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Punctuation marks: when to use them?

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Have you ever read a sentence that felt like a train without brakes, like it was speeding off the rails? Well, the culprit may have been a lack of punctation! Punctuation is like the traffic signals of writing, guiding readers when to slow down, when to pause, and when to stop. So, let's dig into the nitty-gritty of punctuation and when to use it with this creative presentation full of real content! We'll explore the power of commas, the magic of periods, and the superhero of them all... the exclamation point! This template is completely ready to use in your elementary lessons, and may we point out that it’s in several different languages?

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Brief Overview of Punctuation

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When writing, we use punctuation to indicate these places of emphases. This handout should help to clarify when and how to use various marks of punctuation.

Use a comma to join two independent clauses and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).

Use a comma after an introductory phrase, prepositional phrase, or dependent clause.

Use a comma to separate elements in a series. Although there is no set rule that requires a comma before the last item in a series, it seems to be a general academic convention to include it. The examples below demonstrate this trend.

Use a comma to separate nonessential elements from a sentence. More specifically, when a sentence includes information that is not crucial to the message or intent of the sentence, enclose it in or separate it by commas.

Use a comma between coordinate adjectives (adjectives that are equal and reversible).

Use a comma after a transitional element (however, therefore, nonetheless, also, otherwise, finally, instead, thus, of course, above all, for example, in other words, as a result, on the other hand, in conclusion, in addition)

Use a comma with quoted words.

Use a comma in a date.

Use a comma in a number.

Use a comma in a personal title.

Use a comma to separate a city name from the state.

Avoid comma splices (two independent clauses joined only by a comma). Instead, separate the clauses with a period, with a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction, or with a semicolon.

Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.

Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless, otherwise) or a transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words, on the other hand, even so).

Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include commas.

For more information on semicolons, please see the "90-Second Semicolon" vidcast series on the Purdue OWL YouTube Channel .

Use a colon to join two independent clauses when you wish to emphasize the second clause.

Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, a quotation, an appositive, or other ideas directly related to the independent clause.

Use a colon at the end of a business letter greeting.

Use a colon to separate the hour and minute(s) in a time notation.

Use a colon to separate the chapter and verse in a Biblical reference.

Parenthesis

Parentheses are used to emphasize content. They place more emphasis on the enclosed content than commas. Use parentheses to set off nonessential material, such as dates, clarifying information, or sources, from a sentence.

Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses.

Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it.

Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods are placed inside the closing quotation mark, and colons and semicolons are placed outside. The placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation.

Use quotation marks to indicate the novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word.

Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio shows.

Do not use quotation marks in indirect or block quotations.

Underlining and italics are often used interchangeably. Before word-processing programs were widely available, writers would underline certain words to indicate to publishers to italicize whatever was underlined. Although the general trend has been moving toward italicizing instead of underlining, you should remain consistent with your choice throughout your paper. To be safe, you could check with your teacher to find out which he/she prefers. Italicize the titles of magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays of three or more acts, operas, musical albums, works of art, websites, and individual trains, planes, or ships.

Italicize foreign words.

Italicize a word or phrase to add emphasis.

Italicize a word when referring to that word.

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Using Punctuation Marks PowerPoint

Updated:  10 Sep 2020

A 29 slide editable PowerPoint template to be used when teaching the correct usage of punctuation.

Editable:  PowerPoint

Non-Editable:  PDF

Pages:  29 Pages

• Curriculum Curriculum:  AUS V9, AUS V8, NSW, VIC

Years:  3 - 6

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This PowerPoint presentation has been designed to teach your students about the fundamentals of punctuation . It addresses the following content:

• questions marks
• exclamation marks
• quotation marks
• apostrophes (contraction and possession)
• brackets (parentheses).

Review activities (with answers) for each form of punctuation are included in the presentation.

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Write a review to help other teachers and parents like yourself. If you'd like to request a change to this resource, or report an error, select the corresponding tab above.

Why cant i view the powerpoint?

Hi there Natasha. Sorry to hear you are having problems downloading this PowerPoint. It seems to be working well from my end. Please contact us at [email protected] and we will be more than happy to help you further.

This is a great PowerPoint! On slide 11 in the last example, it says that commas can be placed in compound sentences which start with a subordinating conjunction, however these conjunctions are used in complex sentences, not compound sentences.

Hi Jessica, I just wanted to let you know that we have corrected the error you pointed out to us (thank you!) and have updated the design of the presentation as well. Have a wonderful day!

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Punctuation

Punctuation saves lives!

Empowering women or insulting them?

A woman: Without her, man is nothing.

A woman, without her man, is nothing.

Read this. What do you think?

When the maids began to dish up the plates of food Chicoria turned to one of the servers and said Ah my friends it looks like they are going to feed us well tonight

What if we write it this way?

When the maids began to dish up the plates of food “Chicoria turned to one of the servers, and said” Ah my friends it looks like they are going to feed us well tonight?

Does this seem better?

When the maids began to dish up the plates of food, Chicoria turned to one of the servers and said, “Ah, my friends, it looks like they are going to feed us well tonight!”

Another way to look at punctuation!

End marks: Period

Use the period

• to end a declarative sentence (facts, ideas, opinions)

This is a beautiful weekend .

• to end most imperative sentences (directions or commands)

Finish practicing the piano .

• to end an indirect question (restates a question, not exact words)

Janie asked me if I liked the show .

• after most abbreviations and initials

Blvd . Jr . Gov .

Franklin D . Roosevelt J . K . Rowling

Special notes on the period

• The abbreviation for inch is in.
• Inch is the only measurement abbreviation that uses a period
• Do not use periods with acronyms

UN, NASA, FBI, SWAT, SOS

• If a sentence ends with an abbreviation do not use two periods

End marks: Question mark

Use a question mark

• after an interrogative question- one that asks a direct question

Do turtles lay eggs in water ?

What time are you picking me up ?

• after a word or phrase that asks a question

I would like to go along with you. When ?

I’ll meet you for dinner. How about that ?

End marks: Exclamation point

Use an exclamation point

• to end a word, phrase, or sentence that shows strong emotion

Look at that classic car !

I will not !

• after an imperative sentence that gives a forceful or urgent message

Don’t burn the eggs !

• after an interjection that expresses strong emotion

Oh ! You ruined the surprise.

Stop ! You are going too fast !

Page 553, 1-20

• Use a comma before the coordinating conjunction to separate two main clauses in a compound sentence.

My puppy has learned to stay in the yard , but I always use a leash on our walks.

• DO NOT use commas if the conjunction joins single words, phrases or subordinate clauses
• Single word- Soccer and lacrosse are growing in popularity
• Phrases- Tony likes both watching soccer and playing football.
• Subordinate clause- I like to play softball because it is good exercise and because it is fun.

Page 557, 1-10

Avoid comma splices

• A comma splice occurs when two or more sentences have been joined with only a comma
• Make sure your ideas are properly linked
• Wrong- The players arrived in the morning, they gathered on the field.
• Right- The players arrived in the morning. They gathered on the field.
• Right- The players arrived in the morning, and they gathered on the field.

Commas in a series

• Use a comma to separate three or more words , phrases , or clauses in a series
• A comma follows each of the items except the last one
• The conjunction and or or is added after the last comma

Series of words:

A gorilla’s diet includes roots , stems , leaves , and fruit.

Series of phrases:

Cleaning my room included sweeping the floor , making the bed , and hanging up the clothes.

• Two exceptions to the rule:
• If each item is followed by a conjunction, do not use a comma

We didn’t see any birds or insects or spiders.

• Do not use a comma to separate groups of words that are considered to be one item

The sandwich choices are peanut butter and jelly , ham and cheese , or turkey and cheese.

Page 557, 11-20

Using commas between adjectives

• Use commas to separate adjectives of equal rank.
• Adjectives are of equal rank:
• If the word and can be placed between the adjectives without changing the meaning
• If the order of the adjectives can be changed

She left detailed , precise instructions for me.

• Do not use commas to separate adjectives that must appear in a specific order
• An experienced and desert guide led our tour.
• A desert experienced guide led our tour.
• An experienced desert guide led our tour.
• Do not use a comma to separate the last adjective in a series from the noun it modifies
• A young, efficient, kind, nurse took care of her.
• A young, efficient, kind nurse took care of her.

Page 558, 1-20

Using commas with introductory...

• Use a comma after most introductory words
• Introductory word
• Hey , listen to the great idea I have for our final project.
• Well , I have never seen anything like that.
• Ariel , where are we going?
• Use a comma after most introductory phrase
• To save money , we are packing our lunch instead of eating out.
• After practicing for two hours , the team was glad to take a long break.
• To visit China , you will need a passport.
• Use a comma with introductory adverbial clauses
• Although we had missed the introduction , we were able to see the rest of the ceremony.
• When Dominic arrived on the bus , all the seats were already taken.

Using commas with introductory... except!

• When a prepositional phrase of only two words begins a sentence...a comma is not always needed
• At night we heard the owls hoot.
• In August we go to the beach.
• For hours she worked at the computer.

Page 562, 1-10

Using commas with parenthetical expressions...

What is a parenthetical expression?

• It is a word or phrase that is not essential (needed) to the meaning of the sentence.
• They are the parts of the sentence that add extra information.
• Use a comma to set off parenthetical expressions from the rest of the sentence
• A parenthetical in the middle of a sentence needs two commas

Using commas with parenthetical expressions… kind that you will see

• Names of people being addressed
• Sit down , Brock , while I explain my reasons.
• Please come straight home , Chung.
• Certain adverbs
• The beach, therefore , is easily accessible.
• His plan will not work , however.
• Common expressions
• I understand your actions , of course.
• They are not old enough to go alone , in my opinion.
• Contrasting expressions
• That problem is yours , not mine.
• These letters , not those , are ready to be mailed.

Page 563, 1-10

• Use a semicolon to join related independent clauses
• When using a semicolon you do not use a coordinating conjunction
• The independent clauses MUST be closely related

The winding river has many hazards. It is full of snakes and alligators.

The winding river has many hazards ; it is full of snakes and alligators.

We packed our bags ; we packed the car ; we’re ready to go on our vacation.

• Use a semicolon to join independent clauses separated by either a conjunctive adverb or transitional expression
• Conjunctive adverb:
• also, besides, consequently, first, furthermore, however, indeed, instead, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, second, then, thus
• Transitional expressions:
• as a result, at this time, for instance, in fact, on the other hand, that is

He arrived late at the train station that morning ; as a result , he missed the beginning of the concert.

He arrived late at the train station that morning ; consequently , he missed the beginning of the concert.

• Use a semicolon to avoid confusion when items in a series already contain commas

The children , crying ; the clown , singing ; and the lion , roaring , all added to the noise at the circus.

Three important dates in Jamestown history are April 30 , 1607 ; September 10 , 1607 ; and January 7 , 1608.

Page 572, 1-20

• Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list of items.
• In most cases the independent clause contains the words
• following, as follows, these, those
• You still use commas to separate the items in the series

I am planning to pack the following supplies for the trip : sunscreen , a coffeemaker , and my pillows.

• DO NOT use a colon after a verb or preposition

Wrong! : Tyler always brings : a sandwich , fruit , and juice.

Correct : Tyler always brings a sandwich , fruit , and juice.

• Use a colon to introduce a long or formal quotation

The sign stated the fire code : “No campfires allowed from July 1 to September 30.”

• Additional uses for colons
• Salutations
• Dear Dr. Ross: To whom it may concern:
• Notice: Danger:

Page 573, 1-20

Quotations:

• Direct quotations should be enclosed in quotation marks

Stan said, “I decided to try out for the swim team.”

“May I finish my project later?” asked Meg.

• Indirect quotations do not require quotation marks

My uncle promised that he would watch my game.

The teacher said that my class was going to be the first class to work in the new lab.

• When using an introductory expression before the quote use a comma after the expression and before the quotation mark

My sister begged my mother, “May I go on the hike with my class?”

Nate thought, “I wonder how long the hike will last.”

• When using a concluding expression put the end mark of the quote inside the quotation mark
• Then write the concluding expression
• Do not start the concluding expression with a capital letter

“What activities does your camp offer?” inquired Kamilla.

• When a direct quote is interrupted, end the first part of the quote with a comma
• Place a comma after the interrupting expression
• Start the rest of the quote with quotation marks
• Finish the quote correctly

“My grandparents are coming for dinner,” said Jade, “so I want to hurry home after school.”

“Do you think,” questioned Kyle, “that I could help prepare dinner?”

• When a two sentence quotation is interrupted by an interrupting expression use a comma, a question mark, or an exclamation point at the end of the first sentence and then the closing quotation mark
• Follow with the interrupter a period and then your opening quotation marks for the second part

Page 578, 1-20

• Indent to begin a new paragraph with each change of speaker
• Add quotation marks around each speaker's words
• Indicate to the reader that there has been a change in speaker for each change

Page 583, 1

• Use a hyphen when you write two-word numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine
• Twenty - one
• Thirty - eight
• Use an ellipsis to show where words have been omitted from a quoted passage
• Using an ellipsis shows the reader that the writer has chosen to omit some information

“Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth … a new nation … ”

• Use an ellipsis to mark a pause in a dialogue or speech

“But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate … we can not consecrate … we can not hallow … this ground.”

Apostrophes

• Add an apostrophe and s to show the possessive case of most singular nouns and plural nouns that do not end in s or es

Wayne ’ s brother was the first one in line.

The children ’ s game is in the afternoon.

• Add an apostrophe to show the possessive nouns ending in s or es . Do not add an s

The witnesses ’ testimonies were very helpful.

Page 596, 1-10

• Use an apostrophe in a contraction to show where one or more letters have been omitted

isn ’ t can ’ t I ’ ll we ’ ll you ’ re Andy ’ s

• Avoid using contractions in formal speech and writing

Page 597 1-20

Test taking tip!

• Scan each sentence, start with the first
• Eliminate obviously wrong choices
• Compare remaining choices

SEC (Scan, Eliminate, Compare)

• Choose the sentence in which capitalization is used correctly
• Without notice, alyssa left her job at buyright supermarkets.
• Without notice, Alyssa left her job at Buyright Supermarkets.
• Without notice, alyssa left her job at Buyright Supermarkets.
• Without notice, Alyssa left her job at buyright Supermarkets.
• Without notice, A lyssa left her job at Buyright Supermarkets.
• Without notice, A lyssa left her job at buyright Supermarkets.
• Without notice, A lyssa left her job at Buyright Supermarkets .
• Without notice, A lyssa left her job at buyright Supermarkets .
• Without notice, A lyssa left her job at B uyright S upermarkets .
• Without notice, A lyssa left her job at b uyright S upermarkets .

• WRITING SKILLS

Punctuation - Signs and Symbols

Search SkillsYouNeed:

Writing Skills:

• A - Z List of Writing Skills

The Essentials of Writing

• Common Mistakes in Writing
• Introduction to Grammar
• Improving Your Grammar
• Active and Passive Voice
• Punctuation
• Clarity in Writing
• Writing Concisely
• Coherence in Writing
• Gender Neutral Language
• Figurative Language
• When to Use Capital Letters
• Using Plain English
• Writing in UK and US English
• Understanding (and Avoiding) Clichés
• The Importance of Structure
• Know Your Audience
• Know Your Medium
• Formal and Informal Writing Styles
• Note-Taking from Reading
• Note-Taking for Verbal Exchanges
• Creative Writing
• Top Tips for Writing Fiction
• Writer's Voice
• Writing for Children
• Writing for Pleasure
• Writing for the Internet
• Journalistic Writing
• Technical Writing
• Academic Writing
• Editing and Proofreading

Writing Specific Documents

• Writing a CV or Résumé
• Writing a Covering Letter
• Writing a Personal Statement
• Writing Reviews
• Using LinkedIn Effectively
• Business Writing
• Study Skills
• Writing Your Dissertation or Thesis

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Punctuation is the system of signs or symbols given to a reader to show how a sentence is constructed and how it should be read.

Sentences are the building blocks used to construct written accounts. They are complete statements. Punctuation shows how the sentence should be read and makes the meaning clear.

Every sentence should include at least a capital letter at the start, and a full stop, exclamation mark or question mark at the end. This basic system indicates that the sentence is complete.

The Basic Signs of Punctuation

• the comma  ,
• the full stop  .
• the exclamation mark  !
• the question mark  ?
• the semi-colon  ;
• the colon  :
• the apostrophe  '
• quotation marks  “   ”
• the hyphen  -  
• brackets  (  )  or [   ]
• the slash /

The Comma (,)

The comma is useful in a sentence when the writer wishes to:

• pause before proceeding
• add a phrase that does not contain any new subject
• separate items on a list
• use more than one adjective (a describing word, like beautiful)

For example, in the following sentence the phrase or clause between the commas gives us more information behind the actions of the boy, the subject of the sentence:

The boy, who knew that his mother was about to arrive, ran quickly towards the opening door.

Note that if the phrase or clause were to be removed, the sentence would still make sense although there would be a loss of information.  Alternatively, two sentences could be used:

The boy ran quickly towards the opening door.  He knew that his mother was about to arrive.

Commas are also used to separate items in a list.

For example:

The shopping trolley was loaded high with bottles of beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls, cereals and cartons of milk.

Note that in a list, the final two items are linked by the word ‘and’ rather than by a comma.

Commas are used to separate adjectives.

The boy was happy, eager and full of anticipation at the start of his summer holiday.

As commas represent a pause, it is good practice to read your writing out loud and listen to where you make natural pauses as you read it. More often than not, you will indicate where a comma should be placed by a natural pause. Although, the ‘rules’ of where a comma needs to be placed should also be followed.

However, it has been suggested that some bees prefer tree pollen.

Full Stop (.)

A full stop should always be used to end a sentence. The full stop indicates that a point has been made and that you are about to move on to further explanations or a related point.

Less frequently, a series of three full stops (an ellipsis) can be used to indicate where a section of a quotation has been omitted when it is not relevant to the text, for example:

“The boy was happy… at the start of his summer holiday.”

A single full stop may also be used to indicate the abbreviation of commonly used words as in the following examples:

• Telephone Number = Tel. No.
• September = Sept.
• Pages = pp.

Exclamation Mark (!)

An exclamation mark indicates strong feeling within a sentence, such as fear, anger or love. It is also used to accentuate feeling within the written spoken word.

“Help! I love you!”

In this way, it can also be used to indicate a sharp instruction

• “Stop! Police!”

or to indicate humour

• “Ha! Ha! Ha!” 

The exclamation mark at the end of a sentence means that you do not need a full stop.

Exclamation marks are a poor way of emphasising what you think are important points in your written assignments; the importance of the point will emphasise itself without a sequence of !!! in the text. An exclamation mark should only be used when absolutely essential, or when taken from a direct quote.

The exclamation mark should be used sparingly in formal and semi-formal writing.

Question Mark (?)

The question mark simply indicates that a sentence is asking a question. It always comes at the end of a sentence:

Are we at the end?

Note that the question mark also serves as a full stop.

Semi-colon (;)

The semi-colon is perhaps the most difficult sign of punctuation to use accurately. If in doubt, avoid using it and convert the added material into a new sentence.

As a general rule, the semi-colon is used in the following ways:

When joining two connected sentences.

We set out at dawn; the weather looked promising.

Assertive behaviour concerns being able to express feelings, wants and desires appropriately; passive behaviour means complying with the wishes of others.

The semi-colon can also be used to assemble detailed lists.

The conference was attended by delegates from Paris, France; Paris, Texas; London, UK; Stockholm, Sweden; Colombo, Sri Lanka; and Mumbai, India.

The colon within a sentence makes a very pointed pause between two phrases. There are two main uses of the colon:

It is most commonly used when listing.

She placed the following items into the trolley: beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls, cereals and cartons of milk.

Or it can be used within a heading, or descriptive title.

Human Resource Management: Guidelines for Telephone Advisers

Apostrophe (’)

The apostrophe, sometimes called an inverted comma has two main uses.

The apostrophe indicates possession or ownership.

The girl's hat was green, (girl is in the singular).

This shows the reader that the hat belongs to the girl.

The girls' hats were green, (girls in this instance are plural, i.e. more than one girl, more than one hat).

This indicates that the hats belong to the girls.

Another use of the apostrophe is to indicate where a letter is omitted:

We're going to do this course.  (We are going to do this course.)

Isn’t this a fine example of punctuation?  (Is not this a fine example of punctuation?)

The time is now 7 o’ clock. (The time is now 7 of the clock)

Note that a common mistake is to confuse its with it’s .

It’s indicates to the reader that a letter has been omitted.

It’s a lovely day is an abbreviated way of saying:  It is a lovely day.

Note that in most formal writing, the practice of using abbreviated words is inappropriate.

See also: Common Mistakes in Writing for more on using apostrophes correctly.

Quotation or Speech Marks (“….”)

Quotation or speech marks are used to:

• To mark out speech
• When quoting someone else's speech

My grandpa said, "Share your chocolates with your friends."

"George, don't do that!"

"Will you get your books out please?” said Mrs Jones, the teacher, “and quieten down!"

It is worth noting that to report an event back does not require speech or quotation marks.

Mrs Jones told the pupils to take out their books and to quieten down.

The hyphen is used to link words together.

• eighteenth-century people
• second-class post
• gender-neutral

The hyphen is also used when a word is split between two lines. The hyphen should be placed between syllables at the end of the upper line and indicates to the reader that the word will be completed on the next line.

Computer applications such as Word Processors can be set to automatically hyphenate words for you, although it is more common to use extra spacing to avoid hyphenation.

Brackets (   )

Brackets always come in pairs (  ) and are used to make an aside, or a point which is not part of the main flow of a sentence. If you remove the words between the brackets, the sentence should still make sense.

“The strategy (or strategies) chosen to meet the objectives may need to change as the intervention continues.”

Another example is as follows:

“We can define class as a large-scale grouping of people who share common economic resources, that strongly influence the types of lifestyle they are able to lead.  Ownership of wealth, together with occupation, are the chief basis of class differences.  The major classes that exist in Western societies are an upper class (the wealthy, employers and industrialists, plus tops executives – those who own or directly control productive resources); a middle class (which includes most white-collar workers and professionals); and a working class (those in blue-collar or manual jobs).”  (Giddens, 1997, p.243)

Square Brackets […]

A different set of square brackets [   ] can be used:

• to abbreviate lengthy quotations
• to correct the tense of a quotation to suit the tense of your own sentence
• to add your own words to sections of an abbreviated quotation.

To abbreviate lengthy quotations in an essay or report

“We can define class as a large-scale grouping of people who share common economic resources, that strongly influence the types of lifestyle they are able to lead.  Ownership of wealth, together with occupation, are the chief basis of class differences.  The major classes that exist in Western societies are an upper class […]; a middle class […] and a working class […].” (Giddens, 1997, p.243)

To adjust a quotation to suit your own sentence

For example, if you were writing about class structure, you might use the following:

According to Giddens, (1997, p.243) the “[o]wnership of wealth, together with occupation, are the chief basis of class differences”.

Note, that when using square brackets, only the occasional letter as in the above example or the occasional word (for example when changing the tense of the sentence) would be placed in square brackets in this way.

Many people use the slash instead of or, and etc., but this is not always helpful to the reader. There is, however, a modern convention in gender-neutral writing to use ‘s/he’.

Capital Letters

The correct use of capital letters is also important in writing.

See our page: When to Use Capital Letters for information and examples.

Continue to: Grammar Spelling

See also: The Importance of Structure Clichés to Avoid Gender-Neutral Writing

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PUNCTUATION MARKS

Jul 11, 2014

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PUNCTUATION MARKS. FULL STOP . COMMA . COLON. SEMI COLON. HYPEN. DASH. QUESTION MARK. EXCLAMATION MARK. SLASH. BACKSLASH. QUOTATION MARKS. APOSTROPHE. UNDERLINE. UNDERSCORE. ROUND BRACKETS. SQUARE BRACKETS. ELIPSIS MARK. Click arrow marks for explanation. PUNCTUATION MARKS.

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PUNCTUATION MARKS FULL STOP COMMA COLON SEMI COLON HYPEN DASH QUESTION MARK EXCLAMATION MARK SLASH BACKSLASH QUOTATION MARKS APOSTROPHE UNDERLINE UNDERSCORE ROUND BRACKETS SQUARE BRACKETS ELIPSIS MARK Clickarrow marks for explanation

PUNCTUATION MARKS Punctuation is the system of symbolsthat we use to separate sentences and parts of sentences, and to make their meaning clear. Each symbol is called a “punctuation mark”.

FULL STOP OR PERIOD 1. Use a full stop at the end of a sentence. The man arrived. He sat down. 2. Use a full stop at the end of an indirect question. The teacher asked why Maria had left out the easy exercises. My father used to wonder why Egbert's ears were so big.

FULL STOP OR PERIOD 2. Use full stops with abbreviations (in an abbreviation the last letter of the word and of the abbreviation are not the same). Co. (Company) M.P. (Member of Parliament) 3. Do not use full stops with contractions (in a contraction the last letter of the word and of the contraction are the same). Ltd (Limited) Dr (Doctor)

COMMA 1. Use a comma between items in a series or list. In a sentence, the last two items usually do not need a comma between them as they are separated by "and". However, if one or both of the last two items are long, a comma may be useful. coffee, tea, sugar, milk, eggs, butter, salt My favorite sports are football, rugby, swimming, boxing and golf. Hunsawas wearing blue jeans, black shoes, his brand new white shirt, and a brown and green cap.

COMMA 2. Use a comma between three or more adjectives or adverbs. I like the old, brown, wooden table. He bought an old, red, open-top Volkswagen. He ran quickly, quietly and effortlessly. 3. For two adjectives, use a comma where you could use "and". It was a short, simple film. (It was a short and simple film.) I have a big black dog. (I have a big and black dog.)

COMMA 4. Use a comma for numbers over 999. (In English, commas separate thousands and periods separate decimals.) $73,050.75 2,000,000 10.5 (ten point five or ten and a half) 5. Use a comma for addresses, some dates, and titles following a name. 911 Avenue Mansion, Petchburi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand November 4, 1948

COMMA 6. Use a comma before or after direct speech. Do not use a comma for reported speech. "The question is," said Alice, "whether you can make words mean so many things." 7. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to join two independent clauses. If the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is optional. He didn't want to go, but he went anyway. I want to work as an interpreter, so I am studying Russian at university.

COMMA 8. Use commas for parenthetical elements. A "parenthetical element" is anypart of a sentence that can be removed without changing the real meaning of the sentence. John Geton, who is chairman of the company, is quite old. Andrew, my wife's brother, cannot come. 9. Use a comma after an introductory element. A comma is optional for short, simple introductory elements. Rushing to catch the flight, he forgot to take his phone. After a hefty meal cooked by his host's wife, he went to sleep.

COMMA 10. Sentence adverbs (words like however, unfortunately, surprisinglythat modify a whole sentence) often require one or two commas, depending on their position in the sentence. However, Anthony did arrive. We were, unfortunately, too late. He had, not surprisingly, lost his temper. 11. An adverbial clause often needs a comma when it comes at the beginning of a sentence (but not at the end of a sentence). If I win the lottery, I will buy a castle. I will buy a castle if I win the lottery. 12. Do not use a comma to separate two complete sentences. In this case, use a full stop (period) or semi-colon. Ram wants to go out. Anthony wants to stay home. Ram wants to go out, Anthony wants to stay home.

COLON 1. Use a colon to introduce a list: We can see many things in the sky at night: the moon, stars, planets, comets, planes and even satellites. 2. Actually, you can use a colon to introduce a single item, especially when you want to emphasize that item. There is one thing that he will not accept: stupidity. The job of the colon is simple: to introduce.

COLON 3. Use a colon to introduce direct speech or a quotation: John whispered in my ear: "Have you seen Andrea?" As Confucius once wrote: "When words lose their meaning, people lose their freedom." 4. Use a colon to introduce an explanation: We had to cancel the party: too many people were sick. There is no need to rush: the meeting will be starting one hour late.

SEMI COLON 1. We sometimes use a semi-colon instead of a full stop or period. This is to separate sentences that are grammatically independent but that have closely connected meaning. Josef likes coffee; Mary likes tea.Tara is a good speaker; she speaks very clearly. 2. Use a semi-colon as a kind of "super comma". When we have a list of items, we usually separate the items with commas. If the list is complicated, we may prefer to use semi-colons in some cases. Rental cars must be returned on time; with a full tank of petrol; in undamaged condition; and at the same location as they were collected from.

HYPEN 1. Use a hyphen to join words to show that their meaning is linked in some way: book-case (or bookcase) race-horse (or racehorse) 2. Use a hyphen to make compound modifiers before nouns: a blue-eyed boy (but The boy was blue eyed.) the well-known actor (but The actor is well known.) 3. Use a hyphen with certain prefixes. The prefixes all-, ex-, and self- usually need a hyphen: all-inclusive self-control

HYPEN 4. Use a hyphen when writing numbers 21 to 99, and fractions: twenty-one one hundred and sixty-five 5. Use a hyphen to show that a word has been broken at the end of a line (hyphenation): The directors requested that a more conven-ienttime be arranged. 6. Use a hyphen with "suspended compounds". When we use several very similar compounds together, it may not be necessary to repeat the last part of the compound: They need to employ more full- and part-time staff. (not They need to employ more full-time and part-time staff.)

DASH Do not confuse a dash (—) with a hypen(-), which is shorter. 1. Use a dash to show a pause or break in meaning in the middle of a sentence: My brothers—Richard and John—are visiting Hanoi. (Could use commas.) 2. Use a dash to show an afterthought: I attached the photo to my email—at least I hope I did! 3. Use a dash like a colon to introduce a list: Don't forget to buy some food—eggs, bread, tuna and cheese. 4. Use a dash to show that letters or words are missing: I will look ––––– the children. (Typically used in "missing word" questions.)

QUESTION MARK 1. Use a question mark at the end of all direct questions: What is your name? Did you send euro or dollars? 2. Use a question mark after a tag question: You're French, aren't you? Snow isn't green, is it? 3. Don't forget to use a question mark at the end of a sentence that really is a direct question: How else would I get there, after all? "Who knows when I'll die?", he asked rhetorically.

QUESTION MARK 4. In very informal writing (personal letter or email), people sometimes use a question mark to turn a statement into a question: See you at 9pm? 5. Do not use a question mark after an indirect or reported question: The teacher asked them what their names were. (What are your names?) 6. Many polite requests or instructions are made in the form of a question. But because they are not really questions, they do not take a question mark: Could you please send me your catalogue. Would all first-class and business-class passengers now start boarding.

EXCLAMATION MARK 1. Use an exclamation mark to indicate strong feelings or a raised voice in speech: She shouted at him, "Go away! I hate you!" "Good heavens!" he said, "Is that true?" 2. Many interjections need an exclamation mark: “Oh! When are you going?” 3. A non-question sentence beginning with "what" or "how" is often an exclamation and requires an exclamation mark: What idiots we are! (We are such idiots.) 4. In very informal writing (personal letter or email), people sometimes use two or more exclamation marks together: I'll never understand this language!!!!

SLASH 1. A slash is often used to indicate "or": Please press your browser's Refresh/Reload button. (Refresh or Reload) 2. Use a slash for fractions: 2/3 (two thirds) 3. Use a slash to indicate "per" in measurements of speed, prices etc: The speed limit is 100 km/h. (kilometers per hour) 4. A slash is often used in dates to separate day, month and year: On credit card: Expires end 10/15 (October 2015) 5. The slash is used to separate parts of a website addresson the Internet, and to separate folders on some computer systems: http://visualarts.britishcouncil.org/whats-on/exhibition/

BACKSLASH The backslash is not really an English punctuation mark. It is a typographical mark used mainly in computing. It is called a "backslash" because it is the reverse of the slash (/)or forward slash. The backslash is used in several computer systems, and in many programming languages. C:\Users\Win\Files\jse.doc Although it is not really an English punctuation mark, the backslash is includedfor completeness.

QUOTATION MARKS 1. Use quotation marks around the title or name of a book, film, ship etc: 'Titanic' is a 1997 movie directed by James Cameron about the sinking of the ship 'Titanic'. 2. We use quotation marks around a piece of text that we are quoting or citing, usually from another source: In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of The English Language, David Crystal argues that punctuation "plays a critical role in the modern writing system". 3. Use quotation marks around dialogue or direct speech: It was a moonlit night. James opened the door and stepped onto the balcony, followed by Mary. They stood in silence for a few moments, looking at the moon. Then Mary turned to him and said: "Do you love me, James?“ 4. Use quotation marks around a word or phrase that we see as slang or jargon: The police were called to a "disturbance" - which in reality was a pretty big fight.

APOSTROPHE 1. Use an apostrophe in possessive forms: the ball of the boy > the boy's ball my friend's mother 2. Use an apostrophe in contracted forms (the apostrophe shows that letters have been left out): cannot > can't they have > they've 3. Use an apostrophe to show the plural of letters and numbers: You should dot your i's and cross your t's. Do you like music from the 1950's? 4. Use an apostrophe to show a plural form for words that are not normally plural: Your plan is good, even if there are lots of but's in it.

UNDERLINE In typewriting, we can use underlining to show emphasis, and also things like titles of books and films, and names of ships. Have you read War and Peace? In handwriting, we traditionally use underlining to indicate emphasis. In addition, with the development of the Internet and world wide web, web pages traditionally use underlining to indicate a link.

UNDERSCORE Underscore is a line below text-level, and is typically used in email addresses, filenames and urls, for example: [email protected] image_123.jpg In American English, underscore can also mean underline.

ROUND BRACKETS Round brackets are basically used to add extra information to a sentence. explain or clarify Tony Blair (the former British prime minister) resigned from office in 2007. indicate "plural or singular" Please leave your mobile telephone(s) at the door. add a personal comment Many people love parties (I don't). define abbreviations The matter will be decided by the IOC (International Olympic Committee).

SQUARE BRACKETS Use square brackets when we want to modify another person's words. We want to make it clear that the modification has been made by us, not by the original writer. to add clarification: The witness said: "He [the policeman] hit me." to add missing words: It is [a] good question. to add editorial or authorial comment: They will not be present [my emphasis]. to modify a direct quotation: He "love[s] driving." (The original words were "I love driving.“)

ELIPSIS MARK The ellipsis mark consists of three dots (periods). We use the ellipsis mark in place of missing words. If we intentionally omit one or more words from an original text, we replace them with an ellipsis mark. "The film focussed on three Englishlearners...studying at university." Use an ellipsis mark to indicate a pause when someone is speaking, or an unfinished sentence. She turned to James and said, "Darling, there is something...I need to tell you. I have never felt like...like this before." "It's not easy to explain. It's not..." Her voice trailed away as emotion welled up within her.

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Punctuation in English - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Punctuation in English

Description of the most important resources to punctuate in english – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• Rules and recommendations.
• In writing, we can use punctuation marks to emphasize, clarify, what we mean.
• Meanwhile, in speaking, we can make a pause, stop, change our tone of voice
• Thats why in writing, we make use of Punctuation marks as signals to our readers.
• The full stop is used
• a. at the end of a complete statement (or utterance) which is neither an exclamation nor a question.
• e.g. He saw a UFO among the trees.
• He asked me if I had seen it.
• Yes. A UFO.
• b. After abbreviations.
• B.A. ( Bachelor of Arts ).
• e.g. ( exempli gratia, for example ).
• N.B. ( Nota bene, note well ).
• Note It is often the practice to omit the full stop if the last letter of the abbreviated word is given
• The full stop is the most important of the punctuation marks.
• Its omission, when its use is undeniably required,
• will confuse the reader
• ideas will be mixed up and
• the meaning intended by the writer will not be probably communicated to the reader.
• A comma is a punctuation mark that indicates a pause is needed in a sentence.
• It separates the structural elements of sentences into manageable segments.
• Commas are both an aid to sense and to ease of reading.
• They are sometimes used in long sentences to break up words into sections where the sense allows a pause to be taken. It is better to underuse them than to overuse them.
• Commas are frequently overused. It is as well always consider the effect on the sense and construction of a sentence that their inclusion or omission would have. Consider the following
• e.g. I saw my friend John.
• I saw my friend, John.
• The first sentence implies that I have several friends, but the one that I saw was Tom. The omission of the comma allows Tom' to define which friend it was that I saw.
• The second sentence may imply that I have only one friend and that his name happens to be Tom'. The inclusion of the comma allows the word Tom' merely to qualify the word friend. It might also mean that the speaker is addressing Tom when he or she says, "I saw my friend".
• Conventional uses of the comma.
• To separate two descriptions, set side by side, of the same object or person
• The second of the two descriptions adds to the meaning of the first and is parallel to it. (Technically, the second statement is said to be 'in apposition to' the first.)
• e.g. Mr Brown, the grocer, sells butter.
• 2. To separate the items or elements in a list.
• e.g. At the grocer's I bought some eggs, bacon, sugar, tea and biscuits.
• Note Some writers would not insert the comma before the final and but others would argue that because it separates 'tea' from 'biscuits' as elements in a list it should be there. Look, however, at the final coma in the following list, where it is essential
• For breakfast I ate some cereals, toast, and eggs and bacon.
• The final pair of items here (eggs and bacon) may be seen as a single element to have omitted the comma after 'toast' would have obscured the sense by running 'toast' and 'eggs and bacon' together.
• 3. To mark off the name or title of a person being addressed.
• Mr Smith, what is the trouble ?
• I'd much rather, James, you told me the truth.
• Doctor, I have had a pain in my back for quite a time.
• 4. Following introductory words which introduce direct speech or a direct question.
• e.g. He said, 'I know that I should not have said that.'
• The policeman asked, 'why did you hesitate?'
• 5. To separate short clauses which list actions, events, and so on.
• e.g. The man rose, left the room, slammed the door, and made his way into the street.
• 6. To indicate a statement interpolated within a sentence. Commas here effectively bracket off the interpolation.
• e.g. It was obvious, all things considered, that he had done the wrong thing.
• 7. To separate, or mark off, a phrase which stands apart from the rest of a sentence.
• e.g. The decision taken, there was no going back.
• 8. To indicate where the words have been deliberately omitted but need to be understood.
• e.g. The professor could pursue his own ideas I, mine.
• 9. To mark off a series of statements in the same sentence.
• e.g. He knew what he had to do, where he had to go, and when he should take the next step.
• 10. To mark off a statement which qualifies the meaning of a word. (The omission of the comma here would alter the sense by changing the qualification into a clear definition.)
• e.g. He stumbled into the house, which was his home.
• (This implies that there was only one house and this house happened to be his home.)
• Use commas wherever you think they are are necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.
• The comma in a compound sentence is placed before the coordinating conjunction.
• Andy built a sand castle, and Joe played with his dog.
• When a dependent clause is located after an independent clause,
• DO NOT place a comma between the two.
• The semicolon marks off one part of sentence from another much more sharply than a comma.
• It is particularly useful to divide a long sentence into self-contained sections. The semicolon is used
• To separate a series of complete statements which, nevertheless, belong to a longer whole statement.
• e.g. He was ill he now knew it he would go to the doctor's.
• The semicolons here give to the three short statements a dramatic note which would not be present if the first were replaced by a comma and the second by a conjunction, such as and indeed, to change the statement in this way would weaken it so much that it would become almost meaningless.
• 2. To introduce a sharp contrast between complete statements which are closely related.
• e.g. He knew what he should do yet he could not do it.
• He trusted the doctor he distrusted himself.
• The semicolon is particularly useful to make this kind of contrast before liking words such as
• nevertheless.
• 3. To break up a long sentence which would otherwise be overwhelmed by a confusion of commas.
• e.g. He would do it, if he could do for, after all, he had the time.
• The colon is used
• To introduce a list which follows immediately.
• e.g. He studied the use of the following punctuation marks full stops, semicolons, colons, question marks, etc.
• (ii) To introduce examples which illustrate or expand an idea and which follow immediately.
• e.g. He counted his treasures gold, silver, diamonds, and books.
• (iii) To introduce a quotation which follows immediately.
• e.g. Hamlet once contemplated his own death "To be or not to be...
• (iv) To introduce an explanation which follows immediately.
• e.g. This is what to do pour the yellow liquid into the green one and then get out - fast.
• (v) To introduce a speech which follows immediately.
• e.g. He rose to his feet, cleared his throat, and began 'Unaccustomed as I am to public speaking, I should like to say ...
• (vi) To divide two sharply contrasting statements.
• Note A semicolon sometimes has this function, too.
• Speech is silver silence is golden.
• The river ran downhill he made his way slowly up the path.
• (i) To introduce a list which follows immediately.
• The question mark had its origin in an awareness not of grammar but of rhetoric
• It indicated where the voice was to turn upward to indicate that a question was being asked.
• The full stop which forms part of this punctuation mark shows that a statement ( in this case, a question) has come to an end.
• The question mark is used
• To mark the end of a direct question.
• e.g. Where did you go.
• Note It is not used in an indirect question
• e.g. He asked where you went.
• (ii) To show that statements within a given context are to be taken as direct questions.
• e.g. Question marks are not used in indirect questions ?
• No, they are not.
• He asked where you went ? You may well be surprised.
• The exclamation marks, like the question mark, is mainly a rhetorical sign
• It shows where a statement is used as an interjection or carries very strong emotion.
• The full stop which forms part of this punctuation mark shows that a statement ( in this case, an exclamation ) has come to an end.
• e.g. Good Gracious ! You must certainly not go there !
• Oh dear ! I thought that you might say that.
• After this last sentence an exclamation is also possible but, if it is added, it will inject strong emotion into the utterance.
• This is one of the occasions in the use of punctuation where a sign does not merely follow the sense and structure but can determine meaning.
• The context will usually make it clear when the emotion in a statement is strong enough to warrant the use of an exclamation mark.
• The apostrophe is one of the most interesting punctuation marks in English but it is very often misused.
• Misunderstandings abound and it is not uncommon to find on notices displayed in shops simple plurals of nouns that are wrongly given an apostrophe -s
• e.g. Sign is men's hairdresser's No boy's today.
• The apostrophe is used
• (i) To denote the possessive form of the noun.
• All nouns, singular and plural, take an apostrophe -s to show the possessive case.
• e.g. The boy's book.
• The men's hats.
• There are two main groups of exceptions which merely take an apostrophe without the final -s
• e.g. (a) Plural nouns which already end in -s
• The boys' book.
• (b) Singular nouns that already contain so many 's' sounds (sibilants) that the addition of a further -s would be ugly.
• (ii) To mark the omission of a letter or group of letters in a word.
• e.g. don't ( do not ). Shan't (Shall not).
• (iii) To form the plurals of letter, figure, and contractions consisting of initial letters.
• e.g. Dot your i's and cross your t's.
• There are three 4's in twelve.
• The use of the apostrophe in such cases is often confusing.
• It is now the convention to omit the use of the apostrophe here but to italicise single letters before adding the final -s es, gs, but 4s, the 1930s, M.P.s and so on.
• (iv) Current practice omits the apostrophe in the following cases in spite of what has been said above
• ? Certain words where the initial letters are omitted
• e.g. bus ( for omnibus ), phone (telephone), car (autocar).
• ? Some place names
• e.g. Land's End but Golders Green St Jame's Park but St Helens.
• ? Some well-known proper nouns
• e.g. Marks and Spencers, Woolsworths, ...
• Most frequently brackets are used to mark off within a sentence,a word, comment, explanation or statement without which the sentence would otherwise be grammatically complete.
• It should be possible to take out the brackets and what they contain and then read the sentences without feeling that it is incomplete.
• Sometimes, instead of brackets two dashes are used what is placed between the dashes will, however, remain an interpolation.
• If there is a distinction to be made between the use of brackets and the use of dashes it is probably that dashes mark off the interpolation less sharply from the rest of the sentence than brackets.
• Compare, for example, the following
• He managed (such was his skill) to build his own house.
• He managed -such was his skill- to build his own house.
• He had enough money ( he was rich ) to buy the car.
• He had enough money - he was rich - to buy the car.
• Brackets are also used to add information, to amplify a comment without interrupting its general flow.
• e.g. They were all there ( John, Mary, Tom, and Sarah ) and the party was complete.
• (iii) Brackets are used, too, to provide a comment or a gloss on a statement what is contained within the brackets should be taken as an 'aside' when they are used in this way. It is often effective to use brackets like this to convey humour, satire, or irony.
• She thought she was beautiful. (It was a pity about her squint.)
• He said he needed five pounds. (That's what he said last time.)
• Square brackets are used to indicate comments, corrections, explanations, or other comments not in the original text but added later by the writer or by an editor.
• e.g. The poem was written in 1972, although it referred to events which took place two years before. Editor's note see the poet's Autobiography, p.10.
• It is not acceptable to use dashes in a slovenly manner to avoid having to decide whether a full stop is required or not. They are most effectively used to achieve a deliberately specific effect.
• (i) To indicate a change in the direction of a comment
• e.g. She was wearing a top hat -I noticed her immediately.
• (ii) To provide an antithetical ( or contrasting) comment within a sentence
• e.g. Everything -except the mummy- left the auction room hurriedly.
• (iii) To indicate hesitant of faltering speech
• e.g. 'I -er- I should like to -er- emphasise that - that public speakers should -er- should always speak - talk clearly.'
• (iv) To mark a sudden breaking-off of a statement, often for dramatic effect
• e.g. 'If I were you, I should get off the camel, unless-
• (v) To suggest a sudden start to a statement, perhaps by way of interruption
• e.g. -Oh, I don't agree with you for one minute when you say so confidently that there is life after death.-
• (vi) To mark off a parenthesis, perhaps less emphatically than brackets.
• (vii) To pull together items in a list or a number of loosely strung words in order to resume the direction of a sentence
• e.g. Kicking in the stomach, twisting arms, stamping on a fallen opponent, gouging eyes -these are not the actions of a gentleman playing rugby.
• What follows is a summary of the practises more usually found in books, serious newspapers, and magazines.
• (i) Where only one set of quotation marks is needed the single are usually preferred to the double. They are used to mark off the exact words used by a speaker or writer.
• e.g. He said, 'I never know how to use quotation marks.'
• Quirk argued that quotation marks 'are a nuisance to the writer'.
• The placing of the final full stop in these examples is interesting.
• In the first, the full stop marks both the end of the statement in single inverted commas and the end of the whole sentence beginning He said... It is unnecessary to use two full stops here and the normal practice is to allow the one inside the closing inverted comma to do the work of both.
• In the second example, the words within the inverted commas do not constitute a complete sentence but are merely six quoted words used by a writer the full stop, therefore, might be placed after the quotation to indicate the end of the whole sentence beginning Quirk argued...
• For the sake of uniformity, however, many publishing houses place a single full stop within the final inverted comma, whatever the situation.
• (ii) Where a direct statement, question, or exclamation is given in the form of the actual words used and this statement, question, or exclamation include another that is quoted ( as in the examples in (i) above, double inverted commas are used to mark off the quotation within the statement, question, or exclamation
• e.g. The weeping child said, ' I never said, "What a big nose you have!" to auntie.'
• (iii) Inverted commas are used to mark a word or phrase outside the predominant variety of English being used
• e.g. To argue that economically, politically, and socially it would be better for Great Britain to leave the European Union is 'bosh'.
• (iv) Inverted commas re used to mark a quotation from an article, a book, a poem, a magazine and so on
• 'To be or not to be' is a quotation from Hamlet.
• Although italic script is a device used for printing, underlining can be used by writers effectively in order to
• (i) avoid the confusing over-use of double inverted commas within single inverted commas
• it is often clearer and more convenient to underline titles, words used outside the predominant variety of English, and short quotations
• (ii) Stress a word or short phrase
• e.g. I cannot really say that I like eating cold porridge.
• I positively abhor eating cold, lumpy porridge.
• (i) Hyphens should be used to convey a significance in the relationship on one word to another or others.
• For example, examine the differences in meaning between
• e.g. eleven-year-old children and eleven year-old children.
• (ii) Hyphens are used to form compound nouns or adjectives, especially where such compounds are newly-coined, not fully established as compounds, or carry a specific meaning
• e.g. teddy-boys, punk-rockers.
• (iii) Hyphens often separate elements in a compound word
• which would look awkward (perhaps because of a clash of vowels or a danger of confusing consonants ) or
• be difficult to read or pronounce if it were written as a single word
• e.g. socio-economic hi-fi retro-active.
• (iv) Hyphens may be used to split words at the end of lines (because of lack of space ) in order to carry them forward to the next line.
• It is customary, however, to divide words in British English at an appropriate morphological point e.g. posit-ion rather than positi-on.
• Often this morphological break (i.e. the point at which a unit with its own division of meaning within the word ends) coincides with the syllabic break (i.e. the point at which the part of a word uttered by a single effort of the voice ends) e.g. resent-ment.
• Banks, R.A. (1983). Living English. Hodder and Stoughton.
• Purdue University Writing Lab at
• http//owl.english.purdue.edu/

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Apostrophes

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