literature reviews on motivation

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Work Motivation: The Roles of Individual Needs and Social Conditions

Thuy thi diem vo.

1 Department of Business Administration, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, No. 43, Section 4, Keelung Road, Da’an District, Taipei City 106335, Taiwan; wt.ude.tsutn.liam@31880701d (T.T.D.V.); wt.ude.tsutn.liam@nehcwc (C.-W.C.)

Kristine Velasquez Tuliao

2 Graduate Institute of Human Resource Management, National Central University, No. 300, Zhongda Road, Zhongli District, Taoyuan City 320317, Taiwan

Chung-Wen Chen

Associated data.

The data that support this study are publicly available.

Work motivation plays a vital role in the development of organizations, as it increases employee productivity and effectiveness. To expand insights into individuals’ work motivation, the authors investigated the influence of individuals’ competence, autonomy, and social relatedness on their work motivation. Additionally, the country-level moderating factors of those individual-level associations were examined. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was used to analyze data from 32,614 individuals from 25 countries, obtained from the World Values Survey (WVS). Findings showed that autonomy and social relatedness positively impacted work motivation, while competence negatively influenced work motivation. Moreover, the individual-level associations were moderated by the country-level religious affiliation, political participation, humane orientation, and in-group collectivism. Contributions, practical implications, and directions for further research were then discussed.

1. Introduction

Work motivation is considered an essential catalyst for the success of organizations, as it promotes employees’ effective performance. To achieve an organization’s objectives, the employer depends on the performance of their employees [ 1 ]. However, insufficiently motivated employees perform poorly despite being skillful [ 1 , 2 ]. Employers, therefore, need their employees to work with complete motivation rather than just showing up at their workplaces [ 3 ]. Work motivation remains a vital factor in organizational psychology, as it helps explain the causes of individual conduct in organizations [ 4 ]. Consequently, studies on the factors that encourage work motivation can contribute to the theoretical underpinnings on the roots of individual and practical social conditions that optimize individuals’ performance and wellness [ 5 ].

Several decades of research have endeavored to explain the dynamics that initiate work-related behavior. The primary factor examining this aspect is motivation, as it explains why individuals do what they do [ 6 ]. The basic psychological needs have represented a vital rationalization of individual differences in work motivation. Psychological needs are considered natural psychological nutrients and humans’ inner resources. They have a close relationship with individual conduct and have a strong explicit meaning for work performance [ 7 , 8 ]. Different needs are essential drivers of individual functioning due to the satisfaction derived from dealing with them [ 9 ]. In addition to individual-level antecedents, the social context has also been regarded to have implications for work motivation. Social exchange and interaction among individuals accentuate the importance of work motivation as something to be studied with consideration of contextual factors [ 10 ].

Significant contributions have been made to the socio-psychological perspective of work motivation ( Table 1 ). However, current literature shows three deficiencies. First, over 150 papers utilize the key approaches of psychological needs to justify motivational processes in the workplace [ 11 ], which justifies the vital role of psychological needs in interpreting individual work motivation. The association between psychological needs and work motivation has often been implicitly assumed; however, the influence of psychological needs on work motivation has been inadequately tested [ 8 ]. The verification of the extent and the direction of influence will provide a better understanding of, and offer distinct implications for, the facilitation of work motivation. In examining the influence of psychological needs on work motivation, this paper mainly focuses on the intrinsic aspect of motivation. The study of Alzahrani et al. (2018) [ 12 ] argued that although intrinsic motivation is more efficient than extrinsic motivation, researchers have mostly neglected it.

Several investigated predictors of work motivation in general and intrinsic motivation in particular.

Second, there is no study examining the country-level moderating effects of social conditions and national cultures on individual relationships between psychological needs and work motivation. Pinder (2014) [ 20 ] argued that contextual practices could influence variables at the individual level. Culture is a crucial factor influencing motivation [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Researchers (e.g., [ 19 ]) have further suggested that both the proximal social situations (e.g., workgroup) and the distal social situations (e.g., cultural values) in which humans operate influence their need for satisfaction and their motivation type. Intrinsic motivation interacts with prosocial motivation in judging work performance [ 21 ]. By including the social conditions in the framework, prosocial motivation is considered. Prosocial motivation refers to the desire to help and promote the welfare of others [ 22 , 23 ]. The study of Shao et al. (2019) [ 24 ] proposed that prosocial motivation promotes employee engagement in particular organizational tasks. Researchers often consider prosocial motivation as a pattern of intrinsic motivation [ 23 ]. This implies that when intrinsic motivation is investigated, prosocial motivation should be examined together to obtain a comprehensive understanding.

Third, there are few studies using a considerable number of cross-national samples to investigate factors influencing work motivation. A cross-cultural analysis makes the findings more objective by minimizing individual bias towards any particular culture. Therefore, the examination of the study is crucial to expanding insights on the influence of social situations on the individual associations between psychological needs and work motivation.

2. Literature Review and Hypothesis Development

2.1. work motivation: a conceptual background.

Work motivation is considered “a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form direction intensity and duration” [ 20 ]. Nicolescu and Verboncu (2008) [ 25 ] argued that work motivation contributes directly and indirectly to employees’ performance. Additionally, research (e.g., [ 26 ]) has postulated that work motivation could be seen as a source of positive energy that leads to employees’ self-recognition and self-fulfillment. Therefore, work motivation is an antecedent of the self-actualization of individuals and the achievement of organizations.

Literature has identified several models of work motivation. One of the primary models is Maslow’s (1954) [ 27 ] need hierarchy theory, which proposes that humans fulfill a set of needs, including physiological, safety and security, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. Additionally, Herzberg’s (1966) [ 28 ] motivation-hygiene theory proposed that work motivation is mainly influenced by the job’s intrinsic challenge and provision of opportunities for recognition and reinforcement. More contemporary models also emerged. For instance, the study of Nicolescu and Verboncu (2008) [ 25 ] has categorized the types of motivation into four pairs, including positive-negative, intrinsic-extrinsic, cognitive-affective, and economic-moral spiritual. Additionally, Ryan and Deci [ 29 ] focused on intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.

With the existence of numerous factors that relate to work motivation, this paper mainly focuses on intrinsic motivation. Previous research found that emotional intelligence and interpersonal relationship quality predict individuals’ intrinsic motivation [ 14 ]. Additionally, the study of Lin (2020) [ 13 ] argued that personal factors, including age, gender, educational level, living setting, health status, and family support, impact people’s intrinsic motivation. To understand more about intrinsic motivation, the authors examined individuals’ psychological needs. Fulfillment of the basic needs is related to wellness and effective performance [ 7 ]. Since intrinsic motivation results in high-quality creativity, recognizing the factors influencing intrinsic motivation is important [ 5 ].

Although a significant number of important contributions have been made regarding intrinsic motivation, self-determination theory is of particular significance for this study. Self-determination theory (SDT) postulates that all humans possess a variety of basic psychological needs. One of the primary crucial needs is the need for competence [ 30 , 31 ], which makes individuals feel confident and effective in their actions. Additionally, the need for autonomy [ 32 ] is one of the important psychological needs, which makes people satisfied with optimal wellness and good performance obtained as a result of their own decisions. Moreover, SDT proposed the crucial importance of interpersonal relationships and how social forces can influence thoughts, emotions, and behaviors [ 33 ]. This means that the psychological need for social relatedness [ 34 ] also plays a significant role in human’s psychological traits. Individuals need to be cared for by others and care for others to perceive belongingness. The need for relatedness can motivate people to behave more socially [ 35 ].

Prior research (e.g., [ 36 ]) has explored self-determination theory and related theories as approaches to work motivation and organizational behavior. The study of Van den Broeck et al. (2010) [ 37 ] emphasized grasping autonomy, competence, and relatedness at workplaces. This paper contributes to the exhaustive understanding of intrinsic work motivation influenced by further examining the impact of these three factors on work motivation as well as the moderating effects of social contexts.

2.2. Main Effect

2.2.1. individuals’ competence and work motivation.

Competence is “the collective learning in the organization, especially how to coordinate diverse production skills and integrate multiple streams of technologies” [ 38 ]. The study of Hernández-March et al. (2009) [ 39 ] argued that a stronger competence was commonly found in university graduates rather than those without higher education. Competence has been considered a significant factor of work motivation that enhances productivity and profits. Harter’s (1983) [ 40 ] model of motivation proposed that competence enhances motivation because competence promotes flexibility for individuals [ 41 ]. Likewise, Patall et al. (2014) [ 42 ] indirectly argued that competence positively affects work motivation. Individuals become more engaged in activities that demonstrate their competence [ 6 ]. When people perceive that they are competent enough to attain goals, they generally feel confident and concentrate their efforts on achieving their objectives as soon as possible for their self-fulfillment.

Individuals’ competence positively relates to their work motivation.

2.2.2. Individuals’ Autonomy and Work Motivation

Autonomy is viewed as “self-determination, self-rule, liberty of rights, freedom of will and being one’s own person” [ 43 ]. Reeve (2006) [ 44 ] argued that autonomy is a primary theoretical approach in the study of human motivation and emotion. Autonomy denotes that certain conduct is performed with a sense of willingness [ 30 ]. Several researchers (e.g., [ 45 ]) investigated the positive relationship between individuals’ autonomy and work motivation. When humans are involved in actions because of their interest, they fully perform those activities volitionally [ 36 ]. Dickinson (1995) [ 46 ] also proposed that autonomous individuals are more highly motivated, and autonomy breeds more effective outcomes. Moreover, when individuals have a right to make their own decisions, they tend to be more considerate and responsible for those decisions, as they need to take accountability for their actions. Bandura (1991) [ 47 ] has argued that humans’ ability to reflect, react, and direct their actions motivates them for future purposes. Therefore, autonomy motivates individuals to work harder and overcome difficulties to achieve their objectives.

Individuals’ autonomy positively relates to their work motivation.

2.2.3. Individuals’ Social Relatedness and Work Motivation

The psychological need for social relatedness occurs when an individual has a sense of being secure, related to, or understood by others in the social environment [ 48 ]. The relatedness need is fulfilled when humans experience the feeling of close relationships with others [ 49 ]. Researchers (e.g., [ 34 ]) have postulated that the need for relatedness reflects humans’ natural tendency to feel associated with others, such as being a member of any social groups, or to love and care as well as be loved and cared for. Prior studies have shown that social relatedness strongly impacts motivation [ 50 , 51 , 52 ]. Social relatedness offers people many opportunities to communicate with others, making them more motivated at the workplace, aligning them with the group’s shared objectives. Marks (1974) [ 53 ] suggested that social relatedness encourages individuals to focus on community welfare as a reference for their behavior, resulting in enhanced work motivation. Moreover, when individuals feel that they relate to and are cared for by others, their motivation can be maximized since their relatedness need is fulfilled [ 54 ]. Therefore, establishing close relationships with others plays a vital role in promoting human motivation [ 55 ]. When people perceive that they are cared for and loved by others, they tend to create positive outcomes for common benefits to deserve the kindness received, thereby motivating them to work harder.

Individuals’ social relatedness positively relates to their work motivation.

Aside from exploring the influence of psychological needs on work motivation, this paper also considers country-level factors. Previous research (e.g., [ 56 ]) has examined the influence of social institutions and national cultures on work motivation. However, the moderating effects of country-level factors have to be investigated, given the contextual impacts on individual needs, attitudes, and behavior. Although social conditions provide the most common interpretation for nation-level variance in individual work behaviors [ 57 ], few cross-national studies examine social conditions and individual work behaviors [ 56 ]. Hence, this paper investigates the moderating effects, including religious affiliation, political participation, humane orientation, and in-group collectivism, on the psychological needs-work motivation association.

A notable theory to explain the importance of contextual factors in work motivation that is customarily linked with SDT is the concept of prosocial motivation. Prosocial motivation suggests that individuals have the desire to expend efforts in safeguarding and promoting others’ well-being [ 58 , 59 ]. It is proposed that prosocial motivation strengthens endurance, performance, and productivity, as well as generates creativity that encourages individuals to develop valuable and novel ideas [ 21 , 60 ]. Prosocial motivation is found to interact with intrinsic motivation in influencing positive work outcomes [ 21 , 61 ]. However, there are few studies examining the effects of prosocial motivation on work motivation [ 62 ].

Utilizing the concept of prosocial motivation and examining it on a country-level, this paper suggests that prosocial factors promote basic psychological needs satisfaction that reinforces motivational processes at work. Therefore, prosocial behaviors and values may enhance the positive impact of individuals’ basic psychological needs, including competence, autonomy, and social relatedness, on work motivation.

2.3. Moderating Effects

2.3.1. religious affiliation.

Religions manifest values that are usually employed as grounds to investigate what is right and wrong [ 63 ]. Religious affiliation is considered prosocial because it satisfies the need for belongingness and upholds collective well-being through gatherings to worship, seek assistance, and offer comfort within religious communities. Hence, religious affiliation promotes the satisfaction of individuals’ psychological needs, which directs motivation at work and life in general. Research (e.g., [ 64 ]) has argued that religious affiliation is an essential motivational component given its impact on psychological processes. The study of Simon and Primavera (1972) [ 65 ] investigated the relationship between religious affiliation and work motivation. To humans characterized by competence, autonomy, and social relatedness, attachment to religious principles increases their motivation to accomplish organizational goals. Religious membership will increase the influence of psychological needs on work motivation. The tendency of individuals affiliated with any religion to be demotivated is lower compared to those who are not. Individuals with religious affiliations also tend to work harder as the virtue of hard work is aligned with religious principles. Accordingly, religious affiliation may enhance the positive association between individuals’ psychological needs and work motivation.

2.3.2. Political Participation

Political participation, indicated by people’s voting habits, plays a crucial role in ensuring citizens’ well-being and security [ 66 ]. Political participation encourages shared beliefs and collective goals among individuals [ 67 ]. The communication and interaction among people help them grasp the government’s developmental strategies, motivating them to work harder. Political participation is a collective pursuit that makes societal members feel more confident, socially related, and motivated at work to achieve communal targets. Increased political participation reinforces effective public policy to enhance its members’ welfare, congruent with the perspectives of prosocial motivation. The prosocial values and behaviors derived from political participation satisfy human needs and interact positively with intrinsic motivation. Therefore, political participation may strengthen the positive influence of individuals’ competence, autonomy, and social relatedness on work motivation. Conversely, poor political participation is perceived as a separation from the society that may lead to demotivation. In a society with poor political participation, an individualistic mentality is encouraged, thereby decreasing the desire to pursue cooperative endeavors.

2.3.3. Humane Orientation

GLOBE characterizes humane orientation as “the degree to which an organization or society encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others” [ 68 ]. Research (e.g., [ 69 , 70 ]) has argued that a high humane orientation encourages members to develop a strong sense of belonging, commit to fair treatment, and manifest benevolence. The desire to help others or enhance others’ well-being indicates prosocial values and behaviors [ 71 , 72 ]. Since humane orientation is correlated with philanthropy and promotes good relations, this cultural value may enhance work motivation. Fairness, which is derived from a humane-oriented society, is one of the most vital influences on work motivation [ 1 ]. Moreover, altruism, promoted by humane-oriented societies, encourages individuals to sacrifice individual interests for shared benefits. Altruism then encourages attachment to others’ welfare and increases resources needed for prosocial behaviors such as work [ 73 , 74 ]. Members of humane-oriented countries view work in a positive light—it is an opportunity for them to perform altruistic behaviors and engage in collective actions. Therefore, people are more likely to work harder for common interests in humane-oriented societies. In such conditions, individuals with competence, autonomy, and social relatedness will be more motivated to work. By contrast, a less humane-oriented society gives prominence to material wealth and personal enjoyment [ 75 ]. Although this may be perceived as a positive influence on the association between psychological needs and work motivation, such an individualistic mindset works against the prosocial factors that further motivate individuals.

2.3.4. In-Group Collectivism

House et al. (2004) [ 68 ] defined in-group collectivism as “the degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families”. Collectivistic cultures indicate the need for individuals to rely on group membership for identification [ 76 ]. High collectivism enhances equity, solidarity, loyalty, and encouragement [ 77 , 78 ]. Humans living in a collectivist culture are interdependent and recognize their responsibilities towards each other [ 79 ]. In-group collectivism transfers the concepts of social engagement, interdependence with others, and care for the group over the self (e.g., [ 79 , 80 , 81 ], thereby motivating individuals to work harder for the common interests. Oyserman et al. (2002) [ 82 ] have further argued that individualistic values encourage an independent personality, whereas collectivistic values form an interdependent one. Therefore, in-group collectivism is a prosocial value that emphasizes the importance of reciprocal relationships and encourages people to work harder to benefit the group. By contrast, low collectivism promotes individual interests and personal well-being while neglecting the value of having strong relations with others [ 70 ]. Considering that in-group collectivism promotes individuals’ prosocial behaviors of individuals, people who are competent, autonomous, and socially related to collective societies are less likely to be demotivated at the workplace. Consequently, in-group collectivism may intensify the positive influence of individuals’ competence, autonomy, and social relatedness on their work motivation.

(a–d): The positive relationship between individuals’ competence and their work motivation is enhanced as religious affiliation (a), political participation (b), humane orientation (c), and in-group collectivism (d) increase.

(a–d): The positive relationship between individuals’ autonomy and their work motivation is enhanced as religious affiliation (a), political participation (b), humane orientation (c), and in-group collectivism (d) increase.

(a–d): The positive relationship between individuals’ social relatedness and their work motivation is enhanced as religious affiliation (a), political participation (b), humane orientation (c), and in-group collectivism (d) increase.

3.1. Sample

The data came from the seventh wave (2017–2021) of the World Values Survey (WVS) [ 83 ], which examines humans’ beliefs and values. This survey is performed every five years to explore changes in people’s values and perceptions. Face-to-face interviews, or phone interviews for remote areas, were conducted by local organizations. Almost 90 percent of the world’s population is represented in the WVS. At least 1000 individuals were selected as respondents to exhibit each nation’s population. Further information regarding the WVS can be reached at the WVS website ( http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org , accessed on 14 October 2021).

The samples of this study were based on the availability of national-level data for the moderators and individual-level data for the measures of independent and dependent variables. Respondents without answers on the individual measures and corresponding country-level data were excluded from the analysis. The final data included 32,614 respondents in 25 countries aged 18 and above. The 25 countries included Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Ecuador, Egypt, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, Russia, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, and the USA.

3.2. Dependent Variable

Consistent with previous researchers (e.g., [ 84 ]), the authors used four items to gauge individual work motivation, namely “Indicate how important work is in your life”, “People who do not work turn lazy”, “Work is a duty towards society”, and “Work should always come first, even if it means less spare”. The first item was measured on a scale from 1 to 4, in which lower scores indicate a higher level of work importance. The other three items were gauged on a scale from 1 to 5 (1 indicating strongly agree and 5 indicating strongly disagree). The scores for each item were reverse coded, and the mean scores were computed so that higher scores indicate greater work motivation.

3.3. Independent Variables

The independent variables of this study include individuals’ competence, autonomy, and social relatedness. First, people’s competence was measured by the item “What is the highest educational level that you attained” on a scale from 0 to 8, in which higher scores indicate a higher level of educational attainment. The authors used the item to gauge individual competence, as a capacity for learning is highlighted in the examination of competence [ 39 ]. Second, a scale from 1 to 10 was utilized to measure the item “How much freedom of choice and control”, which represented individual autonomy (1 indicating no choice at all and 10 indicating a great deal of choice). The authors used the item to gauge people’s autonomy as this item indicates the degree to which individual can make their own decisions. Finally, the individual’s social relatedness was gauged by twelve items, representing twelve types of organizations where individuals are active/inactive members or do not belong. The twelve items were measured on a scale from 0 to 2 (0 indicating do not belong, 1 indicating inactive member, and 2 indicating active member). The mean score of the twelve items represents the individual’s social relatedness. The membership in organizations represents social relatedness, as this indicates the reciprocal relationship between the individual and the organization through their mutual rights, responsibilities, and obligations towards each other [ 85 ].

3.4. Moderators

The four country-level moderators in this study were religious affiliation, political participation, humane orientation, and in-group collectivism. Similar to prior research (e.g., [ 86 ]), the authors used the percentage of the country’s population with religious affiliation obtained from Pew Research Center 2015 [ 87 ]. Secondly, the index of voter turnout collected from the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance [ 88 ] was utilized to gauge political participation. Voting habits are an indicator of an individual’s presence in their country’s life, and a nation with a high index of voter turnout illustrates its substantial degree of political participation [ 89 ]. Finally, two cultural values, including humane orientation and in-group collectivism, were obtained from the GLOBE study [ 68 ]. The authors used scores on cultural practices as the moderators for this study because they indicate the actual behaviors as “the way things are done in this culture” [ 68 ].

3.5. Control Variables

Several individual-level and country-level elements related to the dependent variable were considered control variables. The effects of gender, marital status, age, and income level were accounted for, as these four variables are basic personal factors that may impact individual’s motivation [ 90 ]. Gender (1 indicating male and 0 indicating female) and marital status (1 indicating married and 0 indicating other status) were dummy coded. Moreover, age was measured in years, while income level was gauged using a scale from 1 representing the lowest group to 10 representing the highest group. Along with the above individual-level controls, education and family strength were treated as country-level control variables. Education and family are primary institutions that shape individuals’ motivation [ 91 , 92 ]. Similar to prior researchers (e.g., [ 93 ]), education was computed as two-thirds of the adult literacy rate attained from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2020 [ 94 ] and one-third of the mean years of schooling obtained from the Human Development Report 2020 [ 95 ]. This score is commonly approved as representing access to education in a country [ 42 ]. Regarding family strength, the score was quantified by the ratio of divorces to marriages per 1000 members of the population consistent with previous researchers (e.g., [ 93 ]). The data was obtained from the United Nations Demographic Yearbook [ 96 ].

3.6. Measurement and Analysis

To perform the descriptive statistics, cross-level correlations, scale reliability, confirmatory factor analysis, convergent validity, and discriminant validity, the authors utilized SPSS software.

The framework of this study considers independent variables, dependent variables, and moderators at different levels. Thus, the authors used a hierarchical linear model (HLM) [ 97 ] to test the hypotheses. HLM was defined as a “complex form of ordinary least squares (OLS) regression that is used to analyze variance in the outcome variables when the predictor variables are at varying hierarchical levels” [ 98 ]. This technique evaluates the impacts of higher-level outcomes on lower-level ones while preserving an appropriate degree of analysis [ 99 ]. HLM has been employed in several cross-level studies (e.g., [ 100 , 101 ]).

Table 2 presents a matrix of correlations and sample statistics from the individual-level to country-level variables. Table 3 and Table 4 report convergent and discriminant validity test results, respectively. Finally, Table 5 illustrates results for hypotheses testing using HLM. Three models are presented in the table: those of individual-level main effects and control variables (Model 1), those of country-level main effects (Model 2), and country-level moderating effects (Model 3).

Descriptive statistics, cross-level correlations and scale reliability a,b,c .

a   n = 32,614 level 1; n = 25, level 2. b * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01. c The reliability found in the parentheses is expressed as Cronbach’s alpha for scales with ≥four items.

Convergent validity.

Discriminant validity—Fornell and Larcker’s criterion.

* p < 0.05.

HLM results: (The DV is work motivation) a,b .

a , n = 32,614 level 1; n = 25, level 2. b , †, p < 0.10, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

For the confirmatory factor analysis, previous research (e.g., [ 102 , 103 , 104 ]) suggested that analysis of each variable requires at least three items. Factor analysis using statistical software will provide imprecise results if there are fewer than three items per variable [ 105 ]. Therefore, the authors only performed Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) for social relatedness and work motivation.

To assess the measurement, convergent and discriminant validity were tested. Composite Reliability (CR) and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) were performed to illustrate convergent validity. The study of Hair et al. (2019) [ 106 ] suggested that CR is required to be above a threshold of 0.7. On the other hand, the AVE value should be higher than a threshold of 0.5 [ 107 ]. As shown in Table 3 , CR is acceptable while AVE is slightly lower than a threshold of 0.5. Despite the limitation of AVE, the acceptable result of the discriminant validity is achieved. The discriminant validity was tested using Fornell and Larcker (1981)’s criterion [ 107 ]. This proposes that the square root of the AVE of any latent variable should be higher than its correlation with any other construct. The result of the discriminant validity test indicates that all the two latent constructs have a square root of AVE higher than its correlation with the other construct, as presented in Table 4 .

The authors argued that individuals’ competence (H1), autonomy (H2), and social relatedness (H3) positively relate to their work motivation. However, the findings only supported H2 (β2 = 0.036, p < 0.001) and H3 (β3 = 0.042, p < 0.001). In contrast, the findings presented that H1 was also significant, but in the opposite direction compared with our original prediction. The result suggests that individuals’ competence negatively relates to their work motivation.

In Hypotheses 4a–d, we proposed that higher levels of religious affiliation (4a), political participation (4b), humane orientation (4c), and in-group collectivism (4d) strengthen the relationship described in H1. However, the results only demonstrated support for the two hypotheses, H4c (γ13 = 0.032, p < 0.001) and H4d (γ14 = 0.042, p < 0.001). In contrast, the findings presented that H4a was also significant, but opposite our initial prediction. This different result proposes that a higher level of religious affiliation weakens the association between individuals’ competence and work motivation.

In Hypotheses 5a–d, the authors argued that the higher levels of religious affiliation (5a), political participation (5b), humane orientation (5c), and in-group collectivism (5d) enhance the positive relationship between individuals’ autonomy and their work motivation. However, the results only supported the two hypotheses H5b (γ22 = 0.012, p < 0.05) and H5c (γ23 = 0.012, p < 0.1), while H5a and H5d were not significant.

In Hypotheses 6a–d, the authors argued that the higher levels of religious affiliation (6a), political participation (6b), humane orientation (6c), and in-group collectivism (6d) enhance the positive relationship between individuals’ social relatedness and their work motivation. However, the results only supported H6c (γ33 = 0.019, p < 0.01). In contrast, the findings indicated that H6d was also significant, but in the opposite direction compared to our initial hypothesis. The different result suggests that higher in-group collectivism weakens the positive association between individuals’ social relatedness and work motivation. Figure 1 , Figure 2 , Figure 3 , Figure 4 and Figure 5 represent the significant moderators of the associations examined.

The association between competence and work motivation at different levels of humane orientation.

The association between competence and work motivation at different levels of in-group collectivism.

The association between autonomy and work motivation at different levels of political participation.

The association between autonomy and work motivation at different levels of humane orientation.

The association between social relatedness and work motivation at different levels of humane orientation.

Regarding the statistical results of the control variables, gender, marital status, and age consistently indicated significant positive relationships with work motivation across three models. On the other hand, family strength indicated a significant negative association to work motivation only in Model 1.

5. Discussion

The study’s objective was to examine the influence of individuals’ competence, autonomy, and social relatedness on their work motivation, as well as the impact of country-level moderators, including religious affiliation, political participation, humane orientation, and in-group collectivism on their relationships. Seven primary findings are crucial in this research. First, people’s autonomy and social relatedness positively relate to their work motivation. This result is in line with the findings of prior researchers (e.g., [ 45 , 52 ]), postulating that humans’ autonomy and social relatedness breeds work motivation. The study of Theurer et al. (2018) [ 108 ] argued that, among motivational elements, autonomy had been found to greatly predict positive work motivation. When people feel they have enough control over their activities, they are more confident and motivated to work. Along with autonomy, humans’ social relatedness promotes communal benefits, thereby motivating people to work harder for their organization. Second, the association between individual competence and work motivation is moderated by cultural values, including humane orientation and in-group collectivism. The findings are consistent with the viewpoints of prior researchers (e.g., [ 69 , 70 , 77 , 78 ]), namely that a society with higher levels of humane orientation and in-group collectivism strengthens altruism, solidarity, loyalty, and the encouragement of individuals, which results in work motivation. Consequently, there will be an increase in the differences in individuals’ competence and work motivation if they live in a society with greater humane orientation and in-group collectivism. Third, political participation and humane orientation moderate the relationship between individual autonomy and work motivation. These results are in line with the investigations of prior researchers (e.g., [18,45), which found that social circumstances and cultural practices promote people’s motivation. Accordingly, the differences in individuals’ autonomy based on their work motivation will be enhanced if they belong to nations with higher political participation and humane orientation. Fourth, the association between social relatedness and work motivation is moderated by humane orientation. Accordingly, in a humane-oriented society, the differences in individuals’ social relatedness based on their work motivation will be strengthened.

The remaining findings were contrary to the original propositions. Pinder (2014) [ 20 ] argued that it is possible to find that contextual practices can influence variables at the individual level in the opposite prediction in motivation research. Fifth, individuals’ competence negatively influences their work motivation. This finding proposes that more competent individuals are less motivated at work. One possible interpretation of this opposite result is that, when the majority of the organization members recognize individuals’ competence, these individuals may perceive that it is not necessary to devote most of their time and energy to work anymore. These individuals may believe that no matter how unwillingly they perform, they are still competent enough because of their prior achievements. Additionally, competent individuals recognize that they have already sacrificed their enjoyment of life for their previous successes; therefore, they tend to offset this by investing their valuable time in other aspects. This is consistent with other researchers’ investigations (e.g., [ 109 ]), which found that low-skilled individuals are more often compelled to engage in regular work activities and are more easily motivated than others. By contrast, highly competent individuals tend to be motivated by challenging tasks and improving themselves through further education. Sixth, the relationship between competence and work motivation is negatively moderated by religious affiliation. This finding suggests that religious affiliation weakens the association between individuals’ competence and work motivation. One possible explanation for this finding is that strong religious beliefs are the foundation for virtuous living [ 110 ]. Individuals with religious affiliation usually employ religious principles to guide their behavior, regardless of their competence. In other words, both competent and incompetent individuals tend to be more motivated at the workplace if they are affiliated with any religion, thereby diminishing the influence of competence in work motivation. Seventh, the relationship between social relatedness and work motivation is negatively moderated by in-group collectivism. This result proposes that a higher degree of in-group collectivism weakens the association between individuals’ social relatedness and work motivation. One possible explanation for this is that, under an in-group collective society, people put more weight on mutual relationships and encourage acts that may build up the solidarity of groups. Since in-group collectivism is viewed as a social attachment in which people emphasize the group over the self (e.g., [ 79 , 80 , 81 ]), individuals are fairly conscious of their responsibility to the group regardless of their social relatedness. Both socially related and unrelated individuals belonging to in-group collective cultures tend to work harder for common goals. Accordingly, the influence of individuals’ social relatedness on their work motivation is reduced.

6. Limitations and Future Research

Despite its significant contributions, this study has its limitations. The use of secondary data represents the fact that the data collection process was beyond the authors’ control. However, the collection of cross-national data is time-consuming and costly. The authors used the available data but strove for the efficient use of multilevel data. The secondary data also limited the measurement of individual-level factors based on the available data. Moreover, it is quite complex to gauge an individual’s work motivation appropriately, since personal work motivation may not be one-dimensional. Nevertheless, the authors made efforts to employ the measurements utilized by prior research. Moreover, it is complicated to measure social factors such as political participation. There are challenges in investigating social contexts due to the absence of direct measurements [ 111 ]. This compels the authors to identify substitute measurements for this study. Finally, this study covered 25 samples from 25 countries with different characteristics. Despite the attempt of this study to include the most relevant social conditions in the framework, the influence of other national differences and cultural sensitivities were not considered.

This paper directs further research considering that several frameworks and approaches should be employed to better examine motivation [ 112 ]. First, as some of the results were opposite to the original propositions based on the theoretical foundations employed, combining different concepts and approaches is necessary to enhance perspectives of psychological needs and social issues. For instance, the relationship between competence and work motivation can be further investigated by employing other theories to understand their association better. Similarly, the moderating effects of social contexts such as religious affiliation and in-group collectivism should be further examined to obtain a more in-depth comprehension of the roles of contextual circumstances and cultural values in individual-level relationships. Additionally, self-determination theory and the concept of prosocial motivation may be used to explore motivation towards specific behavior in organizations, such as organizational citizenship and proactive behaviors. Organizational context, such as rewards, training, and culture, can be considered as part of the framework to enhance the conception of work motivation.

7. Conclusions

This study has utilized a multilevel framework to examine the influence of psychological needs and social context on work motivation. Through this research, a deeper understanding of the roles of competence, autonomy, and social relatedness, as well as social situations and cultural values on work motivation, is achieved. The contrary findings call for integrating other concepts and approaches towards a more comprehensive knowledge of work motivation.

Along with the theoretical contribution, the study’s findings offer practical implications. The satisfaction of psychological needs promotes self-motivation, which creates positive outcomes. Hence, organizations can provide programs and activities to promote employees’ autonomy and social relatedness as this will enhance their work motivation. Employee empowerment can be advocated by encouraging them to make their own decisions at the workplace, providing constructive criticisms rather than instilling the fear of failure. Additionally, managers should encourage solidarity, support, and mutual care among employees. Putting more weight on employees’ fulfillment of needs will further increase employees’ motivation, thereby diminishing costs related to stress or turnover [ 50 ]. To establish a novel mechanism towards promoting work motivation in the entire nation, the government should pay attention to the political structure and conditions that encourage citizens’ participation. Additionally, a culture of humane orientation should be promoted in the workplace and society so that solidarity, kind assistance, and altruism among communities as well as among individuals can be strengthened. For instance, teamwork should be encouraged for employees to help each other overcome difficulties at the workplace or share responsibilities with their colleagues. This will motivate people to work harder for collective goals, contributing to the development of organizations.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, T.T.D.V. and K.V.T.; data collection, T.T.D.V.; methodology, T.T.D.V. and K.V.T.; formal analysis, T.T.D.V. and K.V.T.; resources, K.V.T. and C.-W.C.; writing-original draft, T.T.D.V. and K.V.T.; writing-review, editing & proofreading, T.T.D.V., K.V.T. and C.-W.C.; visualization, K.V.T.; supervision, K.V.T. and C.-W.C.; project administration, K.V.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This paper does not receive funding from any individuals or organizations.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Employee Motivation in Contemporary Academic Literature: A Narrative Literature Review

• Articles in this Issue

Published Online : May 11, 2024

Page range: 185 - 201, received : sep 01, 2023, accepted : feb 21, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.2478/orga-2024-0013, keywords elton mayo , employee motivation , motivation factor , motivation theory, © 2024 petra jarkovská et al., published by sciendo, this work is licensed under the creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivatives 4.0 international license..

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New work: New motivation? A comprehensive literature review on the impact of workplace technologies

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• Published: 04 November 2020
• Volume 72 , pages 59–86, ( 2022 )

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• Yvonne Schmid M.Sc. (hons)   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7531-7796 1 &
• Michael Dowling 1  

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The role of work and the characteristics of the workplace have changed greatly in recent decades. Today, new technologies enable an almost seamless interaction between machines and humans and allow teams in different countries and time zones to collaborate effectively. In this paper, we focus on the question of how job motivation is affected by technologies in the changing workplace. First, we review the state of research on job motivation and examine challenges in light of current technology trends and predicted developments for the workplace of the future. Job motivation is a well-documented construct connected to several company-relevant performance outcomes. However, our comprehensive literature review reveals a fragmented picture, with several disciplines addressing the topic from various points of view. We identify the four following schools of thought on workplace technologies and motivation: Technology as 1. background music, 2. hygiene factor, 3. motivator, and 4. influencer of mediators. While some scholars neglect technology in their considerations, others describe complex frameworks. This lack of unity reveals a further need for research. We suggest further research to develop holistic frameworks including moderators and to collect empirical data on the complex interactions between technology and job motivation.

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1 Introduction

New technologies are emerging at an ever-accelerating pace. Not only are voice-recognition systems, household robots, or new digital services, e.g., Amazon’s Alexa, having an impact on our private lives, but work environments are also changing significantly (Brynjolfsson and McAfee 2016 ; Cascio and Montealegre 2016 ; Leopold et al. 2016 ; Oldham and Hackman 2010 ). Technologies in the workplace, such as mobile devices, the Internet of Things, or AI-based applications, shape modern work processes and spaces.

Adopting new technologies and designing workplaces requires high investments and educated managerial decisions to integrate them into the companies’ strategies (Chan et al. 2007 ; Kampschroer and Heerwagen 2005 ; Schmid 2020 ; Vischer 2007 ). Meanwhile, labor shortages and other challenges in recruiting and retention management are affecting human resources (HR) and strategic management processes (Cascio and Montealegre 2016 ). The much sought-after high skilled workers demand modern and appropriate resources to work with. According to the Future Workforce Study 2016, “[n]early half of American Millennials (42%) say they’d likely quit a job if workplace tech didn’t meet their standards” (Dell Technologies and Intel 2016 ). As a result, it is necessary to understand the individual needs and perceptions to implement workplace technologies in an effective and strategic manner (Parker and Ohly 2008 ). These challenges raise the question of how technology in the workplace affects employees on an individual level.

Prior research focuses mainly on how workplace technology influences well-being, productivity, comfort, satisfaction, and territoriality and identity/belonging (Kim 2014 ; Vischer 2008 ). Most of these concepts are linked to employee motivation (Miller et al. 2001 ). The scientific discussion is dominated by works that focus on the changes in work content caused by technological change that lead to motivating aspects in the workplace. Regarding technology itself, technology demotivating employees is oftentimes a popular notion. However, according to an Eventboard survey among 1000 professionals, 38% claim they are motivated by innovative tech tools (Eventboard.io 2016 ).

Motivation is a widely accepted construct that leads to, among other things, better performance, lower fluctuation, lower accident rates (Hackman and Oldham 1976 ; Kanfer and Ackerman 2004 ; Maxwell 2008 ; Seeck and Diehl 2016 ), and job satisfaction (Taylor and Westover 2011 ). Brown ( 2012 ) even declares that “[m]otivation is one of the most critical elements within any kind of workplace.” Thus, employee motivation becomes a crucial strategic asset from a managerial point of view. With this aspect in mind, it might be useful to rephrase our initial question as:

How does workplace technology affect employee motivation?

There are many publications with practical recommendations on how to successfully design workplaces and integrate upcoming technology to keep employees motivated and productive (Barrett 2015 ; Caramela 2018 ; Hartog et al. 2017 ; Prince 2017 ). As most of these publications are merely based on anecdotal insights and the scientific field is fragmented, rigorous academic research is needed (Karanika-Murray and Michaelides 2015 ; Oldham and Hackman 2010 ; Parker 2014 ).

In this paper, we investigate existing research and assess whether current models and theories are suitable for explaining how workplace technologies influence employee motivation. This paper departs from prior studies by focusing on motivational theories and studies from the point of view of changing workspaces in the digital era in a structured and comprehensive manner.

In the following sections, we will describe the theoretical background of the topics at hand before introducing our approach based on the Comprehensive Literature Review as proposed by Onwuegbuzie and Frels ( 2016 ). After analyzing these results in depth, we will cluster them into the four schools of thought which are characterized by the nature of the technological influence on motivation: Technology as 1. background music, 2. hygiene factor, 3. motivator, and 4. influencer of mediators. We will then present implications for research and management and our conclusion.

2 Theoretical background

2.1 workplace technology.

There is no uniform understanding in the literature of what terms denote the technologies used in the workplace. For this reason, we coin the term workplace technologies to provide a common understanding for the following literature review. “Technology is a system-level variable or cluster of variables, which can be conceptualized as the techniques used by an organization or its subunits to transform inputs into outputs.” (Billings et al. 1977 : 319) Following this definition, technology in the context of organizations focuses on the value creation process in general. While this is also the case for workplace technologies, these can be divided into two categories. On the one hand, the “technical tools [are] needed to get work done, such as workstations, computers, or mobile devices.” (Schmid 2020 ) On the other hand, technologies incorporated in workplace design are a necessary situational aspect to support value creation, such as office design, room layout, or furniture. Accordingly, we define workplace technologies as the technologies that surround the employee and are needed to get the job done . Thus, we call the act of implementing such technologies and therefore shaping the physical work environment ‘workplace design’. While these definitions provide a good starting point to assess the topic, we will evaluate the terms used in the literature more closely in our analysis in Sect. 4.2 .

2.2 Employee motivation

Diefendorff and Chandler ( 2011 ) provide a comprehensive yet concise understanding of motivation, which we also base this work on: “ Motivation is often described as an unobservable force that directs, energizes, and sustains behavior over time and across changing circumstances.” While other authors provide different definitions, they all have in common that motivation is a construct or invisible driver, which induces behavior. Research in motivation and thus the origin of behavior in the workplace already began a century ago with the conception of humans contradicting the technocentric worldview that had been predominant at the beginning of the twentieth century (Komlosy 2014 ). One of the most cited research projects on workers from that time is the Hawthorne Studies (Landsberger 1968 ; Mayo 1949 ). These experiments observed how changes in the working conditions influence worker productivity. Researchers interpreted the results as mechanisms inherent in the individual and group structures affecting employee motivation.

These insights led others to shift the focus of their research from the physical aspects to the emergence of a more person-centered view on motivation in the following decades (Kim 2014 ; Veitch 2018 ). Groundbreaking theories like Maslow’s hierarchy of needs or Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory as well as various process theories focusing on the cognitive mechanisms leading to behavior emerged (Herzberg et al. 2017/1959 ; Maslow and Stephens 2000 ).

Herzberg’s Dual-Factor Theory is one of the most frequently cited theories in management research. Using the critical incidents method, he identified context factors as a hygiene factor, which leads to dissatisfaction when absent or unfavorably designed. However, sufficient workplace technology or other context factors may not lead to motivation (Herzberg et al. 2017/1959 ). While still one of the major theories taking external factors and employee motivation into account, it is often criticized for not being replicable with other approaches. Scholars suspect a methodological artefact (Hackman and Oldham 1976 ). However, the notion of adequate context factors merely preventing demotivation led to another direction for research.

In the following years, many researchers examined the impact of work conditions on health and how the work environment can influence humans negatively. For example, the Job-Demand-Control-Model and its successor, the Job-Demands-Resources-Model , explain the development of exhaustion based on an unfavorable working environment (=job demand) (Demerouti and Bakker 2011 ; Veitch 2018 ). Depending on the level of demands or resources available, a job can be perceived as straining/stressful or motivating (Karasek 1979 ; Parker et al. 2017a ). Physical and technological resources are part of this approach, yet the allocation explains negative results like stress rather than motivational aspects (Demerouti and Bakker 2011 ).

To consider individual differences in motivation and work design perceptions, Hackman and Oldham developed the Job Characteristics Model (JCM) based on a study with the Job Diagnostics Survey. Technology is not a central part of the model (Hackman and Oldham 1976 ).

The Self-Determination Theory (SDT) , which was developed a decade after the identification of the Job Characteristics, focuses on the person and conceptualizes intrinsic motivation achieved by addressing the needs autonomy, relatedness, and competence (Deci and Ryan 1985 ; van den Broeck et al. 2016 ). Prior content theories have already focused on needs or need categories. The underlying assumption in all cases is that a person is motivated to show a certain behavior in pursuit of satisfying these needs (Maslow and Stephens 2000 ).

Yet another perspective on the topic highlights the emotional component of feeling motivated. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi coined the term “ flow ” in 1990 to describe a mental state in which a person is fully focused on a task. Flow occurs depending on individual readiness, tasks, and external circumstances (Csikszentmihalyi 2010 ).

Another wave of research that occurred in the 1990s and 2000s attempted to integrate existing research and create a broader perspective as each of the motivation theories and models focuses on a different aspect to study the concept of motivation (Diefendorff and Chandler 2011 ; Humphrey et al. 2007 ; Parker et al. 2017a ). In this period, empirical data provided new insights—particularly on the properties of extrinsic incentives. The results indicate ambiguous effects of material rewards on intrinsic motivation in so-called interesting or creative tasks (Amabile et al. 1986 ; Becker and Steele 1995 ; Deci et al. 1999 ; Heckhausen and Heckhausen 2010 ). For innovative behavior in particular, this connection plays a critical role in improving work results (Seeck and Diehl 2016 ).

3 Literature review

Due to the constant growth in publications in this research domain during the past decades, the existing literature is plentiful. To cope with the amount of research and achieve a comprehensive overview, we chose a structured approach. In response to calls for methodological rigor in management literature reviews (Bouncken et al. 2015 ; Fisch and Block 2018 ; Tranfield et al. 2003 ), we provide a structured review of motivation research publications and how they consider workplace technologies. Onwuegbuzie and Frels ( 2016 ) suggest that the Comprehensive Literature Review offers the opportunity to assess large volumes of publications in a transparent manner. To identify the key publications on the topic, we followed the four steps as outlined below. Figure  1 presents an overview of the details of each step.

Search strings and filtering methods produced 67 results for a comprehensive literature review (own illustration)

1. Search: To capture a broad range of results, we placed no prior restrictions on the definition of motivation or workplace-related influences. We chose general search terms accordingly. Search strings in different scientific databases with combinations of search terms related to the topic provided more than 200,000 results.

2. Filter: We filtered these results by assessing a representative number of abstracts (Krejcie and Morgan 1970 , as cited in Onwuegbuzie and Frels 2016 )—resulting in 1454 abstracts. Here, we relied on the databases’ results sorted by relevance.

3. Selection: Depending on the search engine, we found hundreds of results unrelated to the initial question. Many of these publications used the term “motivation” to describe the relevance of the topic. Others were closer to the topic at hand, yet unfit for shedding light on the current question. A recurring notion, for example, is the use of “workspace” to describe the radius of a robot arm. Other publications, some of which were works on the Technology Acceptance Model and its variations, referred to the mechanisms of how people can be motivated to use certain technologies at work. As the guiding criterion in this step was to select publications that cover aspects of employee motivation as defined above, we excluded those search results, which resulted in 205 useful publications.

4. Evaluation: We evaluated the remaining publications in depth to find out whether they addressed motivational theory in general and, specifically, the influence of workplace technology as defined above. During this assessment, we find that that a large part of motivation research has only marginally considered workplace technologies in their research. The authors mention ‘workplace attributes’ (Karanika-Murray and Michaelides 2015 ; Taylor and Westover 2011 ), ‘workplaces’ (Wong et al. 2008 ) or other situational aspects including technological elements. However, workplace technology is not at the center of attention but can instead be perceived as “background music” within these approaches. Thus, we excluded those publications. We also assessed reference lists to add further relevant publications (backward snowballing). Finally, we identified 67 publications dealing with job motivation and workplace technologies.

4 Analysis of the literature sample

In this section, we will analyze the 67 publications resulting from the above-mentioned procedure. To do so, we use an integrative approach including a systematic descriptive analysis to identify trends and gaps in this research area. Following a descriptive analysis on origin, publication date, and quality of the results, we will assess the contents in detail by mapping the perspectives on motivation and the theories applied as well as the different external factors. Subsequently, different perceptions of the relationship between workplace technologies and motivation are reviewed.

4.1 Descriptive analysis of the sample

From the 67 publications, the earliest works are from Denise M. Rousseau and Oldham and Brass applying the ‘Job Characteristics Model’ by Hackman/Oldham from the 1970s. Footnote 1 While office automation was a popular topic in the 1980s, works by Teresa M. Amabile on creativity and intrinsic motivation had an undeniable effect on motivation research in the 1990s. Most of the results though are from the 2000s and later, where the diversity of disciplines and origin increased.

Over time, the authors’ country of origin shifted away from the United States. Overall, the focus still lies on Northern America, with more than half of the authors working there, but widens to include other regions such as Europe, Southeast Asia, and Australia—particularly after 2010 (see Fig.  2 ). These results reflect the growing interest in motivating workplace design in developed countries.

First Authors’ origin over time shows rising numbers of non-US-based publications ( n  = 67)

Most publications come from rather traditional fields like psychology and (HR) management as well as from more recent disciplines like technology and facility management. Depending on the field, the perspective on the topic differs. While psychological and pedagogic publications have a stronger focus on the cognitive and affective processes, authors with a technological background tend to initially build on motivation theories but then focus on technological characteristics and details (Liu et al. 2018 ; Perryer et al. 2016 ).

Since we considered different databases, about one quarter of the results are not scientific journal articles, but books (reference books, textbooks, anthologies) or grey literature such as reports or comments. To determine the quality of the scientific articles, we consulted the most recent editions of the VHB Jourqual published by the German Association of Business Professors, the AJG from the British Chartered Association of Business Schools, and the JCR Impact Factor provided by Web of Science. The type and quality of the relevant results are listed in Table  1 .

To capture the diversity of the sources, we included all quality levels in our analysis; however, we consider the kind of publications when interpreting the results in the discussion.

The majority of publications (almost half of them) present a literature review, none of them using a structured approach. Eleven authors develop a new theory or framework, while others review the current state of research with a comprehensive overview of the situation. Especially worth mentioning is “Work Design Influences: A Synthesis of Multi-Level Factors that Affect the Design of Work” by Parker et al. ( 2017b ), as the collection and number of the sources is impressive.

Another third of the results contains quantitative analyses—with questionnaires as the primary method of choice. Depending on the underlying theory, the Job Diagnostics Survey (JDS), Work Preference Inventory (WPI), Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ), or a combination of items from these and other questionnaires were used. Other data collection methods include experiments or diary surveys; the critical incidents-method is a specific approach that is mostly used when reproducing data based on Herzberg’s Two Factor Model (Knight and Westbrook 2015 ). Few authors opted for a qualitative or mixed approach including thematic analyses of interviews and diary entries. Table  2 provides an overview.

Having described the quantity and structure of our 67 search results, we turn to the content of the publications in the following sections. To ensure a systematic process, we first outline the different types of technologies influencing job motivation mentioned in the literature. We will then show how the researchers conceptualized the relationship between those influences and job motivation.

4.2 Types of workplace technologies

Different authors provide different understandings of the influencing technologies—the terms used vary greatly. Table  3 provides an overview of these terms.

Many authors work with rather general terms to include physical environmental aspects. Expressions like situation (Heckhausen and Heckhausen 2010 ), job/work context (Herzberg et al. 2017/1959 ; Humphrey et al. 2007 ), physical environment (Demerouti and Bakker 2011 ; Mitchell 1997 ; Mitchell and Daniels 2003 ), physical working conditions (Knight and Westbrook 2015 ; Osteraker 1999 ; Rožman et al. 2017 ), work/office environment (Amdan et al. 2016 ; Barford and Hester 2011 ; Brenner 1999 ), or workplace design (Hancock 2009 ) are used. These terms represent a rather general understanding including—but not focusing on—workplace technologies.

Other authors narrow down their understanding: Technology (Amabile 1993 ; Methot and Phillips-Grant 1998 ; Morgeson and Campion 2003 ; Parker and Ohly 2008 ), technological factors (Das 1999 ; Parker et al. 2017b ), or technological environment (Jong 1989 ) are the terms used. Again, these publications do not explain their meaning any further or provide specific classification. This lack of definition can be vexing; however, as most of these publications are reviews or theory-building papers, there is no imminent need for operationalization.

Room appearance and layout: A popular approach for taking workplace technologies into account is observing reactions to office layout and equipment. While these technologies do not directly generate added value, they are an integral part of the workplace. One of the earlier examples is the research by Oldham and Brass ( 1979 ). They observed employees’ reactions after moving into an open office layout. Greenberg ( 1988 ), DeVoe and Prencipe ( 2001 ), and Lawrence and Nohria ( 2002 ) also focused on workplace technologies incorporated in workplace design, such as room size or furniture. Miller et al. ( 2001 ) chose a very specific approach and examined how the ‘sense of place’ influences motivation. As the perception of the physical environment differs, this concept may well hold explanatory power for how workplace technology affects workers in different ways. In a survey, they collected data on physical comfort, the perception of objects, furniture, and other environmental aspects (= sense of place). Their findings suggest a significant positive correlation between sense of place and motivation.

Samani et al. ( 2018 ) conducted a survey on the effects of transforming an open space layout by adding partitions. Their results show increased satisfaction and motivation. The new individual workstations offered the opportunity for workers to adjust their surroundings to their individual needs to a certain degree, e.g. the level of lighting. A similar approach was chosen by Knight and Haslam ( 2010 ). In their survey, they focused on managerial control of office space. Other researchers evaluate office layout or changing environments due to flexible work models. Research includes details on single office, multi office, or open space layouts (Kleibrink 2011 ) as well as interactive concepts like coworking spaces (Houghton et al. 2018 ). Olson and Tasley ( 1983 ) and Janneck et al. ( 2018 ) also included other working concepts, like home office or mobile working (= hoteling). These approaches are particularly popular in the research areas of facility and real estate management. They reflect the office trends shifting away from the individual office to open solutions with tele- and virtual working. While this approach is specific and comprehensive at the same time, details on technological tools and characteristics are lacking.

One possibility for ensuring both a comprehensive understanding of and a focus on technological aspects of the workplace is to classify them in a taxonomy . Rousseau ( 1977 , 1978 ), for example, applies James D Thompson’s technological classification scheme from 1967 that distinguishes between long-linked, mediated, and intensive technologies. Long-linked technologies describe a structured system with clear cause-and-effect-relationships. They are characterized by highly standardized sequential processes like an assembly line. Mediated technologies still contain prescribed processes; however, the tool to be applied must be chosen individually by the employee. With current technological advances, intensive technologies are on the rise. Here, the result of processes is not clear, and the appropriate technology has to be chosen individually (Thompson 1967 ). These systems are mainly found in jobs with creative tasks and human interaction, which are gaining in importance during the digital transformation (Frey and Osborne 2017 ).

In their survey on employees’ responses to environmental structures, Pierce et al. ( 1984 ) took a similar stance. To operationalize technology, they adopted a multi-dimensional approach, taking operations technology, material technology, and knowledge technology into account.

Another approach for classifying technology is to do so chronologically. Millman and Hartwick ( 1987 ) summarized different early ICT-applications, such as mainframe and personal computers, or teleconferencing, under the term ‘office automation.’ Cascio and Montealegre ( 2016 ) analyze ubiquitous computing (e.g., electronic monitoring systems, robots, teleconferencing, and wearable computing devices) as a further development of enterprise, end-user, and strategic computing.

Malone and Lepper ( 1987 ) categorize technologies and activities based specifically on how they influence motivation; they can be tools or toys. While tools are primarily used to achieve an external goal, toys are used for their own sake. The authors use an example to show that this classification is not necessarily distinctive. While most people use their computer to get work done, others take pleasure in mastering this tool (=toy).

Several authors opted for a focused approach and investigated specific technologies . One area worth noting is production technologies. Argote and Goodman ( 1986 ), for example, review how individuals react to the introduction of robotics, and Osterloh and Gerhard ( 1992 ) discuss the potentials of an anthropocentric production design.

Other research projects focus on applications in the area of information and communication technologies, such as hardware and software tools (Martin 2017 ; Pacauskas and Rajala 2017 ; Sidler 1984 ; Siemens 2005 ). Lazar et al. ( 2006 ), and Eden et al. ( 2010 ) examined (stationary) computers in the workplace while the growing mobile access to data plays a major role in a survey undertaken by Sinha and Arora ( 2015 ).

Although Benson and Dundis ( 2003 ) use the rather general term “technology” in their analysis, they discuss the specific implementation of ICT in nursing trainings. Housand and Housand ( 2012 ) also focus on training applications—placing emphasis on educational purposes. Other software applications include communication platforms (Brown 2012 ), enterprise management systems (Bala and Venkatesh 2013 ), email applications, or access to internet (Martin 2017 ). The easy and fast access to information due to these tools is mostly the crucial aspect influencing motivation and behavior.

A very young topic in the area of technology and motivation is gamification. It can be defined “as the use of game design elements in non-game contexts” (Deterding et al. 2011 ). This innovation deserves special mention as software applications and systems are designed using gamification elements specifically to motivate. The combination of rewards, collaboration, and competitive setting is crucial (Domínguez et al. 2013 ; Janneck et al. 2018 ; Liu et al. 2018 ; Perryer et al. 2016 ).

4.3 Types of relationships between technology and motivation

Ten publications adhere to Herzberg’s view on work conditions as a hygiene factor (Herzberg et al. 2017/1959 ). This paradigm highlights the constraining characteristics of workplace technologies. As these design elements and technological applications change over time, the original empirical results are called into question (Siemens 2005 ). Therefore, Knight and Westbrook ( 2015 ) reproduced Herzberg’s critical incidents method with data from telecommuters. Their results mainly correspond to those of Herzberg; however, communication and flexibility enabled by ICT became motivators highlighting the role of technology.

Other researchers follow the perspective of this model by viewing external aspects as restricting motivation and performance (Demerouti and Bakker 2011 ; Karasek 1979 ). By taking a diary approach, Lazar et al. ( 2006 ) examined frustrating effects when using computers. While the authors acknowledge that mild frustration can be motivating, they view most experiences as a problem in the workplace.

Ryan and Deci ( 2000 ) evaluate research on the Self-Determination Theory and view motivation as the individual need for growth that inner resources foster. Environmental aspects act as an infrastructure in which demands can cause negative results if too prevalent (Demerouti and Bakker 2011 ; Karasek 1979 ; Taylor 2015 ).

Another 17 publications claim a direct relationship between environmental influences and motivation. Ford ( 1992 ) explains the connection as follows: “Because humans are open systems whose existence, functioning, and development depend on material-energy and information exchanges with relevant contexts, the environment is always an integral part of their functioning” (Ford 1992 ). While the author does not elaborate on the relationship further, other researchers included this aspect in a similar manner. Several authors illustrate the situational (job context) influence on cognitive and motivational processes in their frameworks as an influence equal to the personal disposition/individual inputs (Barford and Hester 2011 ; Heckhausen and Heckhausen 2010 ; Houghton et al. 2018 ; Jong 1989 ).

While the nature of the relationship (particularly regarding the technological factors) is not described in detail, expectations may play a crucial role (Heckhausen and Heckhausen 2010 ; Jong 1989 ; Mitchell 1997 ; Mitchell and Daniels 2003 ). Other authors do not provide additional insights on the mechanisms of these processes either, but offer instead more details on the influences investigated. Das ( 1999 ), for example, developed a holistic framework describing several factors—technological, among others—that make up work design. Pierce et al. ( 1984 ) evaluated environmental structures on different levels (job, technology, work unit, leadership) and how these influence employee behavior (performance, absenteeism, intrinsic motivation, etc.). Results show that job and technology are the most important aspects explaining responses.

An approach to exploit this direct connection is utilizing workplace technologies as rewards. Perryer et al. ( 2016 ), for example, argue that one aspect of gamification applications is extrinsic prizes or badges—depending on the game design—that can be won. Other workplace technologies can also be perceived as a reward. In his survey on equity, Greenberg ( 1988 ) distributed status symbols, like remuneration and offices, among sales managers. Here, it is not the functionality of the furniture, but its symbolism that influences perceived fairness and extrinsic motivation (Vilnai-Yavetz et al. 2005 ). Elsewhere, using technology as rewards is mostly based on managerial recommendations, the scientific value of which is low (DeVoe and Prencipe 2001 ; O’Donovan 2002 ; Sidler 1984 ).

Miller et al.’s ( 2001 ) empirical findings suggest a significant positive correlation between sense of place and motivation. Interestingly, it seems that it is not the examined environmental aspects themselves that are the contributor to motivation, but the opportunity to control them. Personalization of furnishings and positioning of objects seem to be particularly important here. This hints towards a rather indirect relationship —researchers in 39 publications describe such mechanisms. In this perspective, some factors act as mediators between the external influence and the motivational processes. Depending on the conceptual framework, these mediators range from emotional aspects and needs to job characteristics. Table  4 provides an overview of the mediators with underlying frameworks and examples. To ensure a structured presentation of the mediators and allow for readability, we numbered each item in both the table and in the text. The numbers do not represent a ranking.

Perhaps the most obvious understanding of the indirect influence of technologies is that they can satisfy needs (1). Osteraker ( 1999 ), for example, claims that physical working conditions address physical needs. Other examples of needs include safety, esteem, self-actualization (Maslow and Stephens 2000 ), social interaction (Brown 2012 ; Lawrence and Nohria 2002 ), or the need to succeed (Nohria et al. 2008 ; Perryer et al. 2016 ; Sinha and Arora 2015 ). Brenner ( 1999 ) and Benson and Dundis ( 2003 ) provide a very clear and holistic perspective on how technology contributes to need satisfaction. They discuss the effects of workplace design elements, ICT, and training on employees in offices and the healthcare sector on every level of Maslow’s Need Hierarchy. They argue for example, that technology applied in training situations can provide the feeling of (job) security and the application of ICT enhance belonging to groups regardless of the person’s current location.

A wide array of publications—in fact the whole ergonomics research stream—deal with workplace technologies and how they affect the human body. As the focus here is anatomy, cognitive and affective outcomes—like work motivation—are mainly neglected. Paul ( 1997 ) provides an exception. He connects workplace design (including office equipment) with the notion that it can have pampering effects on need satisfaction—both on the human body and motivation. He assumes an inverted U-shaped correlation with productivity and employee motivation. The implication would be that a physically uncomfortable workplace design leads to dissatisfaction (which would be in line with the Herzberg’s findings), while a too ‘plushy’ workplace leads to employees feeling too comfortable and even lazy.

Another approach is to focus on the characteristics of the workplace rather than individual needs. Soon after Hackman and Oldham published the Job Characteristics Model, Denise M Rousseau analyzed the Job Characteristics (2 Task Identity, 3 Skill Variety, 4 Task Significance, 5 Feedback, 6 Autonomy) and how they interact with the (technological) environment (Rousseau 1977 , 1978 ). She found that the design of processes and technology use is correlated with Job Characteristics as well as with behavioral and attitudinal outcomes. At the same time, Oldham and Brass ( 1979 ) evaluated the internal motivation of office employees after moving from cellular to open offices. A sharp decline in motivation can be explained by a drop in the Job Characteristics.

Other authors argue that the Job Characteristics can be shaped by technologies: It is easy to agree with the claim that “autonomy originates in the workplace rather than the job” (Karanika-Murray and Michaelides 2015 ) when imagining that (mobile) access to data provides employees with the power to decide where and when to work (Millman and Hartwick 1987 ; Olson and Tasley 1983 ). In their experiment with CNC machine operators, Liu et al. ( 2018 ) designed a gamified approach to influence Skill Variety, Feedback, and Autonomy for workers. An app provides points and badges for achievements in different challenges. The data on 80 participants in total reveal a significant increase in motivation and job satisfaction.

To motivate employees, Cascio and Montealegre ( 2016 ) recommend implementing technologies addressing the needs for autonomy (6), competence (7), and relatedness (8) based on the Self Determination Theory. While physical design decisions can influence perceived relatedness, virtual technologies can also contribute to satisfying social needs. Housand and Housand ( 2012 ) suggest mentoring networks and online group tasks to promote cooperation.

In their Expanded Work Design Model based on the JCM, Humphrey et al. ( 2007 ) conducted a meta-analysis with 259 studies and 219,625 participants. While there were not enough studies available to make valid claims on the effects of work context characteristics on motivation, a positive effect of both work conditions and ergonomics on attitudinal outcomes and a negative effect of physical demand on behavioral outcomes can be assumed (Humphrey et al. 2007 )—this finding is in line with the publications we subsumed under the “technology as a hygiene factor” section. While physical demand in the form of insufficient and complicated workplace design demotivates employees, work needs to be challenging to a certain extent to motivate (Amabile 1993 ; Housand and Housand 2012 ; Malone and Lepper 1987 ). As too great a challenge or too difficult tasks can cause frustration and unchallenging work can be monotonous, Housand and Housand ( 2012 ) point out the opportunities online programs offer for students: gifted students can attend additional classes and solve harder tasks to achieve their optimal level of challenge (9). One of the mechanisms influencing this aspect is whether the technology at hand is associated with increased skill requirements (Methot and Phillips-Grant 1998 ).

Another mechanism is based on the information technological elements convey (see also technology as a reward). Recognition (10) as a facilitator for motivation is closely connected to feedback (5) and rewards as they can be perceived as symbols of recognition for the performance. Technology can be leveraged to provide recognition, for example, by implementing gamification elements containing achievements, badges, and rewards for individuals (Housand and Housand 2012 ). The act of implementing technologies and placing emphasis on workplace design can also provide recognition (van der Voordt 2003 ).

The feeling of control (11) over one’s individual environment can in fact enhance motivation (Samani et al. 2018 ) while a lack of control may lead to discomfort and demotivation (Argote and Goodman 1986 ; Bala and Venkatesh 2013 ; Knight and Haslam 2010 ; Osterloh and Gerhard 1992 ). A close connection to autonomy (6) can be assumed, as Cascio and Montealegre ( 2016 ) find: “Autonomy is the need to control one’s actions” (p. 356), and Housand and Housand ( 2012 ) even analyze the two concepts as one. Organizations can provide this feeling of control by implementing new technology and accompanying processes. For example, when introducing mobile devices, management can increase the autonomy by offering the free choice of where to work.

Technologies in the workplace can also motivate employees by enabling them to do their job. ICT in particular can provide smooth processes and motivate through means efficacy (12) (Eden et al. 2010 ). Martin’s ( 2017 ) findings point in a similar direction. She shows that technologies facilitating internal information flow increase employees’ introjected regulation and intrinsic motivation. On the other hand, technologies decreasing communication costs (e.g., groupware or intranet) cause negative effects as they provide information access to higher management and make employees feel less empowered.

Yet another approach to understanding motivation is to consider affective aspects. Emotions and other factors play a major role in the flow concept (13) (Csikszentmihalyi 2010 ). The concept describes a cognitive state of focus and enjoyment, like intrinsic motivation. This state can be facilitated by activities and individual preferences as well as by situational aspects. Veitch ( 2018 ), for example, claims that a positive working environment (with regard to lighting and ventilation) can lead to a good mood/pleasure (14) and engages employees with an “intrinsic interest in their work” (Veitch 2018 ). Easy-to-use technology can also contribute to achieving this state (Domínguez et al. 2013 ; Hancock 2009 ; Pacauskas and Rajala 2017 ). The ease of use is determined by—among other factors—an intuitive interface.

5 Discussion

We examined publications from the fields of psychology, management, educational sciences, and facility management. The results from our comprehensive review of the literature show that researchers hold different perspectives on the question of how workplace technologies influence employee motivation.

5.1 Map of the field

After reviewing the past research on work motivation and how it takes workplace technology into account, we propose clustering research into four paradigms. While the distinction is not mutually exclusive in all cases, most of the publications can be assigned to at least one of them.

1. Technology as background music: As described in the process of our literature selection, we find that traditional motivation theories tend to focus on motivation being a result of cognitive processes and individual preferences. Most of the content and process theories can be taken as examples here. Although they promote a person-centered view, situational aspects in general and workplace technologies in particular are mentioned. These researchers acknowledge the influence of these external aspects with varying specification, and some also examine them more closely (Sundstrom 2001 ; Taylor and Westover 2011 ; Wong et al. 2008 ). Yet, in their observations and frameworks, environmental aspects can be compared to background music, i.e., it is there, but in their approaches, technology does not make a difference. While these works were not at the center of our research as they do not focus on technology, it is essential to acknowledge this paradigm as it constitutes a major amount of research.

2. Technology as a hygiene factor: This is a popular paradigm researching the influence of workplace technology by focusing on the negative and health related effects. Mainly considerations based on Herzberg’s findings, the Job-Demands-Control-Model, and publications on ergonomics can be found in this paradigm. These publications all share the view that appropriate physical surroundings are necessary to prevent dissatisfaction and illness, but not to motivate (Herzberg et al. 2017/1959 ). This research was mostly published in scientific journals with an average JCR impact factor of 3.0. While this perspective certainly holds true to a certain extent, both the suspected research artifact of the critical incidents method (Hackman and Oldham 1976 ) and the emergence of new technologies (Knight and Westbrook 2015 ) suggest a more complex connection.

3. Technology as a motivator: A number of publications propose a direct (and positive) impact on employee motivation. Offering the latest gadget as an incentive for high performing employees poses a feasible solution for managers; however, these recommendations mostly do not explain which aspects of this approach are crucial, nor do they take the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation into account. Here, mainly managerial recommendations view technology as a potential reward to improve (extrinsic) motivation and employee retention (DeVoe and Prencipe 2001 ; Houghton et al. 2018 ; Miller et al. 2001 ; O’Donovan 2002 ). Most of these publications are not peer reviewed research and those that are have an average JCR rating of 2.2.

4. Technology as an influencer of mediators : The majority of publications claim an indirect relationship between workplace technology and motivational outcomes. These frameworks mostly build on the Job Characteristics Model, the Self Determination Theory, and needs models (see Table 4 ). The two Job Characteristics ‘Autonomy’ and ‘Skill Variety,’ as well as individual needs are the most frequently mentioned mediators (Schmid and Auburger 2020 ). Researchers representing this perspective mostly based their assumptions on rigorous data and prior research results, which is also reflected by the average JCR rating of 5.0 for these articles. The consideration of a mediating factor can explain some of the complex structures of motivation; however, research does not (yet) follow a predominant paradigm regarding the connection between workplace technologies and motivation.

5.2 Practical implications

Regardless of the individual perspective on the topic, when implementing a new workplace technology or rethinking workplace design, management should consider the effects on employee motivation. These can even be addressed strategically (Kim 2014 ; Mitchell 1997 ; Schmid 2020 ). The literature shows that by choosing suitable technology, Job Characteristics, ergonomics, and needs satisfaction can be facilitated to motivate employees and thereby increase productivity, output quality, or achieve other strategically relevant outcomes. As research results are still fragmented and often include overly specific technologies or overly general constructs, it is difficult to make an overall recommendation. Yet, the results show two aspects applicable to most decision situations managers face when it comes to motivating workplace design:

1. Conscious technology implementation: Modern technologies offer great potential for new processes and interactions. Implementing a new tool has various consequences for other organizational features. While the decision for the “right” technology is important, the way it is implemented and perceived is crucial. How these innovations are perceived depends on aspects such as company culture, leadership style, individual skills, etc. We illustrate this consideration using the (previously mentioned) example of mobile devices: Having a smartphone at hand can empower an employee to access work-related information whenever and wherever he or she wants. This increases autonomy and therefore motivation. At the same time, the very same technology also enables managers to monitor their subordinates more closely and can increase the expectancy to be available at any time. This results in a lack of control for the employee and can cause demotivation (Schmid and Auburger 2020 ). In this case, leadership style mediates the connection between technology and motivation. In addition, the perception of technologies determines whether employees sense opportunities or threats in these innovations (Bala and Venkatesh 2013 ; Cascio and Montealegre 2016 ; Parker and Grote 2020 ). Eden et al. ( 2010 ) conceptualized this relationship as ‘means efficacy’ and showed that believing in the usefulness of a tool can increase efficacy and productivity. For management, this means that these and other aspects need to be considered consciously when implementing new technology or redesigning workplace.

2. Allow employee participation: Depending on the area of work and the individual preferences, every ‘ideal’ workplace looks different. Including employees in the design process can have various effects. First, they have access to a platform to express their individual needs and help select the workplace technology in a manner that achieves needs satisfaction. Second, by giving them control over design decisions, the design process will become motivating in itself.

Providing endless options to create individual workplace settings will be neither financially nor organizationally feasible. We suggest a predefined range of design features complying with company standards—a cafeteria-style workplace (Becker and Steele 1995 ).

Miller et al. ( 2001 ) show that providing choices—even on small and cost-effective features—can be applied successfully in many cases: choosing and arranging furniture or personalizing one’s desk can have a positive effect on motivation.

5.3 Agenda for further research

While this paper provides only a partial examination of the available literature, our structured approach offers a comprehensive picture of existing research. The 67 results show that a person-centered view is still the predominant paradigm. “This is unfortunate, as research in other areas has documented the importance of both the social environment and work context for a wide range of outcomes” (Humphrey et al. 2007 ). The number of calls for research on a holistic perspective is already on the rise. Drawing on these calls and the results presented, we propose the following research questions for future topics:

How can different types of workplace technologies be classified?

When collecting research on the effects of workplace technology, different disciplines address the topic from their individual point of view. The result is a variety of terms and concepts attempting to describe the external influences on motivation (see also Table 3 ). While many authors prefer a general understanding, such as context, situation, or environment, others narrow it down to work-specific terminology, such as workplace, workspace, job/work design, or technology. Almost all these concepts lack a clear and universal understanding.

In this paper, we have already provided a definition of workplace technology. It provides a broad understanding of technology, that is quite suitable for the purpose of this study. However, a taxonomy would offer the opportunity to change the focus of the investigation without changing the terminology. Only a few researchers worked with a clear system that included different technologies based on their functionality or effect. While the approach pursued by Millman and Hartwick ( 1987 ) or Cascio and Montealegre ( 2016 )—to classify technology according to its evolution—is intuitively understandable, it focuses on a certain kind of technology and ignores others. In the aforementioned publications, the focus lies on ICT, while production technologies or ergonomic aspects are neglected. On the other hand, James D Thompson’s technological classification applied by Rousseau ( 1977 , 1978 ) and Pierce et al. ( 1984 ) focuses on the way technology influences processes and tasks. This kind of taxonomy offers the inclusion of various workplace technologies. As the focal point lies on value adding processes, namely ergonomics and real estate, aspects such as office design are not considered.

Providing a comprehensive categorization is challenging, especially at a time when boundaries are blurred and workplace technologies are becoming more diverse than ever before. Yet, achieving this might just be the cornerstone on which to build linking conceptualization.

How do new technologies influence the workplace and therefore affect employee motivation?

Conceptualizing technology influencing mediators seems the most promising perspective of the four schools of thought outlined above. Scholars representing this perspective mostly base their arguments on rigorous research and complex models. However, a holistic framework including both the specifics of workplace technologies and motivational outcomes could help to explain the complex interrelationships. As these concepts are still rare, we recommend combining existing theories and frameworks. Some authors have already made promising advances here. Parker and Ohly ( 2008 ), Diefendorff and Chandler ( 2011 ), Taylor ( 2015 ), and Humphrey et al. ( 2007 ) propose multi-level frameworks including some workplace design characteristics and individual outcomes. These frameworks offer insights on interdependencies between individual, organizational, and external factors. However, the role of workplace technology remains vague.

The paths between workplace technologies and individual outcomes lack understanding (Parker and Ohly 2008 ). Therefore, we propose empirical research based on the insights described in this paper. As prior research has been predominantly quantitative and focused on correlations, qualitative approaches like case studies can help to gain a better understanding of causal relationships.

How do moderators affect the relationship between workplace technology and employee motivation?

Having shown that holistic frameworks are necessary to understand the complex relationship between workplace technology and employee motivation, we would like to emphasize the role of moderators. In our example about the mobile devices, leadership can affect perceptions of the impact workplace technologies have on motivation. This and other organizational aspects have already been examined, such as coworkers or leadership (Amabile and Kramer 2010 ; Csikszentmihalyi 2010 ; Karanika-Murray and Michaelides 2015 ; Maxwell 2008 ), processes or reward systems (Seeck and Diehl 2016 ; Wright and Cordery 1999 ), or organizational climate (Ferris and Gilmore 1984 ), as well as extrinsic workplace attributes, e.g., pay, job security (Amabile et al. 1986 ; Deci and Ryan 1985 ; Taylor and Westover 2011 ), or tasks (Hackman and Oldham 1976 ; Luczak et al. 2012 ; Medsker and Campion 2001 ). These authors provide insights on the role these organizational factors play regarding employee motivation, whereas most of the research excludes workplace technologies.

Other potential moderators might be socioeconomic or cultural aspects. Some authors assume that the relationship between workplace technology and motivation is determined by age. Based on empirical data on more than 3000 managers and professionals, Wong et al. ( 2008 ) identified age-related differences in motivational drivers. Members of the generations X and Y were found to be more motivated by progression and an affiliative workplace than Baby Boomers. Barford and Hester ( 2011 ) support these findings. Moreover, work environment demonstrates a higher overall relevance (after compensation) for the younger employees (Rožman et al. 2017 ). One of the reasons for this might be that the ease in handling technology and the accompanying high speed of communication make the younger generations seem more demanding. Kanfer and Ackerman ( 2004 ) argue in a similar manner: “The differences in work motivation as adults age pertain mainly to the impact of age-related changes in competencies and motives on motivational-processing components.” Being confronted with new technology can therefore cause a dissonance between competences and demands, which might lead to behavior aimed at protecting self-concept rather than progression in later stages of life (Kanfer and Ackerman 2004 ). As these insights are mainly assumptions at this stage, further research on this topic seems both interesting and necessary.

Which aspects of new technology influence the individual work organization and how?

As outlined above, existing research discusses either vague concepts of workplace design elements or the effects of specific technologies. These mostly include office design and ICT applications. The motivational impact of other upcoming technologies lacks scientific understanding and offers a wide field of research opportunities: production technologies like automation systems or robotics as well as promising applications of artificial intelligence, like voice recognition systems, personal virtual assistants, or virtual/augmented reality applications. We believe that these technological trends have unprecedented qualities. In the era of ‘Industrie 4.0’ and ‘Made in China 2025,’ everything is connected and technology is ubiquitous (Brynjolfsson and McAfee 2016 ; Cascio and Montealegre 2016 ; Parker and Grote 2020 ). While this leads to a significant increase in collaborative types of work, these new technologies allow greater opportunities for individualization and autonomous work organization as well (Brown et al. 2017 ). The amount and velocity of new skills needed is greater than ever before (Frey and Osborne 2017 ; Koetsier 2018 ; Leopold et al. 2016 ). To understand these technologies and how their characteristics affect work motivation, we suggest further research. Empirical data on different use cases is necessary.

6 Conclusions

In this paper, we developed a research agenda to include workplace technology in motivation research. No matter how workplace technologies are defined, many researchers emphasize the need for individualization. What one employee perceives as the optimal workplace design might be perceived as dissatisfying to another. The person-environment fit plays a major role (Samani et al. 2018 ). The toys vs. tools approach from Malone and Lepper ( 1987 ) and research on the ‘sense of place’ (Miller et al. 2001 ) shows how technologies can be perceived individually and help to explain different effects on employees. Current and future technologies provide individualized solutions and applications, and therefore the opportunity to address individual needs and motivation in the workplace. The advances in robotics, ICT, and artificial intelligence can pave the way towards motivational workplace design, instead of acting only as a restriction to change processes and job characteristics (Daugherty and Wilson 2018 ).

The highly volatile job market and fast changing environment pose increasing uncertainty for individuals and a need for lifelong education. With creative tasks and knowledge-based jobs on the rise, creativity emerges as an essential requirement—employees need to be highly intrinsically motivated to meet these requirements (Amabile et al. 1986 ). Creating a motivating workplace can be a sustainable investment for a company’s decision maker. Whereas further research is needed, it is not necessarily the physical environment in itself that might be the motivating factor, but the way it is perceived and the power to influence it (Brill et al. 1984 ; Knight and Haslam 2010 ) as well as the way it shapes job characteristics and addresses needs (van der Voordt 2003 ). Both researchers and managers need to take these aspects into account to generate fruitful research and sustainable workplace strategies. Workplace technology needs to be more than just background music in the future.

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Schmid, Y., Dowling, M. New work: New motivation? A comprehensive literature review on the impact of workplace technologies. Manag Rev Q 72 , 59–86 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-020-00204-7

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EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION, JOB SATISFACTION, AND EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE: A LITERATURE REVIEW

• Imam Hidayat Universitas Trisaksi, Jakarta, Indonesia
• Endi Supardi Universitas Trisaksi, Jakarta, Indonesia
• Alvis Anwar Universitas Trisaksi, Jakarta, Indonesia
• Sarfilianty Anggiani Universitas Trisaksi, Jakarta, Indonesia

The purpose of this paper is to provide a structured literature review on the constructs of employee motivation, job satisfaction, employee performance, and empirical evidence on the relationship between motivation, job satisfaction, and performance. 20 (twenty) papers published during 2017-2021 that investigates employee motivation, job satisfaction, employee performance, and the relationship between employee motivation, job satisfaction, and employee performance were reviewed. The results of the review show that employee motivation and job satisfaction have positive and significant effect on employee performance or in other word employee motivation and job satisfaction are the determinants of employee performance.

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Cetin, F., and Askun, D. 2018. The Effect of Occupational Self-Efficacy on Work Performance through Intrinsic Work Motivation. Management Research Review, Vol. 41 No. 2. https://doi.org/10.1108/MRR-03-2017-0062 .

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Egenius, S., Triatmanto, B., and Natsir, M. 2020. The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance Through Loyalty at Credit Union (CU) Corporation of East Kutai District, East Kalimantan. International Journal of Multicultural and Multireligious Understanding, Vol. 7, Issue 10, pp.: 480-489.

Endang T., and Sari, E. 2019. The Effect of Motivation and Discipline on Employee Performance at the Ministry of Transportation's Directorate of Ports. Ilomata International Journal of Social Science, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 1-9.

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Griffin, R.W., Phillips, J.M., and Gully, S.M. 2019. Organizational Behavior: Managing People and Organizations, 13th Edition. Boston: Cengage Learning, Inc

Hariati, Muis, M., and Amar, Y. 2021. The Effect of Job Motivation and Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance through Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Hasanudin Journal of Business Strategy, Volume 3 Nomor 4, pp. 93-104.

Kinicki, A. 2021. Organizational Behavior: A Practical, Problem Solving Approach, 3rd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

Kuswati, Y. 2020. The Effect of Motivation on Employee Performance. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal Vol. 3, No 2, pp. 995-1002.

Lin, Y. 2021. A Study on the Relationship Between Project Management Competency, Job Performance and Job Motivation in e-Commerce Industry. Measuring Business Excellence, Vol. 25 No. 1. https://doi.org/10.1108/MBE-10-2020-0144 .

Luthans, F., Luthans, B.C., and Luthans, K.W. 2021. Organizational Behavior: An Evidence-Based Approach, 14th Edition. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing, Inc.

Mubarok, T.M.S., Lindayani, L., Farizah, S.N. 2021. The Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Employee Performance. Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research, Volume 657, 6th Global Conference on Business, Management, and Entrepreneurship (GCBME 2021), pp. 459-464.

Nurdiansyah, R., Mariam, S., Ameido, M.A., and Ramli, A.H. 2020. Work Motivation, Job Satisfaction, and Employee Performance. Business and Entrepreneurial Review Vol. 20, No.2, pp. 153-162.

Ouakouak, M.L., Zaitouni, M.G., and Arya, B. 2020. Ethical Leadership, Emotional Leadership, and Quitting Intentions in Public Organizations: Does Employee Motivation Play a Role?. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 41 No. 2, pp. 257-279. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-05-2019-0206 .

Pawirosumarto, S., Sarjana, P.K., and Muchtar, M. 2017. Factors Affecting Employee Performance of PT. Kiyokuni Indonesia. International Journal of Law and Management, Vol. 59 No. 4. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJLMA-03-2016-0031 .

Rita, M., Payangan, O.R., Rante, Y., Tuhumena, R., and Erari. 2018. Moderating Effect of Organizational Citizenship Behavior on the Effect of Organizational Commitment, Transformational Leadership and Work Motivation on Employee Performance. International Journal of Law and Management, Vol. 60 No. 4, pp. 953-964. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJLMA-03-2017-0026 .

Riyanto, S., Endri, E., and Herlisha, N. 2021. Effect of Work Motivation and Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance: Mediating Role of Employee Engagement. Problems and Perspectives in Management, Vol. 19, Issue 3, pp. 162-174.

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Safitri, R.D., Suratno, A., and Sulistiyani, E. 2018. The Influence of Job Satisfaction and Motivation on Employee Performance at PT Chakra Naga Furniture Jepara. Jurnal JOBS, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 45-55.

Sidabutar, E., Syah, T.Y.R., and Anindita. R. 2020. The Impact of Compensation, Motivation, and Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance. Science, Engineering and Social Science Series, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 1-5.

Suardhita, N., Rafik, A., and Siregar, O. Analysis of The Effect of Motivation and Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance in PT Gagas Energi Indonesia Jakarta. Journal of Industrial Engineering & Management, Vol. 1 No. 3, pp. 209-217.

Sartika, L., Fatimah, F., and Asiati, D.I. 2022. The Effect of Competence, Job Placement and Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance at the Regional Office VII BKN. International Journal of Business, Management, and Economics, Vol. 3 No. 3, pp.257-270.

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A literature review on motivation

Research on motivation has attracted academic and corporate entities over the last two decades. In the present study, authors have reviewed the intense literature to extract all possible dimensions of motivation, having direct and indirect impact on motivation techniques. This has examined the multidimensionality of motivation from the existing literature and present a conceptual framework based on it, and it is experienced that various motivation techniques (discussed in this study) are having a positive impact on both employee satisfaction and the quality of performance in the organization; however, the model needs to be validated using quantitative measures. In order to study the various issues highlighted in this paper related to employee motivation, a large body of literature mainly from different journals have been incorporated. To make the study more current only those studies were included which were published in the last two decades. In past research papers few dimensions o...

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One of the most important functions of management is to ensure that employee work is more satisfying and to reconcile employee motivation with organizational goals. With the diversity of current jobs, this is a dynamic challenge. What people value and enjoy is influenced by many factors, including the influence of different cultural backgrounds. This research report examines employee motivation and its impact on employee performance. The study examines some common theories of motivation that can be used in an organization to improve employee performance. The study showed that employees have their differences in terms of the concept of motivation. Various forms of theories of motivation in literature have been debated along with their applications and implications. Three questions were examined: What is motivation? What kind of motivation can best be used to increase employee performance? The results of the study show that motivation can increase or decrease employee performance. If the chosen form of motivation meets the needs of the employee, their performance increases. If, on the other hand, the chosen form of motivation does not satisfy the needs of the employee, the benefit decreases. It therefore encourages organizations to understand the motivating need of each employee to improve performance.

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Literacy development in the early childhood and elementary school years is critical for learning and the acquisition of other skills essential for educational achievement. Although schools typically assume the primary responsibility in developing children’s literacy and reading skills, a holistic approach to overall literacy development requires the involvement of other important actors, including parents, caregivers, community members, and libraries. Public libraries play a key role in the literacy landscape, especially by providing access to books and a variety of free literacy programs for families. The public library as a space and place that motivates kids to enjoy reading can lead to a lifelong love of learning. In summer 2023, IMLS commissioned a review of research literature that examines the effects of motivation to read and within reading programs in communities and, particularly, public libraries.

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Effective teacher professional development for school-based mental health promotion: a review of the literature.

1. Introduction

1.1. teachers’ role in smhp, 1.2. teacher preparation for smhp, 1.3. capacity building is critical for implementation, 1.4. effective teacher pd for smhp, 1.5. purpose of current review.

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3.1. training, 3.1.1. interactive, 3.1.2. staff input, 3.2. technical assistance, 3.2.1. goals, 3.2.2. approach, 3.2.3. activities, 3.3. pd delivery considerations, 3.3.1. online vs. in-person format, 3.3.2. dosage, 3.3.3. expertise of the provider.

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Dinnen, H.L.; Litvitskiy, N.S.; Flaspohler, P.D. Effective Teacher Professional Development for School-Based Mental Health Promotion: A Review of the Literature. Behav. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14090780

Dinnen HL, Litvitskiy NS, Flaspohler PD. Effective Teacher Professional Development for School-Based Mental Health Promotion: A Review of the Literature. Behavioral Sciences . 2024; 14(9):780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14090780

Dinnen, Hannah L., Nicole S. Litvitskiy, and Paul D. Flaspohler. 2024. "Effective Teacher Professional Development for School-Based Mental Health Promotion: A Review of the Literature" Behavioral Sciences 14, no. 9: 780. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14090780

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