Using the same word to mean different things (e.g., using "man" to mean humankind and later to mean man as opposed to "woman")
Allowing Time for Reflection
Teaching students how to use critical thinking skills shifts teaching from a model that largely ignores thinking to an approach that renders it pervasive 43 When content is didactically taught, it is treated as static and students are unlikely to question or think it through. They tend to rely on rote memorization without grasping the logic, supporting evidence and application of what they are trying to memorize. Students who learn through a critical thinking process truly learn content. At every level, students need to learn how to:
Ask questions precisely, define contexts and purposes, pursue relevant information, analyze key concepts, derive sound inferences, generate good reasons, recognize questionable assumptions, trace important implications, and think empathetically within different points of view (p. 20). 44
Critical thinking is difficult and requires overt practice using a variety of learning activities across the dental curriculum. It is also important to recognize the role that reflection plays in its development. Students need time to think about what they are learning and reflect upon that information. However, what they are learning must have an impact on their feelings in order for critical thinking to occur.
Emotions and Critical Thinking
The role of emotion in learning to use critical thinking skills is yet another area that necessitates research inquiry. As Zull suggests, if we want students to retain concepts we must allow them to put things into their own words, verbally and in writing. 45 Give students time to think before speaking and better construct ideas in their own words. Processing information takes time; stating one's thinking correctly also takes time. If a student cannot do this alone, we can give him or her the opportunity to discuss questions with others. Giving students time to reflect is giving them time to make connections.
Zull explains the process that takes place within the brain. First, the sensory cortex receives sensory input or concrete experiences. Next, the back integrative cortex tries to create meaning and images during the human process of reflection. The frontal integrative cortex is responsible for short-term memory and problem solving, making decisions and language, and making judgments and evaluations. This activity is akin to how learners handle abstractions-manipulating images and language to create new mental arrangements. The motor cortex triggers all coordinated and voluntary muscle contractions. This matches with the action that completes the learning cycle-actively testing abstractions and converting ideas into physical actions. The brain visualizes items in small amounts and all information arrives at the same time, producing an outline of objects and features in the visual field. 46 Thus, the brain can fully see great detail and nuance. Converting ideas into images helps students learn. Images enhance recall and aid in discovery. Sometimes the best teaching is just showing the student how.
To ensure that students learn, educators need to limit the amount of information they give. Instructors should limit or condense to three or four pieces the amount of information they want students to process.
The amygdala is responsible for screening experiences. 47 If something is recognized as dangerous, the amygdale will instinctively cause the body to "freeze." When a student first encounters something new, he or she may have a somewhat negative reaction. The instructor needs to find a way for the student to move into a more positive emotional territory. 48 Making suggestions or showing examples can remind the student what he or she already knows, and then the student can hang newly acquired knowledge on that "scaffolding." The support given by the instructor allows the student some level of success. Recognizing his or her success helps the student feel more hope, interest, and curiosity. At this point, the student is able to assume more control of the learning process. Boyd (2002) concurs and states, "emotions ... constantly regulate what we experience as reality." She also points out, "The limbic system plays an important role in processing emotion and memory and therefore appears to be important in the transfer of short-term memory into long-term memory." 49 Engaging students emotionally and actively strengthens memory.
Teaching students to use CTS during instruction
There is some empirical evidence that a four-year undergraduate experience contributes to modest gains in overall CT. However, there is little scientific evidence that a single course, other than a critical thinking skills course makes a positive measurable difference. 50 Even in the case of a specific CTS course, the evidence is mixed. 51
Recent studies show that limited efforts to infuse critical thinking in instruction can lead to improved scores on the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z, a test that is aimed at a sophisticated audience and measures six common critical thinking skills. 52 Allegrettti and Frederick (1995) reported pre- to post-test gains on the Cornell Z for a group of college seniors (n = 24) who took a capstone integrated psychology and philosophy course. 53 Solon (2001) found that a partial treatment group of psychology students (n = 26) improved their scores on the Cornell Z compared to a group of untreated humanities students (n = 26). The results were statistically significant (beyond .001). In 2003, Solon studied three groups to compare coursework effects and reported that the full treatment group (n = 25) significantly outscored both the partial (n = 25) and non-treatment (n = 25) groups on the Cornell Z test. 54 Solon (2007) reported that a group of introductory psychology students (n = 25) received a moderate infusion of critical thinking skills (10 hours instruction and 20 hours homework). Compared to the non-treatment group (n= 26), the experimental group significantly improved their scores on the Cornell Z test. 55 These findings suggest that even a moderate infusion of critical thinking skills instruction can result in enhanced reasoning skills without requiring a significant investment from the instructor. 56
Collins and Onwuegbuzie reported significant relationships between overall CTS and achievement in a graduate level research methodology course at the midterm (r = .34, p < .01) and final (r = .26, p < .01) stages. 57 Onwuegbuzie compared the CTS of master's and doctoral level students. He reported that doctoral level students (n = 19) obtained statistically higher overall CTS using the California Critical Thinking Skills Test than the masters' degree students (n = 101, t = -3.54, p < .01). The effect size (d = 0.92) associated with this difference was extremely large. 58
Teaching CTS requires instruction that uses higher order taxonomic skills. These skills require student demonstration or teacher usage of behaviors classified as analysis, evaluation, and creation (levels 4, 5, and 6 on Bloom's revised taxonomy). When teaching takes place at higher levels of learning, lower order behaviors such as remembering, understanding, and applying are subsumed within instruction. The following table lists behaviors common at each level of learning and examples of related dental education activities.
Table 6. Revised Bloom's Taxonomy, Sample Verbs, and Related Learning Activities 59
Taxonomic Levels from Highest to Lowest | Sample Verbs | Dental Learning Activity |
Level 6-Creating | Synthesize, organize, deduce, plan, present, arrange, blend, create, devise, rearrange, rewrite | A prosthodontics patient, age 62, has two fixed mandible bridges that have deteriorated over the last two years due to poor hygiene. These bridges now need replacement. You are a recent dental graduate in practice with two senior partners. The senior partners suggest taking impressions and replacing the fixed bridges. You have read the recent literature on dental implants and would offer the patient this option. You also recognize that implants are more appropriate to the patient's needs and that over time they represent a cost savings. However, the senior partners are not really familiar with state of the art information about implants. Develop a plan for responding to the senior partners inwhich you provide an evidence-based rationale for suggesting the use of dental implants. |
Level 5-Evaluating | Critique, defend, interpret, judge, measure, test, select, argue, award, verify | Two patients, aged 18 months and 10 years, have cleft palate. Neither patient has been seen by health professionals or treated for this condition until now. Based on a complete summary of the dental, medical, social, and psychological health of each child, develop a treatment plan using authoritative and credible sources. |
Level 4-Analyzing | Determine, discriminate, form, generalize, categorize, illustrate, select, survey, take apart, transform, classify | A 32-year-old white male arrives at your office and presents with pain and swelling over the "upper right canine tooth" for the past three days. His medical history is remarkable for GERD, for which he takes Prilosec daily, and a penicillin allergy (rash over his torso and fever after taking Keflex). Your exam reveals intraoral and extra oral swelling over tooth #6. A radiograph reveals radiolucency with caries under the crestal bone (nonrestorable). What are your concerns? How would you treat and prescribe? |
Level 3-Applying | Convert, demonstrate, differentiate between, examine, experiment, prepare, produce, record, discover, discuss, explain | After completing textbook readings about the basics of periodontology, explain with images the progression of periodontal disease from the perspective of pathogenesis. Choose lay terms appropriate for use with a patient. |
Level 2-Understanding | Differentiate, fill in, find, group, outline, predict, represent, trace, compare, demonstrate, describe | State four or five reasons that rubber dam isolation is essential during endodontic procedures. |
Level 1-Remembering | Define, distinguish, draw, find, match, read, record, acquire, label, list | From a list of 10 options, choose the five items associated with a periodontic pocket. |
Making Critical Thinking Explicit
Teaching for critical thinking is a rational and intentional act. Typically, instructors cannot suddenly decide to teach CTS and develop an appropriate learning activity. An instructor must have a clear understanding of what CTS is, how it is implemented during instruction, and what strategies should be used during particular classroom and predoctoral clinical learning activities. Developing a repertoire of well-honed CTS activities appropriate to your specific discipline is advisable.
Also crucial to the teaching of CTS is an educator announcing to students he or she will teach CTS, how he or she intends to do so, and what will be required of the students as learners. It is important to have an explicit conversation with students about what CTS is, what it looks like, and how educators will model it so students can differentiate the teaching of CTS from lower level learning. Effective teaching of university-age students is characterized by collegial and collaborative processes, not instruction that is ambiguous. In ambiguous instruction, the learner does not know what to expect next or have a clear understanding of what behavioral or skill changes he or she should demonstrate as a result of teacher-student interaction. Teaching explicitly helps ensure that less re-teaching will be necessary. Both teachers and students know their responsibilities as instructors and learners.
Stages of Critical Thinking
Paul and Elder claim that individuals progress through predictable stages of unreflective, challenged, beginning, practicing, advanced, and master thinking. 60 They state that unless educators help students develop an intellectual vocabulary for discussing their thought processes and challenge them to identify the problems in their thinking, the students' cognitive processes will remain invisible to them. The implication for curriculum development: If instructors want students to develop critical thinking skills, then critical thinking must be integrated into the foundations of instruction.
It is also important to recognize that when patient care is task focused, it can obscure the bigger picture and become a barrier to the development of critical thinking skills. Individual personality, background, and position might also limit one's ability to think critically. Additionally, gender, age, religion, and socioeconomic status might influence the development of critical thinking skills. One of the biggest barriers to the development of CTS is our educational system. Although it is important to recognize these attributes as potential barriers, it is more important that dental educators establish the kind of learning environments that will foster the development of CTS.
Case #2-Why Are Mrs. Connor's Teeth Yellow?
Mrs. Connor, a 74-year-old white female, comes to your office as a new patient. She presents you with a complaint that her teeth have become yellowed and unattractive. Her husband died one year prior, and since then she has been drinking 8-10 cups of coffee daily. Her internist diagnosed anemia and high blood cholesterol. She is taking iron and Lipitor. She feels better since she began taking Lipitor, but feels her teeth are too yellow. She recently met a widower who invited her to dinner next week. She is worried about the appearance of her teeth.
Teachers must recognize that not all students will apply critical thinking skills at the same rate they learn these skills. Thus, instructional methods and objectives need to match students' cognitive and experiential abilities while trying to stretch students to their growing edge. 61 Students' capacity for self-directed learning (SDL), which is required to implement reflective judgment, underlies many of the critical thinking skill dispositions. 62 There is evidence that the students who routinely use the "learn by doing" approach to explore problems develop more sophisticated SDL than students in lecture-based curricula. 63 The reflection element of critical thinking is considered essential to clinical judgment. 64 Tanner asserts that using the skills associated with reflective thinking prepares students for ill-structured or ambiguous problems that they are likely to encounter in clinical practice. 65
Problem-based learning (PBL) is a popular instructional strategy for promoting collaboration and reflection and negotiating different and individual constructions of knowledge. Some researchers assert that PBL is best used when problems are unsolvable or when they generate many individual constructions of knowledge that appear valid. 66 However, using only problem-based learning to teach critical thinking skills may not be enough. This instructional strategy does not necessarily equip students with the ability to analyze or critique a given situation or the information with which they are been provided. A variety of instructional strategies that give students the opportunity to think aloud, role play, prioritize alternatives, communicate conclusions effectively, simulate, or defend the logical basis of their thinking is recommended to foster students' ability to use critical thinking.
Asking students to apply their understanding of dental and medical knowledge to treatment planning and diagnosis is not an example of CTS. However, asking students to determine differential diagnoses of caries and periodontal disease among patients at various stages of lung cancer requires the ability to reason and justify particular treatment plans or demonstrate critical thinking skills. Habits of the students who demonstrate critical thinking are:
(a) | Making logical inferences | |
(b) | Offering opinions with reasons | |
(c) | Evaluating | |
(d) | Grasping principles | |
(e) | Classifying | |
(f) | Making criteria-based judgments | |
(g) | Making evidence-based decisions | |
(h) | Reflexivity |
Case #3-Female with Erythroplakia
Mrs. Jacklin, a 40-year-old female, presents you with a history of SLE and erythroplakia on the left lateral border of the tongue. She states she is experiencing a burning sensation on her tongue. She asks why she is having this discomfort and what she can do to make the sore on her tongue go away. The oral exam shows that Mrs. Jacklin has poor oral hygiene and mild dry mouth (xerostomia) but is otherwise not in danger for oral health concerns.
Critical thinking is not :
(a) | Applying what you have learned in decisionmaking and treatment planning | |
(b) | Keeping students awake, interested, and motivated | |
(c) | Linear or step-by-step thinking |
Critical thinking cannot be taught in a learning environment where the dental educator always lectures, tells students what ought to be undertaken during patient treatment, or shows students how to do a procedure correctly. Some habits of students who do not use critical thinking skills are:
(a) | Disorganization (in thought processing, preparation, and behaviors) | |
(b) | Overly simplistic thinking ("I had enough information. There was no need to ask for additional information.") | |
(c) | Use of unreasonable criteria ("If my belief is sincere, evidence to the contrary is irrelevant.") | |
(d) | Erratic use of facts (Looking only at the area of interest, he offered biased interpretations of the radiographs.) |
Critical thinking skills can be developed with frequent practice and the use of ill-structured problems and situations that require the ability to recall useful knowledge quickly, use pattern recognition, discern pertinent information, think ahead, and anticipate outcomes and problems while remaining composed so that emotions do not hinder decisionmaking skills. However, it is important to recognize CTS do not develop spontaneously or with maturation. Since strong personality components underlie CT dispositions, what happens if students admitted to colleges of dentistry do not already possess these traits?
Critical thinking skills, assess your critical thinking strategies.
The essence of the independent mind lies not in what it thinks, but in how it thinks. —Christopher Hitchens, author and journalist
As a college student, you are tasked with engaging and expanding your thinking skills. One of the most important of these skills is critical thinking. Critical thinking is important because it relates to nearly all tasks, situations, topics, careers, environments, challenges, and opportunities. It’s a discipline-general thinking skill, not a thinking skill that’s reserved for a one subject alone or restricted to a particular content area. Of all your thinking skills, critical thinking may have the greatest value.
Critical thinking is clear, reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do. It means asking probing questions like, “How do we know?” or “Is this true in every case or just in this instance?” It involves being skeptical and challenging assumptions, rather than simply memorizing facts or blindly accepting what you hear or read. Critical thinking skills will help you in any profession or any circumstance of life, from science to art to business to teaching.
Critical thinkers are curious and reflective people. They explore and probe new areas and seek knowledge, clarification, and solutions. They ask pertinent questions, evaluate statements and arguments, and distinguish between facts and opinion. They are also willing to examine their own beliefs, possessing a manner of humility that allows them to admit lack of knowledge or understanding when needed. Critical thinkers are open to changing their mind. Perhaps most of all, they actively enjoy learning and view seeking new knowledge as a lifelong pursuit.
Thinking critically will help you develop more balanced arguments, express yourself clearly, read more critically, and glean important information efficiently. With critical thinking, you become a clearer thinker and problem solver.
What Critical Thinking Is | What Critical Thinking Is Not |
---|---|
Skepticism | Memorizing |
Examining assumptions | Group thinking |
Challenging reasoning | Blind acceptance of authority |
Uncovering biases | Believing stereotypes |
The following video, from Lawrence Bland, presents the major concepts and benefits of critical thinking.
Critical thinking is fundamentally a process of questioning information and data. You may question the information you read in a textbook, or you may question what a politician or a professor or a classmate says. You can also question a commonly-held belief or a new idea. With critical thinking, anything and everything is subject to question and examination for the purpose of logically constructing reasoned perspectives.
The word logic comes from the Ancient Greek logike , referring to the science or art of reasoning. Using logic, a person evaluates arguments and reasoning and strives to distinguish between good and bad reasoning or between truth and falsehood. Using logic, you can evaluate ideas or claims people make, make good decisions, and form sound beliefs about the world. [1] . Logical thinkers provide reasonable and appropriate evidence to support their claims, acknowledge the strengths of the opposing side’s position, actively investigate a variety of possible outcomes or new solutions, and use measured and objective language to present their positions.
Logical thinkers examine arguments from a variety of perspectives. When you examine arguments or claims that an author, speaker, or other source is making, your goal is to identify and analyze the hard facts. You can use the spectrum of authority strategy for this purpose. The spectrum of authority strategy assists you in identifying the “hot” end of an argument (feelings, beliefs, cultural influences, and influences) from the “cold” end of an argument (scientific influences).
When you use critical thinking to evaluate information, you need to clarify your thinking to yourself and likely to others. Doing this well is mainly a process of asking and answering logical, probing questions. Design your questions to fit your needs, but be sure to cover adequate ground.
You’ll also want to make sure you can avoid and spot logical fallacies. Fallacies are faults in thinking or illogical approaches used to persuade the other side. Statements such as, everyone else is doing it ca n be very persuasive even though they demonstrate faulty logic, in this case, the bandwagon appeal. Because these fallacies are always on the “hot” end of an argument, they can undermine your authority and weaken your position. Students shouldn’t park in the faculty lot because that lot is for faculty is another example of a logical fallacy, this time circular reasoning.
Consult the two websites below to identify and avoid some of the many kinds of logical fallacies:
The following questions may apply to formulating a logical, reasoned perspective in the scenario below or any other situation:
A man has a PhD in political science, and he works as a professor at a local college. His wife works at the college, too. They have three young children in the local school system, and their family is well known in the community. The man is now running for political office. Are his credentials and experience sufficient for entering public office? Will he be effective in the political office? Some voters might believe that his personal life and current job, on the surface, suggest he will do well in the position, and they will vote for him. In truth, the characteristics described don’t guarantee that the man will do a good job. The information is somewhat irrelevant. What else might you want to know? How about whether the man had already held a political office and done a good job? In this case, we want to ask, How much information is adequate in order to make a decision based on logic instead of assumptions?
For most people, a typical day is filled with critical thinking and problem-solving challenges. In fact, critical thinking and problem-solving go hand-in-hand. They both refer to using knowledge, facts, and data to solve problems effectively, but with problem-solving, you are specifically identifying, selecting, and defending your solution.
Applying the strategies described in the action checklist below can help you utilize critical thinking skills to solve problems.
STRATEGIES | ACTION CHECKLIST | |
---|---|---|
1 | Define the problem | |
2 | Identify available solutions | |
3 | Select your solution |
Problem-solving can be an efficient and rewarding process, especially if you are organized and mindful of critical steps and strategies. Remember, too, to assume the attributes of a good critical thinker. If you are curious, reflective, knowledge-seeking, open to change, probing, organized, and ethical, your challenge or problem will be less of a hurdle, and you’ll be in a good position to find intelligent solutions.
Critical thinking is a fundamental skill for college students, but it should also be a lifelong pursuit that we continually refine. Below are additional strategies to develop yourself as a critical thinker in college and in everyday life:
Earlier in this text we discussed, “habits of mind,” the personal commitments, values, and standards people have about the principle of good thinking. Consider your intellectual commitments, values, and standards. Do you approach problems with an open mind, a respect for truth, and an inquiring attitude? Some good habits to have when thinking critically are being receptive to having your opinions changed, having respect for others, being independent and not accepting something is true until you’ve had the time to examine the available evidence. Other important habits of mind include being fair-minded, having respect for a reason, having an inquiring mind, not making assumptions, and always, especially, questioning your own conclusions. In their quest towards developing an intellectual work ethic, critical thinkers constantly try to work these qualities into their daily lives.
Below are some examples of using critical thinking to problem-solve. Can you think of additional action steps to apply to the following situations? You may want to look back to Chapter 2 “Defining Goals” to utilize the five step problem solving strategy described there.
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Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment. It involves the evaluation of sources, such as data, facts, observable phenomena, and research findings. Good critical thinkers can draw reasonable conclusions from a set of information, and discriminate between useful and less useful ...
Critical thinking skills examples. There are six main skills you can develop to successfully analyze facts and situations and come up with logical conclusions: 1. Analytical thinking. Being able to properly analyze information is the most important aspect of critical thinking. This implies gathering information and interpreting it, but also ...
Listed below are articles on Critical Thinking. Short summaries and citations are provided when available. Allen, Robert D. "Intellectual Development and the Understanding of Science: Applications of William Perry's Theory to Science Teaching.". Arons, Arnold B. "'Critical Thinking' and the Baccalaureate Curriculum.". Bean, John.
Critical thinking is the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment. To think critically, you must be aware of your own biases and assumptions when encountering information, and apply consistent standards when evaluating sources. Critical thinking skills help you to: Identify credible sources. Evaluate and respond to arguments.
Opportunities to apply critical thinking skills are all around us every moment. Effective critical thinkers remain tuned into these opportunities by applying the principles of mindfulness. Critical thinkers are always on alert for chances to apply their best thinking habits to any situation and retain the disposition to use critical thinking ...
One of the most important thinking skills is critical thinking. Critical thinking is important because it relates to nearly all tasks, situations, topics, careers, environments, challenges, and opportunities. It's a "domain-general" thinking skill—not a thinking skill that's reserved for one subject alone or restricted to a particular ...
Many of the details at the bottom can likely be ruled out, and you can focus your efforts on evaluating what falls in the middle. 5. Communication. Communication is an important skill for critical thinking because you need to be able to put your thoughts into words and find the information you need.
Critical thinking (CT) is a metacognitive process, consisting of a number of skills and dispositions, that when used through self-regulatory reflective judgment, increases the chances of producing ...
Critical thinking is logical and reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do. Critical thinking involves questioning and evaluating information. Critical and creative thinking both contribute to our ability to solve problems in a variety of contexts. Evaluating information is a complex, but essential, process.
Critical thinking is fundamentally a process of questioning information and data. You may question the information you read in a textbook, or you may question what a politician or a professor or a classmate says. You can also question a commonly-held belief or a new idea. With critical thinking, anything and everything is subject to question ...
Key Takeaways. Critical thinking is a skill that will help speakers further develop their arguments and position their speech in a strong manner. Critical thinking utilizes thought, plan, and action. Be sure to consider the research at-hand and develop an argument that is logical and connects to the audience.
Our critical thinking skills framework. The focus on critical thinking skills has its roots in two approaches: the cognitive psychological approach and the educational approach (see for reviews, e.g. Sternberg Citation 1986; Ten Dam and Volman Citation 2004).From a cognitive psychological approach, critical thinking is defined by the types of behaviours and skills that a critical thinker can show.
We have said so many good things about critical thinking that you might have the impression that "critical thinking" and "good thinking" mean the same thing. But that is not what the experts said. They see critical thinking as making up part of what we mean by good thinking, but not as being the only kind of good thinking.
Critical thinking is also regarded as intellectually engaged, skillful, and responsible thinking that facilitates good judgment because it requires the application of assumptions, knowledge, competence, and the ability to challenge one's own thinking. Critical thinking requires the use of self-correction and monitoring to judge the rationality ...
It involves being skeptical and challenging assumptions, rather than simply memorizing facts or blindly accepting what you hear or read. Critical thinking skills will help you in any profession or any circumstance of life, from science to art to business to teaching. Critical thinkers are curious and reflective people.
The article that I found to use as an example in which good critical thinking skills are being demonstrated by the author is "Rights of a Child." or speaker. The article discusses the rights, and lack of, for children. It addresses several flaws that are found when it comes to allowing children to receive their inalienable rights.
In recent decades, approaches to critical thinking have generally taken a practical turn, pivoting away from more abstract accounts - such as emphasizing the logical relations that hold between statements (Ennis, 1964) - and moving toward an emphasis on belief and action.According to the definition that Robert Ennis (2018) has been advocating for the last few decades, critical thinking is ...
Step 1/2 Step 1: Search for an example of good critical thinking skills being demonstrated by the author or speaker. Example: In a TED Talk titled "The Danger of a Single Story," author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie discusses the importance of recognizing and embracing multiple perspectives in order to avoid stereotypes and misunderstandings.