, we will host multiple tracks, such as datasets, competitions, tutorials as well as workshops, in addition to the main track for which this call for papers is intended. See the conference homepage for updates and calls for participation in these tracks. 

Experiments: As in past years, the program chairs will be measuring the quality and effectiveness of the review process via randomized controlled experiments. All experiments are independently reviewed and approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB).

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Advancing physical literacy research in children.

1. Introduction

• Further empirical evidence making the link between PL and improved health and wellbeing outcomes, and evidence specifically within child and youth populations [ 4 , 5 ].
• Clearer methods for charting progress and assessment that are aligned to the philosophical underpinning of the concept [ 4 , 6 ].
• The utility of PL with diverse populations, including indigenous children and those with disabilities [ 7 ].
• The application of PL within early years and parental engagement [ 8 ].
• The role of PL in the physical education environment [ 9 , 10 , 11 ].

2. Role of Satisfaction in Life, Sex and Body Mass Index in Physical Literacy of Spanish Children

3. evaluation of physical literacy in southeastern european countries, 4. the meaning of physical literacy for instructors of children with disabilities, 5. piloting the virtual playshop program, 6. bibliometric analysis of physical literacy studies, 7. nature’s way–our way pilot project case assemblage, 8. physical-literacy-enriched physical education: a capabilities perspective, 9. conclusions, conflicts of interest.

• Shearer, C.; Goss, H.; Edwards, L.C.; Keegan, R.J.; Knowles, Z.R.; Boddy, L.M.; Durden-Myers, E.J.; Foweather, L. How is Physical Literacy Defined? A Contemporary Update. J. Teach. Phys. Educ. 2018 , 37 , 237–245. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
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• World Health Organisation (WHO). Young People Leading the Way to a Brighter Post-COVID World. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/young-people-leading-the-way-to-a-brighter-post-covid-world (accessed on 15 May 2024).
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• Urbano-Mairena, J.; Mendoza-Muñoz, M.; Carlos-Vivas, J.; Pastor-Cisneros, R.; Castillo-Paredes, A.; Rodal, M.; Muñoz-Bermejo, L. Role of Satisfaction with Life, Sex and Body Mass Index in Physical Literacy of Spanish Children. Children 2024 , 11 , 181. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
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Share and Cite

Durden-Myers, E.J. Advancing Physical Literacy Research in Children. Children 2024 , 11 , 702. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11060702

Durden-Myers EJ. Advancing Physical Literacy Research in Children. Children . 2024; 11(6):702. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11060702

Durden-Myers, Elizabeth J. 2024. "Advancing Physical Literacy Research in Children" Children 11, no. 6: 702. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11060702

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