how memory works essay

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• How Memory Works

Memory is the ongoing process of information retention over time. Because it makes up the very framework through which we make sense of and take action within the present, its importance goes without saying. But how exactly does it work? And how can teachers apply a better understanding of its inner workings to their own teaching? In light of current research in cognitive science, the very, very short answer to these questions is that memory operates according to a "dual-process," where more unconscious, more routine thought processes (known as "System 1") interact with more conscious, more problem-based thought processes (known as "System 2"). At each of these two levels, in turn, there are the processes through which we "get information in" (encoding), how we hold on to it (storage), and and how we "get it back out" (retrieval or recall). With a basic understanding of how these elements of memory work together, teachers can maximize student learning by knowing how much new information to introduce, when to introduce it, and how to sequence assignments that will both reinforce the retention of facts (System 1) and build toward critical, creative thinking (System 2).

Dual-Process Theory

Think back to a time when you learned a new skill, such as driving a car, riding a bicycle, or reading. When you first learned this skill, performing it was an active process in which you analyzed and were acutely aware of every movement you made. Part of this analytical process also meant that you thought carefully about why you were doing what you were doing, to understand how these individual steps fit together as a comprehensive whole. However, as your ability improved, performing the skill stopped being a cognitively-demanding process, instead becoming more intuitive. As you continue to master the skill, you can perform other, at times more intellectually-demanding, tasks simultaneously. Due to your knowledge of this skill or process being unconscious, you could, for example, solve an unrelated complex problem or make an analytical decision while completing it.

In its simplest form, the scenario above is an example of what psychologists call dual-process theory. The term “dual-process” refers to the idea that some behaviors and cognitive processes (such as decision-making) are the products of two distinct cognitive processes, often called System 1 and System 2 (Kaufmann, 2011:443-445). While System 1 is characterized by automatic, unconscious thought, System 2 is characterized by effortful, analytical, intentional thought (Osman, 2004:989).

Dual-Process Theories and Learning

How do System 1 and System 2 thinking relate to teaching and learning? In an educational context, System 1 is associated with memorization and recall of information, while System 2 describes more analytical or critical thinking. Memory and recall, as a part of System 1 cognition, are focused on in the rest of these notes.

As mentioned above, System 1 is characterized by its fast, unconscious recall of previously-memorized information. Classroom activities that would draw heavily on System 1 include memorized multiplication tables, as well as multiple-choice exam questions that only need exact regurgitation from a source such as a textbook. These kinds of tasks do not require students to actively analyze what is being asked of them beyond reiterating memorized material. System 2 thinking becomes necessary when students are presented with activities and assignments that require them to provide a novel solution to a problem, engage in critical thinking, or apply a concept outside of the domain in which it was originally presented.  

It may be tempting to think of learning beyond the primary school level as being all about System 2, all the time. However, it’s important to keep in mind that successful System 2 thinking depends on a lot of System 1 thinking to operate. In other words, critical thinking requires a lot of memorized knowledge and intuitive, automatic judgments to be performed quickly and accurately.

How does Memory Work?

In its simplest form, memory refers to the continued process of information retention over time. It is an integral part of human cognition, since it allows individuals to recall and draw upon past events to frame their understanding of and behavior within the present. Memory also gives individuals a framework through which to make sense of the present and future. As such, memory plays a crucial role in teaching and learning. There are three main processes that characterize how memory works. These processes are encoding, storage, and retrieval (or recall).

• Encoding . Encoding refers to the process through which information is learned. That is, how information is taken in, understood, and altered to better support storage (which you will look at in Section 3.1.2). Information is usually encoded through one (or more) of four methods: (1) Visual encoding (how something looks); (2) acoustic encoding (how something sounds); (3) semantic encoding (what something means); and (4) tactile encoding (how something feels). While information typically enters the memory system through one of these modes, the form in which this information is stored may differ from its original, encoded form (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014).

• Retrieval . As indicated above, retrieval is the process through which individuals access stored information. Due to their differences, information stored in STM and LTM are retrieved differently. While STM is retrieved in the order in which it is stored (for example, a sequential list of numbers), LTM is retrieved through association (for example, remembering where you parked your car by returning to the entrance through which you accessed a shopping mall) (Roediger & McDermott, 1995).

Improving Recall

Retrieval is subject to error, because it can reflect a reconstruction of memory. This reconstruction becomes necessary when stored information is lost over time due to decayed retention. In 1885, Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted an experiment in which he tested how well individuals remembered a list of nonsense syllables over increasingly longer periods of time. Using the results of his experiment, he created what is now known as the “Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve” (Schaefer, 2015).

Through his research, Ebbinghaus concluded that the rate at which your memory (of recently learned information) decays depends both on the time that has elapsed following your learning experience as well as how strong your memory is. Some degree of memory decay is inevitable, so, as an educator, how do you reduce the scope of this memory loss? The following sections answer this question by looking at how to improve recall within a learning environment, through various teaching and learning techniques.

As a teacher, it is important to be aware of techniques that you can use to promote better retention and recall among your students. Three such techniques are the testing effect, spacing, and interleaving.

• The testing effect . In most traditional educational settings, tests are normally considered to be a method of periodic but infrequent assessment that can help a teacher understand how well their students have learned the material at hand. However, modern research in psychology suggests that frequent, small tests are also one of the best ways to learn in the first place. The testing effect refers to the process of actively and frequently testing memory retention when learning new information. By encouraging students to regularly recall information they have recently learned, you are helping them to retain that information in long-term memory, which they can draw upon at a later stage of the learning experience (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014). As secondary benefits, frequent testing allows both the teacher and the student to keep track of what a student has learned about a topic, and what they need to revise for retention purposes. Frequent testing can occur at any point in the learning process. For example, at the end of a lecture or seminar, you could give your students a brief, low-stakes quiz or free-response question asking them to remember what they learned that day, or the day before. This kind of quiz will not just tell you what your students are retaining, but will help them remember more than they would have otherwise.
• Spacing.  According to the spacing effect, when a student repeatedly learns and recalls information over a prolonged time span, they are more likely to retain that information. This is compared to learning (and attempting to retain) information in a short time span (for example, studying the day before an exam). As a teacher, you can foster this approach to studying in your students by structuring your learning experiences in the same way. For example, instead of introducing a new topic and its related concepts to students in one go, you can cover the topic in segments over multiple lessons (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014).
• Interleaving.  The interleaving technique is another teaching and learning approach that was introduced as an alternative to a technique known as “blocking”. Blocking refers to when a student practices one skill or one topic at a time. Interleaving, on the other hand, is when students practice multiple related skills in the same session. This technique has proven to be more successful than the traditional blocking technique in various fields (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014).

As useful as it is to know which techniques you can use, as a teacher, to improve student recall of information, it is also crucial for students to be aware of techniques they can use to improve their own recall. This section looks at four of these techniques: state-dependent memory, schemas, chunking, and deliberate practice.

• State-dependent memory . State-dependent memory refers to the idea that being in the same state in which you first learned information enables you to better remember said information. In this instance, “state” refers to an individual’s surroundings, as well as their mental and physical state at the time of learning (Weissenborn & Duka, 2000). 
• Schemas.  Schemas refer to the mental frameworks an individual creates to help them understand and organize new information. Schemas act as a cognitive “shortcut” in that they allow individuals to interpret new information quicker than when not using schemas. However, schemas may also prevent individuals from learning pertinent information that falls outside the scope of the schema that has been created. It is because of this that students should be encouraged to alter or reanalyze their schemas, when necessary, when they learn important information that may not confirm or align with their existing beliefs and conceptions of a topic.
• Chunking.  Chunking is the process of grouping pieces of information together to better facilitate retention. Instead of recalling each piece individually, individuals recall the entire group, and then can retrieve each item from that group more easily (Gobet et al., 2001).
• Deliberate practice.  The final technique that students can use to improve recall is deliberate practice. Simply put, deliberate practice refers to the act of deliberately and actively practicing a skill with the intention of improving understanding of and performance in said skill. By encouraging students to practice a skill continually and deliberately (for example, writing a well-structured essay), you will ensure better retention of that skill (Brown et al., 2014).

For more information...

Brown, P.C., Roediger, H.L. & McDaniel, M.A. 2014.  Make it stick: The science of successful learning . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Gobet, F., Lane, P.C., Croker, S., Cheng, P.C., Jones, G., Oliver, I. & Pine, J.M. 2001. Chunking mechanisms in human learning.  Trends in Cognitive Sciences . 5(6):236-243.

Kaufman, S.B. 2011. Intelligence and the cognitive unconscious. In  The Cambridge handbook of intelligence . R.J. Sternberg & S.B. Kaufman, Eds. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Osman, M. 2004. An evaluation of dual-process theories of reasoning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review . 11(6):988-1010.

Roediger, H.L. & McDermott, K.B. 1995. Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists.  Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition . 21(4):803.

Schaefer, P. 2015. Why Google has forever changed the forgetting curve at work.

Weissenborn, R. & Duka, T. 2000. State-dependent effects of alcohol on explicit memory: The role of semantic associations.  Psychopharmacology . 149(1):98-106.

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How Memory Works

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Memory is a continually unfolding process. Initial details of an experience take shape in memory; the brain’s representation of that information then changes over time. With subsequent reactivations, the memory grows stronger or fainter and takes on different characteristics. Memories reflect real-world experience, but with varying levels of fidelity to that original experience.

The degree to which the memories we form are accurate or easily recalled depends on a variety of factors, from the psychological conditions in which information is first translated into memory to the manner in which we seek—or are unwittingly prompted—to conjure details from the past.

On This Page

• How Memories Are Made
• How Memories Are Stored in the Brain
• How We Recall Memories
• False and Distorted Memories

The creation of a memory requires a conversion of a select amount of the information one perceives into more permanent form. A subset of that memory will be secured in long-term storage, accessible for future use. Many factors during and after the creation of a memory influence what (and how much) gets preserved.

Memory serves many purposes, from allowing us to revisit and learn from past experiences to storing knowledge about the world and how things work. More broadly, a major function of memory in humans and other animals is to help ensure that our behavior fits the present situation and that we can adjust it based on experience.

Encoding is the first stage of memory. It is the process by which the details of a person’s experience are converted into a form that can be stored in the brain. People are more likely to encode details of what they are paying attention to and details that are personally significant.

Retention, or storage, is the stage in which information is preserved in memory following its initial encoding. These stored memories are incomplete : Some of the information that is encoded during an experience fades during retention, sometimes quickly, while other details remain. A related term, memory consolidation , refers to the neurobiological process of long-term memory formation.

Sleep facilitates the retention of memories, though why exactly this is the case is not fully understood. Research has found that people tend to show better memory performance if they sleep after a phase of studying rather than staying awake. Researchers have proposed that sleep supports memory consolidation in the brain, though other explanations include tha t sleep aids retention by eliminating interference from memories that would be formed while awake.

While memories are usually described in terms of mental concepts, such as single packages of personal experience or specific facts, they are ultimately reducible to the workings and characteristics of the ever-firing cells of the brain. Scientists have narrowed down regions of the brain that are key to memory and developed an increasingly detailed understanding of the material form of these mental phenomena.

The hippocampus and other parts of the medial temporal lobe are critical for many forms of memory, though various other parts of the brain play roles as well. These include areas of the more recently evolved cerebral cortex, the outermost layer of the brain, as well as deep-seated structures such as the basal ganglia. The amygdala is important for memory as well, including the integration of emotional responses into memory. The extent to which different brain regions are involved in memory depends on the type of memory.

Memory involves changes to the brain’s neural networks. Neurons in the brain are connected by synapses, which are bound together by chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) to form larger networks. Memory storage is thought to involve changes in the strength of these connections in the areas of the brain that have been linked to memory. 

A memory engram , or memory trace, is a term for the set of changes in the brain on which a memory is based. These are thought to include changes at the level of the synapses that connect brain cells. Research suggests an engram is not located in one specific location in the brain, but in multiple, interconnected locations. Engram cells are groups of cells that support a memory: They are activated and altered during learning and reactivated during remembering.

After memories are stored in the brain, they must be retrieved in order to be useful. While we may or may not be consciously aware that information is being summoned from storage at any given moment, this stage of memory is constantly unfolding—and the very act of remembering changes how memories are subsequently filed away.

Retrieval is the stage of memory in which the information saved in memory is recalled, whether consciously or unconsciously. It follows the stages of encoding and storage. Retrieval includes both intentional remembering, as when one thinks back to a previous experience or tries to put a name to a face, and more passive recall, as when the meanings of well-known words or the notes of a song come effortlessly to mind.

A retrieval cue is a stimulus that initiates remembering. Retrieval cues can be external, such as an image, text, a scent, or some other stimulus that relates to the memory. They can also be internal, such as a thought or sensation that is relevant to the memory. Cues can be encountered inadvertently or deliberately sought in the process of deliberately trying to remember something.

Multiple factors influence why we remember what we do. Emotionally charged memories tend to be relatively easy to recall. So is information that has been retrieved from memory many times, through studying, carrying out a routine, or some other form of repetition. And the “encoding specificity principle” holds that one is more likely to recall a memory when there is greater similarity between a retrieval cue (such as an image or sound in the present) and the conditions in which the memory was initially formed.

After a memory is retrieved, it is thought to undergo a process called reconsolidation , during which its representation in the brain can change based on input at the time of remembering. This capacity for memories to be reformed after retrieval has been explored as a potential element of psychotherapeutic interventions (for dampening the intensity of threatening memories, for example).

“Flashbulb memories” are what psychologists have called memories of one’s personal experience of significant and emotionally intense events, such as the 9/11 attacks and other highly distinctive occurrences. These memories may seem especially vivid and reliable even if the accuracy of the remembered details diminishes over time.

Priming is what happens when being exposed to one stimulus (such as a word) affects how a person responds to another, related one. For example, if someone is shown a list of words that includes nurse , he may be more likely to subsequently fill out the word stem nu____ with that word. Measures of priming can be used to demonstrate implicit memory, or memory that does not involve conscious recollection.

Memories have to be reconstructed in order to be used, and the piecing-together of details leaves plenty of room for inaccuracies—and even outright falsehoods—to contaminate the record. These errors reflect a memory system that is built to craft a useful account of past experience, not a perfect one. (For more, see False Memories .)

Memories may be rendered less accurate based on conditions when they are first formed, such as how much attention is paid during the experience. And the malleability of memories over time means internal and external factors can introduce errors. These may include a person’s knowledge and expectations about the world (used to fill in the blanks of a memory) and misleading suggestions by other people about what occurred.

False memories can be as simple as concluding that you were shown a word that you actually weren’t , but it may also include believing you experienced a dramatic event that you didn’t. People may produce such false recollections by unwittingly drawing on the details of actual, related experiences, or in some cases, as a response to another person’s detailed suggestions (perhaps involving some true details) about an imaginary event that is purported to be real.

It probably depends on the kind of memory. Minor manipulations like convincing people they saw a word that they did not see seem to be fairly easy to do. Getting people to conclude they had an experience (like spilling punch at a wedding) that was in fact made up  seems to require more work—including, in one study, a couple of conversations and encouragement to think more about the “memory”—and may fully succeed only for a minority of people. Still, researchers who have investigated the implanting of false memories argue that in some cases, enough outside suggestion could result in the creation of false or distorted memories that have serious legal consequences.

Déjà vu, a French phrase that translates to “already seen,” is the sense of having seen or experienced something before, even though one is in fact encountering it for the first time. While the cause is not fully understood, one explanation for why déjà vu happens is that there is some resemblance between a current experience and a previous one, but the previous experience is not readily identified in the moment. Others have suggested that déjà vu may result from new information somehow being passed straight to long-term memory, or from the spontaneous activation of a part of the brain called the rhinal cortex, involved in the sense of familiarity.

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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Memory Diseases — Understanding How Human Memory Works

Understanding How Human Memory Works

• Categories: Memory Diseases

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Published: Jan 25, 2024

Words: 683 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

• Farrell, S. (2012). Temporal clustering and sequencing in short-term memory and episodic memory. Psychological Review , 119(2), 223–71.
• Schwabe, L., & Wolf, O. T. (2010). Learning under stress impairs memory formation. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory , 93(2), 183–188.
• Wimer, G. E., & Shohamy, D. (2012). Preference by Association: How Memory Mechanisms in the Hippocampus Bias Decisions. Science (New York, N.Y.), 338(October), 270–3.
• Zimmerman, A., & Kelley, M. (2010). “I’ll remember this!” Effects of emotionality on memory predictions versus memory performance. Journal of Memory and Language , 62(3), 240–253.

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How Memory Works: The Science of Remembering

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The human memory is processed in the body's central nervous system. The system consists of the brain, the spinal cord, neurons, and neurotransmitters among others. The memory process is a complicated procedure that involves the incorporation of body senses and the nervous systems to ensure that the brain can acquire meaningful information that will enable it to respond to stimuli. Once the brain acquires the stimuli in the form of information, it will store it for a varying amount of time leading to types of memories. The discussion will analyze the memory process and types, also highlighting the functions of the two processes. 

Memory Process 

Three steps complete the memory process. According to Feldman (2011), they include encoding, storage, and recalling of information. Encoding is a major step in the creation of new memory. It functions to allow the perceived stimuli to be changed into a form that can be stored in the brain and then at a later date as either a short-term or long-term memory. Encoding, therefore, begins with perception. The second step is referred to as attention where memorable events make the neurons to fire impulses frequently increasing the chances that a given event is encoded in the memory. Emotion has been identified to heighten attention. Types of encoding include acoustic encoding, visual encoding, tactile encoding, and finally semantic encoding. Acoustic encoding involves the input of auditory and sound elements while visual encoding deals with images. Tactile on the other hand concerns perception build through the sense of touch, and lastly, semantic encoding involves senses that have a specific meaning. 

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The second step in the memory process includes the storage of information. It is a passive procedure of retaining information inside the brain. The brain works as a filter to ensure that it only stores information that can keep human beings sane. Repetition of information over and over again is important in ensuring long-term memory is enhanced. It is believed that the long-term memories are not stored in one compartment in the brain but rather in several. Therefore, in the absence of the disease that affects the human brain, it can store an unlimited amount of information for a long time. 

Thirdly is the memory retrieval stage. It is also referred to as the recalling phase that involves re-accessing of information from past events which had already passed the process of encoding and storage. It is the process of remembering an event. During this process, the brain tries to repeat a specific pattern of activity that was generated in response to a given action. The act of thinking and remembering involves the same mechanism. The process of recall can be classified into three, i.e. the free recall, the cued recall, and the serial recall as asserted by Plotnik and Kouyoumdjian (2013).  The free recall involves the remembering of events in any particular order while in cued recall people are assisted using specific guidelines. Thirdly, the serial recall involves chronologically remembering items as they occurred. Forgetting is described as the inability to retrieve a memory that has been encoded into the brain. Forgetting can either be temporary or permanent. Forgetfulness increases as the ageing process continue as neurons begin to wear and die off. 

The process of memory consolidation involves the stabilizing of information in the brain after the acquisition. The process of sleeping has particularly been identified to promote the process of consolidation. Reconsolidation involves consolidating information that has been recalled all over again. This process can be responsible for changing the initial memory. 

Types of Memory 

Sensory Memory 

It is the shortest-term aspect of memory. It involves the retention of sensory impression immediately after the end of stimuli. Memory is received through various senses such as sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Such information is retained accurately but for a concise period. The information decays at a rapid rate. The types of sensory memory include the visual, auditory, and the touch memory. The visual memory is also referred to as iconic memory; the auditory known as the echoic, and finally the touch is known as haptic. The iconic memory involves visual stimulation through the process of making images in mind. On the other hand, echoic memory deals with auditory information involving sound waves that have been sensed by the hair cells in the human ears. Finally, the haptic memory involves various sensations from the body in the form of touch. The human body has sensory receptors all over. 

Short-Term Memory 

It involves the temporary recall of information that is being processed at any given time. It can also be described as the ability of the brain to recall and process information simultaneously. It holds a very small amount of information that is readily available for a very short time, typically between 0 to 15 seconds. Hinton and Anderson (2014) state that information that is held in the short-term memory does not involve concepts but rather channels, links, and pointers that can quickly enable a person to make a decision. The information is likely to disappear at a first rate unless deliberate efforts are made to retain it. Through enhancement of repetition, a short-term memory can be stored in the brain to form what is known as the long-term memory. The part of the brain that plays a role in short-term memory is the prefrontal cortex. The region plays two fundamental functions. First, it serves as a temporary storage for the short-term memories and secondly, it retrieves information from elsewhere in the brain to aid the process of reasoning. Also, the short-term memory has a small capacity, which is proved when one is trying to remember random items and fails. The characteristics of the information in question can also influence the likelihood of retention of information in the short-term memory. An example is short words, or more commonly used words tend to be recalled faster. The contents in the short-term memory decay spontaneously depending on their nature. Rehearsal and repetition can enhance this type of memory. 

Long-Term Memory 

It involves the storage of information for a longer period. The information here takes a large period to decay and can store an unlimited amount of information. Long-term memory results due to the consolidation, rehearsal, and association of short-term memory. Baddeley (2010) asserted that Long-term memory stores information in a semantic way, meaning that the information is based on meaning and association. The problem with retrieval in this type of memory is due to accessibility as opposed to availability. There are several types of long term memory namely the procedural memory, semantic memory, episodic memory, and autobiographical memory. 

Procedural Memory - This is a long term memory that involves knowing how to perform duties or doing things. It involves the knowledge on how to perform various motor skills such as movement and coordination. It is described as an unconscious and automatic memory that is not declarative. Examples of this type of memory would include the knowledge of how to ride a bicycle. A second example of this type of memory is depicted by sports personnel who require thorough practice to enhance their skills on the pitch. When athletes and other sports person play on the pitch, most of the time they depend on anticipation to make moves. This is an example of a procedural memory that is acquired over time. 

Semantic Memory is the second type of long-term memory that involves the storage of information about various realities of the world. It involves understanding and perceiving the meaning of words, beliefs, concepts, and general knowledge. It also includes simple inferences such as knowing letters, capital cities, and towns among others. It, however, requires a conscious mind and it is a declarative form of memory. An example of semantic memory would apply in the case where a person is having problems with identifying colors, but with proper exposure and time, they can determine many colors due to the buildup of memory. 

Episodic Memory is also another long-term memory that stores information about events uniquely as pointed out by Conway (2009). The events are drawn from various life experiences, and it involves the conscious mind. It is also a declarative form of memory. An example of episodic memory would be in the case where people have attended a party such as a homecoming, birthday, or a wedding party. When those who have attended give an account of their experiences, each would give it depending on their unique experiences. Some would say it was fascinating while other would say that it was boring. Such a unique account of life experience is what entails an episodic memory. 

Finally, the autobiographical memory is a long-term memory that stores information about vital life events in a person's life. It is commonly confused with episodic memory, but this type involves notable events that have an impact on a person's life. Such events would include the first day of school, graduation day, wedding day, or a celebration of an anniversary. It is a conscious type of memory and also declarative. Every person in their lives has this type of memory, and either fear or excitement can enhance it. 

Declarative memory involves facts and events and also includes the consciously recalling of events. It is also referred to as explicit memory. Examples of declarative memories include semantic, episodic, and autobiographical memory. Procedural memory is not declarative because it does not include recalling of events and knowledge is acquired via the unconscious mind. The information in this type of memory is stored and retrieved explicitly. Long-term memories can also be classified based on the direction of the memory. In retrospective memory, people, events, and words that are remembered are basically in the past. On the other hand, in prospective memory, the content to be recalled is found in the future. It may include booking an appointment with the doctor, setting up an alarm to wake-up in the morning, or planning for a future event. Prospective and retrospective are dependent on each other, and where there is impairment in one, the other is also affected. 

Conclusion 

In conclusion, the human brain and psychology at large are a complex entity that requires the integration of various entities to understand properly. The memory process begins with encoding, storage, and then retrieving information. The process of consolidation can also be included as it helps in the storage process. The types of memory available include the sensory memory, the short-term, and the long-term memory. The long-term memory is further divided into the semantic, episodic, autobiographical, and procedural memories. The brain also has various neurons and transmitters that work in synergy to ensure that memory is stored and retrieved appropriately. The effectiveness of these parts is partly enhanced by the nature of the information, how frequent it is perceived, and the age of the person in question. 

References  

Baddeley, A. (2010). Working memory.  Current biology ,  20 (4), R136-R140. 

Conway, M. A. (2009). Episodic memories.  Neuropsychologia ,  47 (11), 2305-2313. 

Feldman, R. S. (2011).  Essentials of understanding psychology . Boston: McGraw-Hill. 

Hinton, G. E., & Anderson, J. A. (Eds.). (2014).  Parallel models of associative memory: updated edition . Psychology press. 

Plotnik, R., & Kouyoumdjian, H. (2013).  Introduction to psychology . Cengage Learning. 

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