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Punctuation.

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Presentation on theme: "Punctuation."— Presentation transcript:

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Punctuation in English - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Punctuation in English

Description of the most important resources to punctuate in english – powerpoint ppt presentation.

Rules and recommendations.
In writing, we can use punctuation marks to emphasize, clarify, what we mean.
Meanwhile, in speaking, we can make a pause, stop, change our tone of voice
Thats why in writing, we make use of Punctuation marks as signals to our readers.
The full stop is used
a. at the end of a complete statement (or utterance) which is neither an exclamation nor a question.
e.g. He saw a UFO among the trees.
He asked me if I had seen it.
Yes. A UFO.
b. After abbreviations.
B.A. ( Bachelor of Arts ).
e.g. ( exempli gratia, for example ).
N.B. ( Nota bene, note well ).
Note It is often the practice to omit the full stop if the last letter of the abbreviated word is given
The full stop is the most important of the punctuation marks.
Its omission, when its use is undeniably required,
will confuse the reader
ideas will be mixed up and
the meaning intended by the writer will not be probably communicated to the reader.
A comma is a punctuation mark that indicates a pause is needed in a sentence.
It separates the structural elements of sentences into manageable segments.
Commas are both an aid to sense and to ease of reading.
They are sometimes used in long sentences to break up words into sections where the sense allows a pause to be taken. It is better to underuse them than to overuse them.
Commas are frequently overused. It is as well always consider the effect on the sense and construction of a sentence that their inclusion or omission would have. Consider the following
e.g. I saw my friend John.
I saw my friend, John.
The first sentence implies that I have several friends, but the one that I saw was Tom. The omission of the comma allows Tom' to define which friend it was that I saw.
The second sentence may imply that I have only one friend and that his name happens to be Tom'. The inclusion of the comma allows the word Tom' merely to qualify the word friend. It might also mean that the speaker is addressing Tom when he or she says, "I saw my friend".
Conventional uses of the comma.
To separate two descriptions, set side by side, of the same object or person
The second of the two descriptions adds to the meaning of the first and is parallel to it. (Technically, the second statement is said to be 'in apposition to' the first.)
e.g. Mr Brown, the grocer, sells butter.
2. To separate the items or elements in a list.
e.g. At the grocer's I bought some eggs, bacon, sugar, tea and biscuits.
Note Some writers would not insert the comma before the final and but others would argue that because it separates 'tea' from 'biscuits' as elements in a list it should be there. Look, however, at the final coma in the following list, where it is essential
For breakfast I ate some cereals, toast, and eggs and bacon.
The final pair of items here (eggs and bacon) may be seen as a single element to have omitted the comma after 'toast' would have obscured the sense by running 'toast' and 'eggs and bacon' together.
3. To mark off the name or title of a person being addressed.
Mr Smith, what is the trouble ?
I'd much rather, James, you told me the truth.
Doctor, I have had a pain in my back for quite a time.
4. Following introductory words which introduce direct speech or a direct question.
e.g. He said, 'I know that I should not have said that.'
The policeman asked, 'why did you hesitate?'
5. To separate short clauses which list actions, events, and so on.
e.g. The man rose, left the room, slammed the door, and made his way into the street.
6. To indicate a statement interpolated within a sentence. Commas here effectively bracket off the interpolation.
e.g. It was obvious, all things considered, that he had done the wrong thing.
7. To separate, or mark off, a phrase which stands apart from the rest of a sentence.
e.g. The decision taken, there was no going back.
8. To indicate where the words have been deliberately omitted but need to be understood.
e.g. The professor could pursue his own ideas I, mine.
9. To mark off a series of statements in the same sentence.
e.g. He knew what he had to do, where he had to go, and when he should take the next step.
10. To mark off a statement which qualifies the meaning of a word. (The omission of the comma here would alter the sense by changing the qualification into a clear definition.)
e.g. He stumbled into the house, which was his home.
(This implies that there was only one house and this house happened to be his home.)
Use commas wherever you think they are are necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.
The comma in a compound sentence is placed before the coordinating conjunction.
Andy built a sand castle, and Joe played with his dog.
When a dependent clause is located after an independent clause,
DO NOT place a comma between the two.
The semicolon marks off one part of sentence from another much more sharply than a comma.
It is particularly useful to divide a long sentence into self-contained sections. The semicolon is used
To separate a series of complete statements which, nevertheless, belong to a longer whole statement.
e.g. He was ill he now knew it he would go to the doctor's.
The semicolons here give to the three short statements a dramatic note which would not be present if the first were replaced by a comma and the second by a conjunction, such as and indeed, to change the statement in this way would weaken it so much that it would become almost meaningless.
2. To introduce a sharp contrast between complete statements which are closely related.
e.g. He knew what he should do yet he could not do it.
He trusted the doctor he distrusted himself.
The semicolon is particularly useful to make this kind of contrast before liking words such as
nevertheless.
3. To break up a long sentence which would otherwise be overwhelmed by a confusion of commas.
e.g. He would do it, if he could do for, after all, he had the time.
The colon is used
To introduce a list which follows immediately.
e.g. He studied the use of the following punctuation marks full stops, semicolons, colons, question marks, etc.
(ii) To introduce examples which illustrate or expand an idea and which follow immediately.
e.g. He counted his treasures gold, silver, diamonds, and books.
(iii) To introduce a quotation which follows immediately.
e.g. Hamlet once contemplated his own death "To be or not to be...
(iv) To introduce an explanation which follows immediately.
e.g. This is what to do pour the yellow liquid into the green one and then get out - fast.
(v) To introduce a speech which follows immediately.
e.g. He rose to his feet, cleared his throat, and began 'Unaccustomed as I am to public speaking, I should like to say ...
(vi) To divide two sharply contrasting statements.
Note A semicolon sometimes has this function, too.
Speech is silver silence is golden.
The river ran downhill he made his way slowly up the path.
(i) To introduce a list which follows immediately.
The question mark had its origin in an awareness not of grammar but of rhetoric
It indicated where the voice was to turn upward to indicate that a question was being asked.
The full stop which forms part of this punctuation mark shows that a statement ( in this case, a question) has come to an end.
The question mark is used
To mark the end of a direct question.
e.g. Where did you go.
Note It is not used in an indirect question
e.g. He asked where you went.
(ii) To show that statements within a given context are to be taken as direct questions.
e.g. Question marks are not used in indirect questions ?
No, they are not.
He asked where you went ? You may well be surprised.
The exclamation marks, like the question mark, is mainly a rhetorical sign
It shows where a statement is used as an interjection or carries very strong emotion.
The full stop which forms part of this punctuation mark shows that a statement ( in this case, an exclamation ) has come to an end.
e.g. Good Gracious ! You must certainly not go there !
Oh dear ! I thought that you might say that.
After this last sentence an exclamation is also possible but, if it is added, it will inject strong emotion into the utterance.
This is one of the occasions in the use of punctuation where a sign does not merely follow the sense and structure but can determine meaning.
The context will usually make it clear when the emotion in a statement is strong enough to warrant the use of an exclamation mark.
The apostrophe is one of the most interesting punctuation marks in English but it is very often misused.
Misunderstandings abound and it is not uncommon to find on notices displayed in shops simple plurals of nouns that are wrongly given an apostrophe -s
e.g. Sign is men's hairdresser's No boy's today.
The apostrophe is used
(i) To denote the possessive form of the noun.
All nouns, singular and plural, take an apostrophe -s to show the possessive case.
e.g. The boy's book.
The men's hats.
There are two main groups of exceptions which merely take an apostrophe without the final -s
e.g. (a) Plural nouns which already end in -s
The boys' book.
(b) Singular nouns that already contain so many 's' sounds (sibilants) that the addition of a further -s would be ugly.
(ii) To mark the omission of a letter or group of letters in a word.
e.g. don't ( do not ). Shan't (Shall not).
(iii) To form the plurals of letter, figure, and contractions consisting of initial letters.
e.g. Dot your i's and cross your t's.
There are three 4's in twelve.
The use of the apostrophe in such cases is often confusing.
It is now the convention to omit the use of the apostrophe here but to italicise single letters before adding the final -s es, gs, but 4s, the 1930s, M.P.s and so on.
(iv) Current practice omits the apostrophe in the following cases in spite of what has been said above
? Certain words where the initial letters are omitted
e.g. bus ( for omnibus ), phone (telephone), car (autocar).
? Some place names
e.g. Land's End but Golders Green St Jame's Park but St Helens.
? Some well-known proper nouns
e.g. Marks and Spencers, Woolsworths, ...
Most frequently brackets are used to mark off within a sentence,a word, comment, explanation or statement without which the sentence would otherwise be grammatically complete.
It should be possible to take out the brackets and what they contain and then read the sentences without feeling that it is incomplete.
Sometimes, instead of brackets two dashes are used what is placed between the dashes will, however, remain an interpolation.
If there is a distinction to be made between the use of brackets and the use of dashes it is probably that dashes mark off the interpolation less sharply from the rest of the sentence than brackets.
Compare, for example, the following
He managed (such was his skill) to build his own house.
He managed -such was his skill- to build his own house.
He had enough money ( he was rich ) to buy the car.
He had enough money - he was rich - to buy the car.
Brackets are also used to add information, to amplify a comment without interrupting its general flow.
e.g. They were all there ( John, Mary, Tom, and Sarah ) and the party was complete.
(iii) Brackets are used, too, to provide a comment or a gloss on a statement what is contained within the brackets should be taken as an 'aside' when they are used in this way. It is often effective to use brackets like this to convey humour, satire, or irony.
She thought she was beautiful. (It was a pity about her squint.)
He said he needed five pounds. (That's what he said last time.)
Square brackets are used to indicate comments, corrections, explanations, or other comments not in the original text but added later by the writer or by an editor.
e.g. The poem was written in 1972, although it referred to events which took place two years before. Editor's note see the poet's Autobiography, p.10.
It is not acceptable to use dashes in a slovenly manner to avoid having to decide whether a full stop is required or not. They are most effectively used to achieve a deliberately specific effect.
(i) To indicate a change in the direction of a comment
e.g. She was wearing a top hat -I noticed her immediately.
(ii) To provide an antithetical ( or contrasting) comment within a sentence
e.g. Everything -except the mummy- left the auction room hurriedly.
(iii) To indicate hesitant of faltering speech
e.g. 'I -er- I should like to -er- emphasise that - that public speakers should -er- should always speak - talk clearly.'
(iv) To mark a sudden breaking-off of a statement, often for dramatic effect
e.g. 'If I were you, I should get off the camel, unless-
(v) To suggest a sudden start to a statement, perhaps by way of interruption
e.g. -Oh, I don't agree with you for one minute when you say so confidently that there is life after death.-
(vi) To mark off a parenthesis, perhaps less emphatically than brackets.
(vii) To pull together items in a list or a number of loosely strung words in order to resume the direction of a sentence
e.g. Kicking in the stomach, twisting arms, stamping on a fallen opponent, gouging eyes -these are not the actions of a gentleman playing rugby.
What follows is a summary of the practises more usually found in books, serious newspapers, and magazines.
(i) Where only one set of quotation marks is needed the single are usually preferred to the double. They are used to mark off the exact words used by a speaker or writer.
e.g. He said, 'I never know how to use quotation marks.'
Quirk argued that quotation marks 'are a nuisance to the writer'.
The placing of the final full stop in these examples is interesting.
In the first, the full stop marks both the end of the statement in single inverted commas and the end of the whole sentence beginning He said... It is unnecessary to use two full stops here and the normal practice is to allow the one inside the closing inverted comma to do the work of both.
In the second example, the words within the inverted commas do not constitute a complete sentence but are merely six quoted words used by a writer the full stop, therefore, might be placed after the quotation to indicate the end of the whole sentence beginning Quirk argued...
For the sake of uniformity, however, many publishing houses place a single full stop within the final inverted comma, whatever the situation.
(ii) Where a direct statement, question, or exclamation is given in the form of the actual words used and this statement, question, or exclamation include another that is quoted ( as in the examples in (i) above, double inverted commas are used to mark off the quotation within the statement, question, or exclamation
e.g. The weeping child said, ' I never said, "What a big nose you have!" to auntie.'
(iii) Inverted commas are used to mark a word or phrase outside the predominant variety of English being used
e.g. To argue that economically, politically, and socially it would be better for Great Britain to leave the European Union is 'bosh'.
(iv) Inverted commas re used to mark a quotation from an article, a book, a poem, a magazine and so on
'To be or not to be' is a quotation from Hamlet.
Although italic script is a device used for printing, underlining can be used by writers effectively in order to
(i) avoid the confusing over-use of double inverted commas within single inverted commas
it is often clearer and more convenient to underline titles, words used outside the predominant variety of English, and short quotations
(ii) Stress a word or short phrase
e.g. I cannot really say that I like eating cold porridge.
I positively abhor eating cold, lumpy porridge.
(i) Hyphens should be used to convey a significance in the relationship on one word to another or others.
For example, examine the differences in meaning between
e.g. eleven-year-old children and eleven year-old children.
(ii) Hyphens are used to form compound nouns or adjectives, especially where such compounds are newly-coined, not fully established as compounds, or carry a specific meaning
e.g. teddy-boys, punk-rockers.
(iii) Hyphens often separate elements in a compound word
which would look awkward (perhaps because of a clash of vowels or a danger of confusing consonants ) or
be difficult to read or pronounce if it were written as a single word
e.g. socio-economic hi-fi retro-active.
(iv) Hyphens may be used to split words at the end of lines (because of lack of space ) in order to carry them forward to the next line.
It is customary, however, to divide words in British English at an appropriate morphological point e.g. posit-ion rather than positi-on.
Often this morphological break (i.e. the point at which a unit with its own division of meaning within the word ends) coincides with the syllabic break (i.e. the point at which the part of a word uttered by a single effort of the voice ends) e.g. resent-ment.
Banks, R.A. (1983). Living English. Hodder and Stoughton.
Purdue University Writing Lab at
http//owl.english.purdue.edu/

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