social work ethical dilemma assignment

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Social Work Ethics: 5 Common Dilemmas and How to Handle Them Responsibly

The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics is a set of guiding principles to assist social workers in making decisions in the best interests of their clients, even if they might contradict what we might do in our personal lives. These decisions are not always easy – especially when two guiding principles come into conflict.

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These conflicts are called ethical dilemmas . They occur when a specific situation calls for the worker to prioritize one ethical principle over another or if one’s personal values come into conflict with the best practices outlined by our profession. Today we’ll explore some more common situations faced by social workers in practice.

Receiving Gifts

Whether it’s the holidays, a special occasion, or some other milestone, your client may try to thank you for your hard work by giving you a gift. These situations are much more complicated than they seem because there are cultural, societal, and relationship factors to consider on top of the bond you and your client share.

Ethical values and principles involved

• Importance of Human Relationships – Rejecting the gift may taint the rapport you’ve built, perhaps over several years, or leave the client feeling like you are personally rejecting her.
• Integrity – Part of our job is to serve as role-models by maintaining healthy and appropriate boundaries in professional relationships.

Involuntary Commitment

Regardless of your social worker breed, at some point you will come across a client who intends to harm himself or someone else. These are some of our most challenging moments as helpers.

• Dignity and Worth of the Person – We want to protect the client’s right to decide how to live his life. That said, it should be noted that the Code specifically states, “Social workers may limit clients’ right to self-determination when, in the social workers’ professional judgment, clients’ actions or potential actions pose a serious, foreseeable, and imminent risk to themselves or others.” (NASW Code of Ethics 1.02 Self-determination)
• Importance of Human Relationships – There is a chance the decision to breach confidentiality will ruin the rapport you have established with that client.

Breaches of Confidentiality with Minor Clients

There comes a point in every adolescent therapist’s career when you hear these words:

“You’re not gonna tell my mom, are you?”

However soul crushing this may be, you are required by law to report not only to the parent(s), but to the Department of Social Services or Law Enforcement.

• Dignity and Worth of the Person – We want to support the right to self-determination, even our youngest clients.
• Importance of Human Relationship – Breaching a child’s confidentiality may impact their trust moving forward.
• Integrity – We must behave in a trustworthy manner, not only with our clients, but with their families and the communities we serve.

Commission of Illegal Acts

Sometimes good clients do bad things. In cases of child abuse or neglect, reporting a client’s behavior is a no-brainer. Other times, however, the rules are a little grey. This is especially common for social workers who are working with clients who are incarcerated or abusing drugs.

• Dignity and Worth of the Person – As the NASW Code of Ethics states, social workers seek to resolve conflicts between clients’ interests and the broader society’s interests in a socially responsible manner consistent with the values, ethical principles, and ethical standards of the profession.
• Importance of Human Relationships – Trust is paramount to a client-worker relationship. Reporting on your client’s illegal activities is in direct conflict with that.
• Integrity – We must practice in a way that is honest and responsible. We are also beholden to the laws and policies of the agencies and communities we serve.
• Social Justice – Sometimes the law may seem unfair or your client’s situation may feel precarious, especially if he has experienced discrimination or injustice in the past.

Interacting on Social Media

Ten years ago it was considered unethical to email our clients. Now our Code of Ethics specifically addresses the best practices for conducting therapeutic services over the internet. One issue that remains sticky is social media. What should a social worker do if a client tries to “Friend Request” her on Facebook?

• Dignity and Worth of the Person – You want to respect your client’s right to self-determination.
• Importance of Human Relationships – Social media is a ubiquitous part of modern culture, particularly for younger clients. Your client may feel personally rejected or slighted by your decision not to “friend” them.
• Integrity – Social workers must act in a way that is consistent with agency policies, even if that creates a bump in the smooth working relationship you have with a client. Some things to consider are how your client’s perception of you may be impacted by the things they learn about you through social media and what your comfort is with them being able to see your personal information and activities.
• Competence – In addition to being a competent social worker, you need to be a competent user of technology. Handling this ethical dilemma involves working knowledge of the privacy capabilities and limitations of both the devices and applications involved.

There is no easy answer, and sometimes there is no right answer. You have to decide what’s best for your client and your practice.

Steps for handling ethical dilemmas:

1. consult the code.

You should always have a copy of the NASW Code of Ethics on hand for times like this. Spend some time reading through the code. Identify the principles that come into conflict in the specific situation and why they are important to social work practice.

2. Review State and Federal Laws

Be sure your decisions are sound, not only ethically but legally. Remember you can’t help anyone if you put yourself in a position to lose your license or your freedom.

3. Seek Supervision

No matter how long you’ve been in the field, if you have doubts, questions, or just need a sounding board, seek supervision. Everyone needs a second opinion once in a while. Supervisors can be particularly helpful in guiding you to make the best decision possible in a difficult situation.

4. Consult the NASW

One of the most vital benefits to being a member of the NASW is having the support of a national organization to back up your work. Most states have a hotline social workers can call when they experience ethical dilemmas. You can discuss your situation confidentially, without using identifying client details, and get professional advice on how to handle things. Sometimes a neutral party is the best resource to help you consider things from a new perspective.

5. Take Time to Process What You’ve Learned

After you’ve done your research and consulted the experts, take some time to process everything before making your decision. Often, when faced with an ethical dilemma, you can’t undo a decision once it’s been made. At the end of the day, you need to be able to live with your decision and to feel confident you are doing what is in the best interest of your client.

Understanding Ethical Dilemmas in Social Work

Ava, a first-grader in foster care, offers her caseworker a lacy handmade valentine. Zack, an unemployed man in his 30s experiencing stress and anxiety, reveals plans to physically harm his partner. Each scenario poses an ethical dilemma in social work.

Social work’s mission is to advocate for the well-being of all people, especially vulnerable people confronting poverty or oppression. Knowing and following professional standards are key to supporting those in need while upholding professional ethics that respect humanity.

The National Association of Social Workers  Code of Ethics  guides social workers in everyday professional conduct and ethical decision-making.

Social workers are committed to helping humanity. In doing so, all social workers, according to the National Association of Social Workers  Code of Ethics , share the following six core values:

• Social justice
• Dignity and worth of the person
• Importance of human relationships

What Is an Ethical Dilemma in Social Work?

Ethical dilemmas in social work are more complex than they seem. In the field, ethics refers to the profession’s code for proper conduct. According to the NASW, an ethical dilemma in social work is a circumstance in which two or more professional ethical principles conflict.

Social workers learn ethical decision-making to uphold professional values, such as integrity and social justice, as well as professional principles, such as helping people in need. In doing so, they take positive action to protect clients and others while fulfilling their responsibility to respect the dignity and foster the well-being of all members of society.

Examples of Ethical Dilemmas in Social Work

Every ethical issue social workers encounter in their practice is important. Furthermore, the decisions they make to resolve these issues have one overarching motivation: to seek the option that does the least amount of harm.

In general, an ethical dilemma arises when a social worker must choose between two equally valid, mutually exclusive choices of action, both of which result in some sort of harm to a person or persons.

The following examples are representative of ethical dilemmas in social work that correspond to some of the field’s key values and principles.

Recognizing the Importance of Human Relationships

As healers and helpers, social work professionals strive to improve relationships among people to support the well-being of clients, families and communities. Often, this means modeling and maintaining appropriate boundaries in professional relationships.

Example: Receiving Gifts

Suppose a client, Daniel, gives his social worker an expensive gemstone ring for her birthday. Refusing to accept the gift may damage the rapport the social worker has built with Daniel over many years; it may leave him feeling personally rejected. Accepting the ring, however, would cross the line into an inappropriate relationship because its expense could imply a bribe, and its nature has intimate, romantic connotations. A social worker weighing the two options would likely decide to refuse the gift.

However, a social worker may decide that accepting another client’s inexpensive gift of a handcrafted clay figurine or a homemade fruitcake might be a more desirable option than refusing it and risking harm to the professional relationship. The age of the gift-giver may also come into play, as with the case of Ava and her handmade valentine in the scenario above.

Example: Social Media

Given the importance of upholding social relationships when many interactions between individuals occur online, how should a social worker handle professional relationships on social media? The issue gets complicated.

For instance, if a client sends their social worker a friend request on Facebook, should the social worker ignore or accept the request? How should a social worker handle posting to their own social media accounts? Would their posts influence a client outcome or breach confidence in a professional relationship?

Dignity and Worth of the Person

Overall, social workers support and protect their clients’ right to self-determination — that is, to decide how to live their lives without interference. The NASW  Code of Ethics , however, includes a qualifying statement to this principle: “Social workers may limit clients’ right to self-determination when, in the social worker’s professional judgment, clients’ actions or potential actions pose a serious, foreseeable, and imminent risk to themselves or others.”

Example: Involuntary Commitment

Zack describes to his social worker in specific detail how he would like to harm his partner. Zack also exhibits disorientation, laughs and becomes aggressive as he describes his intent to do harm.

The ethical dilemma for the social worker is between confidentiality and duty to warn. Not all states have adopted a duty to warn. Trained social workers are aware of local and state regulations, professional responsibility and liability, and use their social work education along with good clinical supervision to maneuver challenging decisions like this.

Cultural Awareness and Diversity

When professionals grapple with ethical dilemmas in social work, the client’s cultural background is an important consideration. Standard 1.05 of the NASW  Code of Ethics , “Cultural Awareness and Diversity,” emphasizes that social workers should continuously seek to heighten their awareness of people of diverse cultures and backgrounds and strive to better meet their needs.

Prepare to Address Ethical Dilemmas in Social Work

Before issues arise, social workers understand they should be prepared to address them. Professionals in the field recommend these steps:

• Study the NASW  Code of Ethics , which includes the social work profession’s mission, values and principles.
• Learn an ethical decision-making process. For example, as a foundation, the  Code of Ethics  contains a brief guide for dealing with ethical issues and dilemmas in practice.
• Seek professional supervision, and discuss issues and how to address them with supervisors and professional consultants.
• Keep current in the profession and stay apprised of Code of Ethics updates.

Pursue an Advanced Degree in Social Work

Social workers are allies for social justice, human dignity, and the celebration of human diversity and freedom of expression. For individuals who are motivated to help others and maintain integrity in a respected profession, Virginia Commonwealth University’s  Online Master of Social Work  program prepares students to serve society’s most vulnerable.

Tailored to meet the needs of working professionals, the program upholds ethical practice in a changing world as a guiding principle. Discover how understanding ethical dilemmas in social work prepares you to make a difference in this rewarding field.

Social Work With the LGBTQIA+ Community: Supporting the Needs of a Diverse Population

What Is Trauma-Informed Practice in Social Work?

Why Cultural Competence in Social Work Is a Vital Skill

GoodTherapy, “When Do Minors in Therapy Have a Right to Confidentiality?”

National Association of Social Workers, “Free Ethics Consultations for NASW Members”

National Association of Social Workers, “Read the Code of Ethics”

The New Social Worker , “Analysis of an Ethical Dilemma”

The New Social Worker , “Client Relationships and Ethical Boundaries for Social Workers in Child Welfare”

The New Social Worker , “Ethics Alive! Using Ethics Consultation: What, Why, When, Who, and How”

The New Social Worker , “To Report or Not To Report: That Is the Ethical Dilemma”

Social Work Today , “’Tis the Season: Managing Client Gifts”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Social Workers

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EXAMPLES OF ETHICAL DILEMMAS IN SOCIAL WORK IN THE UNITED STATES

There are many ethical considerations in social work, The most common Social Work ethical dilemmas include confidentiality, moral dilemmas, and client requests for independence. When clients’ actions mirror their intentions, an ethical dilemma will rarely present itself in the social work context. Someone who blatantly abuses their family members without remorse, for example, will be quickly reported by a social worker without much internal conflict on the reporter’s part. When a well-intentioned client makes a misguided decision, however, as part of the effort to improve their situation based on the social worker’s advice, an ethical conflict can occur.

Especially when mental health and addictive tendencies, social workers are very conscious of the fragility of recovery for their clients. For this reason, they may feel compelled to stay silent when a well-meaning client crosses an ethical boundary. To skillfully navigate this recurring issue, social workers must first recognize the most common forms of ethical problems in their field. Then, they can establish a method for gently guiding clients to a more productive course of action in a way that minimizes impact on morale.

Confidentiality

Social workers are of course bound to confidentiality, meaning they cannot discuss client business with anyone else. Like healthcare providers and HIPAA, this is a very serious matter that people lose their jobs over, even in the case of accidental breaches. Deciding when to break confidentiality is one of the most common ethical issues in social work.

There is only one scenario that justifies a breach of confidentiality, and reasonably so. It is in the case of unlawful and harmful acts . If a client tells you that they are hurting themselves, hurting anyone else, or being hurt by someone else, that’s grounds for the release of private information.

When social workers are in school, this may seem like a relatively straightforward requirement, but they often feel very conflicted when they first encounter it in the field. If a case is blatant, as mentioned, as with severe harm or abuse, then the reporter is not so conflicted. If a client shows up to a session with a small bruise that is consistent with abusive handling, however, and they insist strongly that they aren’t being abused, the social worker may struggle ethically – especially if the spousal or parental relationship is fragile enough to be damaged by an investigation.

The best way to resolve this dilemma – or at least make it easier – is to pre-empt it. At the start of a social worker’s relationship with a client, the social worker should disclaim to the client that all information is private except for reports of self-harm, harm to others. This will help to preserve trust, even in the case of a report. In either case, social workers should always remember their state’s NASW guidelines (Connecticut linked as an example). These guidelines help outline the circumstances required for a mandated report.

Client Requests for Independent Living

This issue most prominently affects clients with mental health and behavioral concerns. When a client with mental health ethical dilemmas requests their own housing, the social worker may feel conflicted. They want to encourage the client’s self-sufficiency.

However, they aren’t entirely sure if the client is prepared to make that transition, especially since the client has been in an inpatient environment for a significant amount of time. Similarly, a social worker may be hesitant to place a client with severe depression and suicidal tendencies in their own home.

The more assessment data a social worker can obtain, the more evidence and confidence they will have to reinforce their ultimate decision. Assessment data varies per client, but the following can act as a very general framework in most cases:

• What services does the client currently need throughout the day?
• What services will they have access to if they move to this home/apartment?
• How long has it been since the client lived on their own?
• What is the client’s current level and quality of social interaction with fellow tenants/caregivers?
• What do the client’s family members say about his or her independence level before community/institutionalized living?

Assessment is critical in this event, as it will lessen the social worker’s hesitation in making a decision either way. Even if a social worker decides not to endorse a client’s appeal for independent housing based on this data, they can use it to create an action plan for the client so they can strive to make the transition in the future.

Moral Dilemmas

Moral and religious qualms are complex ethical issues in human services and the social work environment. If a client is seeks assistance in having an abortion, for example, and their social worker is firmly against abortion in general, a moral conflict may affect that case. On the other hand, a social worker may refer a client to healthcare or mental health specialists who practice treatments that violate certain religious beliefs (drawing blood or taking certain medications, for example).

In the first scenario, the social worker needs to prioritize the client’s welfare over their own beliefs. It is an abuse of a social worker’s oversight to deny or discourage abortion on any grounds not related to the patient’s functional needs.

Social workers can prevent the second scenario with a mindful approach to intervention planning. A social worker may have has never worked with someone of a certain religious or moral ideology. However, they can still prevent problems by simply asking everyone what they’re comfortable with prior to recommending certain services.

The Self-Determination vs Security Paradox

Encouraging self-determination is usually high on the list of a social worker’s objectives for any given client, but the freedom to direct oneself is fundamentally related to a greater risk of harm. Consider the post-9/11 crackdown on airport security, to illustrate a much broader case. Before 9/11, passengers had much more freedom to bring certain items onboard airplanes. But, authorities restrict freedom for security.

The social worker must promote a sensible balance between autonomy and security for clients. Additionally, they should establish this precedent early on in the relationship. If a client wants to appeal for custody of their children, for example, but has not taken sufficient strides to remedy their substance abuse and behavioral problems as mandated by the court. It’s the social worker’s job to shift the focus towards these critical steps before jumping back into the legal process.

It’s important when guiding a client to a safer and less autonomous choice, the social worker clearly and reasonably justifies their decision, always prioritizing the clients:

• Safety and well-being
• Legal standing
• Motivation to continue their efforts
• Promises to family and friends
• Self-established goals

Sometimes, social workers need to encourage clients to be self-reliant. Instead of recommending a particular course of action for hesitant clients, it’s more important to the client’s self-reliance to keep the conversation open-ended so that they can choose (within defined parameters). “What do you think we should do?” or “Which of these options sounds best to you?”

Dual Relationships

When a social worker and client interface outside of their professional relationship, it is a dual relationship . Especially in the era of social media, this issue is very confusing for social workers across the country.

Sometimes, after a social worker and client finish working with each other, the client or a family member may reach out to thank the social worker. In many of these cases, nothing unethical occurs. Similarly, if a social worker encounters a former client in the community, there’s nothing wrong with polite conversation.

Professional relationships that turn into sexual relationships are a violation of the National Association of Social Workers’ Code of Ethics. This is example is straightforward, but what about a hug? What if a former spouse or partner seeks counsel from a social worker? Many of these cases exist in the “gray area” as far as state guidelines are concerned.

So, social workers should familiarize themselves with the hard boundaries. As always, the more informed a social worker is on appropriate behavior, the less conflicted they will have.

What is Social Work?

Social work is a profession that is practice-based and promotes social change to happen for people and communities. It also promotes the development, empowerment, and cohesion of people and entire communities. The practice of social work encompasses the understanding of human development as well as human behavior. S

ocial work practice also involves the social, economic, and cultural interactions between people and communities and the institutions that guide those. Professionals in the social work field work with families and institutions in a variety of areas. Some of those areas include:

• Child Abuse and Neglect Prevention
• Civil Rights
• Addiction and Treatment
• Unemployment Benefits
• Disability Pay
• Workers’ Compensation
• Reduced Mental Health Stigma
• Medicaid and Medicare

There are three different levels of social work. When it comes to micro-social work, social workers are able to provide one-on-one assistance to individuals, families, and small groups. They work with people who are facing ethical dilemmas, such as mental health or substance abuse.

Mezzo social work encompasses an area of social work in which social workers are able to help groups of people, such as students at schools, patients and hospitals, or inmates in prison. For example, a social worker at a prison may help inmates with their substance abuse recovery while they are incarcerated.

Macro social work refers to the policy-making area of social work along with research and community-based initiatives. Social workers at this level of practice will be focused on addressing societal ethical dilemmas, such as housing, substance abuse, and homelessness.

What is the Social Worker Code of Ethics?

The Social Worker Code of Ethics is a set of standards provided by the National Associate of Social Workers that helps guide the professional conduct of social workers.

• Preamble: The first section is referred to as the preamble and it summarizes the social work profession’s mission and its core values.
• Purpose of the National Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics: The second section is the purpose of the National Association of Social Work Code of Ethics, which provides the main functions of the code of ethics. It also includes a brief guide for social workers dealing with ethical dilemmas or dilemmas in the field of social work.
• Ethical Principles: The third section is the ethical principles the social worker should follow. These principles are based on social work’s core values that guide the practice of social work.
• Ethical Standards: the last section of the social work code of ethics addresses the ethical standards for social workers. This includes the ethical standards that guide the conduct of social workers and provide a basis for adjudication to be determined.

What Are some Examples of NASW Ethical Dilemmas?

• Social Workers Ethical Responsibilities to Clients are to maintain professional relationships
• Social Workers Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues
• Social Workers Ethical Responsibilities in Practice Settings
• Social Workers Ethical Responsibilities as Professionals
• Social Workers Ethical Responsibilities to the Social Work Profession
• Social Workers Ethical Responsibilities to the Broader Society include social justice

Social workers are expected to adhere to this code of ethics in their day-to-day interactions with their clients and the communities in which they serve. This is important for both the social worker and his or her clients to practice ethical decision making.

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Article Contents

Introduction, the social work profession in greece, literature review, methodology, results of variance analysis, limitations, conclusions, acknowledgement.

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Social Workers Dealing with Ethical Dilemmas in the Course of Their Professional Work: The Greek Experience

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Sevaste Chatzifotiou, Eleni Papouli, Social Workers Dealing with Ethical Dilemmas in the Course of Their Professional Work: The Greek Experience, The British Journal of Social Work , Volume 52, Issue 8, December 2022, Pages 4795–4814, https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcac084

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Globally, ethical dilemmas are a relatively neglected topic in social work research, despite their obvious importance to ethical professional practice. This study aims to contribute to the existing literature by exploring ethical dilemmas and related issues faced by social workers in Greece. For our purposes, we created an online survey questionnaire via Survey Monkey software and distributed it nationwide to all social workers, asking those who had more than two years of work experience at any kind of service providing agency to complete it. A total of 835 questionnaires were returned and used for data analysis (response rate 11.13 per cent). The study highlights the diversity of ethical dilemmas encountered by social workers in their professional practice, as well as revealing the different strategies, tools and mechanisms used in dealing with them. Further, it shows the urgent need for developing appropriate ethics support activities and training programmes for social workers, as a crucial part of their ongoing professional education and development. Such ethics initiatives are required to remain ethically competent throughout their working life.

Arguably, social work is an ethical-based profession that aims to promote people’s well-being by standing against inequities and discrimination and advocating for social justice and social change in the society ( Banks, 2012 , 2021 ; Reamer, 2013a ; Ioakimidis, 2013 ; Bisman, 2014 ; International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW), 2014 ). Due to the demanding nature of the profession, social workers across the world commonly face many difficult situations at work that they must properly address in order to fulfil their mission. In some of these situations, social workers should have to individually make an ethical decision, which may involve tensions between conflicting interests and moral values or ethical principles. These situations at work are especially complicated for social workers and they often raise a variety of ethical difficulties that are no longer simple and straightforward cases to deal with. Such ethical difficulties at work are usually understood in terms of ethical dilemmas and can be cause for alarm because they make it difficult for social workers to choose amongst unfavourable alternatives to make ethical and good decisions.

In social work, as with other helping professions, ethical dilemmas play a vital role in the decision-making process, as they affect the professionals’ ability to make decisions that are crucial in tackling ethically difficult situations in the course of their work. Despite their apparent importance to ethical professional practice, ethical dilemmas in social work are mostly used as examples for teaching rather than as subjects for research. This is also true specifically for Greece, where ethical dilemmas have not been critically discussed and systematically examined so far, although their importance has been acknowledged in social work education and practice. As a result, ethical dilemmas remain a largely understudied area of social work research in the country, offering a huge potential for scientific exploration.

Considering the above, this study attempts to fill the knowledge gap regarding the nature of ethical dilemmas faced by social workers in Greece. The overall aim of the current study was 2-fold, first to make sense of the ethically dilemmatic situations facing social workers at work and the ways they deal with them, and secondly, to map out real-life examples of ethical dilemmas from the perspective of social workers in order to use them for the development of appropriate ethics training tools for educators, practitioners and students. To our knowledge, this is the first study that examines such issues in social work practice as a whole without focusing on a specific professional practice sector or workplace setting. Following a brief look at social work in Greece, we discuss the English-speaking literature on ethical dilemmas along with the main ideas and thoughts on the subject.

Social work emerged as a profession in Greece in the mid-twentieth century. As in many other countries, the profession evolved in conjunction with the development of the national social welfare system, influenced by local political and socio-economic conditions. The first social work training school was established in Athens in 1937, followed by the legal establishment of professional autonomy for social workers in 1955 ( Kallinikaki, 2011 ). In line with the changing expectations of social workers’ roles, the education and practice of social work have undergone numerous changes over the years. Today, three university departments and one university division offer public social work degree programmes at the undergraduate, master’s and doctoral levels. In order to practice the profession, social workers are required to obtain a state license and be registered with the Hellenic Association of Social Workers (HASW), the national professional association for social workers. As of 2017, HASW has been a public legal entity whose duties and responsibilities are defined explicitly by the prevailing law (4488/2017). In Greece, social workers are employed in a variety of public and private (non-profit and for-profit) social work agencies, providing services to individuals, groups, families, organisations and communities. They also work in applied research and social welfare policy practice, and serve as supervisors, and agency administrators. Social workers adhere to professional code of ethics, laws and regulations.

In the social work literature, ethical dilemmas are described as situations that involve an obligatory choice between two or more alternatives (i.e. a trilemma) that are equally undesirable or unsatisfactory, each alternative dictated by a different ethical principle ( Dolgoff et al. , 2009 ; Barsky, 2010 ; O’Sullivan, 2011 ; Allen, 2012 ; Reamer, 2013a , 2019a ; Banks, 2021 ). As mentioned earlier, ethical dilemmas at work are difficult situations in which the social worker has to choose between various alternatives, not right or wrong options. As Kidder (2009) explains, right versus wrong choices are defined as an ethical temptation, in which the person knows the right thing to do, but chooses the wrong action. For social workers, this distinction is particularly important for the identification of a situation as an ethical dilemma so that they can handle it in a constructive way.

According to Allen (2012) , ethical dilemmas in social work can be classified into two broad categories: absolute or pure and approximate. Absolute or pure ethical dilemmas occur when two (or more) ethical principles apply to a situation, but they conflict with one another. Approximate ethical dilemmas are more complicated cases because they involve a conflict between ethics, values, law and/or policies. Given their complexity, approximate ethical dilemmas take a combination of various efforts to be solved and, therefore, they require more sophisticated solutions. Both categories of ethical dilemmas can coexist in any working environment.

Ethical dilemmas are often considered a routine part of the social work profession, regardless of the role or area of practice. Yet, ethical dilemmas may have particular meanings depending on the context in which they occur, and consequently they are often context sensitive. For example, a recent study carried out by Viscarret et al. (2020) found that the specificity of ethical dilemmas faced by Spanish social workers varies according to the area of practice and not on the work itself. They also found that the most pertinent ethical dilemmas in their country are present in the healthcare sector. But what about the content of the ethical dilemma itself? According to the IFSW (2014) , some ethical dilemmas facing social workers are common across countries at different levels of challenge, whilst others can be specific to particular countries.

Evidence suggests that ethical dilemmas emerging in both direct and indirect practice settings are related to various professional and personal issues (that are often interconnected in practice), of which the most common ones are the right to self-determination, informed consent, confidentiality and privacy, professional boundaries, moral and religious beliefs, administrative issues and dual relationships ( Gray and Gibbons, 2007 ; Barsky, 2010 ; Reamer, 2019a , 2019b , 2021 ; Viscarret et al. , 2020 ; Kesen et al. , 2021 ). Also, they might be related to the use of the digital technologies in the area of social service delivery ( Reamer, 2018 ). More recently, researchers from around the world seek to understand the nature of the ethical dilemmas encountered in social work practice in uncertain times such as those of COVID-19. For example, a recent international study conducted by the IFSW with the Social Work Ethics Research Partnership ( Banks et al. , 2020 ), showed that the ethical dilemmas facing social workers during the COVID-19 pandemic, were associated with the need of balancing clients’ rights, needs and risks against personal risk to them and others, with the need to protect public health and safety. Besides, this study raised ethical concerns about the use of digital modes of assessment in supporting social work practice by remote work during the pandemic outbreak.

Although there is considerable international literature and scholarly research on ethical dilemmas, empirical research is still very limited. In addition, as the literature review revealed, there is a lack of clarity in the definition of ethical dilemmas in many social work papers and textbooks, which makes it more difficult for researchers, scholars and even professionals to identify and address them. Similarly, the lack of a classification system as a standard way of grouping ethical dilemmas does not allow researchers to make the results of their studies comparable and valuable across different contexts and cultures. So far, the social work literature shows that the criteria used for classifying ethical dilemmas across countries are quite varied so that makes it difficult to interpret their nature and consequences. At present, the most used criteria (which can sometimes coexist) in identifying a situation as an ethical dilemma are: the type of recipient (s) with which they correspond, the cause of the ethical dilemma or the specific ethical principles or values in conflict. Nevertheless, whatever type of classifications used, there is no doubt that dealing with ethical dilemmas at work is by not an easy endeavour.

Admittedly, ethical dilemmas do not involve easy solutions because, according to McAuliffe (2005) , the process of identifying and interpreting them is largely subjective, influenced by individual viewpoints. In this respect, for example, it is not rare to see people who work in the same area of a practice sector or workplace setting having different views on defining a situation as an ethical dilemma. Resolving an ethical dilemma is always a tough situation that can cause stress and moral distress to social workers or even lead to uncertainty and disharmony in teams. This can depend on the complexity of the situation and the existence or not of an appropriate supportive framework and coping strategies ( Weinberg, 2009 ; Spijkerboer et al. , 2016 ; Papouli 2019 ; Reamer, 2021 ).

Whilst ethical dilemmas cannot be avoided, because they are everywhere in professional life, there is evidence that such dilemmas can be managed by having access to various ethics support mechanisms and using coping strategies that operate as buffers against ethical dilemmatic situations ( Banks and Williams, 2005 ; Weinberg, 2009 ; Papouli, 2019 ; Reamer, 2021 ). For example, social workers can seek support and guidance in handling ethical dilemmas by consulting their professional codes of ethics, or making use of reflective supervision and peer consultation for critical and supportive feedback. Also, they can seek legal advice or help from appropriate authorities and professional organisations. However, ethics support mechanisms and coping strategies have better outcomes when they are connected and linked with one another, rather than using them in a stand-alone mode ( Banks, 2011 ; Reamer, 2013a ; Strom-Gottfried, 2015 ).

In addressing ethical dilemmas, the social work literature provides many ethical decision-making models that can help professionals critically think and properly organise possible resolutions (see e.g. Congress, 2000 ; McAuliffe and Chenoweth, 2008 ; Dolgoff et al. , 2009 ; Reamer, 2013b ). Typically, these ethical decision-making models follow non-linear thinking by using step-by-step approaches to the dilemma, with each model having its own advantages and limitations. Recent research from allied disciplines has shown that some stepwise ethical decision-making models are easy to follow, whilst others are much more context-specific and can be complex frameworks to apply ( Johnson et al. , 2022 ). Currently, universities, professional bodies and organisations around the globe offer ethics courses in undergraduate, postgraduate and continuing education, which introduce ethical frameworks to students and practitioners that can help with better decision making in professional practice. Last but not the least is the fact that today’s modern workplace environments provide employees with ethics training activities to learn how to address and resolve ethical issues and dilemmas that arise in practice.

Study design, sample and procedures

This study used a descriptive, exploratory approach, which is appropriate given the paucity of knowledge about the research area. For our purpose, we created an online survey questionnaire, through the Survey Monkey software, and distributed it nationwide to all social workers. Inclusion criteria stipulated that participants should have a bachelor’s degree in social work, and more than two years of work experience. The latter criterion included in the study because the literature review showed that experienced professionals are generally better able to identify a situation as an ethical dilemma due to greater awareness of ethical issues ( Pope and Vetter, 1992 ).

Participants in the study were all practicing social workers since they were recruited by the HASWs, which authorised the distribution of survey materials through its own server. For purposes of the study, an invitation letter including a link to the online survey was sent to all HASW members (approximately 8,000) on the distribution list. The invitation letter explained the research project, the voluntary nature of participation, and the anonymity procedures. Participants were invited to respond to a self-administered questionnaire and provided consent electronically. We developed the questionnaire based on the literature review and it was pilot-tested with five experienced social work practitioners who fell within the study population. It was finalised based on their comments. The questionnaire included a total of thirty-six questions (both close- and open-ended questions) and was divided into three sections. Section A dealt with questions related to the demographic profile of the participants. Section B included specific questions about issues related to ethical dilemmas at work, ethics training and strategies for dealing with them. Finally, Section C focused on the social workers’ descriptions of ethical dilemmas and contained questions regarding information and other key factors addressing the dilemma. The questionnaire took approximately thirty minutes to complete. The survey was carried out between May and June 2021. A total of 835 questionnaires were returned and used for data analysis (response rate 11.13 per cent).

Since identifying ethical dilemmas is not always easy, we chose to provide participants with a working definition in order to enhance their understanding of the term. Using the literature review, we chose the following definition of ethical dilemma, which appeared at the beginning of the questionnaire: ‘Ethical dilemma in the workplace is a situation in which a social worker must choose between two or more equally unpleasant options (no right or wrong option), each guided by a different ethical principle.’

Ethical statement

This study followed the general social research ethical guidelines as outlined by the EU General Data Protection Regulation. All procedures were approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Democritus University of Thrace (REC Protocol# 43426/398/08–04-2021), and electronic informed consent was obtained from all participants. The study was completely anonymous.

Data analysis

Quantitative.

The survey data were analysed via descriptive statistics, and responses to open-ended questions were analysed by Survey Monkey text analysis. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey post hoc test as appropriate. The calculations were carried out using SPSS version 21.0.

Qualitative

Thematic analysis was the only qualitative method used to analyse the responses to the open-ended question on the social worker’s description of the ethical dilemma ( Braun and Clarke, 2006 ). As experienced researchers who have worked together on other studies, we knew that our different perspectives would allow us to view the data from various angles. Also, we knew that different perspectives contain subjective views that may affect our ability to identify unique issues in our data. Considering this, we attempted to analyse the data in such a way that our subjectivity did not pose a threat to their analysis. Based on the literature review, we developed a pre-identified themes framework to facilitate thematic analysis of the collected data and to classify ethical dilemmas according to the type of recipient (s) to which they relate. The framework included seven predefined types of ethical dilemmas as follows: (1) ethical dilemmas related to clients; (2) ethical dilemmas related to colleagues; (3) ethical dilemmas related to administration; (4) ethical dilemmas related to students; (5) ethical dilemmas related to research issues; (6) ethical dilemmas related to technology; and (7) ethical dilemmas related to personal views or beliefs. However, the framework was flexible, since new themes emerged after the data analysis and were added to the data results under the title ‘other ethical dilemmas’ ( Table 3 ).

Characteristics of ethical dilemmas

Sample characteristics

The sample comprised 835 social workers from various regions in Greece ( Table 1 ). The participants were 733 females (87.78 per cent), 101 males (12.10 per cent) and 1 (0.12 per cent) not reporting gender status. The vast majority (99.64 per cent) of participants were of white Greek origin and belonged to various age groups: 33–42 years (46.23 per cent), 23–32 years (26.35 per cent), 43–52 years (17.60 per cent), 53–62 years (9.70 per cent) and 63+ years (0.12 per cent). Across all respondents, 72.34 per cent had a bachelor’s degree in social work, 35.93 per cent had a master’s degree, 4.31 per cent had a second bachelor’s degree and 1.32 per cent held a PhD.

Participants’ characteristics

Most participants reported that they work in the public sector (68.02 per cent), followed by the private, non-profit sector (26.23 per cent) and for-profit sector (4.79 per cent). Only 0.96 per cent of them work in the volunteer sector. In addition, 85.15 per cent were frontline social workers, 8.75 per cent held the position of manager or the director and 6.11 per cent held positions other than those reported in the survey such as supervisor, scientifically responsible, counsellor, coordinator, etc. Regarding the years of work experience in the current position, the sample included four different groups: 2–5 years (55.33 per cent), 6–10 years (15.93 per cent), 11–20 years (23.59 per cent) and 21+ years (5.15 per cent). Finally, fewer than half of the participants were employed in cities with populations exceeding 10,000 (43.35 per cent), followed by the capital city of Athens (32.93 per cent) and Thessaloniki, the co-capital city of Greece (8.26 per cent).

Areas of professional practice

With regards to the areas of professional practice, 15.33 per cent of the participants were employed in the social protection area, 13.05 per cent worked with older people, 11.14 per cent were employed in the refugee and migration services, 10.90 per cent worked in special education, 9.34 per cent were employed in mental health services, 7.31 per cent in child protection services, 7.19 per cent in primary and secondary education, 6.71 per cent in health services, 5.03 per cent in disability services, 2.87 per cent in the area of addictions and 2.16 per cent in community services. In addition, 7.90 per cent of the participants reported working in professional settings other than the previous areas of professional practice, such as community centres with Roma departments, homeless services, shelters and centres for women victims of violence, social structures to tackle poverty in Greece (e.g. social grocery store), etc. Only 0.96 per cent of participants stated that they work in delinquency services, and 0.12 per cent was employed in LGBTQI+ services.

Issues about ethical dilemmas at work and ethics training

Overall, the vast majority of participants stated that they faced ethical dilemmas in the course of their work (94.35 per cent), whilst a very small percentage did not experience any dilemmas (4.97 per cent). The majority said that they had never left a previous job due to unsolved ethical dilemmas occurring in the work environment (82.02 per cent) nor were thinking of doing so at the moment of survey (83.56 per cent). About the frequency of encountering ethical dilemmas, they reported that these may occur on a daily (16.44 per cent), weekly (26.03 per cent), monthly (36.30 per cent) and annually basis (21.23 per cent). In addition, 13.18 per cent of the participants reported being very well educated and prepared to solve ethical dilemmas that may arise in their work, 59.08 per cent said they were prepared enough, 22.77 per cent were less prepared and 2.57 per cent of them were not prepared. Overall, 48.97 per cent of participants who had been taught about social work ethics stated that they had received training on ethical dilemmas during undergraduate studies (46.75 per cent) or postgraduate studies (9.76 per cent). Moreover, some participants had attended relevant seminars or workshops (13.87 per cent).

As for the ethics training available in the workplace, based on the 584 of the 835 participants who answered the relevant question, 80.82 per cent stated not receiving any training for managing ethical dilemmas at work, whilst 9.42 per cent said they had. The rest of the participants skipped the question (9.76 per cent). Finally, over three-quarters of the participants reported that they do not use any ethical model for decision making in their work (75.51 per cent). However, 8.86 per cent of the participants who said they did use a framework, stated their preference by choosing from an existing list of ethical decision-making models that included the most widely cited ethical decision-making models in the social work literature. The included ethical decision-making models received the following percentages: the Reamer’s model (25.68 per cent), the inclusive model of ethical decision making as named by McAuliffe and Chenoweth (25.68 per cent), the ethical assessment screen by Dolgoff et al. (22.97 per cent) and the Congress’s Ethic Model of Decision Making (6.76 per cent).

Strategies for dealing with ethical dilemmas—Ethics support mechanisms

Nearly, all participants reported feeling stress or experiencing moral distress at some point during an effort to address an ethical dilemma. Specifically, 46.70 per cent reported feeling very stressed most of the time, 31.98 per cent reported feeling adequately stressed, 16.75 per cent reported feeling a little stressed and 4.06 per cent reported having no stress at all. About dealing with ethical dilemmas, participants were asked to choose from a list of nine strategies that work best for them in their work ( Table 2 ) and they could choose more than one answer. Amongst the 584 participants who answered the relevant question, 51.03 per cent stated they consult colleagues in the same specialty (i.e. other social workers) and 33.90 per cent consult colleagues in related specialties in the workplace (e.g. psychologists, teachers, psychiatrists, doctors, etc.). In addition, participants consult colleagues in the same specialty (48.29 per cent) or related specialties (12.84 per cent) outside the workplace. More than a quarter (27.05 per cent) also consult their supervisor inside or outside work.

Strategies for dealing with ethical dilemmas-ethics support mechanisms

Regarding the related specialty, text analysis showed that psychologists are the ones with which social workers most often go for consultation and supervision. Moreover, 50.34 per cent of the participants reported consulting the internal regulations and guidelines of their agency, whilst 40.92 per cent consulting the HASW Code of Ethics. Furthermore, 30.14 per cent said they look at legislation and law policies and seek legal advice and 11.13 per cent contact the HASW. Finally, 3.23 per cent reported that they do not consult anyone inside or outside work for various reasons, the most common being that of lack of supervision support in the workplace.

Out of 835 participants, 197 described ethical dilemmatic situations (23.59 per cent), of which 147 (74.61 per cent) met the requirements to be considered as ethical dilemmas, according to the literature review. For the purpose of this study, the classification of ethical dilemmas was based on the type of recipient(s) to which they correspond, as mentioned earlier. Table 3 gives an overview of the six different types of ethical dilemmas discovered during the data analysis, the frequency and the major issues related to their contents. It is interesting to mention here that no ethical dilemmas were reported regarding students and research issues based on the pre-existing themes framework.

Null hypothesis: Η 0 : There is no effect of age on responses to question Q13. Alternative hypothesis: Η 1 : There is an effect of age on responses to question Q13.

The ANOVA test results showed that there is a statistically significant relationship between the variables ( Tables 4 and 6 ). However, post hoc tests showed that there was only a correlation between the factors ‘age’ and ‘years of work experience’ and the question Q13 ( F 3,580 = 2,517, p  = 0.049 and F 3,580 = 6,643, p  = 0.000, respectively). The Tukey’s test for Q13 and the factor ‘age’ yields a maximum average of 2.84 for the age group 43–52 years and a minimum of 2.53 for the age group 23–32 years ( Table 5 ). The maximum average for the question Q13 and the factor ‘years of work experience’ is 3.27 for the age group 31–40 years and 2.48 for the age group 0–10 years ( Table 7 ).

The one-way ANOVA table for the factor ‘age’ and Q13

Tukey test for Q13

The one-way ANOVA table for the factor ‘year of work experience’ and Q13

Results of this study indicate that social workers in Greece recognise ethical dilemmas do exist in their workplace, and that, in general, they are faced with dilemmatic decisions at work, often on a monthly basis. Correlations between age group (43–52 years) and years of work experience highlight the importance of the age of social workers and the domain-specific work experience in identifying ethical dilemmas within the workplace. Whilst a detailed discussion of these results falls outside the scope of this article, it is important to emphasise that literature generally shows that mature workers bring specialised knowledge, experience and critical thinking to the workplaces ( Paullin, 2014 ), all of which are necessary to solve ethical issues effectively.

Furthermore, our results show that for social workers to manage ethical dilemmas at work, they need to use different strategies and ethics support mechanisms (formal or informal channels) inside and outside of the workplace, depending on the complexity of the dilemma and the availability of support sources ( Table 2 ). It is clear from our findings that using adequate multiple sources for advice and support is critical when making life-affecting judgements and ethical decisions. As seen, most social workers seek consultation from colleagues (usually another social worker) inside or outside their own workplace as well as use formal documents (e.g. professional code of ethics, agency’s regulations and guidelines, legislation, etc.) before making an important ethical decision. Interestingly, psychologists are amongst the most common specialty to which social workers turn more for advice, guidance or supervision, both inside and outside the workplace. Perhaps this is because both professions are human-centred disciplines and have much in common.

However, although the majority of our sample recognise and use different information and consulting sources, we found that some social workers do not seek any help although they reported facing ethical difficulties in their working environments. Whilst the number of these respondents is relatively low, the fact that they claim lack of supervision to address ethical dilemmas in the workplace demonstrates the need for supervision not only as a legal tool but also as an ethical requirement for social workers ( McCarthy et al. , 2020 ) in order to improve practice through critical reflections on workplace dilemmas. Moreover, we found that very few social workers (11.13 per cent) seek advice or guidance from their professional body (HASW). This finding is particularly noteworthy since it may be indicative of a more generalised problem related to the absence of ethics support activities and mechanisms in Greece that can serve as ethics advisors and trainers for social workers. To this end, it should be noted that the ethics committees operating under the HASW serve primarily as disciplinary bodies for violations of ethical and professional standards, rather than advisory bodies providing ethics consultation or/and training on a broad range of ethical issues.

Furthermore, another particularly notable finding is that most social workers have not received any ethics training after graduation nor have they received any in-service training or attended workshops on ethical issues, including managing ethical dilemmas at work. Only a very small number of social workers were sufficiently trained to handle dilemmas at work and use ethical decision-making models as a tool to frame their decisions. This is a surprising and worrying finding, especially because it reveals a discontinuous process in the development of appropriate ethical skills needed for social workers to be able to make ethical decisions and take action. The finding also suggests a lack of ethics training and development within the workplace context. Overall, this finding is of particular concern to us because it confirms existing significant gaps in ethics training for social workers in Greece as a developmental process that goes beyond academic programmes and continues throughout their professional career.

Consistent with the literature, social workers are mostly employed on the frontline assisting people to meet their needs and enhancing their well-being. This highlights the complexities of frontline practice in social work that often lead to numerous ethical challenges and dilemmas for social workers. Under this spectrum, the existence of different types of ethical dilemmas ( Table 3 ) was an expected finding that clearly shows the complexity of situations that frontline social workers may encounter in the course of their work. At the same time, these findings highlight the challenges of navigating through ethical dilemmas at work and the variety of ethical risks in addressing them. However, the low proportion of dilemmas categorised as relating to clients seems very surprising and needs further exploration through interviews in order to gain insights into how social workers relate to the subject.

I am against abortion; it goes against my personal morals. So, it may be very difficult to tell my client not to have an abortion. When I meet a client from a background different from mine, I often face the dilemma of how do I react to people from different backgrounds?

How should I deal with a coworker that acts like he/she is my supervisor? Should I say something to our manager? How can I handle his behaviour without causing harm to his client? The director forced me to give priority and provide services to clients who, apparently, were not in need of assistance. The director acted in this manner by obeying the orders of the local politician who leads the municipal organisation in which I work.

In the examples above, ethical dilemmas include situations such as ethical misconduct, conflicts between personal and professional values, and power imbalances involving political pressures. In light of the literature, these are common ethical problems at work that can adversely affect both workers and clients ( Barsky, 2010 ; Reamer, 2013a ; Scourfield, 2017 ; Banks, 2021 ). Such ethical issues are indicative of a lack of professionalism and inter-professionalism in social work practice, which could lead to unprofessional or even unethical practices. Yet, some authors, like Allen (2012) , argue that ethical issues involving conflicts between personal and professional values, in particular, should not be considered ethical dilemmas in social work practice because codes of ethics generally define what principles of ethical behaviour must be followed at all times. Indeed, viewing ethical dilemmas at work from the perspective of ethics codes is not only a professional obligation, but also an ethical responsibility for social workers to act in the client’s best interest rather than in their own best interest.

My director, who is also a social worker, posted a video on the internet to advertise the services of the organization with clients who showed their faces, thus violating the principle of confidentiality and putting their data at risk.

Based on what we have described above, we speculate that the types of ethical dilemmas reported are indicative of what social workers consider ethical dilemmas at work. According to the literature and our findings, social workers’ perceptions of ethical dilemmas are impacted and conceptualised by the context and conditions in which they practice their profession. In our study, it was revealed that the professional environments in which social workers work in Greece, seem to be largely characterised by organisational heterogeneity and structural imbalances. There is evidence from the literature that professionals working in such environments are often faced with unpleasant and potentially hazardous working conditions due to poorly defined roles and vague/unclear policies, rules and procedures associated with the organisation’s governance system ( Dolgoff et al. , 2009 ; Reamer, 2013a ; Janebová, 2019 ; Banks, 2021 ; Papouli, 2022 ). Considering the foregoing, research in the future should examine how different professional environments and interpersonal relationships within the public and private sectors can lead to specific types of ethical dilemmas for social workers.

This study has about the same limitations as any other online survey, due to its technological characteristics ( Minto et al. , 2017 ) despite this all efforts have been made to limit them. For example, it was possible to exclude potential respondents who reside in remote areas with no Internet access or were offline at the time the questionnaire was administered, due to technical problems, changes in electronic mail or insufficient equipment. Also, although it included an ‘other’ option and some open-ended questions that allowed respondents to enter their own answer, it was not possible to explore the answers of the respondents as it happens with the process of interviews. Self-report surveys are only valid to the extent that respondents provide accurate information. It is hoped that future research will build on this study by interviewing social workers from a variety of professional settings, both public and private. Finally, since participation in the study was voluntary, the data cannot accurately reflect the entire target population. There was therefore a self-selection bias in the study. As a result, the external validity of our results is limited to the sample participants and local contexts and circumstances. However, they can generally be applied in other countries with similar professional environments and working conditions for social workers.

The present study attempted to understand social workers’ views on ethical dilemmas and related ethics issues in their workplace using a combination of methods of answering questions and doing analysis of data. By highlighting the variety of ethical dilemmas social workers encounter, along with the methods and means they can use to effectively deal with them, the study added to the existing literature. The study also emphasised the need for ethics support activities within social service organisations, as well as ongoing ethics education programmes and courses (i.e. face-to-face training and/or online courses) for all social workers, regardless of their professional setting. These initiatives undoubtedly help social workers avoid making wrong decisions, navigate ethical challenges and dilemmas effectively, and prevent undesirable or unethical behaviour. At the same time, they support and improve the delivering of quality services to their clients. As evidenced in this study, ethics support and training initiatives should be a crucial part of the continuing professional development of social workers in order for them to be considered ethically competent in their profession and to keep their knowledge and skills up to date.

This study’s findings have implications for improving professional ethical practice through reflections on workplace dilemmas. With the growing complexity of modern cases that social workers have to manage, it is more critical than ever for the professional bodies to act as ethical umbrellas for their members by ensuring a comprehensive system of ethics support and continuing training activities with advice and expertise on ethical issues and dilemmas arising in everyday practice. Last but not the least, in order to ensure ethical practice is maintained on an ongoing basis, it is necessary to establish healthy and strong connections amongst professional bodies, universities and employment settings so as to bridge the ethics education and training gap by developing common activities and programmes that reinforce social work values and principles, and by embedding them in ethics policy of the workplace of social workers. Synergies such as these undoubtedly contribute to establishing a common position on the ethics agenda of social work in Greece by providing a context for discussion and reflection on ethical issues pertinent to professional practice.

The authors would like to thank Dr Vassilios Saltas for his valuable help in conducting the statistical analysis.

Conflict of interest statement . None declared.

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International Federation of Social Workers

Global Online conference

Ethical challenges for social workers during Covid-19: A global perspective

Download this report as a PDF

Executive summary

This report summarises the findings of an international study of the ethical challenges faced by social workers during the Covid-19 pandemic, undertaken during 6th-18th May 2020. 607 responses from 54 countries were received via an online survey, additional interviews and local surveys. Six key themes relating to social workers’ ethical challenges and responses were identified:

• Creating and maintaining trusting, honest and empathic relationships via phone or internet with due regard to privacy and confidentiality, or in person with protective equipment.
• Prioritising service user needs and demands, which are greater and different due to the pandemic, when resources are stretched or unavailable and full assessments often impossible.
• Balancing service user rights, needs and risks against personal risk to social workers and others, in order to provide services as well as possible.
• Deciding whether to follow national and organisational policies, procedures or guidance (existing or new) or to use professional discretion in circumstances where the policies seem inappropriate, confused or lacking.
• Acknowledging and handling emotions, fatigue and the need for self-care, when working in unsafe and stressful circumstances.
• Using the lessons learned from working during the pandemic to rethink social work in the future.

The study concludes that Covid-19 and measures to control and prevent its spread have restricted the services and responsibilities usually carried out by social workers, while generating new needs and demands. Social workers have both struggled and worked creatively to meet needs in risky and uncertain situations, and to respect people’s rights to privacy and involvement in important decisions about their lives. Policy and practice recommendations to create better conditions for ethical practice in social work during pandemic and crisis conditions include:

Social workers need to: rethink how to apply professional values and principles in new contexts; engage in ethical deliberation with colleagues; be aware of the impact of exhaustion and emotion on their capacity to see the full ethical implications of situations and to treat people with respect, empathy and compassion; and raise with employers, professional associations and policymakers the serious harms and inequities experienced by people during the pandemic, the difficulties in delivering social work services and proposals for improvements.

Social work employers should: ensure all social workers and students on placement are supported through regular supervision and team meetings; develop guidance with frontline workers about how to operate safely and ethically; monitor levels of stress amongst staff and ensure adequate rest and recuperation: provide necessary hygiene equipment and safety measures; advocate to governments and draw attention to gaps in welfare systems and the need for improvements.

National and international associations of social workers (including IFSW) have key roles in: highlighting systemic factors putting some populations at risk and the vital role of social safety nets; intensifying efforts to collect evidence on conditions for social workers and service users; advocating strongly with employers and governments to recognise social work roles and provide better guidance for maintaining services; and continuing to develop ethical guidance for social workers and employers and spaces for peer support and learning about ethical dilemmas in practice.

Governments need to: recognise the critical role played by social workers in providing and supporting social and community-based care during a pandemic; acknowledge social workers as key workers; ensure provision of the necessary hygiene and protective resources; issue clear guidelines on how to maintain social work services during a pandemic, keeping services open while operating as effectively and safely as possible.

Introduction

It is difficult to stay in contact with clients with lockdown in place. Social workers are fearful to conduct home visits, in case they get the virus. Our clients in townships and rural areas and informal settlements live in unhygienic circumstances anyway. So, the chance of them contracting Corona[virus] is high. Yet telephonic counselling is challenging due to poor reception. Many clients also change their cell phone numbers so you can’t get them. None of them have landlines. Skype, etc, is not viable due to data costs and reception. (Social Worker, South Africa)

In the latest weeks I’ve listened to a lot of people crying … and I can’t stay near those people … and often and always I asked to myself if I can cry with them. For them. ( Social Worker, Italy)

This report summarises the findings of an international study of the ethical challenges faced by social workers during the Covid-19 pandemic, undertaken during 6th-18th May 2020.

The study was conducted by a group of academic researchers, in partnership with the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) (See Appendix 1). A small grant for research assistance was received from Durham University (UK). The aim was to gain qualitative insights into matters relating to ethics in practice, rather than quantify the incidence of different types of ethical challenge.

The objectives were to understand and identify:

• the specific ethical challenges arising in the circumstances of Covid-19;
• how social workers were responding;
• the moral impact on social workers;
• what further guidance could be given to support ethical decision-making in a crisis.

The background to the pandemic and the role of social workers around the world is given in the IFSW publication by Rory Truell, Covid-19: The struggle, success and expansion of social work, published on 18 th May 2020 ( www.ifsw.org/covid-19-the-struggle-success-and-expansion-of-social-work ). This document builds on that report, focusing specifically on the ethical dimensions of social workers’ everyday practice. It sheds a spotlight on the often invisible labour undertaken by social workers to respect people’s rights, weigh up risks, be fair and compassionate, and advocate for socially just change (‘ethics work’).

An online survey form was used to ask two main questions (see Appendix 2 for more details):

• Briefly describe some of the ethical challenges you are facing/have faced during the Covid-19 outbreak.
• Please give more details of a particular situation you found ethically challenging.

Ethical challenges were described as: situations that give you cause for professional concern, or when it is difficult to decide what is the right action to take. This may be a situation facing you, or something you have come to hear about from others.

Invitations to complete the online form were distributed via the IFSW website and mailing lists of national associations, and also by members of the research team reaching out through other international, national and local networks. A webinar co-hosted by the IFSW and the Social Work Action Network on 14 May 2020 on ‘Ethical challenges for social workers during Covid-19’ ( www.ifsw.org/iv-webinar-ethical-challenges-for-social-workers-during-covid-19 ) also gave an opportunity to publicise the study and gain perspectives from around the world. Additionally, an IFSW Africa webinar on ‘Covid-19: social work practice, ethical dilemmas and human rights concerns’ on 4 th May 2020 ( www.ifsw.org/ii-ifsw-africa-webinar-covid-19-social-work-practice-ethical-dilemmas-and-human-rights-concerns ) provided useful insights to augment the survey responses from Africa.

Responses to the survey were received from 505 social workers, social work students and several social work academics, supplemented by several phone/video interviews based on the survey questions. In addition, 11 interviews were undertaken in Hong Kong, China, with social workers/managers in a range of settings. This was due to cultural norms and the current political situation in Hong Kong, meaning social workers were wary about completing an online form. The Japanese Federation of Social Workers also translated into Japanese the question about what ethical challenges were being faced, and 91 additional responses were received via the four Japanese associations. The Hong Kong and Japanese responses were analysed along with the 505 main survey responses, making a total of 607. A further set of three accounts of experiences during their fieldwork placements from social work students in Finland was also received. Although these were not specifically in response to the survey questions, their insights have been taken into account.

The original online survey form was available in Chinese (simple and complex), Dutch, English, French, Spanish and Slovenian. Due to the small amount of funding and rapidity of the survey, we were unable to translate into more languages. This inevitably influenced the responses gained from different parts of the world as shown in Appendix 3. We received some responses in other languages, including a significant number in Italian. These were translated into English for analysis. Responses came from 54 countries. Almost 80% of respondents self-identified as female, with well over half having over 11 years’ experience in social work. 74 respondents were social work students. The respondents are not a representative sample, and we need to bear in mind that respondents would tend to be those with access to the internet and to the languages of the survey, and for whom the idea of ‘ethical challenges’ resonated. Future research conducted at a slower pace will take steps to facilitate greater involvement from the Arabic-speaking world, Russia and a wider range of countries in the global South.

Research team members shared the task of undertaking preliminary analyses of survey responses, with those in languages other than English being read and summarised by the native speakers in the group. Six key themes emerged from the responses, which have been used to structure the account of the findings in this report.

A note about terminology

When speaking of people who use or need social work services we have adopted the term ‘service users’. This terminology is contested, and usage varies between countries and organisations – including ‘clients’, ‘patients’, ‘customers’, ‘consumers’, ‘people with experience’, ‘experts by experience’ or simply ‘people’. To avoid cumbersome or ambiguous language, we will use the term ‘service users’ (except when we are quoting a respondent who used a different term). We recognise that the people we are referring to are people first and users/potential users of services second.

Commonalities and differences

The role of social workers in countries around the world varies enormously, depending on: the balance of employment in state and non-governmental organisations; whether social workers are recognised and regulated as professionals; the balance of casework, group work and community development work; and the cultural, religious, political and economic regimes in which they work. The work undertaken by social workers during Covid-19 reflects these variations, with social workers in many countries in the global South undertaking community development work to support communities to help their members, and offering education about hygiene and distribution of masks and sanitising products. In mainland China, many social workers were called upon by the government to help implement the lock-down and to conduct duties in the community, including taking residents’ temperatures, checking digital health codes and conducting home visits to trace suspected cases and close contacts. In the global North social workers were more commonly working to maintain existing services with individuals and families, and finding ways around the new constraints. In all countries social workers had to adapt rapidly and invent new ways of delivering services. As reported in IFSW’s overview report (2020, p. 14):

On a practical level, social workers around the world were innovating at an unprecedented rate: setting up new systems to support homeless people to access shelter, starting helplines to address signs of increased domestic violence, providing online family counselling, ensuring that community leaders understood social hygiene …

Despite the great variation in social work roles internationally, many of the ethical struggles reported were similar, although the contexts in which they occurred were very different. At the heart of the ethical challenges lie issues relating to: how to respect people’s rights and dignity when it is difficult to meet them or see their faces; how to prioritise scarce resources fairly; how to improve and change people’s inadequate living conditions; and how to challenge injustice in policy and practice now and in the future.

Discussion of findings

Based on the findings, we identified six key themes relating to social workers’ ethical challenges and their responses to these challenges.

• Prioritising service user needs and demands, which are greater and different due to the pandemic, when resources are stretched or unavailable and full assessments are often impossible.

We will now briefly summarise the ethical challenges and possible solutions identified by the respondents under the six headings, illustrated with several specific examples given by respondents. Our aim is to show the range of challenges and some of the qualitative details of what these meant in practice.

During the height of the pandemic many social work offices, centres and services closed their premises. Some services were withdrawn completely, but in many cases social workers operated from home, contacting service users by phone or internet. Many respondents highlighted the challenges or impossibility of moving to digital/phone contact. In tropical climates, working from home without air conditioning is uncomfortable and unsustainable. Some service users do not have access to the technology, are not able to use it, or do not find it conducive. In some countries in the global South, social workers themselves do not have internet connections. Social workers noted the difficulties of building trusting relationships remotely with new service users, keeping contact with some service users who go ‘off the radar’, maintaining meaningful participation of children and families in virtual case conferences and the heart-breaking impact of breaking bad news (a death or a child removal) over the phone. It is hard to assess conditions in a home, the state of all family members or to detect potentially abusive relationships or whether service users may be lying or exaggerating without being able to see people, look them in the eye in real life, or smell and feel the living space.

Difficulties in maintaining privacy and confidentiality were noted, as family members in a social worker’s or service user’s home may overhear sensitive, personal conversations. This is particularly problematic in service users’ homes where perpetrators of domestic abuse are co-habiting, making it almost impossible for those at risk to ask for assistance. Social workers in Hong Kong expressed concern about service users covertly recording video conversations and posting on social media, while a social worker in the USA commented on service users probing details of the worker’s family life as she was working from her own home. Even when face to face meetings do take place, the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) impedes communication, the ability to pick up non-verbal cues, the experience of empathy and the possibility of using touch as a gesture of caring or reassurance.

• A social worker in mainland China reported that her organisation opened a helpline on instant messenger. However, a service user was suspicious when this social worker took over counselling from a colleague, and had consulted the chat history. Worried that the chat history might be captured, the service user ended the session and asked to return to the worker he had first contacted.
• A Dutch social worker commented: “The dilemma I experience in four families is that I don’t have a good view on the level of tension and – possibly – domestic violence … My ethical dilemma … is that I actually do too little. I don’t know what to do, because it is obvious that all children in these families suffer more emotional damage than normal … and don’t get it prevented … Video call conversations have far too little depth, take less time than a home visit would take…. I can’t get the children out of their situation. That’s what’s bothering me.”
• A Canadian social worker holding an ‘assistance in dying’ meeting with a woman in a hospital ward commented: “we tried to discuss with her, her end of life wishes while being masked – she could not see our faces, hardly see our eyes, we could not touch her, she could hardly hear us at the best of times!”

Seeking ethical solutions

The ethical issues identified here – maintaining and promoting trust in the social work relationship, privacy, confidentiality, and personal-professional boundaries – are familiar challenges in everyday social work practice. However, Covid-19 has created new conditions in which these are played out, and social workers, their employers and service users are having to find creative ways to maintain ethical relationships, while also rethinking the priority that can be given to, for example, privacy, when facing a life-threatening situation or crisis conditions. While one response is to devise new rules for communication using digital media or in person with PPE, it may also be necessary for individual workers and teams to go back to first principles and engage in ethical reasoning relating to each case. It is important to ensure that the requirements for physical distancing do not lead to ‘anti-social work’ as a UK social worker described it, which excessively compromises people’s rights, and social workers’ attitudes of respect and care. In some countries there have been campaigns to keep services open. Examples of adaptive approaches to action and attitudes include:

• A social worker in Costa Rica described having to assess convicted drug dealers to inform decisions about whether to change their sentences. Interviews would usually be conducted with the person in their community context, but during pandemic conditions this was difficult. The social workers involved nevertheless decided to evaluate the situation in the community, with health precautions, because they did not want to make biased judgments.
• A French social worker stressed the need for careful reflection about different types of distance, and that distance imposed by regulations may be problematic, whereas ‘ethical distance’ that involves stepping back to allow people to make their own decisions is important. This social worker commented: “With the pandemic, the question of distance becomes central. But in reality the need is twofold. It is necessary both to go towards [the other person], to respond to the isolation, but also reflect on the need for distance … it is difficult to find the balance between ‘work in withdrawal’ and ‘go towards’ ”.
• A Ugandan social worker reported that national government closed the Ministry responsible for the protection of children, older people and people with disabilities. The national association of social workers advocated on social media for the role of social workers and for the importance of taking into account Indigenous factors based on local evidence rather than “one approach for all”.
• Prioritising service user needs and demands, which are greater and different due to the pandemic, when resources are stretched/unavailable and full assessments are often impossible.

The impact of the pandemic has hit hardest the people with whom social workers usually work – those who are already vulnerable, marginalised and living in poverty, poor housing and insanitary conditions. The closure of many services, including some face-to-face social work services, community-based day centres, schools, youth centres, local advice agencies, domestic abuse refuges, respite care services and family contact centres, makes it difficult for people to get the support they need. Yet the needs and demands are exacerbated as people face unemployment, family stress due to confinement in the home, bereavement, ill-health, isolation, and increased racism and prejudice. The role of social workers in assisting with the prioritising of discharge of hospital patients to unsuitable home conditions or residential care homes, without knowing if Covid-19 was present, was particularly distressing. Several respondents noted that the pandemic was exposing cracks that have been in the health and welfare systems for years due to policies of marketization and under-funding.

• A social worker in Puerto Rico commented: “we are running into many cases of depression, anxiety and homeless people, without medical plans and without family members. Worse still, on many occasions we have contacted many government agencies to seek help for our service users and we have no response”.
• A UK social worker commented on the challenge of distinguishing between ‘children in need’ and ‘children at risk’ and prioritising the latter. This meant de-prioritising work with children in need, who would usually have been offered early help services, so potential warning signs of abuse and neglect may go unnoticed, and children in need might become children at risk without a social worker knowing.
• A social worker in the USA leading a domestic violence programme commented: “It is clear that the current public health crisis is highlighting what we have known for decades, the division between those who have and those who have not is enormous. Trying to balance compassionate accountability, be a part of a criminal legal response to domestic violence, help create safety for survivors and victims AND navigate a global pandemic ethically has been overwhelming”.

The ethical issues relating to these conditions were frequently about the challenge of prioritising fairly the distribution of scarce time and resources to reach the people in greatest need. This is particularly difficult if it is not possible to carry out detailed assessments and gain sufficient evidence due to policies of not undertaking home visits or having in-person contact. It also means some people with a legitimate call on services in normal times, are losing out. New types of need have been generated by the pandemic, or underlying social problems and inequalities have been exacerbated, which current service provision or existing funding priorities may not recognise.

• A social worker in India reported difficulties in addressing the needs of inter-state migrants at their starting points and in transit, as donors focus on distributing help at the final destination. The worker described the solution: “I have taken an alternative option by having close discussions with our partners and asked them to [broaden] their inclusion criteria as well to come up with an operational definition about their target population which was justified and with right rationale enabled us to reach the unreached”.
• Workers in a Hong Kong home and community care service decided to prioritise medical escort services for hospital out-patient visits only for people with no family members available to do this, and provided shower facilities at the centre for volunteers.
• A German worker with an international organization with a social justice focus reported that his agency had decided to shift the distribution of food for people on the street to a food truck.
• Balancing service user rights, needs and risks against personal risk to social workers and others, in order to provide services as well as possible

Some social workers reported being asked to do tasks they thought unsafe (e.g. undertaking home visits without protective equipment), while others decided to take risks with their own and service users’ health in order to meet a pressing need (e.g. taking a child to emergency foster care in the worker’s car, visiting a very vulnerable person to check if they were coping). In communal living spaces such as domestic violence refuges, residential homes for older, disabled, young and homeless people, tensions between preventing people going out and protecting other residents and the general public arose – creating conflicts between individuals’ right to choose how they lived their daily lives versus the collective right to protection. Some service users did not comprehend the risks, or chose to ignore them, leaving social workers with difficult choices between allowing them to exercise their freedom of choice, or curtailing their freedom for their own and/or the greater good. Social workers also reported facing difficult decisions, or having to support service users to make difficult choices, about whether to allow visits from outside for very isolated and even suicidal people at the risk of them contracting or spreading the virus. Several social workers commented that their managers were “out of touch”, only managing “by statistics”, failing to provide adequate guidance and support and requiring “new duties without adequate training”. Yet responses from some social work managers revealed the huge dilemmas they were facing, including whether and how to withdraw and change services and how to support staff.

• A project manager from Germany working with substance abuse in homeless accommodation described being “faced with the choice of protecting my team from infection (and thus minimizing the risk of my project having to close) or providing a much needed service to the residents of the project”.
• A Canadian social worker reported a triple edged choice about whether to place a service user in respite hospital care. She was balancing the needs of the family for respite versus the dangers of having a family member in hospital versus the need for hospital beds available for Covid-19 patients.
• A social worker working for an NGO in Taiwan providing relief for disadvantaged households – money, household products and emotional support – reported that this work was even more needed during the pandemic as many people’s income had decreased. However, the social worker, together with his colleagues, was worried at the risks they faced to their own health and wellbeing as their manager insisted they should conduct home visits.
• A social worker from an NGO in Pakistan reported that he was distributing food and hygiene products to vulnerable groups, trying to educate people about how to take precautions against the virus. Many older people in the rural areas are illiterate and religious. They do not accept the existence of Covid-19, regarding it as ‘fake news’ and flouting the lock-down. As a young man he was powerless to make them change their minds, but he carried on trying to convince people to use PPE and hand sanitiser, seeing it as his duty as a social worker in his role to promote public safety.

Making difficult ethical decisions, which result in infringing one person’s rights and interests in order to protect those of another or others, lies at the heart of social work. When there is no obvious answer about which course of action is right, then we call the situation a ‘dilemma’. In the pandemic context, in new circumstances, dilemma situations are more frequent and quick responses may be required. Often there may be no colleagues immediately available to consult. Nevertheless, several of the solutions listed below were the result of careful and considered reasoning between colleagues, which is an even more necessary and important process to go through in risky, previously uncharted and uncertain situations.

• A Japanese social worker working in a centre for people with disabilities reported that some service users could not fully comprehend Covid-19 risks and behavioural restrictions were stressful for them. “Therefore to prevent them wandering around and getting infected, we have to act proactively; in fact, we quickly prepared a business continuation plan and are constantly revising it according to the situation, also letting service users and their families know about changes”.
• In Hong Kong, despite social distancing rules, social workers in a community service centre decided to resume some groups and programmes for older people whose health and wellbeing was declining due to social isolation caused by lack of social contact. The senior social workers decided to serve as role models and take the lead to conduct home visits. After witnessing what the leaders did, individual social workers started to feel comfortable to participate in the service delivery.
• A UK social worker discussed the removal of structure and routines caused by the pandemic, giving the example of a 15 year-old girl living in a local authority children’s home who was used to managing anger by frequently walking around neighbourhood. Then she was restricted to once a day. The social worker challenged the local authority and encouraged them to be flexible: “Some looked after children are highly stressed by the Covid-19 outbreak and being creative and flexible around supporting them is very important in my view”.
• Deciding whether to follow national and organisational policies, procedures and guidance (existing or new) or to use professional discretion in circumstances where the policies seem inappropriate, confused or lacking

Many respondents reported lack of guidance about how to operate in the changed circumstances, and therefore feeling confused, anxious and having to rely on their own professional discretion and “a need to make it up as we go along”. Sometimes employers required them to continue to operate as usual when circumstances did not allow it. However, over time, many governments, organisations and individuals developed new laws, policies and guidance relating to health and social care during the pandemic. In some countries, for example, emergency legislation has permitted social workers and health care staff to bypass the normal requirements for assessment, which means curtailing service users’ usual rights to involvement in decision-making or to give consent. Some workers reported finding the new legislation or guidance did not fit the situation they were facing, or they thought it too harsh or unethical. They therefore used their professional judgement to decide whether to bend or break the rules or laws.

• A social worker in Switzerland in a residential home for people with learning disabilities reported having a tormented conscience when deciding to follow policies and not responding to residents’ requests for hugs, “when some colleagues are doing this”.
• A social worker in Spain who was working with women experiencing serious issues relating to prostitution, sexual abuse and gender violence had been available 24 hours a day to facilitate women´s access to the emergency centre. Her boss decided to stop the 24 hour service, meaning that a woman requiring emergency accommodation on Friday could not be admitted until Monday. The social worker asked: “Do I have to wait till Monday to follow the established procedure with which I do not agree?”
• In the Netherlands several social workers questioned the overpowering emphasis on avoiding risks related to physical health, with one employed by the municipality asking: “to what extent am I allowed to trust my common sense and professional sense and not follow these guidelines?”

This theme focuses very much on ethical decision-making and the question of when, if ever, it is right to act outside the law, policy or agency procedures. Most professional codes of ethics include a responsibility on the part of social workers to draw to the attention of those in power any injustices or inadequacies in policies and practices. Social workers have a role to advocate for service users and for socially just change. The issue is what to do if these courses of action do not work, or there is no time to pursue them. It may be difficult to engage in overt resistance and whistleblowing during a crisis. Furthermore, in a new situation, it may be hard to decide what is right and wrong, there may be more disagreement than usual as bodies of experience and evidence of positive and negative impacts have yet to be built up. Nevertheless, many social workers reported individual acts of covert resistance, ignoring or bending the rules, as well as more overt protests and creative and democratic solutions.

• A Nigerian social worker reported that during the pandemic there was no cash withdrawal from the banks and therefore the relatives of hospital patients were unable to pay for services in the hospital. Social workers gave their personal account details to relatives so they could transfer the money needed, enabling the social workers to withdraw the monies through an ATM (cash machine). This was against the hospital rules.
• A Slovenian social worker reported difficulties in deciding what was urgent. She chose to “walk the thin line” and meet service users with the highest needs in town.
• An Australian social worker reported that service users did not have access to masks and were at risk of contracting Covid-19 when attending medical and other appointments. The social worker therefore shopped, picked up medications and provided other types of assistance to help them stay at home. The social worker: “decided not to ask my manager for authorisation to do this … Sometimes it is better to ask for forgiveness than for permission”.
• Acknowledging and handling emotions, fatigue and the need for self-care, when working in unsafe and stressful circumstances

Social workers reported a wide array of mainly negative emotions, including: helplessness, anger, grief, guilt, anxiety, fear, shame, sadness and disappointment. Some reported feeling positive emotions such as pride, joy, relief or hope, for example, when social workers took a stand against injustice, a service user turned a corner, a risky practice turned out to succeed or lessons seemed to have been learned about how to support vulnerable people or shift towards a more socially just world. Many reported emotional and physical stress and exhaustion. The sense of moral distress was palpable in some cases – when social workers knew what the right course of action would be, but were unable to take it. In some cases social workers could be described as experiencing ‘moral injury’ – having had to take action that damaged their sense of their moral selves (for example being complicit in discharging elderly people prematurely from hospital to care homes where the virus was known to be prevalent). Some spoke about the need to care for themselves and their own families and the importance of both self-care and collective care for the profession as a whole.

Many social workers were working from home during the height of the pandemic, sometimes with personal caring responsibilities and handling illness or even death in their own families. This placed extra pressure on them as the boundaries between professional and home life had become unexpectedly and increasingly blurred. Some social work students who continued to undertake their fieldwork placements also reported feeling stress, particularly when working from home with little support or guidance, while university staff agonised over whether to continue or cancel placements. On the other hand, one student from Finland reported feeling excited at learning new methods to do social work remotely. Some social workers expressed the view quite strongly that social work was not valued sufficiently in their country, which contributed to their stress and disillusionment – e.g. that social workers were not acknowledged as key workers and were not given adequate protective equipment. Several respondents noted societal racism towards social workers and service users from minority ethnic backgrounds, which generated both anger and stress.

• A hospital-based social worker in Malta reported working in a setting where social work was not valued: “The result is that we are feeling helpless, pointless, unheard and unsupported …   Hospital management are absolutely failing to back up the multi-disciplinary team. Social workers are broken down.”
• An Italian social worker described the complex emotions associated with a case involving a very difficult ethical decision to place children with foster parents, explaining that afterwards “I still felt in trouble and worried. Emotionally I felt powerless because of the pandemic condition, grateful for the availability of the resource and guilty because of the potential risk of contagion.”
• A social worker in a social welfare centre in Greece reflected on the inadequacies of welfare support for citizens facing turmoil, and the implications of this for social work support: “This new normality requires a high sense of ethics and empathy, towards citizens that are worried about the situation afterwards … awareness and vigilance is much more preferred than the comfort of being complacent and stagnant.”
• A Vietnamese student in Australia spoke of her fear of racism and being isolated from people around her: “I’m concerned that most people will judge my background, as Asian myself, and try to stay away, from the aftermath of the pandemic”.

Emotions are always present in social work, as practitioners work with people experiencing pain, loss and injustice. Moral emotions such as compassion, guilt, regret and shame are to be expected. Yet the desperate conditions created by Covid-19 for people wanting and needing to use social work services, and the inability of social workers to respond as usual, have brought the emotions to the fore and highlighted the importance of valuing, supporting and protecting frontline staff in a range of different ways.

• Social workers from several agencies in Hong Kong reported providing financial and other rewards, better protective equipment and recognition in the media for frontline staff, including those required to carry on home delivery services or work in a shelter, in order to recognise their contribution and maintain services.
• A Dutch social worker gave an account of making a choice to continue supporting an emotionally and physically fragile man of 39 with autism and a mental disability, despite the employing organization not allowing home visits and colleagues advising against it. “However, my team leader gave me the green light: she has absolute confidence in my judgement. It gives me a good feeling and strengthens me that I am given the confidence to rely on my professionalism”.
• A UK hospital social worker commented: “These are stressful times to front line social workers. I think all teams need to have weekly periods of reflection (virtually given the times we are in) and having an environment where they can offload so that they don’t get emotionally bogged down, feeling unsafe, lonely and under-valued. It’s important to encourage daily or weekly debriefing via video conferencing to ensure everyone is ready and feeling safe and well. If contact is poor, workers may feel disconnected, isolated or abandoned”.
• Using the lessons learned from working during the pandemic to rethink social work in the future

While many of the responses focused on the here and now and the challenges faced during the Covid-19 pandemic, some reflected on the lessons learned and the implications for social work in the future. The need for more investment in social care and social and community development was a key theme. In many countries, the virus outbreak exposed weaknesses in under-funded and under-valued social services. It highlighted the crucial role of social workers in working with the social, psychological and household-level economic impact of the virus, and the need for greater respect and visibility for the role of social work. Some of social workers’ biggest ethical challenges related to whether to take risks to make what they saw as essential contact with service users in conditions where they had no or inadequate PPE and little guidance or support. Social workers are not only vital in supporting health care services in discharging patients, but have a role in their own right in maintaining family support to mitigate the effects of lock-down and job losses, and in drawing attention to injustices and advocating for changes in policies and practices affecting the most marginalised people in society. Several social workers noted the importance of reflecting on the nature and practice of social work, and how the profession might be better prepared for similar situations in the future and might regain its professional confidence.

The experience of the pandemic also highlighted the importance of community-based and voluntary support networks in neighbourhoods and communities of interest and identity and the role of social workers and community development workers in facilitating these networks. The social work response in many of the African countries entailed social workers contributing to the strengthening of community support networks, recognising that the existing state and NGO services do not have the capacity to cope with the increased material, psychological and educational needs. This response is easier in more communal societies, which already have established community infrastructures, whether formal or informal. But there are lessons for all countries, which apply not just to pandemic conditions, but to a post-pandemic context which is likely to see the implications of a global economic downturn lingering for several years.

• A social worker in Brunei commented on the need for more inter-agency cooperation: “I understand my country’s system is not as efficient compared to others, lack of resources unlike other countries. But the system we have needs to step up further with or without Covid. As a social worker, it is not a work of one, it needs togetherness and cooperation from different agencies to help with the decision making”.
• A Dutch social worker commented on the conflict between giving social aid versus community building. This worker argued that many social workers are involved in social aid, which is nice and warm, but charitable in its approach: “Confronting [social workers] with this causes furious counter-reactions. Because you touch their heartwarming [role]. But the one-way traffic of social help causes dependency, erosion of community and networks. And it is anti-empowering”.
• An Italian social worker felt that there had been productive learning from the pandemic experience. This worker described the process of going from “work as usual” to unusual ways of working, concluding: “I believe that on the whole, from my personal and professional point of view, the difficulties caused by the emergency have brought more innovation and farsightedness rather than negative consequences”.

Conclusions and recommendations

Covid-19 and the measures introduced to control and prevent its spread have restricted the services and responsibilities usually carried out by social workers, while simultaneously generating new needs and demands. In turn, these have created numerous practical and ethical challenges as social workers struggle to continue their work, meet needs in risky and uncertain situations, and respect people’s rights to privacy and to be involved in important decisions about their lives as best they can. They have had to take important decisions without being able to make face-to-face assessments, often with little guidance and support from managers and governments. Social workers and managers have had to invent new rules as they have gone along, use their professional discretion according to the circumstances of each case, and find new ways of supporting people experiencing distress and material hardship.

New and challenging ethical dilemmas are expected during a pandemic, and often it is necessary to use professional discretion and act in the moment. However, based on the learning from experience so far, there are some recommendations for developing policy and practice that might help create better conditions for promoting ethical practice in social work and reduce the moral stress and injury experienced by social workers and the hardship faced by service users in the future.

Creating the conditions for ethical practice

Social workers

• Revisit the ethical values and principles outlined in the international statement on ethics and national codes of ethics. These values and principles remain constant, but how they are applied in practice may change in new circumstances.
• Discuss ethical dilemmas and challenges with colleagues or professional associations, gaining different perspectives on possible decisions and talking through options for action.
• Engage in reflective processes of ethical deliberation to work out what might be the right (although difficult) action, taking time to consider what social work values and principles are at stake before deciding what to do in a particular case. Consider if a decision that might be ethically right in normal times (e.g. prioritising service user choice or confidentiality), might now be regarded as ethically wrong (since heightened risk means principles of service user welfare or the public good have to come first).
• Remain ethically vigilant, that is, aware of the impact of exhaustion and emotion on social workers’ capacity to see the full ethical implications of a situation and their ability to treat people with respect, empathy and compassion.
• Raise with employers, professional associations and policymakers the serious harm and inequity experienced by people during the pandemic, the difficulties in delivering social work services and make proposals for improvements.

Social work employers

• Ensure all social workers and social work students on placement are supported through regular supervision and team meetings, with opportunities to share ethical dilemmas and challenges and discuss together alternative courses of action and priorities.
• Develop guidance together with frontline social workers about how to operate safely and ethically, including guidelines for ethics in remote/digital working and agreeing when it is acceptable for privacy and confidentiality standards to be changed and services restricted, for example.
• Monitor levels of psychological and moral stress and distress amongst social workers and social work students and ensure that they have permission to take time for rest and recuperation, and to recover from their own and family illness.
• Ensure provision of necessary hygiene equipment and safety measures to enable social workers to carry out their roles in a way that protects both workers and service users.
• Advocate to governments and draw attention to gaps in welfare systems and the need for improvements.

National and international associations of social workers (including IFSW)

• Draw attention to the systemic factors that put some populations at risk, the vital role of social safety nets, the need for universal basic services such as health care, sanitary provision, housing, and communications, all of which are exacerbated in a health care crisis.
• Intensify efforts to collect evidence from social workers and social work organisations about conditions for social workers and service users, and advocate strongly with employers and governments for recognition of social work roles and better guidance for maintaining services.
• Continue to develop more detailed ethical guidance for social workers and their employers, and create spaces for peer support and learning in relation to tackling ethical dilemmas in practice.

Governments

• Recognise the critical role played by social workers in providing and supporting social and community-based care, which is as vital as health care in enabling individuals, families and communities to function during a pandemic.
• Acknowledge social workers as key workers and provide them with the necessary protective equipment, digital technology and other resources to do their jobs.
• Issue clear guidelines on how to maintain social work services during a pandemic, keeping services open, while operating as effectively and safely as possible.

Sarah Banks, Tian Cai, Ed de Jonge, Jane Shears, Michelle Shum, Ana M. Sobočan, Kim Strom, Rory Truell, María Jesús Úriz, Merlinda Weinberg

Acknowledgments

Thanks to all the social workers, students and academics who took time away from their busy lives to share their insights and experiences; national and provincial associations of social workers across the world for distributing the survey; members of the IFSW Ethics Commission and IFSW staff for their support, especially Pascal Rudin for formatting the report and Lola Casal-Sanchez for supporting the webinar on ethical challenges; Tian Cai, Didier Dubasque, Ed de Jonge, Audrey Gonin, Brenda Harvey, Maria Sanfelia, Sirpa Saario, Michelle Shum, Ana M Sobočan, María Jesús Úriz and Viktor Virag for additional translation work; Tian Cai, Annalisa Pasini, and Michelle Shum for conducting additional interviews; Mariko Kimura of the Japanese Federation of Social Workers for coordinating the Japanese survey and Viktor Virag for analysis; Teresa Bertotti for ongoing support and encouragement; and Durham University for financial assistance from the Economic and Social Research Council Impact Acceleration Account.

Appendix 1: The Social Work Ethics Research Partnership

The research team

• Sarah Banks (Coordinator), Durham University,
• Tian Cai (Research Assistant), Durham University,
• Ed de Jonge, University of Applied Sciences, Utrecht,
• Jane Shears, IFSW Ethics Commission , 
• Michelle Shum, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong
• Ana M. Sobočan, University of Ljubljana,
• Kim Strom, University of North Carolina,
• Rory Truell, IFSW Secretary-General,
• María Jesús Úriz, Public University of Navarra, Spain,
• Merlinda Weinberg, Dalhousie University,
• Teresa Bertotti, University of Trento,

Appendix 2: The survey questions

Part 1 Consent

I have read the information about the research, and I consent to the information I give being used in publications to publicise the ethical dilemmas in social workers’ experiences under Covid-19 conditions. Research participants’ names, organisations and identifying details will not be revealed in any publications. Please tick eithe r a) or b).

• I consent   OR
• I would like to have a discussion first about how the information I provide will be used.

Part 2 Questions about ethical challenges

• Briefly describe some of the ethical challenges you are facing/have faced during the Covid-19 outbreak? (Ethical challenges are situations that give you cause for professional concern, or when it is difficult to decide what is the right action to take. This may be a situation facing you, or something you have come to hear about from others).
• Please give more details of a particular situation you found ethically challenging . This might be 1 to 2 pages long and might cover:
• The background to the situation: your role and responsibilities, the organisational context, any relevant legal or cultural issues.
• What happened and who was involved: what you and others said and did.
• If you made a decision , what was the decision and what was the reasoning behind it? Did you consult with anyone else?
• What was your emotional response  (e.g. any positive or negative feelings)?
• What further reflections  do you have on this situation afterwards?

Is there anything else you would like to add?

Part 3 Your details

The International Federation of Social Workers, and national associations of social work, are wanting to build up a picture of what is happening globally and some further details from you would really help us do this. You do not have to fill in all your personal details if you prefer not to. All details will be anonymised in any publications.

• Your name (for contact purposes only)
• Email (so we can contact you for any further information)
• Country where you work
• Telephone number with country code (if you would like us to contact you)
• Please give your job title and describe your role
• What type of organisation do you work for? (please check one box)
• Statutory (run by the state)
• NGO (e.g. a charity)
• I am independent/self employed

If you answered ‘yes’ to iv) or v) please describe your work

• How many years’ experience do you have in social work?
• Are you a social work student?
• Do you identify as

If you answered ‘yes’ to iii) please describe your identity

Appendix 3: The respondents

Total number of responses to the online survey : 505

Countries : 54

Argentina (1), Australia (11), Austria (2), Belgium (3), Brazil (1), Brunei (1), Canada (78), Chile (2), China (6, comprising mainland China, 2, Hong Kong 2, Taiwan 2), Colombia (2), Costa Rica (1), Croatia (1), Finland (2), France (34), Germany (6), Ghana (1), Greece (1), Guatemala (1), Guinea (1), Iceland (1), India (6), Ireland (2), Italy (49), Japan (1), Lesotho (1), Lithuania (5), Malaysia (3), Malawi (1), Malta (1), Mexico (1), Netherlands (37), New Zealand (3), Nigeria (4), Norway (2), Pakistan (1), Peru (1), Philippines (1), Portugal (6), Puerto Rico (28), Democratic Republic of the Congo (2), Romania (1), Rwanda (1), Senegal (1), Slovenia (15), South Africa (2), Spain (57), Sri Lanka (1), Switzerland (1), Sweden (1), Uganda (1), UK (41), Ukraine (1), USA (57), Zimbabwe (1), No country given (13)

Type of organisation

Statutory:                                        241 (47.7%)

NGO:                                                 60 (11.9%)

Private:                                             69 (13.7%)

Other:                                                90 (17.8%, universities, research institutes, hospitals, health centres, students, unemployed, hybrid organisations).

Independent/self-employed:     21 (4.2%)

No response:                                  24 (4.8%)

Experience in social work

Less than a year:                            13 (2.6%)

1-5 years:                                         87 (17.2%)

6-10 years:                                      87 (17.2%)

11-15 years:                                    66 (13.1%)

More than 15 years:                     217 (43.0%)

No response:                                  35 (6.9%)

Social work students :            74 (14.7%)

Gender identity

Male:                                                77 (15.2%)

Female:                                            403 (79.8%)

Other:                                               4 (0.8%, world citizen, captain, non-binary person, group person)

No response:                                  21 (4.2%)

Additional responses:

11 interviews from Hong Kong

91 modified survey responses from Japan

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