psychological barrier essay

Psychological Barriers in Communication

Communication is the lifeblood of human interaction, the invisible bridge that connects us all. But what happens when this bridge is obstructed by unseen forces, hindering the flow of thoughts and emotions from one mind to another? Enter the realm of psychological barriers in communication, a fascinating yet often overlooked aspect of human behavior.

Imagine a scenario where words are spoken but not truly heard, where intentions are misunderstood, and emotions remain unexpressed. These barriers can create a maze of confusion and misinterpretation, leading to strained relationships and missed opportunities for connection.

• 1 What is Psychological Barriers to Communication
• 2 Contributing Factors to Psychological Barriers
• 3.1 Emotional States
• 3.2 Stress and Anxiety
• 3.3 Low Self-Esteem
• 3.4 Cultural Difference
• 3.5 Personal Biases and Assumptions
• 3.6 Differences in Perception
• 4 Is Noise a Psychological Barriers of Communication?
• 5.1 Pack Your Patience
• 5.2 Review Your Route
• 5.3 Keep Fear at Bay
• 5.4 Carpool with Confidence
• 7 Conclusion

What is Psychological Barriers to Communication

Psychological barriers in communication are mental or emotional blocks that can hinder the exchange of ideas or messages between people. These barriers can stem from a variety of sources, including personal experiences, emotions, perceptions, and attitudes. They often lead to misunderstandings, misinterpretations, and conflicts, reducing the effectiveness of communication.

Contributing Factors to Psychological Barriers

Factors contributing to these barriers include cultural differences, emotional states, diverse communication styles, personal biases, and individual perceptions. For example, cultural norms can vary, affecting interactions; emotions can distort message reception; and biases based on personal experiences can skew understanding.

Why Do We Face Psychological Barriers When Communicating?

We face psychological barriers when communicating due to a variety of internal factors and external influences that affect how we process and convey information. These barriers can be deeply rooted in our emotional, mental, and cultural experiences. Here are some key reasons why these barriers arise:

Emotional States

Our current emotional state significantly influences how we communicate. Feelings like anger, sadness, anxiety, or joy can color our perception and expression, potentially leading to misinterpretations or a failure to convey our true intent.

Stress and Anxiety

High levels of stress or anxiety can hinder our ability to focus and communicate effectively. They may cause us to misinterpret messages, struggle to articulate thoughts clearly, or become overly defensive or withdrawn in conversations.

Low Self-Esteem

Individuals with low self-esteem may doubt their ideas and opinions, leading to difficulties in expressing themselves. They might also misinterpret neutral or positive feedback as negative, further complicating communication.

Cultural Difference

Cultural backgrounds shape our communication styles, norms, and expectations. When interacting with individuals from different cultural contexts, misunderstandings can arise due to differing interpretations of verbal and non-verbal cues.

Negative Past Experiences

Previous negative experiences in communication can lead to a reluctance to engage openly in future interactions. This might manifest as a fear of judgment, rejection, or misunderstanding, creating a barrier to effective communication.

Personal Biases and Assumptions

We all carry biases and assumptions based on our experiences and backgrounds. These can lead us to make incorrect assumptions about others’ intentions or meanings, leading to misunderstandings.

Differences in Perception

Each person has a unique way of perceiving the world, influenced by their individual experiences and beliefs. This can lead to different interpretations of the same information, making it challenging to achieve a mutual understanding.

Is Noise a Psychological Barriers of Communication?

Yes, Noise can be considered a psychological barrier to communication. Noise can refer to any external or internal distractions that interfere with communication. External Noise can include physical Noise, such as loud music or construction noise, while internal Noise can include mental distractions, such as stress, anxiety, or fatigue.

When Noise is present, focusing on the message can be challenging, leading to misunderstandings or misinterpretations. External Noise can make it difficult to hear or understand the speaker, while internal Noise can make it challenging to concentrate or retain information.

Additionally, Noise can create psychological barriers by increasing frustration, anxiety, or confusion. For example, if a speaker is trying to communicate an important message, but the listener is distracted by external or internal Noise, they may become frustrated and feel like they need to be heard or understood. This can lead to further breakdowns in communication and ultimately hinder the effectiveness of the communication process.

Therefore, it is essential to minimize Noise in the communication environment and address any internal noise, such as stress or anxiety, that may be present. By doing so, individuals can improve their ability to communicate effectively and overcome any psychological barriers that may be present.

Overcome Psychological Barriers in Communication

Psychological barriers like inferiority complex, fear of judgment, or anxiety can often limit the smooth flow of conversation. So how do we clear the way for an unfiltered exchange of thoughts? Here’s our roadmap!

Pack Your Patience

Conversations aren’t about racing towards conclusions; they are journeys to understand perspectives. If anxiety is your barrier, breathe easy and slow down. Give yourself time to process information before you formulate responses.

Review Your Route

Preconceived notions pull us into a rut and bring meaningful dialogue to a grinding halt! Be mindful of pre-judgments you may have about others; remember each individual carries unique experiences that shape their world view.

Keep Fear at Bay

Fear of being misunderstood or judged can disrupt the free expression of ideas. To get past this hurdle, focus on expressing your message without worrying too much about perception. Easier said than done but remember everyone has insecurities.

Carpool with Confidence

Having positive self-esteem allows us to believe in our ideas and express them freely without hesitation. Tune out negative internal chatter which suggests you wouldn’t be understood—make ‘confidence’ your co-passenger.

Breaking away from these psychological barriers is not an overnight journey—it needs patience, practice, and persistence. But with every step you take towards open-minded, non-judgmental communication, that’s one barrier less in your journey. So, shall we smooth out this road of conversation together?

 How can cultural differences create psychological barriers in communication?

 Cultural differences can lead to misunderstandings and communication breakdowns. These differences can manifest in different ways, such as language barriers, social norms, and values.

 How can personal biases affect communication?

Personal biases can affect our communication by leading us to make assumptions about others based on our preconceptions. These biases can arise from our experiences, cultural backgrounds, or upbringing.

 Can emotional states impact communication?

Psychological barriers in communication can hinder the effectiveness of a message being conveyed. Knowing how our body language, personal space, and tone of voice can influence how others interpret our messages is essential. Furthermore, practicing active listening techniques is beneficial to understand better what someone is trying to communicate to us. By understanding these barriers, we can better bridge any gaps that may be present in communication. Therefore, open dialogue between all parties is essential for successful communication.

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Psychological Barriers to Communication: Examples & How to Overcome

Table of Contents

Definition of psychological barriers

Psychological barriers are defined as “mental and emotional obstacles that interfere with the smooth flow of communication, such as individual differences in perception, interpretation, and emotional states.” In the book “Communication in Everyday Life” by Steve Duck and David T. McMahan.

What are Psychological barriers?

Psychological barriers to communication are internal factors that can create obstacles in the effective exchange of information and emotions between individuals. These barriers arise from our thoughts, emotions, beliefs, and perspectives, influencing how we interpret and respond to messages. 

They impact the clarity, understanding, and connection in communication. For instance, our subjective perception can shape how we interpret information, leading to misunderstandings. Emotions play a significant role as well, as negative emotions can cloud our judgment and limit our ability to accurately process and express information. 

Cultural and language differences can also create barriers , as differing norms and communication styles can lead to misinterpretations. Additionally, trust and self-confidence affect communication, with a lack of trust restricting open dialogue and low self-confidence affecting self-expression.

By understanding and addressing these psychological barriers, we can enhance our communication skills, establish stronger connections, and avoid misunderstandings.

What are socio-psychological barriers to effective communication?

Socio-psychological barriers to effective communication refer to the combined impact of social and psychological factors that prevent the smooth and meaningful exchange of ideas and emotions between individuals or groups. These barriers emerge from the complex interplay between social dynamics and individual psychological processes, impacting how people communicate and connect.

What are the examples of psychological barriers?

The following illustration list the five common psychological barriers to effective communication with their causes. 

Example of psychological barriers in a sentence

“Due to his strongly held prejudice, John struggled to engage in open and inclusive communication with individuals from different cultural backgrounds.”  “The defensive attitudes of both parties prevented constructive communication, as they were more focused on proving themselves right rather than understanding each other’s perspectives.”

Different kinds of Psychological barriers to communication

1/ perception and interpretation: .

Perception and interpretation refer to how individuals perceive and make sense of the information they receive during the communication process . This psychological barrier arises from the fact that people have unique perspectives, experiences, and filters through which they interpret messages.

Perception is the process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret sensory information from their environment. It involves filtering information through personal filters, biases, and prior knowledge. This filtering process can lead to differences in how individuals perceive and prioritize information, resulting in potential communication barriers.

Interpretation involves assigning meaning to the perceived information. It is influenced by an individual’s cognitive frameworks, cultural context, and personal beliefs. Two individuals can interpret the same message differently based on their distinct perspectives, leading to misunderstandings or conflicting interpretations.

Psychological barriers arising from perception and interpretation can include:

• Selective Attention
• Stereotyping
• Halo or Horns Effect
• Confirmation Bias
• Perceptual Constrain 

2/ Emotional Barriers

Emotional barriers are psychological factors that can affect the process of communication.  Our emotions significantly influence how we process and express information, as well as how we interpret the messages received from others. When individuals experience strong or negative emotions, it can create barriers that block the smooth exchange of ideas and feelings.

Emotional barriers can originate in several ways:

• Anger and Hostility : When individuals feel angry or hostile, their ability to communicate calmly and rationally can be compromised. They may engage in aggressive or confrontational communication, making it difficult to have a constructive dialogue or find common ground.
• Fear and Anxiety : Feelings of fear or anxiety can create barriers to effective communication . When individuals are afraid of judgment, criticism, or negative outcomes, they may hesitate to express themselves honestly or openly. This fear can limit the depth of communication and prevent the establishment of trust and mutual understanding.
• Stress and Overwhelm : High levels of stress or feeling overwhelmed can impact communication effectiveness. When individuals are preoccupied with stress or mentally overloaded, their ability to focus and engage fully in communication may be compromised.

Must Read : Emotional Barriers to Communication: Examples & Solutions

3/ Stereotyping and Prejudice

Stereotyping and prejudice refer to the cognitive biases and preconceived opinions that individuals hold about others based on characteristics such as race, gender, age, religion, or social status. These biases can create barriers to communication by influencing how individuals perceive, interpret, and interact with others.

Stereotyping and prejudice can prevent effective communication in the following ways:

• Misinterpretation : Stereotyping and prejudice can lead to misinterpretation of messages. When individuals hold preconceived views about someone based on stereotypes or biases, they may interpret their words or actions in a manner consistent with those stereotypes, rather than understanding their intended meaning.
• Lack of Understanding : Stereotyping and prejudice can lead to a lack of understanding and awareness of diverse perspectives. When individuals hold to inflexible beliefs about others, they may become less receptive to exploring alternative perspectives or practicing empathetic listening .

Bias and Discrimination: Prejudice involves the presence of biased attitudes or discriminatory behaviors towards individuals or groups. These biases can impact communication by affecting how individuals perceive and treat others.

4/ Filtering and Selective Listening

Filtering and selective listening are psychological barriers to communication that can impact the transmission and reception of messages. These barriers involve the conscious or unconscious process of screening information based on personal interests, or preferences.

Filtering refers to the act of intentionally withholding or manipulating information before communicating it to others. Individuals may filter information based on their own desire to control the narrative or fear of negative reactions. This can result in incomplete communication, as certain details or perspectives are intentionally altered.

Similarly, selective listening occurs when individuals choose to pay attention to only certain aspects of a message while ignoring or disregarding others. This can be influenced by preconceived beliefs or a lack of interest. Selective listening can lead to a failure to fully understand the intended message.

5/ Communication Apprehension

Communication apprehension refers to the anxiety or fear that individuals experience when faced with the prospect of engaging in communication. It is characterized by a sense of discomfort, nervousness, or self-consciousness that can impact effective communication.

Communication apprehension often comes from a fear of being judged, criticized, or negatively evaluated by others. Individuals might experience concerns about making errors, being seen as inadequate, or facing embarrassment. This fear can hold back their willingness to communicate openly and confidently.

In addition, communication apprehension can also be associated with performance anxiety. When individuals feel pressure to perform well or meet certain expectations in their communication, they may experience increased anxiety. This anxiety can affect their ability to articulate their thoughts clearly and coherently.

Therefore Individuals with communication apprehension may avoid or minimize their participation in conversations, group discussions, or public speaking engagements. 

6/ Status Consciousness

Status consciousness refers to the awareness and concern individuals have regarding their social standing, rank, or perceived importance in relation to others. It involves the tendency to perceive communication through the lens of hierarchy and power dynamics, which can impact effective communication.

Status consciousness often arises from power variations within social or professional contexts. Individuals who are more status-conscious may be overly concerned with maintaining a sense of superiority. This can create barriers in communication by preventing open and equal participation in discussions and decision-making processes.

People may also attribute greater credibility or value to the ideas or perspectives of individuals with higher status while overlooking the contributions of those with lower status. This perception bias can limit the exchange of diverse viewpoints. 

In a workplace environment when individuals are overly concerned about maintaining or improving their status, they may prioritize personal achievements over collective goals. This can lead to competition, a lack of cooperation, and limited information sharing, discouraging effective communication within teams or groups.

7/ Defensiveness

Defensiveness is a psychological barrier that affects communication interactions. It arises when individuals feel the need to protect themselves from perceived threats, criticism, or attacks. It involves reacting with a guarded or resistant attitude, which can prevent open and constructive communication.

Defensiveness often leads to a closed-minded attitude, where individuals resist considering alternative perspectives, ideas, or feedback. They become rigid in their thinking, rejecting information that challenges their existing beliefs or self-perception. Consequently, communication breakdowns occur, as individuals prioritize self-preservation over active listening and understanding. 

Moreover, defensiveness creates a negative communication climate characterized by tension, mistrust, and conflict. Others may hesitate to express their thoughts or concerns openly due to the defensive responses they anticipate.

8/ Self-Centered Attitude

A self-centered attitude is a psychological barrier that refers to an excessive focus on oneself, where individuals prioritize their own needs, interests, and opinions above those of others. A self-centered attitude restrains genuine listening, understanding, and empathy in communication interactions.

When individuals possess a self-centered attitude, they tend to dominate conversations, steer discussions toward their own concerns, and disregard the perspectives and experiences of others. This can lead to communication breakdowns and interrupt the establishment of meaningful connections.

When individuals possess a self-centered attitude, they tend to:

• Lack of Empathy : A self-centered attitude often results in a diminished capacity for empathy . Individuals may struggle to understand or relate to the feelings, thoughts, and experiences of others. 
• Monopolizing Conversations : People with a self-centered attitude tend to monopolize conversations by constantly bringing the focus back to themselves. They may interrupt others, shift attention to their own experiences, or dismiss the contributions of others.
• Disregard Others’ Perspectives : Individuals with a self-centered attitude may dismiss or downplay the perspectives, ideas, or opinions of others. They may prioritize their own viewpoints or ignore alternative viewpoints.

9/ Attitudes and Values

Attitudes and values play a significant role in shaping communication dynamics. They influence how individuals perceive, interpret, and respond to information, ideas, and interactions. Attitudes refer to individuals’ general feelings towards certain topics, while values represent deeply held beliefs and principles that guide behavior.

Attitudes and values can act as potential barriers to good communication when they are inflexible or divergent between individuals. Here are some key considerations:

• Communication Style : Attitudes and values shape communication styles, including assertiveness, directness, or indirectness. Individuals with differing attitudes and values may have contrasting preferences in how they express themselves, leading to misunderstandings or conflicts in communication.
• Preconceived Notions : Attitudes and values can lead to preconceived beliefs that affect how individuals interpret and respond to information. These preconceptions may cause individuals to make assumptions or judgments, limiting their openness to different perspectives.

10/ Distrust

Distrust is a psychological barrier that poses challenges to effective communication. It refers to a lack of confidence or suspicion towards others, their intentions, or the information they provide. Distrust can arise due to past negative experiences, perceived dishonesty, or a lack of credibility. This barrier undermines open and transparent communication, making it difficult to establish rapport and build collaborative relationships.

Simultaneously distrust can color the interpretation of messages, leading to a tendency to doubt or question the motives behind what others say. Individuals may read negative intentions into neutral or positive messages, further boosting suspicion and preventing effective communication.

In addition, when individuals distrust one another, they are less likely to share ideas, offer support, or engage in cooperative efforts. This can limit the exchange of diverse perspectives and hamper problem-solving processes.

How to overcome psychological barriers in communication 

Overcoming psychological barriers in communication requires a proactive and mindful approach. Here are some strategies to help overcome various barriers:

1/ Overcoming Perception and Interpretation Barriers

Overcoming perception and interpretation barriers requires developing self-awareness and understanding that others may have different perspectives. Effective communication involves actively listening, seeking clarification, and being open to different interpretations.

Employing clear and precise language, using examples or visuals, and encouraging dialogue can help bridge the gap in perception and interpretation, fostering better understanding and reducing miscommunications.

2/ Overcoming Emotional Barriers

To overcome emotional barriers, it is essential to cultivate emotional intelligence and create a supportive communication environment. This involves recognizing and managing one’s own emotions, as well as being empathetic and understanding toward the emotions of others.

Validating emotions, and creating a safe space for open expression can help individuals navigate emotional barriers and foster more effective communication. Furthermore, discovering constructive methods to cope with stress , such as engaging in mindfulness practices or seeking assistance, can positively impact emotional well-being and enhance communication.

3/ Overcoming Stereotyping and Prejudice Barriers

Overcoming the barrier of stereotyping and prejudice requires promoting awareness, empathy, and inclusivity. By actively seeking diverse perspectives, engaging in meaningful dialogues with individuals from various backgrounds, and consistently questioning their own assumptions, individuals can effectively confront and challenge their own stereotypes and prejudices.

Education, cultural sensitivity training, and fostering a culture of respect and acceptance can help break down these barriers and promote more inclusive and effective communication.

4/ Overcoming Filtering and Selective Listening Barriers

To overcome the barriers of filtering and selective listening, individuals can cultivate active listening skills and practice open-mindedness. This includes being fully present in the communication interaction, actively seeking to understand the speaker’s perspective, and setting aside personal biases or preconceived perspectives.

By actively listening to the complete message, considering non-verbal cues , and being open to diverse viewpoints, individuals can enhance their understanding, minimize misinterpretation, and foster more effective communication.

5/ Overcoming Communication Apprehension Barriers

To address communication apprehension, individuals can employ various strategies:

• Building Self-Confidence : Enhancing self-confidence through practice, preparation, and positive self-talk can help individuals overcome communication apprehension.
• Seeking Support : Seeking support from mentors, or communication coaches, or participating in supportive communication groups can provide guidance and encouragement to overcome communication apprehension.
• Relaxation Techniques : Utilizing relaxation techniques like deep breathing, visualization, or mindfulness can assist in effectively managing anxiety and fostering a state of calmness during communication scenarios.

6/ Overcoming Status Consciousness Barriers

To mitigate the impact of status consciousness on communication, it is essential to promote a culture of equality, respect, and inclusivity. Strategies to address this barrier include:

• Encouraging Open Dialogue: Fostering an environment that encourages open dialogue and active participation, regardless of status, can help mitigate the effects of status consciousness.
• Developing Empathy and Perspective-Taking : Encouraging individuals to develop empathy and practice perspective-taking can help break down status barriers. 
• Promoting Effective Feedback : Establishing a feedback culture that values constructive criticism and learning can help reduce status-related concerns. 

Related Reading : What is the purpose of feedback in communication

7/ Overcoming Defensiveness Barriers

To overcome defensiveness and promote constructive communication, individuals can be open to feedback, engage in self-reflection and awareness, and develop conflict-resolution skills. These strategies help individuals overcome defensiveness, foster a more positive communication climate, and promote open and meaningful interactions.

8/ Overcoming Barriers Due to Resistance to Change

To address barriers due to resistance to change and facilitate effective communication, several strategies can be employed:

• Open Dialogue : Encourage open dialogue about the proposed changes, allowing individuals to express their concerns, questions, and opinions.
• Transparent Communication : Provide clear and transparent communication about the reasons behind the change, its potential benefits, and the expected outcomes.
• Collaboration and Involvement : Involve individuals in the change process, seeking their input and participation.
• Providing Support : Offer support and resources to help individuals navigate through the change.  

9/ Overcoming Attitudes and Values Barriers

To address the impact of attitudes and values on communication, several strategies can be employed. First, developing self-awareness regarding one’s own attitudes and values is crucial. This involves reflecting on how these factors influence communication, enabling individuals to recognize potential biases and be more open to alternative perspectives.

Cultivating an open-minded attitude is also essential, as it helps individuals approach communication with curiosity and a willingness to consider different viewpoints. This requires challenging one’s own assumptions, suspending judgment, and actively seeking diverse perspectives.

10/ Overcoming Distrust Barriers

To overcome the barrier of distrust and foster effective communication, consider the following strategies:

• Establishing trust is crucial for effective communication. This involves consistent and reliable behavior, keeping promises, and demonstrating honesty and integrity. Trust can be built gradually through open and transparent communication over time.
• Practicing transparency in communication helps to clear doubts and suspicions. Being clear, honest, and open about intentions, decisions, and information fosters trust and encourages more two-way communication exchanges .
• Effectively resolving conflicts is crucial for rebuilding trust. Employing constructive conflict resolution techniques, such as active listening, mutual respect, and finding common ground, can help restore trust in communication.

Ways to overcome psychological barriers in a working environment

Overcoming psychological barriers in a working environment requires specific approaches tailored to the workplace context. Here are some additional strategies to address psychological barriers in a professional setting:

• Encourage Psychological Safety : Foster an environment of psychological safety where employees feel comfortable expressing their thoughts and opinions without fear of negative consequences.
• Provide Communication Training : Offer communication skills training to employees at all levels of the organization. Equip them with the necessary tools and techniques to communicate effectively, such as active listening, conflict resolution, and assertiveness.
• Establish Clear Communication Channels : Ensure that communication channels are clear, accessible, and well-defined within the organization. This includes both formal and informal channels . 
• Regularly Assess Communication Climate : Conduct regular assessments or surveys to measure the communication climate within the organization. Collect feedback from employees to understand their experiences and identify potential areas for improvement. 

How to overcome socio-psychological barriers in communication

• Foster empathy and understanding for diverse socio-psychological backgrounds.
• Establish an inclusive environment that appreciates and values a wide range of perspectives.
• Practice active listening to truly understand others’ viewpoints.
• Build trust through transparent and consistent communication.
• Adapt your communication style to accommodate different socio-psychological contexts.
• Encourage open dialogue and honest expression of thoughts and ideas.
• Develop cultural competence to appreciate and respect diverse customs.
• Seek clarification to ensure mutual understanding across socio-psychological differences.

How psychological barriers affect communication 

Psychological barriers have a profound impact on communication, affecting various aspects of the process. One aspect is how we encode and decode messages. Our thoughts, beliefs, and perceptions shape how we interpret information, and when influenced by biases or preconceived viewpoints, they can affect our understanding of the message, leading to misunderstandings.

Another critical aspect affected by psychological barriers is emotional interference. Emotions play a vital role in communication, but barriers such as fear, anxiety, anger, or stress can prevent our ability to express ourselves clearly and listen attentively.

When strong emotions are present, they can cloud our judgment and trigger defensive responses. As a result, effective communication becomes challenging as emotions block our capacity to communicate and understand messages accurately.

What are the causes of psychological interference in a communication process?

Psychological interference in the communication process can be caused by several factors that impact our ability to communicate effectively. These causes include

• Past Experiences
• Cultural and Social Conditioning
• Emotional States
• Limited Self-Awareness
• Cognitive Biases
• Lack of Empathy
• Communication Apprehension

How does psychological noise create barriers to effective communication? 

Psychological noise refers to internal distractions and interferences that occur within an individual’s mind. These internal factors impact the encoding and decoding of messages, leading to barriers in communication. Here’s how psychological noise creates barriers to effective communication:

• Psychological noise can distort how individuals perceive and interpret messages.
• Psychological noise includes emotional factors such as anxiety, stress, anger, or fear, which can interfere with communication.
• Psychological noise contributes to cognitive biases, such as confirmation bias or stereotyping.
• Psychological noise can limit empathetic understanding.

Examples of psychological noise Self-consciousness Personal Beliefs Negative Self-talk Closed-mindedness Emotional Distractions Mental Fatigue Defensive Attitudes

Difference between physical barriers and psychological barriers 

A comparison table highlighting the key differences between physical barriers and psychological barriers to communication:

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1) what are psychological barriers and examples .

Ans: Psychological barriers are internal obstacles that prevent effective communication by influencing individuals’ thoughts, emotions, beliefs, and perceptions. Some examples of psychological barriers include differences in perception and interpretation, emotional interference, cognitive biases, low self-confidence, defensive attitudes, lack of empathy, and cultural differences.

Q2) What are physiological barriers in communication examples? 

Ans: Physiological barriers in communication are related to physical conditions or limitations that block effective communication. Examples of physiological barriers include Hearing Impairment, Speech Disorder, Visual Impairment, Neurological Conditions, and Physical Disabilities. 

Q3) What is the definition of a psychological firewall? 

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Psychological barriers to Communication

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Psychological Barriers to Communication refer to internal obstacles that can hinder the process of sharing and receiving information. These barriers, rooted in our perceptions, attitudes, and emotions, significantly impact the effectiveness of communication. This guide delves into various psychological barriers, such as anxiety, bias, and lack of confidence, that can impede clear and open dialogue. Understanding and addressing these barriers is vital for fostering effective communication in both personal and professional contexts.

What are Psychological Barriers to Communication?

What is the Best Example of Psychological Barriers to Communication?

20 Examples of Physical Barriers to Communication

Physical Barriers to Communication are tangible impediments that can significantly affect the clarity and effectiveness of interactions. From structural elements to technological hindrances, these barriers can disrupt the flow of information in various environments, such as workplaces, educational settings, and public spaces. Identifying and addressing these barriers is essential for facilitating smooth and effective communication. This section explores 20 distinct physical barriers and illustrates how they manifest in everyday situations, providing insight into overcoming these challenges for enhanced communication.

• Noise in Industrial Workplaces : Loud machinery can drown out conversations, necessitating alternative communication methods. “We use visual signals and text messages for communication in the noisy factory.”
• Open Office Layouts : Lack of privacy and constant distractions can impede focused conversations. “We use meeting rooms for confidential discussions in our open-plan office.”
• Poor Acoustics in Auditoriums : Echoes and sound distortion make it hard to understand speakers. “Installing acoustic panels improved speech clarity in our auditorium.”
• Large Physical Distance Between Departments : Separation by floors or buildings can delay information sharing. “We use a centralized communication system to connect different departments effectively.”
• Unreliable Internet in Remote Locations : Weak connectivity hampers virtual meetings and digital communication. “For remote sites, we have satellite internet backups to ensure continuous connectivity.”
• Cramped Retail Spaces : Overcrowded areas make it difficult for staff to communicate with customers. “Our staff use headsets to communicate over the crowd noise in the store.”
• Dilapidated School Buildings : Old structures with poor layout hinder student-teacher interaction. “Renovating the old classrooms enhanced the communication flow between students and teachers.”
• Wall Partitions in Offices : Barriers that obstruct view and hinder spontaneous discussions. “We introduced glass partitions for better visibility and easier communication.”
• Visual Obstructions in Public Speaking : Objects blocking the audience’s view can limit engagement. “I ensure the stage is clear of obstructions for an unimpeded view during presentations.”
• Inadequate Sound Equipment in Events : Poor quality microphones and speakers lead to poor audibility. “Upgrading our sound system ensured clear communication during large events.”
• Physical Barriers in Classrooms : Fixed seating and podiums restrict teacher-student interaction. “Rearranging classroom furniture facilitated more interactive communication.”
• Intensive Care Units in Hospitals : Glass partitions and equipment noise make communication with patients challenging. “We use intercoms for clearer communication with patients in ICU.”
• Long Corridors in Hotels : Difficulty in communicating across distant areas in large hotels. “Staff use walkie-talkies for quick communication across the hotel.”
• Dim Lighting in Conference Rooms : Inability to see facial expressions and non-verbal cues. “Enhanced lighting in our conference rooms improved non-verbal communication.”
• Rural Areas with Limited Technology : Lack of modern communication tools affects information dissemination. “We set up community centers with internet access in rural areas for better communication.”
• Distractions in Home Offices : Home environment noises and interruptions can impact virtual meetings. “Using noise-cancelling headphones helps me focus during online meetings from home.”
• Busy Urban Streets : Ambient noise makes verbal communication on streets difficult. “In noisy urban areas, I prefer texting to phone calls for clearer communication.”
• Layout of Government Buildings : Complex layouts make finding specific offices or personnel challenging. “Clear signage and directory maps in government buildings aid in better navigation and communication.”
• Limited Access Areas in Construction Sites : Restricted entry zones hinder communication among construction workers. “We use walkie-talkies to communicate across different zones on the construction site.”
• Transportation Noise in Airports : Announcements and aircraft noise can impede clear communication. “Airports use visual displays alongside announcements to ensure messages are conveyed clearly despite the noise.”

These examples highlight the diverse nature of Physical Barriers to Communication and emphasize the importance of implementing effective strategies to overcome these challenges, ensuring effective and efficient information exchange.

What are Some Common Psychological Barriers to Communication

Psychological barriers in communication stem from personal internal factors that can hinder the exchange of ideas and feelings. Recognizing these barriers is the first step toward effective communication.

• Anxiety and Stress : High stress levels can cloud judgment and impede clear thinking.
• Prejudices and Stereotypes : Preconceived notions about others can skew perception and interaction.
• Lack of Confidence : Insecurity may lead to hesitation in expressing thoughts.
• Emotional Instability : Strong emotions like anger or sadness can distort communication.
• Defensiveness : Being overly defensive prevents open and honest dialogue.
• Misinterpretation of Non-Verbal Cues : Misreading body language or tone can lead to misunderstandings.
• Overthinking : Over-analyzing situations can complicate simple communication.
• Close-Mindedness : Unwillingness to consider others’ viewpoints.
• Selective Perception : Focusing only on aspects that reinforce one’s beliefs.
• Mental Health Issues : Conditions like depression or anxiety disorders can impede communication.

Understanding these barriers helps in identifying and addressing the root causes of communication issues.

What Often Causes Psychological Barriers in Effective Communication

Psychological barriers in communication often stem from personal experiences, beliefs, and emotional responses.

• Past Experiences : Negative past interactions can influence current communication.
• Cultural Differences : Misunderstandings arising from cultural backgrounds.
• Personal Biases : Prejudices affecting perception and interaction.
• Fear of Rejection : Concern about others’ responses can inhibit sharing.
• Low Self-Esteem : Feeling unworthy of being heard or understood.
• Perfectionism : Fear of making mistakes while communicating.
• Power Dynamics : Imbalance in authority affecting openness.
• Lack of Trust : Distrust in others can stifle communication.
• Conflict Avoidance : Avoiding confrontation can lead to withholding information.
• Information Overload : Excessive information leading to confusion and misunderstanding.

Acknowledging these causes is crucial for addressing and improving communication dynamics.

What are the Ways to Overcome Psychological Barriers?

Overcoming psychological barriers in communication requires conscious effort and strategies to ensure effective and open exchanges.

• Active Listening : Focus on truly understanding the speaker’s perspective.
• Building Trust : Establish a trusting environment for open communication.
• Empathy : Show understanding and consideration for others’ feelings.
• Self-awareness : Recognize and understand one’s own emotional state.
• Stress Management : Develop techniques to handle stress effectively.
• Seeking Feedback : Encourage others to provide honest feedback.
• Mindfulness Practices : Stay present and focused in conversations.
• Therapeutic Intervention : Seek professional help when needed.
• Assertiveness Training : Learn to express oneself clearly and respectfully.
• Cognitive Restructuring : Change negative thought patterns affecting communication.

Implementing these strategies can significantly improve one’s ability to communicate effectively.

Psychological barriers present significant challenges to effective communication. This guide has explored common barriers, their causes, and strategies to overcome them, emphasizing the importance of self-awareness, empathy, and active listening. By addressing these barriers, individuals can enhance their communication skills, leading to more meaningful and productive interactions in both personal and professional contexts. Understanding and overcoming psychological barriers is key to fostering open, honest, and effective communication.

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Causes of Psychological Barriers – Definition and Examples

Though communication is expected to be cyclic, there is an element called a barrier which refers to any hindrance affecting the whole process. Effective communication can be impeded by various kinds of barriers of communication such as linguistic barriers , psychological barriers, physical barriers , cultural barriers etc.

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What are the psychological barriers to communication?

Psychological barriers to communication refer to any psychological condition that affects the effectiveness of the communication. It refers to the various internal states people experience that inhibit communication.

Situations such as inattentiveness, lack of sleep, intoxication, stress, mental illnesses and many other factors may interfere with a good flow of communication. These are referred to as psychological barriers.

For example, Max performed his mathematics poorly because when Paul was teaching Max the equations, he could hardly take in what was being taught as he was tired and drowsy.

Psychological barriers cover many different psychological situations that hamper communication from taking place effectively. They are as follows.

1. Defensiveness and Fear

Defensiveness refers to the anxious state of an individual in challenging or avoiding criticism. This behavior of an individual is intended to defend or rather protect themselves. They become defensive to cover up their perceived flaws and weaknesses. They engage in behaviours such as giving snarky remarks, sarcasm, and aggression and these responses affect the effectiveness of the communication.

For example, when Sara tried correcting Samantha over a minute technical error, Samantha fired back at her asking her to mind her own business.

2. Frame of Reference

A ‘frame of reference’ is defined as the system of standards and values with an implicit or underlying and to some extent controlling action.

The experience one gains in life, particularly during childhood, and the cultural environment in which one grows up also contributes has a more significant influence on one’s frame of reference. A frame of reference is a crucial factor in limiting or distorting one’s perception of people, events, and circumstances. It paves the way for preconceived notions which alter one’s perception.

3. Suspicion

When there is a low trust factor between the sender and the receiver, the content that is relayed fails terribly. This kind of distrust arises when the sender or the receiver seems to be biased or hostile towards each other. Due to this suspicion, the communication is entirely misinterpreted or at times ignored.

For example, When a person whom you think to be fraudulent campaigns or endorses a good cause. We try to judge the campaign because of that personality.

4. Filtering

This is when the sender manipulates the message, they wish to convey so that the receiver views it favourably. This happens quite frequently in an organizational setup where the subordinates wish to communicate with the supervisor. They filter out their grievances and other essential information to avoid over-information and annoyance.

For example, when Michael went to discuss with his boss the issues happening amongst the employees, he gave a gist leaving out the details believing that he would be annoyed.

5. Distraction and Inattentiveness

Being inattentive or preoccupied with various factors such as exhaustion, stress, worries, drowsiness, intoxication etc. can make a person mentally unavailable to consciously observe the conversation. Also, he will be unaware of his surroundings.

For example, When an individual had a fight at home before attending a client meeting, his mind would be preoccupied with stressful thoughts and will not be able to concentrate on the proceedings of the meeting.

The intended message gets distorted, and the quality of the conversation suffers if the information is overloaded. This could also distract the listener.

For example, after going through a huge stack of project details, Sara could no longer take in any extra information as she felt exhausted and mentally overwhelmed.

6. Defective Retention

It is the ability of the individual to recall content that has been stacked up in the brain. This content is retained in the memory with the frequency at which the content is being recalled. Due to this, a part of the content sometimes is lost in time and the interpretation of the message highly depends on the fragments that are retained which in turn affects the decoding of the message.

For example, You were supposed to meet a client a month ago. But at the last moment, you are made to send one of your colleagues with all the details. But all that you can recall is his company’s name and the nature of his business. You are not able to recall his name.

7. Selective Perception

Any content that is communicated by default carries the perception of the sender. Though the receiver doesn’t always treat the content with the same perception, it is always good to define the opinions of the sender. Individuals live in their mindsets filled with their views and opinions and it becomes hard to penetrate that circle and convey content.

For example, An individual who raises an opinion against an issue which is neglected by the majority of the people around him, will not be taken in the right spirit. Even if he starts to explain himself, he will be branded with the opinion that he first stood for.

8. Presuppositions and Prejudgments

Sometimes humans tend to make assumptions, even before they participate in a conversation. In such instances, they believe their assumptions to be true and quickly judge and make decisions which will end up inappropriate in a situation.

The receiver does not try to understand all the aspects such as cultural, social and economic backgrounds. This may disrupt the true intent of the sender and therefore affect the effectiveness of the communication.

For example, Every time the sales head approaches Sara to have a discussion, she assumes that he is there to just make a complaint about her and so she puts out a defensive façade.

9. Emotional States

Different emotions can elicit different behaviours and responses in us. Consequently, the ability to comprehend a message as intended may get impacted by the nature and the intensity of emotions experienced. A few of the emotions that manipulate the content are anger, fear, anxiety, worry, confusion, mistrust, etc.

Intense emotions such as anger and jealousy can ruin the quality of a conversation as that prevents one from processing information rationally and with logic.

For example, If a person who has had an anxiety attack is suddenly pulled onto the stage for a speech, he would start stammering and might have a nervous breakdown as his mind will shut down thinking about what to speak.

10. Evaluation

It is human to evaluate the person in front of us and rush into judgements about their lifestyle, behaviour and profile. This is known as premature evaluation as we tend to have a presumption about the speaker and when he fails to be, so we end up drawing the wrong conclusions even before the message is conveyed. This also happens when the receiver is in a hurry and fills in the information all by himself without listening to the sender properly.

For example, You’re going to catch a train and your friend calls as usual to tip you off that he won’t be joining. And you in a hurry, pick the call and say yes, I had boarded the train you can start and you hang the call.

11. Whining or Complaining

Although venting out overwhelming emotions is helpful to take them out of the mind, there’s a wide gap between venting and whining. Venting is done mostly for the sake of relieving and finding clarity and it takes place a few times. However, whining happens very frequently and the person engaging in whining doesn’t really look for a solution, but rather just engages in the same conversational loop.

For example, Every time Sara meets Parker, he starts whining about how the food served in the cafeteria isn’t fresh and seems to have a stale odour. He does it almost every day; Sara can’t help herself but feel irritated about it.

12. Resistance to Change

Resistance to change refers to the reluctance one shows towards adaptation to a change. People who resist change have certain established opinions about specific matters or social customs and do not like to change them. This behavioral rigidity hinders communication altogether.

The change clubbed with the intensity is likely to bring in conflict, refusal and even confrontation. This behaviour causes the communication to become less effective and thus sets in as a barrier to communication .

Above mentioned categories are the major cause of the psychological barriers to communication. These act separately or as a combination to create a diversion in the communication process. Therefore, it must be overcome individually and gradually try to bring the level of its impact on the communication process.

Strategies for Effective Communication

• Active listening: The most crucial part of engaging in effective communication is to actively listen to the message being sent. Active listening refers to consciously trying to listen and comprehend what one has to say. This step can increase the potentiality of making communication effective.
• Non-verbal communication: Bodily gestures matter just as much as verbal statements during a conversation. It is integral to look out for the body gestures of other people so that the conversational transaction turns out smooth and efficient.
• Objective-oriented speech: Communicating with a purpose solves many problems and makes life much easier. Rather than beating around the bush, communicating to send the necessary message across saves much time and issues.
• Assertiveness: It can sometimes get hard to strike a balance between aggressive communication and passive communication. Assertive communication takes place when a person tries to put across their ideas and opinions without hurting the feelings of others.
• Empathy: It is a key skill to cultivate during communication. Empathy can help comprehend even some of the unsaid words of the other person. It also provides a sense of comfort and so it paves way for genuine communication to take place.

Strategies to handle psychological stress at the workplace

• Learning to manage time efficiently can help reduce stress.
• Although engaging in physical activity can seem time-consuming, research shows that exercising can help produce endorphin, which is very efficient in bringing down stress levels.
• Meditation is a great tool to organically calm down a racing mind. Taking a few minutes out to focus on the breathing pattern and internal sensations can work wonders.
• It is also highly essential to talk about the stressors with friends and family as it declutters the mind and if it doesn’t prove helpful, reaching a therapist might be beneficial.

Overcoming Psychological Barriers in Communication

• Make sure that the listener is physically and mentally available for communication.
• Acknowledging the thoughts and ideas of the speaker to make them feel validated.
• Expressing your unavailability to pay heed to the speaker and be accepting of the listener when such a concern is put forth.
• Communicating in a distraction-free location.
• Keeping the language and content simple and crisp.
• Ensuring that the listener understood the content and clarifying doubts.
• Be open-minded and avoid making assumptions about what the speaker intends to say.

Related Posts:

• Barriers to Effective Communication
• Cultural Barriers of Communication
• Semantic Barriers
• Physical/Environmental Barriers
• Language Barriers in Communication
• Mis communication

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Communication Theory

Emotional Barriers to Communication: Meaning, Examples and How to Overcome Emotional Barrier

Communication is the glue that brings people together. It goes beyond conveying and receiving information as it helps build and…

Communication is the glue that brings people together. It goes beyond conveying and receiving information as it helps build and nurture interpersonal relationships. In the world of work, employers highly value strong communication skills because it’s instrumental in navigating daily activities. Whether it’s an informal water-cooler conversation or networking at a business event, proper communication helps convey thoughts, ideas and messages accurately. There is no room for confusion and your audience perceives the information as intended. Effective communication can make a big difference and take you to new heights in your career.

Despite its wide array of benefits, not everyone is able to always communicate well. Several limitations can interrupt an individual from communicating effectively. You may have observed your colleagues interrupting someone or someone talking loudly at a client meeting. There are various types of interruptions that disrupt communication and an emotional barrier is one such limitation. What is an emotional barrier ? Let’s find out!

What Is An Emotional Barrier In Communication?

Emotional barrier to communication in the workplace, how to overcome an emotional barrier in communication, communicate with impact, what is an emotional barrier in communication .

The meaning of emotional barriers is quite simple and is exactly how it sounds. An emotional barrier is a mental limitation that prevents you from openly communicating your thoughts and feelings. It has the potential of preventing you from being your authentic self as it affects your emotions and feelings. An emotional barrier to communication is often the result of low emotional intelligence, also known as emotional awareness or control. However, a better understanding of our feelings and emotions can help us communicate better.

Overcoming emotional barriers isn’t easy because emotions act as powerful motivators. Not only can they guide us toward our passion but also keep us out of danger. For example, taking an unknown turn on the street causes fear and will make us think twice before we decide to venture on the road not taken. But, at the same time, when left unchecked, emotions can lead us astray. Emotional roadblocks can lead to miscommunication, hurt feelings and severed ties in various aspects of life. This is why it’s essential to keep your emotions in check and find ways to navigate them.

Here are the various types of emotional barriers that keep us from healthy and effective communication. You’ll also learn how each emotional barrier impacts you and others around you:

Anger Affects Thinking

Imagine you’re having a heated argument with someone. You may lash out, saying hurtful things that you didn’t mean. Anger can affect the way you behave because your mind processes information in a different way. When anger affects thinking, you’re likely to express yourself in unhealthy ways, negatively impacting your interpersonal relationship(s).

Pride Interferes With Listening

Pride is an emotional barrier that influences the way you perceive others. It prevents you from focusing on anyone’s views and opinions other than your own. For example, you’re likely to dominate a conversation because you don’t value what the other person is saying. This prevents you from hearing out what others have to say or contribute to a conversation.

Anxiety Causes Distractions

Anxiety and fear are common emotions when it comes to communication. There are various types of anxiety that influence an individual’s communication skills and styles. For example, social anxiety can prevent you from approaching strangers at a party. Generic anxiety can make public speaking seem like an ordeal.

As we have already established, good communication is the cornerstone of a successful organization. It’s what brings teams together and what accelerates the growth of a project. Additionally, it helps establish trusted networks and connections with different people from various walks of life. However, effective communication not only extends to good verbal skills but also includes non-verbal cues such as body language. For example, a simple shrug at a business conference can convey multiple meanings. It’s essential to brush up on your communication skills in professional settings if you want to exhibit confidence and credibility.

There are various types of emotional roadblocks that exist and here are some everyday examples of emotional barriers in communication at work and how they can impact you:

There are and will be times when you have a fallout with your coworker because the two of you have different outlooks regarding a single project. Conflict may arise and anger can blind you from processing information logically. You may lose sight of the project’s ultimate goal and reject solutions or explanations that are beneficial for the project’s success.

Teamwork and collaboration require you to listen to others in addition to letting them express themselves freely. Pride can prevent you from paying attention to others as you’re likely to focus only on your thoughts, opinions and perspectives. There may be times when you shoot down other’s ideas even before listening to them. This emotional barrier is a cautionary tale for managers and team leaders.

One of the most common types of emotional barriers, anxiety crops up in multiple ways at work. Whether it’s first-day jitters or an important client meeting, it can negatively impact your confidence and creativity. You may create an echo chamber and repeat what others say because you’re too afraid to voice your opinions. At the extreme end of things, you may refuse to speak up at all.

While an emotional barrier can have multiple faces, it’s important to remember that emotional reactions can be either from the speaker or the listener. No matter who it comes from, the way you respond or react to it is what determines your communication powers. Sometimes, having a plan to manage emotions is a good way of navigating such conversations.

Daniel Goldman, the author of Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ (1995), emphasized the importance of emotional intelligence in social, academic and professional aspects of life. If you want to improve your emotional intelligence and express yourself better in addition to being more aware of your feelings, you need to get in touch with your emotions first. Here’s how you can understand your emotions better:

• Analyzing your emotional intelligence through a self-assessment can help you establish a baseline against which you can measure improvement. The more self-knowledge you develop, the more you understand your deep-rooted feelings. This further provides perspective on regulating emotional barriers.
• There are some feelings that bring out our negative side. In other words, emotional triggers. For example, someone talking loudly in an office space can be annoying. ( romantichoneymoonisland.com ) It’s a good idea to make a note of these triggers. Attaching words to emotions and journaling them can help you get a clearer idea about what constitutes ‘pleasant’ or ‘unpleasant’ for you. This can be used for deeper introspection and self-reflection.
• In our emotional dealings, we are often focused on ourselves. Moving away from the self to others is a healthy approach to looking at things. It can be as simple as letting someone talk more while you listen more. The more you allow others to be a part of the conversation and pay attention to them, the easier it is to avoid miscommunication.
• In any type of communication, observation is essential. Paying attention to details helps you capture and engage with important information. Strong observation skills are instrumental in relationship-building as people love to be heard and feel valued. For example, when you have a follow-up question for a speaker, they feel respected and heard.
• Removing yourself from a situation can help you look at things from various angles. It may be difficult to assess a situation in an objective manner when you’re directly involved but it’s crucial that you try. By taking a step back, you can collect your thoughts, think clearly and rethink potentially hurtful comments, among other benefits.
• Emotional outbursts are often the product of deep-seated (unacknowledged) insecurities. It may be closely tied with the inability to accept mistakes, failures or imperfections. It’s essential to be able to forgive yourself and others. By learning to move on, you will not hold yourself and others to impossible standards and will be able to minimize tension and conflicts.
• The definition of emotional barrier is intricately tied to the emotional well-being of an individual. The presence of emotional barriers signifies some deep-rooted mental limitations that are preventing you from responding to situations in a mature and professional way. However, relaxation exercises such as mindful meditation and yoga can help you address some of the issues and overcome them in a positive manner.

In addition to the aforementioned strategies to overcome emotional barriers in communication, you need to go above and beyond to create an impact in the workplace. Harappa’s Speaking Effectively course will help you build strong communication skills and achieve spectacular career success. Understand emotions better with Aristotle’s Appeals framework and deliver your ideas in a compelling way using the PAM (Purpose, Audience and Message) Framework . Leave a lasting impression on your coworkers and clients with Harappa today! 

Explore Harappa Diaries to learn more about topics such as What Is Miscommunication , Workplace Communication , Visual Communication & Communicating Assertively to communicate with impact.

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Gamete Donors Connecting With Offspring and Their Families

Barriers: the perception of rejection, worry, fear, and other concerns..

Posted May 30, 2024 | Reviewed by Jessica Schrader

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• Donors may feel shame or embarrassment about donating, which may have kept them from talking with family.
• Donors may fear rejection or worry about how connecting may affect their family relationships.
• Donors may have difficulty navigating connecting with offspring and balancing the needs of everyone involved.

Most egg and sperm donors are told that they will remain anonymous, either for 18 years or forever. Since the first donor-conceived teen identified his biological father via a commercial DNA test in 2005 1,2 , this promised/mandated anonymity has become virtually impossible. Additionally, thousands of donors have chosen to initiate mutual consent contact on the Donor Sibling Registry. Many donors are happy to have contact with donor-conceived people (and their families if the children are under 18), but others may feel overwhelmed or struggle with the idea of connecting with genetic progeny.

Donor's considerations

Did I make the right choice? Even with good intentions, donors can grapple with self-doubt, wondering if their decision ultimately caused emotional strain for the child or their current (or future) family.

Will the child ever want to know me? This question can weigh heavily on donors. Donors might worry that the children conceived with their genetic material might reject them, feel uncomfortable about the circumstances of their conception, not have family support, or not understand what this kind of relationship might look like. Fear of rejection is a significant emotional concern for many egg/sperm donors and can keep them from reaching out, connecting, and exploring new relationships.

Will I be seen as a replacement parent? Some donors worry that their role will be misunderstood, fearing they'll be seen as a competitor to the parents and therefore rejected by them. Some parents, quite often the non-biological parent, can feel insecure about their parentage or worry about not being a "perfect" parent and fear the donor replacing them in some way.

Will parents or offspring be angry with me? Parents or the resulting children might have negative feelings or blame them if there is a medical/genetic issue that the donor wasn't honest about when donating or that was unknown at the time and has presented later in life.

Do I have any rights or responsibilities? Donors may fear legal or financial repercussions if they respond to contact requests.

How will others view my donating history? Donors may fear social repercussions, stigma , or scrutiny from family, friends, or workmates.

These concerns can lead to emotional turmoil, including guilt , anxiety , and regret. Additionally, donors may struggle to define their role in the lives of donor-conceived individuals, especially when faced with the prospect of numerous offspring.

Donors may:

• Feel embarrassment or shame about donation. This may have kept them from disclosing to their family. Additionally, they might worry about having to disclose that they donated to more than one (or many) facilities.
• Be fearful about disclosing to their partners that they not only donated gametes but also have biological children as a result of their donations. The fear of judgment by partners, family members, or others due to their history of selling their gametes can be significant.
• Feel overwhelmed with the prospect of a large group of progeny. Half-sibling groups of more than 100 and even over 200 are common with sperm donation. Donors often have no idea how they'd find the time and energy to meet the needs of scores of offspring who may desire contact. They might worry about how to tell their parents that they may be grandparents to so many donor-conceived people. The thought of telling their children that they might have some, or many half-siblings can also be daunting.
• Worry about not being on the same page as other family members with regard to exploring new relationships,
• Feel confused about their role and how to respond to requests for contact from parents and progeny.
• Wonder how to define these new relationships, and possibly incorporate donor children into their family circles.
• Experience emotional turmoil, including guilt, anxiety, or regret, particularly if they later question the implications of their donation or the impact on the resulting offspring.
• Not know how to navigate the sometimes delicate line between privacy and secrecy; protecting their family’s privacy while removing the veil of secrecy between them and their progeny. This can be stressful as they try to balance the needs and comfort levels of everyone affected.
• Fear rejection because they feel they're not good enough, haven't accomplished enough, are not mentally or physically stable enough, are not at the “right place” in life, or don't have the emotional bandwidth to handle this uncharted connection. They may have feelings of inadequacy, or worry about being a disappointment to donor children. Often, donors are simply afraid of not being liked.
• Worry about making a connection, and then feeling ghosted . It's common for donor family members to jump in and then pull back in short order to process or deal with internal or family issues. In most cases, this time-out has nothing to do with the donor. Patience and empathy go a long way in this situation. Letting the other person know that their process and timing will be respected is crucial.
• Not be aware of the fact that if they donated through a facility, they have no legal parental rights, responsibilities, or financial obligations for the children born from their donations.
• Feel worried about revealing medical or academic/ career information listed on their donor profile that may be inaccurate.
• Worry about sharing/updating their own or their family's new medical information and learning about possible medical issues with donor offspring.

Finding support and moving forward

Navigating and dispelling these worries and fears can be integral to the donor-family connection process. The good news is that donors don't have to navigate these donor family complexities alone. Here are some tips to help manage fear and build meaningful connections:

• Feel your feelings. Don't bottle them up. Acknowledge any feelings of fear, anxiety, frustration, hurt, disappointment, worry, anger , or sadness.
• Be kind to yourself. Rejection doesn't define you. Practice self-compassion and avoid negative self-talk .
• If introverted or on the spectrum, communication abilities might be challenged, with difficulties in reading social cues and emotions or expressing emotional depth and breadth. Consider seeking support groups or therapists specializing in these areas to assist in your donor family outreach.
• Honesty is the best policy. It's not a matter if your family will find out, it's only a matter of when . The truth should come from you and not from a surprise DNA test result of your family member.
• Reframe your thinking. If you reached out and received a "no thank you," “go away," or no reply at all, remember that sometimes patience is needed while the families process and define this new connection/relationship. Rejection is often more about the rejector's story, emotional capabilities, and life circumstances. See rejection as a chance to reassess. Trying to understand where others are coming from is helpful.
• Focus on the positive. Remind yourself of your positive role in creating families. Remember that opening yourself up to these connections might seem risky, but can also offer more love in your life.
• Lean on your support system. Talk to friends, family, or a professional who can offer encouragement and perspective.
• Set and respect boundaries . You do have control of the situation. You get to set the boundaries that work for you and your family. Parents and donor-conceived people may also have boundaries that need to be respected. Not everyone moves at the same speed or comfort level when connecting. Have patience and meet people where they're at.

Connecting with donor-conceived people and their families can have profound emotional, psychological, and social implications for people who have sold their gametes. Open communication, honesty, education , and support networks can all be important when navigating the complexities of connecting with people who share around 50% of their DNA. Expanding one's family can be enriching for all involved.

To find a therapist, visit the Psychology Today Therapy Directory .

1. Washington Post, 11/13/2005. Found on the Web, With DNA: a Boy's Father

2. New Scientist Magazine, 11/3/2005. Anonymous Sperm Donor Traced on Internet.

Wendy Kramer is Co-Founder and Director of the Donor Sibling Registry (DSR).

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At any moment, someone’s aggravating behavior or our own bad luck can set us off on an emotional spiral that threatens to derail our entire day. Here’s how we can face our triggers with less reactivity so that we can get on with our lives.

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Understanding the Concept of Nurture in Psychology

This essay is about the concept of nurture in psychology, focusing on how environmental factors and experiences shape human development and behavior. It discusses how nurturing begins from prenatal conditions and continues through family care, education, social interactions, and cultural influences. The essay highlights the importance of early life experiences, social environments, and cultural norms in shaping cognitive and emotional development. It also explores how personal experiences, both positive and negative, impact psychological growth. The interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental influences is examined, emphasizing the significance of nurturing environments in realizing individual potential and addressing psychological challenges.

How it works

In the domain of psychology, the term “nurture” denotes the multitude of environmental stimuli and life events that exert influence upon an individual’s evolution and conduct. This fundamental concept stands as the epicenter of the enduring discourse on nature versus nurture, which endeavors to discern the extent to which genetic endowment (nature) and external factors (nurture) mold human traits. Nurture encompasses a broad spectrum of influences, spanning upbringing, education, societal interactions, cultural milieu, and personal encounters. These elements wield pivotal sway in shaping our identities, cognitive processes, and behavioral tendencies.

The impact of nurture commences from the very genesis of an individual’s existence. From the onset of life, and even preceding it, environmental variables commence their impact on the trajectory of development. Prenatal circumstances, such as maternal nutritional status and stress levels, hold sway over fetal growth and maturation. Following birth, the immediate familial milieu emerges as the primary font of nurture. Guardians and caregivers furnish not merely physical sustenance but also emotional succor and intellectual stimulation, both crucial for cognitive and emotional maturation. For instance, offspring who receive consistent demonstrations of affection and attention tend to foster secure attachments and augmented social acumen.

As individuals progress through childhood, their social horizons expand beyond the familial sphere to encompass peers, educators, and the broader societal tapestry. Educational experiences assume significant import in nurturing cognitive faculties and sculpting future aspirations. A conducive learning milieu can incite curiosity and intellectual maturation, whereas paucity of educational avenues can stifle progress. Peer interactions also contribute to social and emotional maturation. Through camaraderie and communal endeavors, offspring acquire the skills to navigate intricate social dynamics, cultivate empathy, and fortify self-esteem.

Culture stands as another pivotal facet of nurture. Cultural norms, values, and practices wield influence on behavior and shape an individual’s worldview. For instance, collectivist societies, which extol group cohesion and interdependence, may foster communal and familial priorities over individual accomplishments. Conversely, individualistic cultures, which valorize autonomy and self-sufficiency, may cultivate traits such as assertiveness and personal ambition. These cultural influences are assimilated through socialization mechanisms and become intrinsic to an individual’s self-concept.

Personal encounters, both positive and negative, constitute integral components of nurture. Life events such as triumphs, setbacks, and traumas can leave enduring imprints on an individual’s psyche. Positive experiences, such as attainment of goals or commendation, can bolster self-assurance and motivation. Conversely, adverse experiences, such as bereavement or maltreatment, can precipitate emotional and psychological tribulations. The manner in which individuals grapple with and construe these encounters is influenced by their antecedent nurturing environments, underscoring the intricate interplay between past and present determinants.

The repercussions of nurture are discernible in various psychological paradigms and inquiries. Behavioral psychology, for instance, accentuates the role of environmental conditioning in shaping behavior. Trailblazers like B.F. Skinner showcased how rewards and penalties can engender behavioral modifications, intimating that a substantial portion of learning emanates from environmental reinforcement. Similarly, social learning theory, propounded by Albert Bandura, posits that individuals assimilate behaviors through observation and emulation of others, further highlighting the import of environmental influences.

While the dispute concerning nature versus nurture endures, there is a burgeoning recognition that both factors are intertwined. Genetic proclivities interact with environmental stimuli to delineate individual disparities. For instance, offspring may inherit a genetic propensity toward heightened intelligence, yet whether this potential is actualized hinges on the caliber of educational prospects and cognitive stimulation they receive. Similarly, a genetic predisposition toward certain mental health conditions may be mitigated or exacerbated by environmental factors such as stress, social support, and healthcare accessibility.

Grasping the role of nurture in psychology holds pragmatic ramifications for an array of domains, encompassing education, therapy, and public policy. In education, acknowledging the significance of a nurturing and intellectually stimulating milieu can inform pedagogical methodologies and curriculum design. In therapy, delving into past experiences and extant environmental factors can prove pivotal for efficacious intervention. In public policy, initiatives aimed at enhancing living standards, mitigating poverty, and broadening access to education and healthcare can ameliorate the nurturing environments fostering wholesome development.

In conclusion, the concept of nurture in psychology encompasses the multifarious environmental influences and experiences that sculpt an individual’s maturation and conduct. From familial and societal interactions to cultural ethos and personal experiences, nurture plays a vital role in determining who we are and how we navigate the world. While genetics provides the blueprint, it is the nurturing environment that brings this blueprint to life, underscoring the profound impact of nurture on human development.

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When Prison and Mental Illness Amount to a Death Sentence

The downward spiral of one inmate, Markus Johnson, shows the larger failures of the nation’s prisons to care for the mentally ill.

Supported by

By Glenn Thrush

Photographs by Carlos Javier Ortiz

Glenn Thrush spent more than a year reporting this article, interviewing close to 50 people and reviewing court-obtained body-camera footage and more than 1,500 pages of documents.

• Published May 5, 2024 Updated May 7, 2024

Markus Johnson slumped naked against the wall of his cell, skin flecked with pepper spray, his face a mask of puzzlement, exhaustion and resignation. Four men in black tactical gear pinned him, his face to the concrete, to cuff his hands behind his back.

He did not resist. He couldn’t. He was so gravely dehydrated he would be dead by their next shift change.

Listen to this article with reporter commentary

“I didn’t do anything,” Mr. Johnson moaned as they pressed a shield between his shoulders.

It was 1:19 p.m. on Sept. 6, 2019, in the Danville Correctional Center, a medium-security prison a few hours south of Chicago. Mr. Johnson, 21 and serving a short sentence for gun possession, was in the throes of a mental collapse that had gone largely untreated, but hardly unwatched.

He had entered in good health, with hopes of using the time to gain work skills. But for the previous three weeks, Mr. Johnson, who suffered from bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, had refused to eat or take his medication. Most dangerous of all, he had stealthily stopped drinking water, hastening the physical collapse that often accompanies full-scale mental crises.

Mr. Johnson’s horrific downward spiral, which has not been previously reported, represents the larger failures of the nation’s prisons to care for the mentally ill. Many seriously ill people receive no treatment . For those who do, the outcome is often determined by the vigilance and commitment of individual supervisors and frontline staff, which vary greatly from system to system, prison to prison, and even shift to shift.

The country’s jails and prisons have become its largest provider of inpatient mental health treatment, with 10 times as many seriously mentally ill people now held behind bars as in hospitals. Estimating the population of incarcerated people with major psychological problems is difficult, but the number is likely 200,000 to 300,000, experts say.

Many of these institutions remain ill-equipped to handle such a task, and the burden often falls on prison staff and health care personnel who struggle with the dual roles of jailer and caregiver in a high-stress, dangerous, often dehumanizing environment.

In 2021, Joshua McLemore , a 29-year-old with schizophrenia held for weeks in an isolation cell in Jackson County, Ind., died of organ failure resulting from a “refusal to eat or drink,” according to an autopsy. In April, New York City agreed to pay $28 million to settle a lawsuit filed by the family of Nicholas Feliciano, a young man with a history of mental illness who suffered severe brain damage after attempting to hang himself on Rikers Island — as correctional officers stood by.

Mr. Johnson’s mother has filed a wrongful-death suit against the state and Wexford Health Sources, a for-profit health care contractor in Illinois prisons. The New York Times reviewed more than 1,500 pages of reports, along with depositions taken from those involved. Together, they reveal a cascade of missteps, missed opportunities, potential breaches of protocol and, at times, lapses in common sense.

Prison officials and Wexford staff took few steps to intervene even after it became clear that Mr. Johnson, who had been hospitalized repeatedly for similar episodes and recovered, had refused to take medication. Most notably, they did not transfer him to a state prison facility that provides more intensive mental health treatment than is available at regular prisons, records show.

The quality of medical care was also questionable, said Mr. Johnson’s lawyers, Sarah Grady and Howard Kaplan, a married legal team in Chicago. Mr. Johnson lost 50 to 60 pounds during three weeks in solitary confinement, but officials did not initiate interventions like intravenous feedings or transfer him to a non-prison hospital.

And they did not take the most basic step — dialing 911 — until it was too late.

There have been many attempts to improve the quality of mental health treatment in jails and prisons by putting care on par with punishment — including a major effort in Chicago . But improvements have proved difficult to enact and harder to sustain, hampered by funding and staffing shortages.

Lawyers representing the state corrections department, Wexford and staff members who worked at Danville declined to comment on Mr. Johnson’s death, citing the unresolved litigation. In their interviews with state police investigators, and in depositions, employees defended their professionalism and adherence to procedure, while citing problems with high staff turnover, difficult work conditions, limited resources and shortcomings of co-workers.

But some expressed a sense of resignation about the fate of Mr. Johnson and others like him.

Prisoners have “much better chances in a hospital, but that’s not their situation,” said a senior member of Wexford’s health care team in a deposition.

“I didn’t put them in prison,” he added. “They are in there for a reason.”

Markus Mison Johnson was born on March 1, 1998, to a mother who believed she was not capable of caring for him.

Days after his birth, he was taken in by Lisa Barker Johnson, a foster mother in her 30s who lived in Zion, Ill., a working-class city halfway between Chicago and Milwaukee. Markus eventually became one of four children she adopted from different families.

The Johnson house is a lively split level, with nieces, nephews, grandchildren and neighbors’ children, family keepsakes, video screens and juice boxes. Ms. Johnson sits at its center on a kitchen chair, chin resting on her hand as children wander over to share their thoughts, or to tug on her T-shirt to ask her to be their bathroom buddy.

From the start, her bond with Markus was particularly powerful, in part because the two looked so much alike, with distinctive dimpled smiles. Many neighbors assumed he was her biological son. The middle name she chose for him was intended to convey that message.

“Mison is short for ‘my son,’” she said standing over his modest footstone grave last summer.

He was happy at home. School was different. His grades were good, but he was intensely shy and was diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in elementary school.

That was around the time the bullying began. His sisters were fierce defenders, but they could only do so much. He did the best he could, developing a quick, taunting tongue.

These experiences filled him with a powerful yearning to fit in.

It was not to be.

When he was around 15, he called 911 in a panic, telling the dispatcher he saw two men standing near the small park next to his house threatening to abduct children playing there. The officers who responded found nothing out of the ordinary, and rang the Johnsons’ doorbell.

He later told his mother he had heard a voice telling him to “protect the kids.”

He was hospitalized for the first time at 16, and given medications that stabilized him for stretches of time. But the crises would strike every six months or so, often triggered by his decision to stop taking his medication.

His family became adept at reading signs he was “getting sick.” He would put on his tan Timberlands and a heavy winter coat, no matter the season, and perch on the edge of his bed as if bracing for battle. Sometimes, he would cook his own food, paranoid that someone might poison him.

He graduated six months early, on the dean’s list, but was rudderless, and hanging out with younger boys, often paying their way.

His mother pointed out the perils of buying friendship.

“I don’t care,” he said. “At least I’ll be popular for a minute.”

Zion’s inviting green grid of Bible-named streets belies the reality that it is a rough, unforgiving place to grow up. Family members say Markus wanted desperately to prove he was tough, and emulated his younger, reckless group of friends.

Like many of them, he obtained a pistol. He used it to hold up a convenience store clerk for $425 in January 2017, according to police records. He cut a plea deal for two years of probation, and never explained to his family what had made him do it.

But he kept getting into violent confrontations. In late July 2018, he was arrested in a neighbor’s garage with a handgun he later admitted was his. He was still on probation for the robbery, and his public defender negotiated a plea deal that would send him to state prison until January 2020.

An inpatient mental health system

Around 40 percent of the about 1.8 million people in local, state and federal jails and prison suffer from at least one mental illness, and many of these people have concurrent issues with substance abuse, according to recent Justice Department estimates.

Psychological problems, often exacerbated by drug use, often lead to significant medical problems resulting from a lack of hygiene or access to good health care.

“When you suffer depression in the outside world, it’s hard to concentrate, you have reduced energy, your sleep is disrupted, you have a very gloomy outlook, so you stop taking care of yourself,” said Robert L. Trestman , a Virginia Tech medical school professor who has worked on state prison mental health reforms.

The paradox is that prison is often the only place where sick people have access to even minimal care.

But the harsh work environment, remote location of many prisons, and low pay have led to severe shortages of corrections staff and the unwillingness of doctors, nurses and counselors to work with the incarcerated mentally ill.

In the early 2000s, prisoners’ rights lawyers filed a class-action lawsuit against Illinois claiming “deliberate indifference” to the plight of about 5,000 mentally ill prisoners locked in segregated units and denied treatment and medication.

In 2014, the parties reached a settlement that included minimum staffing mandates, revamped screening protocols, restrictions on the use of solitary confinement and the allocation of about $100 million to double capacity in the system’s specialized mental health units.

Yet within six months of the deal, Pablo Stewart, an independent monitor chosen to oversee its enforcement, declared the system to be in a state of emergency.

Over the years, some significant improvements have been made. But Dr. Stewart’s final report , drafted in 2022, gave the system failing marks for its medication and staffing policies and reliance on solitary confinement “crisis watch” cells.

Ms. Grady, one of Mr. Johnson’s lawyers, cited an additional problem: a lack of coordination between corrections staff and Wexford’s professionals, beyond dutifully filling out dozens of mandated status reports.

“Markus Johnson was basically documented to death,” she said.

‘I’m just trying to keep my head up’

Mr. Johnson was not exactly looking forward to prison. But he saw it as an opportunity to learn a trade so he could start a family when he got out.

On Dec. 18, 2018, he arrived at a processing center in Joliet, where he sat for an intake interview. He was coherent and cooperative, well-groomed and maintained eye contact. He was taking his medication, not suicidal and had a hearty appetite. He was listed as 5 feet 6 inches tall and 256 pounds.

Mr. Johnson described his mood as “go with the flow.”

A few days later, after arriving in Danville, he offered a less settled assessment during a telehealth visit with a Wexford psychiatrist, Dr. Nitin Thapar. Mr. Johnson admitted to being plagued by feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness and “constant uncontrollable worrying” that affected his sleep.

He told Dr. Thapar he had heard voices in the past — but not now — telling him he was a failure, and warning that people were out to get him.

At the time he was incarcerated, the basic options for mentally ill people in Illinois prisons included placement in the general population or transfer to a special residential treatment program at the Dixon Correctional Center, west of Chicago. Mr. Johnson seemed out of immediate danger, so he was assigned to a standard two-man cell in the prison’s general population, with regular mental health counseling and medication.

Things started off well enough. “I’m just trying to keep my head up,” he wrote to his mother. “Every day I learn to be stronger & stronger.”

But his daily phone calls back home hinted at friction with other inmates. And there was not much for him to do after being turned down for a janitorial training program.

Then, in the spring of 2019, his grandmother died, sending him into a deep hole.

Dr. Thapar prescribed a new drug used to treat major depressive disorders. Its most common side effect is weight gain. Mr. Johnson stopped taking it.

On July 4, he told Dr. Thapar matter-of-factly during a telehealth check-in that he was no longer taking any of his medications. “I’ve been feeling normal, I guess,” he said. “I feel like I don’t need the medication anymore.”

Dr. Thapar said he thought that was a mistake, but accepted the decision and removed Mr. Johnson from his regular mental health caseload — instructing him to “reach out” if he needed help, records show.

The pace of calls back home slackened. Mr. Johnson spent more time in bed, and became more surly. At a group-therapy session, he sat stone silent, after showing up late.

By early August, he was telling guards he had stopped eating.

At some point, no one knows when, he had intermittently stopped drinking fluids.

‘I’m having a breakdown’

Then came the crash.

On Aug. 12, Mr. Johnson got into a fight with his older cellmate.

He was taken to a one-man disciplinary cell. A few hours later, Wexford’s on-site mental health counselor, Melanie Easton, was shocked by his disoriented condition. Mr. Johnson stared blankly, then burst into tears when asked if he had “suffered a loss in the previous six months.”

He was so unresponsive to her questions she could not finish the evaluation.

Ms. Easton ordered that he be moved to a 9-foot by 8-foot crisis cell — solitary confinement with enhanced monitoring. At this moment, a supervisor could have ticked the box for “residential treatment” on a form to transfer him to Dixon. That did not happen, according to records and depositions.

Around this time, he asked to be placed back on his medication but nothing seems to have come of it, records show.

By mid-August, he said he was visualizing “people that were not there,” according to case notes. At first, he was acting more aggressively, once flicking water at a guard through a hole in his cell door. But his energy ebbed, and he gradually migrated downward — from standing to bunk to floor.

“I’m having a breakdown,” he confided to a Wexford employee.

At the time, inmates in Illinois were required to declare an official hunger strike before prison officials would initiate protocols, including blood testing or forced feedings. But when a guard asked Mr. Johnson why he would not eat, he said he was “fasting,” as opposed to starving himself, and no action seems to have been taken.

‘Tell me this is OK!’

Lt. Matthew Morrison, one of the few people at Danville to take a personal interest in Mr. Johnson, reported seeing a white rind around his mouth in early September. He told other staff members the cell gave off “a death smell,” according to a deposition.

On Sept. 5, they moved Mr. Johnson to one of six cells adjacent to the prison’s small, bare-bones infirmary. Prison officials finally placed him on the official hunger strike protocol without his consent.

Mr. Morrison, in his deposition, said he was troubled by the inaction of the Wexford staff, and the lack of urgency exhibited by the medical director, Dr. Justin Young.

On Sept. 5, Mr. Morrison approached Dr. Young to express his concerns, and the doctor agreed to order blood and urine tests. But Dr. Young lived in Chicago, and was on site at the prison about four times a week, according to Mr. Kaplan. Friday, Sept. 6, 2019, was not one of those days.

Mr. Morrison arrived at work that morning, expecting to find Mr. Johnson’s testing underway. A Wexford nurse told him Dr. Young believed the tests could wait.

Mr. Morrison, stunned, asked her to call Dr. Young.

“He’s good till Monday,” Dr. Young responded, according to Mr. Morrison.

“Come on, come on, look at this guy! You tell me this is OK!” the officer responded.

Eventually, Justin Duprey, a licensed nurse practitioner and the most senior Wexford employee on duty that day, authorized the test himself.

Mr. Morrison, thinking he had averted a disaster, entered the cell and implored Mr. Johnson into taking the tests. He refused.

So prison officials obtained approval to remove him forcibly from his cell.

‘Oh, my God’

What happened next is documented in video taken from cameras held by officers on the extraction team and obtained by The Times through a court order.

Mr. Johnson is scarcely recognizable as the neatly groomed 21-year-old captured in a cellphone picture a few months earlier. His skin is ashen, eyes fixed on the middle distance. He might be 40. Or 60.

At first, he places his hands forward through the hole in his cell door to be cuffed. This is against procedure, the officers shout. His hands must be in back.

He will not, or cannot, comply. He wanders to the rear of his cell and falls hard. Two blasts of pepper spray barely elicit a reaction. The leader of the tactical team later said he found it unusual and unnerving.

The next video is in the medical unit. A shield is pressed to his chest. He is in agony, begging for them to stop, as two nurses attempt to insert a catheter.

Then they move him, half-conscious and limp, onto a wheelchair for the blood draw.

For the next 20 minutes, the Wexford nurse performing the procedure, Angelica Wachtor, jabs hands and arms to find a vessel that will hold shape. She winces with each puncture, tries to comfort him, and grows increasingly rattled.

“Oh, my God,” she mutters, and asks why help is not on the way.

She did not request assistance or discuss calling 911, records indicate.

“Can you please stop — it’s burning real bad,” Mr. Johnson said.

Soon after, a member of the tactical team reminds Ms. Wachtor to take Mr. Johnson’s vitals before taking him back to his cell. She would later tell Dr. Young she had been unable to able to obtain his blood pressure.

“You good?” one of the team members asks as they are preparing to leave.

“Yeah, I’ll have to be,” she replies in the recording.

Officers lifted him back onto his bunk, leaving him unconscious and naked except for a covering draped over his groin. His expressionless face is visible through the window on the cell door as it closes.

‘Cardiac arrest.’

Mr. Duprey, the nurse practitioner, had been sitting inside his office after corrections staff ordered him to shelter for his own protection, he said. When he emerged, he found Ms. Wachtor sobbing, and after a delay, he was let into the cell. Finding no pulse, Mr. Duprey asked a prison employee to call 911 so Mr. Johnson could be taken to a local emergency room.

The Wexford staff initiated CPR. It did not work.

At 3:38 p.m., the paramedics declared Markus Mison Johnson dead.

Afterward, a senior official at Danville called the Johnson family to say he had died of “cardiac arrest.”

Lisa Johnson pressed for more information, but none was initially forthcoming. She would soon receive a box hastily crammed with his possessions: uneaten snacks, notebooks, an inspirational memoir by a man who had served 20 years at Leavenworth.

Later, Shiping Bao, the coroner who examined his body, determined Mr. Johnson had died of severe dehydration. He told the state police it “was one of the driest bodies he had ever seen.”

For a long time, Ms. Johnson blamed herself. She says that her biggest mistake was assuming that the state, with all its resources, would provide a level of care comparable to what she had been able to provide her son.

She had stopped accepting foster care children while she was raising Markus and his siblings. But as the months dragged on, she decided her once-boisterous house had become oppressively still, and let local agencies know she was available again.

“It is good to have children around,” she said. “It was too quiet around here.”

Read by Glenn Thrush

Audio produced by Jack D’Isidoro .

Glenn Thrush covers the Department of Justice. He joined The Times in 2017 after working for Politico, Newsday, Bloomberg News, The New York Daily News, The Birmingham Post-Herald and City Limits. More about Glenn Thrush

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