research methods in psychology adelaide uni

School of Psychology

The School of Psychology at the University of Adelaide is home to world-class psychology researchers, educators, and practitioners. We seek to expand the capabilities of industry and improve the lives of Australians. We build on a long tradition of international excellence in our research and teaching to adapt to the big challenges facing the world.

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The Graduate Diploma in Psychology is a fully online offering designed for applicants who have already completed a three-year undergraduate degree at AQF Level 7 that may or may not have included psychology. Courses focus on contemporary research, theories and applications to develop critical and analytic thinking and research skills, providing broad foundational and advanced knowledge in the scientific discipline of psychology. The program is appropriate for people who want to develop knowledge and skills for enhancing their chosen career or who are preparing for further advanced studies in Psychology.   The Graduate Diploma in Psychology is an AQF Level 8 qualification with a standard part-time duration of 1.7 years.

Academic Program Rules for Graduate Diploma in Psychology

There shall be a Graduate Diploma in Psychology.

Qualification Requirements

To qualify for the Graduate Diploma in Psychology, the student must complete satisfactorily a program of study consisting of 30 units, comprising: - Foundation courses to the value of 6 units - Core courses to the value of not less than 24 units.  

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To satisfy the requirements for Core Courses students must complete courses to the value of 30 units.

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All of the following courses must be completed:

Published on: 12 March, 2024 | 12:26:05

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PSYCH 3002 - Research Methods in Psychology

• APA PsycInfo
• Google Scholar
• Find Cited Articles
• Find "Cited by" Articles
• Browsing Best Journals
• Psychology Journals
• Is it Peer Reviewed?
• Interlibrary Loan

The power of APA PsycInfo Subject Searching

To focus your searches using APA PsycInfo try the following commands:

Also consider using the NOT command which eliminates all results with the word that follows it.

e.g.,   the search        "social media"  AND Meta NOT "meta-analysis"

... returns results that contain both the phrase " social media " and Meta , but not the phrase " meta-analysis "  The " N " command (proximity) only returns results where search terms appear within a specified number of words from each other:

e.g.,  the search:         "social media"  N4  algorithm ... returns results where the phrase social media is within four words of the word algorithm .

   ===   ===   ===   ===   ===   ===   ===   

A powerful technique to use in APA PsycInfo is " subject " searching.  If you perform a keyword search on "disabilities" and "reading".  This search returns over 8,000 results - many not particularly focused on either "disabilities" or "reading".

However, if you look at the " Subjects " listing under search results that look promising you will find specific subject terms that are linked with that article e.g., Learning Disabilities, Reading, Reading Achievement, Reading Comprehension, Reading Development, Reading Disabilities, Reading Skills, Reading Speed, etc.

Each "Subject" heading such as Reading Disabilities indicates that an article is particularly focused on that concept - making subject searching much more powerful than keyword search (or Google Scholar searching).

So start with a keyword search in APA PsycInfo ... then identify some potentially useful subject terms ... and then repeat the PsycInfo search limiting to the subject heading by changing the dropdown menu to SU Subjects  

Other Options

You might also try limiting your search terms to either AB Abstract or TI Title ... especially if there are no obvious or effective subject headings to choose from.

Before you search - you may wish to limit your search to “Scholarly (Peer Reviewed) Journals.”   

To limit to “Scholarly (Peer Reviewed) Journals” be sure to check the box labeled “Scholarly (Peer Reviewed) Journals” farther down the search screen:

Finding Empirical or Experimental Research using APA PsycInfo

You can use APA PsycInfo to search specifically for empirical research - articles that report an actual experiment or study.  To find research articles t ype in your search and then - using the " Methodology " option at the bottom of the search page - limit your search to  the option " EMPIRICAL STUDY "

Limiting to More Specific Types of Empirical Research.

You can also use the Finding Empirical or Experimental Research using APA PsycInfo search option to focus on more specific types of research such as a  Qualitative Study or  Quantitative Study.

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PSYCHOL 1004 - Research Methods in Psychology

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Our 100% online Graduate Diploma in Psychology is your first step in a rewarding career of connecting with others. The program and  curriculum  are accredited by the Australian Psychology Accreditation Council (APAC) and covers all the foundational knowledge you need to start your journey towards becoming a registered psychologist.

Our smaller, intimate class sizes ensure you’re able to forge those one-on-one connections and get the most out of your study program and you'll be supported every step of the way by our dedicated and highly qualified staff. Start an application today and join South Australia's #1 university for graduate employability (QS, 2022). 

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The ten online Graduate Diploma in Psychology courses cover the foundational knowledge you need to start your journey towards becoming a registered psychologist.

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The University of Adelaide has partnered with Pearson, the world’s leading global learning company, to deliver this degree 100% online. The Partnership has been established to deliver the very best experience and learning outcomes to all our students. Students will be awarded a University of Adelaide qualification and this degree meets the University's highest quality standards.

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Upon successful completion of the online Graduate Diploma in Psychology, graduates will be able to:

• synthesise and critique psychological theory and contemporary knowledge
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Assessments will be real-world type assessments and will include but not limited to: 

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Working as a registered psychologist is a deeply fulfilling and rewarding experience. There are many ways and settings in which you can help people and make a positive impact. From schools to hospitals, community organisations and research institutions; psychologists make invaluable contributions to individuals and societies across the globe. 

The broad range of skills you will gain from the online Graduate Diploma in Psychology are also essential for many roles in health, business, sport  and community organisations. Whether you want to shift your career trajectory, boost your current job, or brush up on your education – your new critical thinking and people-orientated skills will empower you to answer your calling.

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Before you can become a practicing or “registered psychologist”, you need to complete a sequence of both study and training psychology. This sequence is divided up into three steps. If you have a Bachelor’s degree but not in psychology, our Graduate Diploma in Psychology (GDP) is your first step.  

Once you successfully complete our graduate diploma, you are then eligible to continue onto step two, which is a ‘4th-year’ psychology program. The University of Adelaide offers an online Graduate Diploma in Psychology (Advanced) (GDPA) which is a 4th-year equivalent psychology program, just like an on-campus honours program. 

The final step is to complete one of the University of Adelaide's masters level study options below plus supervised practice before you can apply for general registration.   

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What level of experience do the Graduate Diploma in Psychology program tutors have?

Our tutors have a wealth of academic and industry psychology experience and are well established in their fields with a minimum AQF Level of 9+.

Is the Graduate Diploma in Psychology online program APAC-accredited?

Yes. Earning an accreditation from the Australian Psychology Accreditation Council (APAC) means that the Graduate Diploma in Psychology has been formally and comprehensively examined and it meets the predetermined standards of education for psychologists. APAC also ensure the program formally provides the required sequence of subjects for students wishing to undertake further study in psychology and ongoing improvement of educational quality in psychology. 

What are the entry requirements for the online Graduate Diploma in Psychology?

In order to apply for an online Graduate Diploma in Psychology, the applicant must have completed an undergraduate Bachelor's degree (of any discipline) with a passing grade, so long as it meets Aus Qual criteria .

What is the difference between a psychologist and a counsellor?

There is a big difference between a psychologist and a counsellor. Professional psychologists provide clinical mental health support, helping patients suffering from complex long-term mental health conditions, whereas counsellors usually help patients with specific short-term challenges. Psychologists must complete a specific educational criteria only becoming a registered psychologist once they have achieved the correct training. A counsellor does not require as much training but cannot provide medical advice.

Foundations of psychology - PSYCHOL 6500OL

This psychology course introduces foundational concepts and topics within the contemporary psychological field. You will learn about psychology research, theories, concepts and applications of psychological science in diverse topics such as:

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• motivation and emotion

These areas of study will provide a strong foundation for your future studies in psychology.

View the psychology course outline .

Learning and behaviour - PSYCHOL 6509OL

How do we learn from the environment around us? Study psychology and explore the theoretical foundations of learning and how they are supported by research while examining how this knowledge is applied to human and animal behaviour.

Research methods, design and analysis - PSYCHOL 6501OL

How do we make well-founded discoveries about the mind and behaviour? This online psychology course will uncover key techniques and tools used for research in psychology. Psychology students will develop the skills needed to critically evaluate and conduct psychology research into why people think and act the way they do.

View the Graduate Diploma in Psychology course outline .

Developmental psychology - PSYCHOL 6502OL

What is human development and does it ever stop? In what ways do people change and stay the same as they get older? This online psychology course will provide you with a multidimensional understanding of ageing and human development. You will be asked to consider established and emerging theories, along with contemporary research and applications in both child and adult development.

Psychological health and well-being - PSYCHOL 6503OL

What does it mean to be healthy? This online psychology course is structured as an introduction to evidence-based assessment, treatment and prevention. You will form a holistic view of behaviours and experiences from a biopsychosocial perspective to identify how psychological health can be enhanced or compromised. This online psychology course also covers select topics in clinical and health psychology.

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Applying research methods in psychology - PSYCHOL 6504OL

How do we apply methodological and statistical concepts to real-world problems? This online psychology course builds on the foundation of research methods provided in PSYCHOL 6501OL. This psychology course will teach you to think critically about the process of conducting research, apply your knowledge of research methods to a variety of contexts, and further develop your understanding of common analyses.

Culture and context - PSYCHOL 6505OL

How much are you a product of your environment? In this online psychology course you will learn about the influence of cultural assumptions and values. The importance of understanding these issues in the context of working with indigenous people will be emphasised. You will also be provided with an understanding of how psychology can be used to improve work-related practices, job satisfaction and performance.

Social psychology - PSYCHOL 6506OL

Do you ever wonder why we behave differently in groups than when we’re on our own? This online psychology course will explore topics central to contemporary research in social psychology.

Cognitive Psychology - PSYCHOL 6507OL

Cognitive Psychology is the branch of Psychology focusing on how mental processes work. These mental processes include perception, attention, memory, language, and problem solving. In this course, students will be introduced to the research, theories, and debates within Cognitive Psychology regarding how these mental processes function, as well as the applications that research within the field have to everyday life and society.

Individual difference and assessment – PSYCHOL 6508OL

Are we all different or more similar than we think? Learn how and why people behave differently despite the broad similarities shared by all humankind. You will review major theories, research methods and findings and learn how these translate into practices in the fields of intelligence, personality, and psychological assessment.

What is the total cost?

$40,230* or $4,023 per course (2024 fees).

Find more information on fees for domestic students, including annual fees and fee increases, in the Fees (domestic students) section .

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Yes, Australian citizens are eligible for a HELP loan. You must also be enrolled in a program with the University of Adelaide by the enrolment deadline (census), and have not reached the HELP loan limit.

Once you have been offered a place in the University of Adelaide program, you will be able to apply for a HELP loan as a part of the enrolment process. Please see our FAQs section for further details.

Academic entry requirements

To be eligible for the online Graduate Diploma in Psychology, you will need an undergraduate Bachelor's degree (or equivalent) in any discipline.

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In order to meet the English language proficiency requirements for our 100% online postgraduate programs , you must be able to demonstrate that you meet the minimum English Language requirements .

Typically, if English is your first language you will not be required to provide evidence of English language proficiency. You will also not be required to provide evidence of English language proficiency if you are an Australian citizen, Australian Permanent Resident (visa status) or hold a passport from one of the following countries: Canada (English-speaking provinces only), New Zealand, the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom and the United States.

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There are six intakes into the online Graduate Diploma in Psychology degree throughout the year: January, March, May, July, August and October. Applications typically close four weeks before the online teaching period commences. See the important dates section for further details on studying psychology online.

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How to Become a Psychologist

Considering a career in psychology? There are many study pathways to choose from. Find out how to become a psychologist with the University of Adelaide.

Your guide to sport and performance psychology

Learn how to become a sport psychologist and how they help athletes reach their potential. Read all about sport psychology here.

Discover an online alternative to an honours in psychology

Take the next step towards becoming a registered psychologist & learn about studying an online honours-equivalent in psychology with the University of Adelaide.

The Key Concepts in Social Psychology

Discover the key concepts of social psychology to understand the influences behind human behaviour.

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Items in DSpace are protected by copyright, with all rights reserved, unless otherwise indicated.

• Open access
• Published: 16 May 2024

Procrastination, depression and anxiety symptoms in university students: a three-wave longitudinal study on the mediating role of perceived stress

• Anna Jochmann 1 ,
• Burkhard Gusy 1 ,
• Tino Lesener 1 &
• Christine Wolter 1  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  276 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

It is generally assumed that procrastination leads to negative consequences. However, evidence for negative consequences of procrastination is still limited and it is also unclear by which mechanisms they are mediated. Therefore, the aim of our study was to examine the harmful consequences of procrastination on students’ stress and mental health. We selected the procrastination-health model as our theoretical foundation and tried to evaluate the model’s assumption that trait procrastination leads to (chronic) disease via (chronic) stress in a temporal perspective. We chose depression and anxiety symptoms as indicators for (chronic) disease and hypothesized that procrastination leads to perceived stress over time, that perceived stress leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time, and that procrastination leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time, mediated by perceived stress.

To examine these relationships properly, we collected longitudinal data from 392 university students at three occasions over a one-year period and analyzed the data using autoregressive time-lagged panel models.

Procrastination did lead to depression and anxiety symptoms over time. However, perceived stress was not a mediator of this effect. Procrastination did not lead to perceived stress over time, nor did perceived stress lead to depression and anxiety symptoms over time.

Conclusions

We could not confirm that trait procrastination leads to (chronic) disease via (chronic) stress, as assumed in the procrastination-health model. Nonetheless, our study demonstrated that procrastination can have a detrimental effect on mental health. Further health outcomes and possible mediators should be explored in future studies.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

“Due tomorrow? Do tomorrow.”, might be said by someone who has a tendency to postpone tasks until the last minute. But can we enjoy today knowing about the unfinished task and tomorrow’s deadline? Or do we feel guilty for postponing a task yet again? Do we get stressed out because we have little time left to complete it? Almost everyone has procrastinated at some point when it came to completing unpleasant tasks, such as mowing the lawn, doing the taxes, or preparing for exams. Some tend to procrastinate more frequently and in all areas of life, while others are less inclined to do so. Procrastination is common across a wide range of nationalities, as well as socioeconomic and educational backgrounds [ 1 ]. Over the last fifteen years, there has been a massive increase in research on procrastination [ 2 ]. Oftentimes, research focuses on better understanding the phenomenon of procrastination and finding out why someone procrastinates in order to be able to intervene. Similarly, the internet is filled with self-help guides that promise a way to overcome procrastination. But why do people seek help for their procrastination? Until now, not much research has been conducted on the negative consequences procrastination could have on health and well-being. Therefore, in the following article we examine the effect of procrastination on mental health over time and stress as a possible facilitator of this relationship on the basis of the procrastination-health model by Sirois et al. [ 3 ].

Procrastination and its negative consequences

Procrastination can be defined as the tendency to voluntarily and irrationally delay intended activities despite expecting negative consequences as a result of the delay [ 4 , 5 ]. It has been observed in a variety of groups across the lifespan, such as students, teachers, and workers [ 1 ]. For example, some students tend to regularly delay preparing for exams and writing essays until the last minute, even if this results in time pressure or lower grades. Procrastination must be distinguished from strategic delay [ 4 , 6 ]. Delaying a task is considered strategic when other tasks are more important or when more resources are needed before the task can be completed. While strategic delay is viewed as functional and adaptive, procrastination is classified as dysfunctional. Procrastination is predominantly viewed as the result of a self-regulatory failure [ 7 ]. It can be understood as a trait, that is, as a cross-situational and time-stable behavioral disposition [ 8 ]. Thus, it is assumed that procrastinators chronically delay tasks that they experience as unpleasant or difficult [ 9 ]. Approximately 20 to 30% of adults have been found to procrastinate chronically [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Prevalence estimates for students are similar [ 13 ]. It is believed that students do not procrastinate more often than other groups. However, it is easy to examine procrastination in students because working on study tasks requires a high degree of self-organization and time management [ 14 ].

It is generally assumed that procrastination leads to negative consequences [ 4 ]. Negative consequences are even part of the definition of procrastination. Research indicates that procrastination is linked to lower academic performance [ 15 ], health impairment (e.g., stress [ 16 ], physical symptoms [ 17 ], depression and anxiety symptoms [ 18 ]), and poor health-related behavior (e.g., heavier alcohol consumption [ 19 ]). However, most studies targeting consequences of procrastination are cross-sectional [ 4 ]. For that reason, it often remains unclear whether an examined outcome is a consequence or an antecedent of procrastination, or whether a reciprocal relationship between procrastination and the examined outcome can be assumed. Additionally, regarding negative consequences of procrastination on health, it is still largely unknown by which mechanisms they are mediated. Uncovering such mediators would be helpful in developing interventions that can prevent negative health consequences of procrastination.

The procrastination-health model

The first and only model that exclusively focuses on the effect of procrastination on health and the mediators of this effect is the procrastination-health model [ 3 , 9 , 17 ]. Sirois [ 9 ] postulates three pathways: An immediate effect of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease and two mediated pathways (see Fig.  1 ).

Adopted from the procrastination-health model by Sirois [ 9 ]

The immediate effect is not further explained. Research suggests that procrastination creates negative feelings, such as shame, guilt, regret, and anger [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. The described feelings could have a detrimental effect on mental health [ 23 , 24 , 25 ].

The first mediated pathway leads from trait procrastination to (chronic) disease via (chronic) stress. Sirois [ 9 ] assumes that procrastination creates stress because procrastinators are constantly aware of the fact that they still have many tasks to complete. Stress activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system, increases autonomic nervous system arousal, and weakens the immune system, which in turn contributes to the development of diseases. Sirois [ 9 ] distinguishes between short-term and long-term effects of procrastination on health mediated by stress. She believes that, in the short term, single incidents of procrastination cause acute stress, which leads to acute health problems, such as infections or headaches. In the long term, chronic procrastination, as you would expect with trait procrastination, causes chronic stress, which leads to chronic diseases over time. There is some evidence in support of the stress-related pathway, particularly regarding short-term effects [ 3 , 17 , 26 , 27 , 28 ]. However, as we mentioned above, most of these studies are cross-sectional. Therefore, the causal direction of these effects remains unclear. To our knowledge, long-term effects of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease mediated by (chronic) stress have not yet been investigated.

The second mediated pathway leads from trait procrastination to (chronic) disease via poor health-related behavior. According to Sirois [ 9 ], procrastinators form lower intentions to carry out health-promoting behavior or to refrain from health-damaging behavior because they have a low self-efficacy of being able to care for their own health. In addition, they lack the far-sighted view that the effects of health-related behavior only become apparent in the long term. For the same reason, Sirois [ 9 ] believes that there are no short-term, but only long-term effects of procrastination on health mediated by poor health-related behavior. For example, an unhealthy diet leads to diabetes over time. The findings of studies examining the behavioral pathway are inconclusive [ 3 , 17 , 26 , 28 ]. Furthermore, since most of these studies are cross-sectional, they are not suitable for uncovering long-term effects of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease mediated by poor health-related behavior.

In summary, previous research on the two mediated pathways of the procrastination-health model mainly found support for the role of (chronic) stress in the relationship between trait procrastination and (chronic) disease. However, only short-term effects have been investigated so far. Moreover, longitudinal studies are needed to be able to assess the causal direction of the relationship between trait procrastination, (chronic) stress, and (chronic) disease. Consequently, our study is the first to examine long-term effects of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease mediated by (chronic) stress, using a longitudinal design. (Chronic) disease could be measured by a variety of different indicators (e.g., physical symptoms, diabetes, or coronary heart disease). We choose depression and anxiety symptoms as indicators for (chronic) disease because they signal mental health complaints before they manifest as (chronic) diseases. Additionally, depression and anxiety symptoms are two of the most common mental health complaints among students [ 29 , 30 ] and procrastination has been shown to be a significant predictor of depression and anxiety symptoms [ 18 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. Until now, the stress-related pathway of the procrastination-health model with depression and anxiety symptoms as the health outcome has only been analyzed in one cross-sectional study that confirmed the predictions of the model [ 35 ].

The aim of our study is to evaluate some of the key assumptions of the procrastination-health model, particularly the relationships between trait procrastination, (chronic) stress, and (chronic) disease over time, surveyed in the following analysis using depression and anxiety symptoms.

In line with the key assumptions of the procrastination-health model, we postulate (see Fig.  2 ):

Procrastination leads to perceived stress over time.

Perceived stress leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time.

Procrastination leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time, mediated by perceived stress.

The section of the procrastination-health model we examined

Materials and methods

Our study was part of a health monitoring at a large German university Footnote 1 . Ethical approval for our study was granted by the Ethics Committee of the university’s Department of Education and Psychology. We collected the initial data in 2019. Two occasions followed, each at an interval of six months. In January 2019, we sent out 33,267 invitations to student e-mail addresses. Before beginning the survey, students provided their written informed consent to participate in our study. 3,420 students took part at the first occasion (T1; 10% response rate). Of these, 862 participated at the second (T2) and 392 at the third occasion (T3). In order to test whether dropout was selective, we compared sociodemographic and study specific characteristics (age, gender, academic semester, number of assessments/exams) as well as behavior and health-related variables (procrastination, perceived stress, depression and anxiety symptoms) between the participants of the first wave ( n  = 3,420) and those who participated three times ( n  = 392). Results from independent-samples t-tests and chi-square analysis showed no significant differences regarding sociodemographic and study specific characteristics (see Additional file 1: Table S1 and S2 ). Regarding behavior and health-related variables, independent-samples t-tests revealed a significant difference in procrastination between the two groups ( t (3,409) = 2.08, p  < .05). The mean score of procrastination was lower in the group that participated in all three waves.

The mean age of the longitudinal respondents was 24.1 years ( SD  = 5.5 years), the youngest participants were 17 years old, the oldest one was 59 years old. The majority of participants was female (74.0%), 7 participants identified neither as male nor as female (1.8%). The respondents were on average enrolled in the third year of studying ( M  = 3.9; SD  = 2.3). On average, the students worked about 31.2 h ( SD  = 14.1) per week for their studies, and an additional 8.5 h ( SD  = 8.5) for their (part-time) jobs. The average income was €851 ( SD  = 406), and 4.9% of the students had at least one child. The students were mostly enrolled in philosophy and humanities (16.5%), education and psychology (15.8%), biology, chemistry, and pharmacy (12.5%), political and social sciences (10.6%), veterinary medicine (8.9%), and mathematics and computer science (7.7%).

We only used established and well evaluated instruments for our analyses.

• Procrastination

We adopted the short form of the Procrastination Questionnaire for Students (PFS-4) [ 36 ] to measure procrastination. The PFS-4 assesses procrastination at university as a largely stable behavioral disposition across situations, that is, as a trait. The questionnaire consists of four items (e.g., I put off starting tasks until the last moment.). Each item was rated on a 5-point scale ((almost) never = 1 to (almost) always = 5) for the last two weeks. All items were averaged, with higher scores indicating a greater tendency to procrastinate. The PFS-4 has been proven to be reliable and valid, showing very high correlations with other established trait procrastination scales, for example, with the German short form of the General Procrastination Scale [ 37 , 38 ]. We also proved the scale to be one-dimensional in a factor analysis, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.90.

Perceived stress

The Heidelberger Stress Index (HEI-STRESS) [ 39 ] is a three-item measure of current perceived stress due to studying as well as in life in general. For the first item, respondents enter a number between 0 (not stressed at all) and 100 (completely stressed) to indicate how stressed their studies have made them feel over the last four weeks. For the second and third item, respondents rate on a 5-point scale how often they feel “stressed and tense” and as how stressful they would describe their life at the moment. We transformed the second and third item to match the range of the first item before we averaged all items into a single score with higher values indicating greater perceived stress. We proved the scale to be one-dimensional and Cronbach’s alpha for our study was 0.86.

Depression and anxiety symptoms

We used the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) [ 40 ], a short form of the Patient Health Questionnaire [ 41 ] with four items, to measure depression and anxiety symptoms. The PHQ-4 contains two items from the Patient Health Questionnaire-2 (PHQ-2) [ 42 ] and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-2 (GAD-2) [ 43 ], respectively. It is a well-established screening scale designed to assess the core criteria of major depressive disorder (PHQ-2) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD-2) according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). However, it was shown that the GAD-2 is also appropriate for screening other anxiety disorders. According to Kroenke et al. [ 40 ], the PHQ-4 can be used to assess a person’s symptom burden and impairment. We asked the participants to rate how often they have been bothered over the last two weeks by problems, such as “Little interest or pleasure in doing things”. Response options were 0 = not at all, 1 = several days, 2 = more than half the days, and 3 = nearly every day. Calculated as the sum of the four items, the total scores range from 0 to 12 with higher scores indicating more frequent depression and anxiety symptoms. The total scores can be categorized as none-to-minimal (0–2), mild (3–5), moderate (6–8), and severe (9–12) depression and anxiety symptoms. The PHQ-4 was shown to be reliable and valid [ 40 , 44 , 45 ]. We also proved the scale to be one-dimensional in a factor analysis, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.86.

Data analysis

To test our hypotheses, we performed structural equation modelling (SEM) using R (Version 4.1.1) with the package lavaan. All items were standardized ( M  = 0, SD  = 1). Due to the non-normality of some study variables and a sufficiently large sample size of N near to 400 [ 46 ], we used robust maximum likelihood estimation (MLR) for all model estimations. As recommended by Hu and Bentler [ 47 ], we assessed the models’ goodness of fit by chi-square test statistic, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), and comparative fit index (CFI). A non-significant chi-square indicates good model fit. Since chi-square is sensitive to sample size, we also evaluated fit indices less sensitive to the number of observations. RMSEA and SRMR values of 0.05 or lower as well as TLI and CFI values of 0.97 or higher indicate good model fit. RMSEA values of 0.08 or lower, SRMR values of 0.10 or lower, as well as TLI and CFI values of 0.95 or higher indicate acceptable model fit [ 48 , 49 ]. First, we conducted confirmatory factor analysis for the first occasion, defining three factors that correspond to the measures of procrastination, perceived stress, and depression and anxiety symptoms. Next, we tested for measurements invariance over time and specified the measurement model, before testing our hypotheses.

Measurement invariance over time

To test for measurement invariance over time, we defined one latent variable for each of the three occasions, corresponding to the measures of procrastination, perceived stress, and depression and anxiety symptoms, respectively. As recommended by Geiser and colleagues [ 50 ], the links between indicators and factors (i.e., factor loadings and intercepts) should be equal over measurement occasions; therefore, we added indicator specific factors. A first and least stringent step of testing measurement invariance is configural invariance (M CI ). It was examined whether the included constructs (procrastination, perceived stress, depression and anxiety symptoms) have the same pattern of free and fixed loadings over time. This means that the assignment of the indicators to the three latent factors over time is supported by the underlying data. If configural invariance was supported, restrictions for the next step of testing measurement invariance (metric or weak invariance; M MI ) were added. This means that each item contributes to the latent construct to a similar degree over time. Metric invariance was tested by constraining the factor loadings of the constructs over time. The next step of testing measurement invariance (scalar or strong invariance; M SI ) consisted of checking whether mean differences in the latent construct capture all mean differences in the shared variance of the items. Scalar invariance was tested by constraining the item intercepts over time. The constraints applied in the metric invariance model were retained [ 51 ]. For the last step of testing measurement invariance (residual or strict invariance; M RI ), the residual variables were also set equal over time. If residual invariance is supported, differences in the observed variables can exclusively be attributed to differences in the variances of the latent variables.

We used the Satorra-Bentler chi-square difference test to evaluate the superiority of a more stringent model [ 52 ]. We assumed the model with the largest number of invariance restrictions – which still has an acceptable fit and no substantial deterioration of the chi-square value – to be the final model [ 53 ]. Following previous recommendations, we considered a decrease in CFI of 0.01 and an increase in RMSEA of 0.015 as unacceptable to establish measurement invariance [ 54 ]. If a more stringent model had a significant worse chi-square value, but the model fit was still acceptable and the deterioration in model fit fell within the change criteria recommended for CFI and RMSEA values, we still considered the more stringent model to be superior.

Hypotheses testing

As recommended by Dormann et al. [ 55 ], we applied autoregressive time-lagged panel models to test our hypotheses. In the first step, we specified a model (M 0 ) that only included the stabilities of the three variables (procrastination, perceived stress, depression and anxiety symptoms) over time. In the next step (M 1 ), we added the time-lagged effects from procrastination (T1) to perceived stress (T2) and from procrastination (T2) to perceived stress (T3) as well as from perceived stress (T1) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T2) and from perceived stress (T2) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T3). Additionally, we included a direct path from procrastination (T1) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T3). If this path becomes significant, we can assume a partial mediation [ 55 ]. Otherwise, we can assume a full mediation. We compared these nested models using the Satorra-Bentler chi-square difference test and the Akaike information criterion (AIC). The chi-square difference value should either be non-significant, indicating that the proposed model including our hypotheses (M 1 ) does not have a significant worse model fit than the model including only stabilities (M 0 ), or, if significant, it should be in the direction that M 1 fits the data better than M 0 . Regarding the AIC, M 1 should have a lower value than M 0 .

Table  1 displays the means, standard deviations, internal consistencies (Cronbach’s alpha), and stabilities (correlations) of all study variables. The alpha values of procrastination, perceived stress, and depression and anxiety symptoms are classified as good (> 0.80) [ 56 ]. The correlation matrix of the manifest variables used for the analyses can be found in the Additional file 1: Table  S3 .

We observed the highest test-retest reliabilities for procrastination ( r  ≥ .74). The test-retest reliabilities for depression and anxiety symptoms ( r  ≥ .64) and for perceived stress ( r  ≥ .54) were a bit lower (see Table  1 ). The pattern of correlations shows a medium to large but positive relationship between procrastination and depression and anxiety symptoms [ 57 , 58 ]. The association between procrastination and perceived stress was small, the one between perceived stress and depression and anxiety symptoms very large (see Table  1 ).

Confirmatory factor analysis showed an acceptable to good fit (x 2 (41) = 118.618, p  < .001; SRMR = 0.042; RMSEA = 0.071; TLI = 0.95; CFI = 0.97). When testing for measurement invariance over time for each construct, the residual invariance models with indicator specific factors provided good fit to the data (M RI ; see Table  2 ), suggesting that differences in the observed variables can exclusively be attributed to differences of the latent variables. We then specified and tested the measurement model of the latent constructs prior to model testing based on the items of procrastination, perceived stress, and depression and anxiety symptoms. The measurement model fitted the data well (M M ; see Table  3 ). All items loaded solidly on their respective factors (0.791 ≤ β ≤ 0.987; p  < .001).

To test our hypotheses, we analyzed the two models described in the methods section.

The fit of the stability model (M 0 ) was acceptable (see Table  3 ). Procrastination was stable over time, with stabilities above 0.82. The stabilities of perceived stress as well as depression and anxiety symptoms were somewhat lower, ranging from 0.559 (T1 -> T2) to 0.696 (T2 -> T3) for perceived stress and from 0.713 (T2 -> T3) to 0.770 (T1 -> T2) for depression and anxiety symptoms, respectively.

The autoregressive mediation model (M 1 ) fitted the data significantly better than M 0 . The direct path from procrastination (T1) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T3) was significant (β = 0.16; p  < .001), however, none of the mediated paths (from procrastination (T1) to perceived stress (T2) and from perceived stress (T2) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T3)) proved to be substantial. Also, the time-lagged paths from perceived stress (T1) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T2) and from procrastination (T2) to perceived stress (T3) were not substantial either (see Fig.  3 ).

To examine whether the hypothesized effects would occur over a one-year period rather than a six-months period, we specified an additional model with paths from procrastination (T1) to perceived stress (T3) and from perceived stress (T1) to depression and anxiety symptoms (T3), also including the stabilities of the three constructs as in the stability model M 0 . The model showed an acceptable fit (χ 2 (486) = 831.281, p  < .001; RMSEA = 0.048; SRMR = 0.091; TLI = 0.95; CFI = 0.95), but neither of the two paths were significant.

Therefore, our hypotheses, that procrastination leads to perceived stress over time (H1) and that perceived stress leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time (H2) must be rejected. We could only partially confirm our third hypothesis, that procrastination leads to depression and anxiety over time, mediated by perceived stress (H3), since procrastination did lead to depression and anxiety symptoms over time. However, this effect was not mediated by perceived stress.

Results of the estimated model including all hypotheses (M 1 ). Note Non-significant paths are dotted. T1 = time 1; T2 = time 2; T3 = time 3. *** p  < .001

To sum up, we tried to examine the harmful consequences of procrastination on students’ stress and mental health. Hence, we selected the procrastination-health model by Sirois [ 9 ] as a theoretical foundation and tried to evaluate some of its key assumptions in a temporal perspective. The author assumes that trait procrastination leads to (chronic) disease via (chronic) stress. We chose depression and anxiety symptoms as indicators for (chronic) disease and postulated, in line with the key assumptions of the procrastination-health model, that procrastination leads to perceived stress over time (H1), that perceived stress leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time (H2), and that procrastination leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time, mediated by perceived stress (H3). To examine these relationships properly, we collected longitudinal data from students at three occasions over a one-year period and analyzed the data using autoregressive time-lagged panel models. Our first and second hypotheses had to be rejected: Procrastination did not lead to perceived stress over time, and perceived stress did not lead to depression and anxiety symptoms over time. However, procrastination did lead to depression and anxiety symptoms over time – which is in line with our third hypothesis – but perceived stress was not a mediator of this effect. Therefore, we could only partially confirm our third hypothesis.

Our results contradict previous studies on the stress-related pathway of the procrastination-health model, which consistently found support for the role of (chronic) stress in the relationship between trait procrastination and (chronic) disease. Since most of these studies were cross-sectional, though, the causal direction of these effects remained uncertain. There are two longitudinal studies that confirm the stress-related pathway of the procrastination-health model [ 27 , 28 ], but both studies examined short-term effects (≤ 3 months), whereas we focused on more long-term effects. Therefore, the divergent findings may indicate that there are short-term, but no long-term effects of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease mediated by (chronic) stress.

Our results especially raise the question whether trait procrastination leads to (chronic) stress in the long term. Looking at previous longitudinal studies on the effect of procrastination on stress, the following stands out: At shorter study periods of two weeks [ 27 ] and four weeks [ 28 ], the effect of procrastination on stress appears to be present. At longer study periods of seven weeks [ 59 ], three months [ 28 ], six months, and twelve months, as in our study, the effect of procrastination on stress does not appear to be present. There is one longitudinal study in which procrastination was a significant predictor of stress symptoms nine months later [ 34 ]. The results of this study should be interpreted with caution, though, because the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic fell within the study period, which could have contributed to increased stress symptoms [ 60 ]. Unfortunately, Johansson et al. [ 34 ] did not report whether average stress symptoms increased during their study. In one of the two studies conducted by Fincham and May [ 59 ], the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak also fell within their seven-week study period. However, they reported that in their study, average stress symptoms did not increase from baseline to follow-up. Taken together, the findings suggest that procrastination can cause acute stress in the short term, for example during times when many tasks need to be completed, such as at the end of a semester, but that procrastination does not lead to chronic stress over time. It seems possible that students are able to recover during the semester from the stress their procrastination caused at the end of the previous semester. Because of their procrastination, they may also have more time to engage in relaxing activities, which could further mitigate the effect of procrastination on stress. Our conclusions are supported by an early and well-known longitudinal study by Tice and Baumeister [ 61 ], which compared procrastinating and non-procrastinating students with regard to their health. They found that procrastinators experienced less stress than their non-procrastinating peers at the beginning of the semester, but more at the end of the semester. Additionally, our conclusions are in line with an interview study in which university students were asked about the consequences of their procrastination [ 62 ]. The students reported that, due to their procrastination, they experience high levels of stress during periods with heavy workloads (e.g., before deadlines or exams). However, the stress does not last, instead, it is relieved immediately after these periods.

Even though research indicates, in line with the assumptions of the procrastination-health model, that stress is a risk factor for physical and mental disorders [ 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 ], perceived stress did not have a significant effect on depression and anxiety symptoms in our study. The relationship between stress and mental health is complex, as people respond to stress in many different ways. While some develop stress-related mental disorders, others experience mild psychological symptoms or no symptoms at all [ 67 ]. This can be explained with the help of vulnerability-stress models. According to vulnerability-stress models, mental illnesses emerge from an interaction of vulnerabilities (e.g., genetic factors, difficult family backgrounds, or weak coping abilities) and stress (e.g., minor or major life events or daily hassles) [ 68 , 69 ]. The stress perceived by the students in our sample may not be sufficient enough on its own, without the presence of other risk factors, to cause depression and anxiety symptoms. However, since we did not assess individual vulnerability and stress factors in our study, these considerations are mere speculation.

In our study, procrastination led to depression and anxiety symptoms over time, which is consistent with the procrastination-health model as well as previous cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence [ 18 , 21 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. However, it is still unclear by which mechanisms this effect is mediated, as perceived stress did not prove to be a substantial mediator in our study. One possible mechanism would be that procrastination impairs affective well-being [ 70 ] and creates negative feelings, such as shame, guilt, regret, and anger [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 62 , 71 ], which in turn could lead to depression and anxiety symptoms [ 23 , 24 , 25 ]. Other potential mediators of the relationship between procrastination and depression and anxiety symptoms emerge from the behavioral pathway of the procrastination-health model, suggesting that poor health-related behaviors mediate the effect of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease. Although evidence for this is still scarce, the results of one cross-sectional study, for example, indicate that poor sleep quality might mediate the effect of procrastination on depression and anxiety symptoms [ 35 ].

In summary, we found that procrastination leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time and that perceived stress is not a mediator of this effect. We could not show that procrastination leads to perceived stress over time, nor that perceived stress leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time. For the most part, the relationships between procrastination, perceived stress, and depression and anxiety symptoms did not match the relationships between trait procrastination, (chronic) stress, and (chronic) disease as assumed in the procrastination-health model. Explanations for this could be that procrastination might only lead to perceived stress in the short term, for example, during preparations for end-of-semester exams, and that perceived stress may not be sufficient enough on its own, without the presence of other risk factors, to cause depression and anxiety symptoms. In conclusion, we could not confirm long-term effects of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease mediated by (chronic) stress, as assumed for the stress-related pathway of the procrastination-health model.

Limitations and suggestions for future research

In our study, we tried to draw causal conclusions about the harmful consequences of procrastination on students’ stress and mental health. However, since procrastination is a trait that cannot be manipulated experimentally, we have conducted an observational rather than an experimental study, which makes causal inferences more difficult. Nonetheless, a major strength of our study is that we used a longitudinal design with three waves. This made it possible to draw conclusions about the causal direction of the effects, as in hardly any other study targeting consequences of procrastination on health before [ 4 , 28 , 55 ]. Therefore, we strongly recommend using a similar longitudinal design in future studies on the procrastination-health model or on consequences of procrastination on health in general.

We chose a time lag of six months between each of the three measurement occasions to examine long-term effects of procrastination on depression and anxiety symptoms mediated by perceived stress. However, more than six months may be necessary for the hypothesized effects to occur [ 72 ]. The fact that the temporal stabilities of the examined constructs were moderate or high (0.559 ≤ β ≤ 0.854) [ 73 , 74 ] also suggests that the time lags may have been too short. The larger the time lag, the lower the temporal stabilities, as shown for depression and anxiety symptoms, for example [ 75 ]. High temporal stabilities make it more difficult to detect an effect that actually exists [ 76 ]. Nonetheless, Dormann and Griffin [ 77 ] recommend using shorter time lags of less than one year, even with high stabilities, because of other influential factors, such as unmeasured third variables. Therefore, our time lags of six months seem appropriate.

It should be discussed, though, whether it is possible to detect long-term effects of the stress-related pathway of the procrastination-health model within a total study period of one year. Sirois [ 9 ] distinguishes between short-term and long-term effects of procrastination on health mediated by stress, but does not address how long it might take for long-term effects to occur or when effects can be considered long-term instead of short-term. The fact that an effect of procrastination on stress is evident at shorter study periods of four weeks or less but in most cases not at longer study periods of seven weeks or more, as we mentioned earlier, could indicate that short-term effects occur within the time frame of one to three months, considering the entire stress-related pathway. Hence, it seems appropriate to assume that we have examined rather long-term effects, given our study period of six and twelve months. Nevertheless, it would be beneficial to use varying study periods in future studies, in order to be able to determine when effects can be considered long-term.

Concerning long-term effects of the stress-related pathway, Sirois [ 9 ] assumes that chronic procrastination causes chronic stress, which leads to chronic diseases over time. The term “chronic stress” refers to prolonged stress episodes associated with permanent tension. The instrument we used captures perceived stress over the last four weeks. Even though the perceived stress of the students in our sample was relatively stable (0.559 ≤ β ≤ 0.696), we do not know how much fluctuation occurred between each of the three occasions. However, there is some evidence suggesting that perceived stress is strongly associated with chronic stress [ 78 ]. Thus, it seems acceptable that we used perceived stress as an indicator for chronic stress in our study. For future studies, we still suggest the use of an instrument that can more accurately reflect chronic stress, for example, the Trier Inventory for Chronic Stress (TICS) [ 79 ].

It is also possible that the occasions were inconveniently chosen, as they all took place in a critical academic period near the end of the semester, just before the examination period began. We chose a similar period in the semester for each occasion for the sake of comparability. However, it is possible that, during this preparation periods, stress levels peaked and procrastinators procrastinated less because they had to catch up after delaying their work. This could have introduced bias to the data. Therefore, in future studies, investigation periods should be chosen that are closer to the beginning or in the middle of a semester.

Furthermore, Sirois [ 9 ] did not really explain her understanding of “chronic disease”. However, it seems clear that physical illnesses, such as diabetes or cardiovascular diseases, are meant. Depression and anxiety symptoms, which we chose as indicators for chronic disease, represent mental health complaints that do not have to be at the level of a major depressive disorder or an anxiety disorder, in terms of their quantity, intensity, or duration [ 40 ]. But they can be viewed as precursors to a major depressive disorder or an anxiety disorder. Therefore, given our study period of one year, it seems appropriate to use depression and anxiety symptoms as indicators for chronic disease. At longer study periods, we would expect these mental health complaints to manifest as mental disorders. Moreover, the procrastination-health model was originally designed to be applied to physical diseases [ 3 ]. Perhaps, the model assumptions are more applicable to physical diseases than to mental disorders. By applying parts of the model to mental health complaints, we have taken an important step towards finding out whether the model is applicable to mental disorders as well. Future studies should examine additional long-term health outcomes, both physical and psychological. This would help to determine whether trait procrastination has varying effects on different diseases over time. Furthermore, we suggest including individual vulnerability and stress factors in future studies in order to be able to analyze the effect of (chronic) stress on (chronic) diseases in a more differentiated way.

Regarding our sample, 3,420 students took part at the first occasion, but only 392 participated three times, which results in a dropout rate of 88.5%. At the second and third occasion, invitation e-mails were only sent to participants who had indicated at the previous occasion that they would be willing to participate in a repeat survey and provided their e-mail address. This is probably one of the main reasons for our high dropout rate. Other reasons could be that the students did not receive any incentives for participating in our study and that some may have graduated between the occasions. Selective dropout analysis revealed that the mean score of procrastination was lower in the group that participated in all three waves ( n  = 392) compared to the group that participated in the first wave ( n  = 3,420). One reason for this could be that those who have a higher tendency to procrastinate were more likely to procrastinate on filling out our survey at the second and third occasion. The findings of our dropout analysis should be kept in mind when interpreting our results, as lower levels of procrastination may have eliminated an effect on perceived stress or on depression and anxiety symptoms. Additionally, across all age groups in population-representative samples, the student age group reports having the best subjective health [ 80 ]. Therefore, it is possible that they are more resilient to stress and experience less impairment of well-being than other age groups. Hence, we recommend that future studies focus on other age groups as well.

It is generally assumed that procrastination leads to lower academic performance, health impairment, and poor health-related behavior. However, evidence for negative consequences of procrastination is still limited and it is also unclear by which mechanisms they are mediated. In consequence, the aim of our study was to examine the effect of procrastination on mental health over time and stress as a possible facilitator of this relationship. We selected the procrastination-health model as a theoretical foundation and used the stress-related pathway of the model, assuming that trait procrastination leads to (chronic) disease via (chronic) stress. We chose depression and anxiety symptoms as indicators for (chronic) disease and collected longitudinal data from students at three occasions over a one-year period. This allowed us to draw conclusions about the causal direction of the effects, as in hardly any other study examining consequences of procrastination on (mental) health before. Our results indicate that procrastination leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time and that perceived stress is not a mediator of this effect. We could not show that procrastination leads to perceived stress over time, nor that perceived stress leads to depression and anxiety symptoms over time. Explanations for this could be that procrastination might only lead to perceived stress in the short term, for example, during preparations for end-of-semester exams, and that perceived stress may not be sufficient on its own, that is, without the presence of other risk factors, to cause depression and anxiety symptoms. Overall, we could not confirm long-term effects of trait procrastination on (chronic) disease mediated by (chronic) stress, as assumed for the stress-related pathway of the procrastination-health model. Our study emphasizes the importance of identifying the consequences procrastination can have on health and well-being and determining by which mechanisms they are mediated. Only then will it be possible to develop interventions that can prevent negative health consequences of procrastination. Further health outcomes and possible mediators should be explored in future studies, using a similar longitudinal design.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

University Health Report at Freie Universität Berlin.

Abbreviations

Comparative fit index

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition

Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-2

Heidelberger Stress Index

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical

Robust maximum likelihood estimation

Short form of the Procrastination Questionnaire for Students

Patient Health Questionnaire-2

Patient Health Questionnaire-4

Root mean square error of approximation

Structural equation modeling

Standardized root mean square residual

Tucker-Lewis index

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Conceptualization: A.J., B.G., T.L.; methodology: B.G., A.J.; validation: B.G.; formal analysis: A.J., B.G.; investigation: C.W., T.L., B.G.; data curation: C.W., T.L., B.G.; writing–original draft preparation: A.J., B.G.; writing–review and editing: A.J., T.L., B.G., C.W.; visualization: A.J., B.G.; supervision: B.G., T.L.; project administration: C.W., T.L., B.G.; All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

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Jochmann, A., Gusy, B., Lesener, T. et al. Procrastination, depression and anxiety symptoms in university students: a three-wave longitudinal study on the mediating role of perceived stress. BMC Psychol 12 , 276 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01761-2

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International students must meet the following criteria:

Minimum English Language Requirements

International student IELTS requirement: Academic IELTS minimum overall band of 6.5 with no individual band below 6.0 completed in the last two years (or equivalent).

Overseas qualifications must be deemed by ACAP as equivalent to Australian qualifications.

Not an international student? View Domestic Entry Requirements

Domestic Fees

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International Fees

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Start dates

• Trimester 3 - Mon 16 Sept 2024
• Trimester 1 - Mon 3 Feb 2025
• Trimester 2 - Mon 26 May 2025

Be intrigued by the human mind

Our Graduate Certificate of Psychological Science gives you deep insight into why we think and act the way we do, with an understanding of the connection between an individual, society and culture. The degree provides students with psychological knowledge and skills that they will be able to apply to their current and/or future workplaces. Note for International Students: The Graduate Certificate of Psychological Science is only offered as a pathway program into the Graduate Diploma of Psychological Science. Additionally, three units will be delivered in one trimester and the remaining unit of this course will be delivered in the following trimester with units from the Graduate Diploma of Psychological Science. * This course is only available to international students on-campus in Melbourne and Sydney, on a full time enrolment basis (completion within 26 weeks).

What you'll learn

Expertise in human behaviour forms the foundation of all our courses including our Graduate Certificate of Psychological Science. EXPLORE WITH AN APPLIED FOCUS: Evidence-based approaches The individual, society and culture Biology, learning and cognition Professional issues and applications

Essential Information

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• Scholarships east
• Credit and Recognition of Prior Learning east
• Inherent Requirements east
• Domestic Course Guide east
• International Course Guide east
• Accreditation Information east

Course structure

The Graduate Certificate of Psychological Science course is comprised of 4 units, which are level 100 and 500 units.

The course duration is 26 weeks full time or up to 2 years part time. For more information on the recommended course sequence click here .

Level: 100 level core

Credit Points: 6 Mode of delivery:  On-campus and online

Unit description:

Opening up possibilities for developing multidisciplinary knowledge and practice, ACAP draws on the 4 Disciplines in the College to develop three integrative units that are core to first-year Undergraduate courses. These inquiry-driven units lay the groundwork for engaging students with multidisciplinary thinking, discourse and initiative in their fields of endeavour and in their future profession/vocation.

This unit will introduce students the issues of sustainability on a personal, professional and community level. We will examine individual and group practices that can meet the needs of current generations without compromising our or future generations ability to meet their own needs through a transdisciplinary perspective. This will encompass evidence-based approaches to promoting sustainability in the context of study, professional work and within our communities. The unit provides students with an opportunity to explore, analyse and reflect on the contribution of human behaviour to the sustainability of individuals and communities, and apply this to their personal, educational and future professional lives.

Please note: There are slightly different expectations in MULT1035 for  Graduate Certificate of Psychological (GCPS) Science  students. If you are enrolled in the Graduate Certificate of Psychology there are modified versions of  Learning Outcome [c] , the  Assessment 1b rubric , and the  Assessment 2 rubric  in the relevant sections below. If you are not enrolled in the Graduate Certificate of Psychological Science, you can ignore these sections.

Learning outcomes:

On successful completion of this unit, students will be able to:

a. Define sustainability in personal, professional and community contexts (undergraduate)

b. Apply the principles of sustainability to personal, professional and community contexts (undergraduate)

c. Demonstrate how evidenced-based approaches can be used to take action to support sustainability (undergraduate)

Unit workload

The workload for this unit is 10 hours per week.

Level:  500 level core Credit points:  6 Prerequisites:  None

Mode of delivery:  On-campus and online

Unit Description:

This unit is one of two introductory units in psychology for commencing students. Along with PSYC5172 Foundational Psychological Processes Advanced and MULT1025 Professions and Society, this unit builds foundational knowledge relevant to the history, philosophy, and methods underpinning the scientific study and profession of psychology. In this unit, the history and philosophy of both the quantitative and qualitative approaches are presented within the broader historical and philosophical themes of psychology as a discipline. The goals of this unit are to set the foundation for understanding research design and methods in psychology and to develop skills relevant to critiquing research, which involves developing knowledge and skills in research thinking, research doing, and research consuming. The unit considers the application of these research methods within the context of important concepts, such as the scientist-practitioner model, evidence-based practice, ontology and epistemology, and ethics. Content related to introductory concepts in the history of philosophy of psychology are also covered, along with content on the application of psychology in current professional and social contexts. This material will be presented in a manner that is scientifically rigorous yet culturally responsive and informs a broader discussion of psychology as both a professional practice in Australia and as an agent of social benefit. This unit is the first in a scaffolded series of units that, taken together, will facilitate the development of a comprehensive understanding of the skills and knowledge associated with research methods in psychology, the history and philosophy of psychology, and their contribution to the application of psychology.

Learning Outcomes:

Learning and Teaching Process:

This unit is taught over 13 weeks. Students will participate in teaching and learning activities including:

a. Twelve (12) weekly pre-recorded 120-minute lectures

b. Twelve (12) weekly 90-minute live tutorials

For live tutorials, students will be enrolled to attend a regular class either a) on campus or b) online via Zoom.

In addition, the Unit Coordinator will be available for live online consultation for an hour on a weekly basis.

This unit is a level 500 core and along with the PSYC5162 Psychology: History, Science and Application 1 Advanced and MULT1025 Professions and Society it provides an initial introduction to psychology. This unit will introduce fundamental psychological processes including principles of human learning, personality, motivation and emotion. The unit will provide a foundation for future study in psychology, including an introduction to the key processes of human cognition, human emotion, and human behaviour. Students will engage with empirical research as a means of evaluating competing theories and learn to engage in critical analysis of research findings. Culturally responsive approaches to the study of psychology are emphasised with the development of skills in communication of psychological processes across diverse contexts. Students will acquire skills in critical thinking and research communication that are necessary to progress through advanced and applied studies in psychology.

This unit is taught over 13 weeks and totals approximately 10 to 12 hours of learning activities per week.

Students will participate in teaching and learning activities including:

a. Twelve (12) weekly 120-minute interactive self-directed learning activities

b. Twelve (12) weekly 120-minute lectures

c. Twelve (12) weekly 90-minute tutorials

In addition, Coordinators are available for consultation for an hour on a weekly basis.

Level: 500 level core Credit points:  6 Prerequisites:  PSYC5162 Psychology: History, Science and Application 1 Advanced (Graduate Certificate of Psychological Science only)

This unit is one of the core Level 500 units in the Graduate Diploma of Psychological Science. In this unit, the history and philosophy of both the quantitative and qualitative approaches to research methods in psychology is presented within the broader historical and philosophical themes of psychology as a discipline. The goals of the unit are to develop an understanding the role of quantitative data analysis and statistical testing (using the SPSS data analysis package) and qualitative approaches in answering research questions in psychology, which involves developing knowledge and skills in research thinking, research doing, and research consuming. The unit considers the application of these research methods within the context of important concepts, such as the scientist-practitioner model, evidence-based practice, ontology and epistemology, and ethics. This material will be presented in a manner that is scientifically rigorous yet culturally responsive and informs a broader discussion of psychology as both a professional practice in Australia and as an agent of social benefit. This unit is the first of two units that, taken together, will facilitate the development of a comprehensive understanding of the skills and knowledge associated with research methods in psychology, the history and philosophy of psychology, and their contribution to the application of psychology.

This unit is taught over 13 weeks and totals approximately 10 to 12 hours of learning activities per week. Students will participate in teaching and learning activities including:

a. Twelve (12) weekly 90 minute live tutorials

b. Twelve (12) weekly online 120 minute asynchronous lectures

c. Twelve (12) weekly online post-tutorial learning activities

View unit descriptions

Pathways for future study.

The Graduate Certificate of Psychological Science course is a pathway to higher education, such as to the Graduate Diploma of Psychological Science.

This could be the first step on the path to training and registering as a psychologist in Australia or another career where understanding human behaviour is beneficial.

Related courses

Applied psychology, graduate diploma of professional psychology practice.

Are you pursuing general registration as a psychologist? ACAP’s Graduate Diploma of Professional Psychology Practice provides a sixth year of professional training in psychology for fifth-year Australian Psychology Accreditation Council (APAC) accredited psychology graduates seeking to complete the 5+1 pathway to registration. This course is offered on a trimester basis.

Graduate Diploma of Psychological Science

If you’ve already passed an undergraduate degree, but have a driving passion to understand human behaviour at a deeper level, this is the course for you. Our Graduate Diploma of Psychological Science gives you deep insight into why we think and act the way we do. You will build a strong foundation in critical and analytical thinking and develop your skills to successfully design, construct and evaluate research, allowing you to uncover the nuances of human behaviour through the scientific discipline of psychology.

Master of Professional Psychology

You’re ready to make your mark and help change people’s lives for the better. Our Master of Professional Psychology continues your deep understanding of human behaviour, and is the fifth year of the six years' professional training required for general registration as a psychologist in Australia. You can then complete a one-year Psychology Board of Australia approved internship or the Graduate Diploma of Professional Psychological Practice to have the fifth and sixth years of training required for general registration as a psychologist.

Apply or find out more

Book a call back and one of our acap course advisors will be in touch. ask questions about your funding options, delivery modes and whether full-time or part-time study suits your commitments..

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September 2025

Find out more:.

Online webinar book your place

Tuesday 9th April 2024 – 6pm

Thursday 6th June 2024 – 6pm

Clinical Applications of Psychology MSc/PGDip/PG Cert

Postgraduate, master's degree, postgraduate certificate, postgraduate diploma, september 2025, key details.

• TBC Typical UCAS Tariff

The MSc in Clinical Applications of Psychology provides modules in aspects of psychology relevant to clinical practice, for students who are intending to apply to Doctoral programmes in clinical psychology or study a PhD. Whilst there is no guarantee that students will ultimately be successful in gaining entry to Doctoral programmes or a PhD, this course is intended to strengthen your credentials and enable you to get the most out of your relevant experience. It is expected that students accepted onto the MSc will be currently working in clinically relevant posts, such as psychology assistants, nursing assistants or therapy aides. As with other current Masters Degrees in Clinical Psychology this MSc is not BPS accredited.

“This course occupies a niche in higher education in psychology that does not seem to be filled elsewhere: a grounding in clinical psychology theory and research that can support and provide an additional dimension to the experience of psychology graduates who are aiming to go on in the future to train in clinical or other related areas of applied psychology. The syllabus has been carefully designed to meet the course aims. The outcomes can be demonstrated in the level of performance of the students (and also in their reported success in gaining places on Doctorate courses).” External Examiner

• Part-time programme.
• Delivered online with only one compulsory campus based induction workshop.
• The online nature allows students to continue to work alongside their studies.
• The delivery mode enables students to be geographically widespread.
• The programme is designed to strengthen student’s credentials for those who are intending to apply to Doctoral training programmes within Clinical Psychology.
• There are no examinations on this programme, all assessments are course work based.
• The applied nature of this course makes it valuable for any Psychology graduate wishing to develop their skills.
• The programme will provide students with the opportunity to study at post-graduate level several key topics related to the current practice of clinical psychology in the United Kingdom.

This programme will provide you with the opportunity to study several key topics related to the current practice of clinical psychology in the United Kingdom at a distance, through online learning and teaching methods. The taught modules reflect key areas of clinical psychology, e.g., adult and child mental health, issues in psychotherapy, neuropsychology, professional issues, ethics and diversity, and clinical research methods. Adult and Child mental health examine mental distress, their aetiology, diagnosis/formulation and treatment/interventions. Issues in psychotherapy covers competing perspectives of some of the major ongoing issues in psychotherapeutic theory & practice. Neuropsychology looks at assessment of patients in a range of domains of cognitive functioning. Professional issues, ethics and diversity looks at the way in which Clinical Psychologists engage with the world and conduct themselves in a professional way. Research methods utilizes qualitative and quantitative methodologies to look at real world applications of research. These six taught components of the programme are delivered over two academic years and the independent dissertation component can be taken concurrently with the taught modules or after the taught modules have been completed. The dissertation element of this programme is an opportunity for you to produce an independent piece of research to a publishable standard.  The dissertation submission takes the form of a journal article written to the specifications of a journal chosen by yourself.

All modules on the MSc in Clinical Applications of Psychology programme are delivered using the institution’s Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) – moodle. The programme has been designed around notions of experiential learning – learning by doing. Thus you will play an active part in each module of the programme. Module content is predominantly based around core texts and journal articles. Each module is embedded with practical aspects to enable you to apply theory into a practical context. This occurs through innovative learning and teaching methods, utilising the functions available on moodle. The programme is underpinned by both synchronous and asynchronous learning and teaching methods (e.g., online activities and live chats). You will have the opportunity to take part in weekly synchronous online group seminars/tutorials to discuss specific topics within the module. This seminars/tutorial is made available on a set day during an evening slot. By means of asynchronous learning, you will have the opportunity to take part in discussions, utilising the discussion forum. PowerPoint’s are also made available for some content and pre-recordings. Thus, there are many learning mechanisms for you to engage.

The programme aims to develop subject specific knowledge and understanding, subject specific skills and competences, and generic transferable skills, and assessments are geared to demonstrate these. Throughout the programme both formative and summative assessments are utilised. The programme will incorporate a mixture of assessments such as case studies, reports, portfolios and proposals.

The programme intends to strengthen students’ credentials, for those wishing to apply for Doctorate Programmes in Clinical psychology or study a PhD. Relevant transferrable skills developed through this programme which will strengthen credentials include research knowledge and practice, critical evaluation, writing reports, independent working. As well as being relevant to the Clinical Psychology Doctorate or studying a PhD, these transferable skills will place students well for careers as assistant Clinical Psychologists, rewarding careers in the area of mental health, as well as research posts and working in academia.

This programme is delivered online, with one compulsory attendance for induction to the programme in September.

Entry Requirements

Entry requirements for 2025 entry TBC

Course Fees

Course fees for 2025 entry TBC

Additional Costs

Due to the online nature of the programme, students will need access to their own computer hardware and software, specifically internet access. Additionally, computer hardware should be of a minimum specification level to allow the downloading and running of statistical analysis packages. As software requirements change over time we cannot provide an absolute minimum level. However, if you wish to enquire about the current minimum specification then please do not hesitate to contact the Programme Leader.

Where possible module core texts have been chosen so as to be available as a free e-book. However, some core texts are not available as e-books and, in these situations, students will be advised to purchase personal hard copies. However, the expected cost of such texts is unlikely to exceed £150 in any given academic year. Obviously, even where e-books are available students may wish to purchase personal hard copies and this may increase the book expenditure further but this will be at each student’s personal discretion.

Please be aware that, as with any course, there may be changes to the modules delivered, for information view our Changes to Programmes or Module Changes page.

Timetables: find out when information is available to students

Please note that the Dissertation module can be studied in year 2 alongside the three remaining modules, or in year 3 once all taught modules are completed. Students have two academic years to complete this module.

Research Methods in Clinical Psychology

Adult mental health, issues in psychotherapy: a critical approach, professional issues, ethics and diversity, neuropsychological assessment, childhood mental health, dissertation, additional information.

General Academic Regulations: Terms and Conditions for students attending our courses