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• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

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Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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Home » Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people’s beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.

Qualitative research aims to uncover the meaning and significance of social phenomena, and it typically involves a more flexible and iterative approach to data collection and analysis compared to quantitative research. Qualitative research is often used in fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methods are as follows:

One-to-One Interview

This method involves conducting an interview with a single participant to gain a detailed understanding of their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. One-to-one interviews can be conducted in-person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. The interviewer typically uses open-ended questions to encourage the participant to share their thoughts and feelings. One-to-one interviews are useful for gaining detailed insights into individual experiences.

Focus Groups

This method involves bringing together a group of people to discuss a specific topic in a structured setting. The focus group is led by a moderator who guides the discussion and encourages participants to share their thoughts and opinions. Focus groups are useful for generating ideas and insights, exploring social norms and attitudes, and understanding group dynamics.

Ethnographic Studies

This method involves immersing oneself in a culture or community to gain a deep understanding of its norms, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic studies typically involve long-term fieldwork and observation, as well as interviews and document analysis. Ethnographic studies are useful for understanding the cultural context of social phenomena and for gaining a holistic understanding of complex social processes.

Text Analysis

This method involves analyzing written or spoken language to identify patterns and themes. Text analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative text analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Text analysis is useful for understanding media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

This method involves an in-depth examination of a single person, group, or event to gain an understanding of complex phenomena. Case studies typically involve a combination of data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case. Case studies are useful for exploring unique or rare cases, and for generating hypotheses for further research.

Process of Observation

This method involves systematically observing and recording behaviors and interactions in natural settings. The observer may take notes, use audio or video recordings, or use other methods to document what they see. Process of observation is useful for understanding social interactions, cultural practices, and the context in which behaviors occur.

Record Keeping

This method involves keeping detailed records of observations, interviews, and other data collected during the research process. Record keeping is essential for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data, and for providing a basis for analysis and interpretation.

This method involves collecting data from a large sample of participants through a structured questionnaire. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, through mail, or online. Surveys are useful for collecting data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and for identifying patterns and trends in a population.

Qualitative data analysis is a process of turning unstructured data into meaningful insights. It involves extracting and organizing information from sources like interviews, focus groups, and surveys. The goal is to understand people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations

Qualitative Research Analysis Methods

Qualitative Research analysis methods involve a systematic approach to interpreting and making sense of the data collected in qualitative research. Here are some common qualitative data analysis methods:

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying patterns or themes in the data that are relevant to the research question. The researcher reviews the data, identifies keywords or phrases, and groups them into categories or themes. Thematic analysis is useful for identifying patterns across multiple data sources and for generating new insights into the research topic.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing the content of written or spoken language to identify key themes or concepts. Content analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative content analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Content analysis is useful for identifying patterns in media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

Discourse Analysis

This method involves analyzing language to understand how it constructs meaning and shapes social interactions. Discourse analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Discourse analysis is useful for understanding how language shapes social interactions, cultural norms, and power relationships.

Grounded Theory Analysis

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected. Grounded theory analysis starts with the data and uses an iterative process of coding and analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. The theory or explanation that emerges is grounded in the data, rather than preconceived hypotheses. Grounded theory analysis is useful for understanding complex social phenomena and for generating new theoretical insights.

Narrative Analysis

This method involves analyzing the stories or narratives that participants share to gain insights into their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Narrative analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as structural analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. Narrative analysis is useful for understanding how individuals construct their identities, make sense of their experiences, and communicate their values and beliefs.

Phenomenological Analysis

This method involves analyzing how individuals make sense of their experiences and the meanings they attach to them. Phenomenological analysis typically involves in-depth interviews with participants to explore their experiences in detail. Phenomenological analysis is useful for understanding subjective experiences and for developing a rich understanding of human consciousness.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing and contrasting data across different cases or groups to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can be used to identify patterns or themes that are common across multiple cases, as well as to identify unique or distinctive features of individual cases. Comparative analysis is useful for understanding how social phenomena vary across different contexts and groups.

Applications of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has many applications across different fields and industries. Here are some examples of how qualitative research is used:

• Market Research: Qualitative research is often used in market research to understand consumer attitudes, behaviors, and preferences. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with consumers to gather insights into their experiences and perceptions of products and services.
• Health Care: Qualitative research is used in health care to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education: Qualitative research is used in education to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. Researchers conduct classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work : Qualitative research is used in social work to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : Qualitative research is used in anthropology to understand different cultures and societies. Researchers conduct ethnographic studies and observe and interview members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : Qualitative research is used in psychology to understand human behavior and mental processes. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy : Qualitative research is used in public policy to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

How to Conduct Qualitative Research

Here are some general steps for conducting qualitative research:

• Identify your research question: Qualitative research starts with a research question or set of questions that you want to explore. This question should be focused and specific, but also broad enough to allow for exploration and discovery.
• Select your research design: There are different types of qualitative research designs, including ethnography, case study, grounded theory, and phenomenology. You should select a design that aligns with your research question and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Recruit participants: Once you have your research question and design, you need to recruit participants. The number of participants you need will depend on your research design and the scope of your research. You can recruit participants through advertisements, social media, or through personal networks.
• Collect data: There are different methods for collecting qualitative data, including interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis. You should select the method or methods that align with your research design and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Analyze data: Once you have collected your data, you need to analyze it. This involves reviewing your data, identifying patterns and themes, and developing codes to organize your data. You can use different software programs to help you analyze your data, or you can do it manually.
• Interpret data: Once you have analyzed your data, you need to interpret it. This involves making sense of the patterns and themes you have identified, and developing insights and conclusions that answer your research question. You should be guided by your research question and use your data to support your conclusions.
• Communicate results: Once you have interpreted your data, you need to communicate your results. This can be done through academic papers, presentations, or reports. You should be clear and concise in your communication, and use examples and quotes from your data to support your findings.

Examples of Qualitative Research

Here are some real-time examples of qualitative research:

• Customer Feedback: A company may conduct qualitative research to understand the feedback and experiences of its customers. This may involve conducting focus groups or one-on-one interviews with customers to gather insights into their attitudes, behaviors, and preferences.
• Healthcare : A healthcare provider may conduct qualitative research to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education : An educational institution may conduct qualitative research to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. This may involve conducting classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work: A social worker may conduct qualitative research to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : An anthropologist may conduct qualitative research to understand different cultures and societies. This may involve conducting ethnographic studies and observing and interviewing members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : A psychologist may conduct qualitative research to understand human behavior and mental processes. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy: A government agency or non-profit organization may conduct qualitative research to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. This may involve conducting focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

Purpose of Qualitative Research

The purpose of qualitative research is to explore and understand the subjective experiences, behaviors, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research aims to provide in-depth, descriptive information that can help researchers develop insights and theories about complex social phenomena.

Qualitative research can serve multiple purposes, including:

• Exploring new or emerging phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring new or emerging phenomena, such as new technologies or social trends. This type of research can help researchers develop a deeper understanding of these phenomena and identify potential areas for further study.
• Understanding complex social phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring complex social phenomena, such as cultural beliefs, social norms, or political processes. This type of research can help researchers develop a more nuanced understanding of these phenomena and identify factors that may influence them.
• Generating new theories or hypotheses: Qualitative research can be useful for generating new theories or hypotheses about social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data about individuals’ experiences and perspectives, researchers can develop insights that may challenge existing theories or lead to new lines of inquiry.
• Providing context for quantitative data: Qualitative research can be useful for providing context for quantitative data. By gathering qualitative data alongside quantitative data, researchers can develop a more complete understanding of complex social phenomena and identify potential explanations for quantitative findings.

When to use Qualitative Research

Here are some situations where qualitative research may be appropriate:

• Exploring a new area: If little is known about a particular topic, qualitative research can help to identify key issues, generate hypotheses, and develop new theories.
• Understanding complex phenomena: Qualitative research can be used to investigate complex social, cultural, or organizational phenomena that are difficult to measure quantitatively.
• Investigating subjective experiences: Qualitative research is particularly useful for investigating the subjective experiences of individuals or groups, such as their attitudes, beliefs, values, or emotions.
• Conducting formative research: Qualitative research can be used in the early stages of a research project to develop research questions, identify potential research participants, and refine research methods.
• Evaluating interventions or programs: Qualitative research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or programs by collecting data on participants’ experiences, attitudes, and behaviors.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is characterized by several key features, including:

• Focus on subjective experience: Qualitative research is concerned with understanding the subjective experiences, beliefs, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Researchers aim to explore the meanings that people attach to their experiences and to understand the social and cultural factors that shape these meanings.
• Use of open-ended questions: Qualitative research relies on open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed, in-depth responses. Researchers seek to elicit rich, descriptive data that can provide insights into participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Sampling-based on purpose and diversity: Qualitative research often involves purposive sampling, in which participants are selected based on specific criteria related to the research question. Researchers may also seek to include participants with diverse experiences and perspectives to capture a range of viewpoints.
• Data collection through multiple methods: Qualitative research typically involves the use of multiple data collection methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation. This allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data from multiple sources, which can provide a more complete picture of participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Inductive data analysis: Qualitative research relies on inductive data analysis, in which researchers develop theories and insights based on the data rather than testing pre-existing hypotheses. Researchers use coding and thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data and to develop theories and explanations based on these patterns.
• Emphasis on researcher reflexivity: Qualitative research recognizes the importance of the researcher’s role in shaping the research process and outcomes. Researchers are encouraged to reflect on their own biases and assumptions and to be transparent about their role in the research process.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research offers several advantages over other research methods, including:

• Depth and detail: Qualitative research allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data that provides a deeper understanding of complex social phenomena. Through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, researchers can gather detailed information about participants’ experiences and perspectives that may be missed by other research methods.
• Flexibility : Qualitative research is a flexible approach that allows researchers to adapt their methods to the research question and context. Researchers can adjust their research methods in real-time to gather more information or explore unexpected findings.
• Contextual understanding: Qualitative research is well-suited to exploring the social and cultural context in which individuals or groups are situated. Researchers can gather information about cultural norms, social structures, and historical events that may influence participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Participant perspective : Qualitative research prioritizes the perspective of participants, allowing researchers to explore subjective experiences and understand the meanings that participants attach to their experiences.
• Theory development: Qualitative research can contribute to the development of new theories and insights about complex social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data and using inductive data analysis, researchers can develop new theories and explanations that may challenge existing understandings.
• Validity : Qualitative research can offer high validity by using multiple data collection methods, purposive and diverse sampling, and researcher reflexivity. This can help ensure that findings are credible and trustworthy.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research also has some limitations, including:

• Subjectivity : Qualitative research relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers, which can introduce bias into the research process. The researcher’s perspective, beliefs, and experiences can influence the way data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
• Limited generalizability: Qualitative research typically involves small, purposive samples that may not be representative of larger populations. This limits the generalizability of findings to other contexts or populations.
• Time-consuming: Qualitative research can be a time-consuming process, requiring significant resources for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• Resource-intensive: Qualitative research may require more resources than other research methods, including specialized training for researchers, specialized software for data analysis, and transcription services.
• Limited reliability: Qualitative research may be less reliable than quantitative research, as it relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers. This can make it difficult to replicate findings or compare results across different studies.
• Ethics and confidentiality: Qualitative research involves collecting sensitive information from participants, which raises ethical concerns about confidentiality and informed consent. Researchers must take care to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants and obtain informed consent.

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Qualitative Research : Definition

Qualitative research is the naturalistic study of social meanings and processes, using interviews, observations, and the analysis of texts and images.  In contrast to quantitative researchers, whose statistical methods enable broad generalizations about populations (for example, comparisons of the percentages of U.S. demographic groups who vote in particular ways), qualitative researchers use in-depth studies of the social world to analyze how and why groups think and act in particular ways (for instance, case studies of the experiences that shape political views).   

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• Knowledge Base
• Methodology
• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on 4 April 2022 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on 30 January 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analysing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analysing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, and history.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organisation?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography, action research, phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasise different aims and perspectives.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves ‘instruments’ in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analysing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organise your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorise your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analysing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasise different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analysing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analysing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalisability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalisable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labour-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organisation to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organisations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organise your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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Bhandari, P. (2023, January 30). What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 18 June 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/introduction-to-qualitative-research/

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What is Qualitative Research? Methods, Types, Approaches and Examples

Qualitative research is a type of method that researchers use depending on their study requirements. Research can be conducted using several methods, but before starting the process, researchers should understand the different methods available to decide the best one for their study type. The type of research method needed depends on a few important criteria, such as the research question, study type, time, costs, data availability, and availability of respondents. The two main types of methods are qualitative research and quantitative research. Sometimes, researchers may find it difficult to decide which type of method is most suitable for their study. Keeping in mind a simple rule of thumb could help you make the correct decision. Quantitative research should be used to validate or test a theory or hypothesis and qualitative research should be used to understand a subject or event or identify reasons for observed patterns.  

Qualitative research methods are based on principles of social sciences from several disciplines like psychology, sociology, and anthropology. In this method, researchers try to understand the feelings and motivation of their respondents, which would have prompted them to select or give a particular response to a question. Here are two qualitative research examples :  

• Two brands (A & B) of the same medicine are available at a pharmacy. However, Brand A is more popular and has higher sales. In qualitative research , the interviewers would ideally visit a few stores in different areas and ask customers their reason for selecting either brand. Respondents may have different reasons that motivate them to select one brand over the other, such as brand loyalty, cost, feedback from friends, doctor’s suggestion, etc. Once the reasons are known, companies could then address challenges in that specific area to increase their product’s sales.  
• A company organizes a focus group meeting with a random sample of its product’s consumers to understand their opinion on a new product being launched.  

Table of Contents

What is qualitative research? 1

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data. The findings of qualitative research are expressed in words and help in understanding individuals’ subjective perceptions about an event, condition, or subject. This type of research is exploratory and is used to generate hypotheses or theories from data. Qualitative data are usually in the form of text, videos, photographs, and audio recordings. There are multiple qualitative research types , which will be discussed later.  

Qualitative research methods 2

Researchers can choose from several qualitative research methods depending on the study type, research question, the researcher’s role, data to be collected, etc.  

The following table lists the common qualitative research approaches with their purpose and examples, although there may be an overlap between some.  

Types of qualitative research 3,4

The data collection methods in qualitative research are designed to assess and understand the perceptions, motivations, and feelings of the respondents about the subject being studied. The different qualitative research types include the following:  

• In-depth or one-on-one interviews : This is one of the most common qualitative research methods and helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s subjective opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event. These interviews are usually conversational and encourage the respondents to express their opinions freely. Semi-structured interviews, which have open-ended questions (where the respondents can answer more than just “yes” or “no”), are commonly used. Such interviews can be either face-to-face or telephonic, and the duration can vary depending on the subject or the interviewer. Asking the right questions is essential in this method so that the interview can be led in the suitable direction. Face-to-face interviews also help interviewers observe the respondents’ body language, which could help in confirming whether the responses match.  
• Document study/Literature review/Record keeping : Researchers’ review of already existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy documents, etc.  
• Focus groups : Usually include a small sample of about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinion on a given topic. Focus groups ensure constructive discussions to understand the why, what, and, how about the topic. These group meetings need not always be in-person. In recent times, online meetings are also encouraged, and online surveys could also be administered with the option to “write” subjective answers as well. However, this method is expensive and is mostly used for new products and ideas.  
• Qualitative observation : In this method, researchers collect data using their five senses—sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This method doesn’t include any measurements but only the subjective observation. For example, “The dessert served at the bakery was creamy with sweet buttercream frosting”; this observation is based on the taste perception.  

Qualitative research : Data collection and analysis

• Qualitative data collection is the process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research.  
• The data collected are usually non-numeric and subjective and could be recorded in various methods, for instance, in case of one-to-one interviews, the responses may be recorded using handwritten notes, and audio and video recordings, depending on the interviewer and the setting or duration.  
• Once the data are collected, they should be transcribed into meaningful or useful interpretations. An experienced researcher could take about 8-10 hours to transcribe an interview’s recordings. All such notes and recordings should be maintained properly for later reference.  
• Some interviewers make use of “field notes.” These are not exactly the respondents’ answers but rather some observations the interviewer may have made while asking questions and may include non-verbal cues or any information about the setting or the environment. These notes are usually informal and help verify respondents’ answers.  

2. Qualitative data analysis 

• This process involves analyzing all the data obtained from the qualitative research methods in the form of text (notes), audio-video recordings, and pictures.  
• Text analysis is a common form of qualitative data analysis in which researchers examine the social lives of the participants and analyze their words, actions, etc. in specific contexts. Social media platforms are now playing an important role in this method with researchers analyzing all information shared online.   

There are usually five steps in the qualitative data analysis process: 5

• Prepare and organize the data  
• Transcribe interviews  
• Collect and document field notes and other material  
• Review and explore the data  
• Examine the data for patterns or important observations  
• Develop a data coding system  
• Create codes to categorize and connect the data  
• Assign these codes to the data or responses  
• Review the codes  
• Identify recurring themes, opinions, patterns, etc.  
• Present the findings  
• Use the best possible method to present your observations  

The following table 6 lists some common qualitative data analysis methods used by companies to make important decisions, with examples and when to use each. The methods may be similar and can overlap.  

Characteristics of qualitative research methods 4

• Unstructured raw data : Qualitative research methods use unstructured, non-numerical data , which are analyzed to generate subjective conclusions about specific subjects, usually presented descriptively, instead of using statistical data.  
• Site-specific data collection : In qualitative research methods , data are collected at specific areas where the respondents or researchers are either facing a challenge or have a need to explore. The process is conducted in a real-world setting and participants do not need to leave their original geographical setting to be able to participate.  
• Researchers’ importance : Researchers play an instrumental role because, in qualitative research , communication with respondents is an essential part of data collection and analysis. In addition, researchers need to rely on their own observation and listening skills during an interaction and use and interpret that data appropriately.  
• Multiple methods : Researchers collect data through various methods, as listed earlier, instead of relying on a single source. Although there may be some overlap between the qualitative research methods , each method has its own significance.  
• Solving complex issues : These methods help in breaking down complex problems into more useful and interpretable inferences, which can be easily understood by everyone.  
• Unbiased responses : Qualitative research methods rely on open communication where the participants are allowed to freely express their views. In such cases, the participants trust the interviewer, resulting in unbiased and truthful responses.  
• Flexible : The qualitative research method can be changed at any stage of the research. The data analysis is not confined to being done at the end of the research but can be done in tandem with data collection. Consequently, based on preliminary analysis and new ideas, researchers have the liberty to change the method to suit their objective.  

When to use qualitative research   4

The following points will give you an idea about when to use qualitative research .  

• When the objective of a research study is to understand behaviors and patterns of respondents, then qualitative research is the most suitable method because it gives a clear insight into the reasons for the occurrence of an event.  
• A few use cases for qualitative research methods include:  
• New product development or idea generation  
• Strengthening a product’s marketing strategy  
• Conducting a SWOT analysis of product or services portfolios to help take important strategic decisions  
• Understanding purchasing behavior of consumers  
• Understanding reactions of target market to ad campaigns  
• Understanding market demographics and conducting competitor analysis  
• Understanding the effectiveness of a new treatment method in a particular section of society  

A qualitative research method case study to understand when to use qualitative research 7

Context : A high school in the US underwent a turnaround or conservatorship process and consequently experienced a below average teacher retention rate. Researchers conducted qualitative research to understand teachers’ experiences and perceptions of how the turnaround may have influenced the teachers’ morale and how this, in turn, would have affected teachers’ retention.  

Method : Purposive sampling was used to select eight teachers who were employed with the school before the conservatorship process and who were subsequently retained. One-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with these teachers. The questions addressed teachers’ perspectives of morale and their views on the conservatorship process.  

Results : The study generated six factors that may have been influencing teachers’ perspectives: powerlessness, excessive visitations, loss of confidence, ineffective instructional practices, stress and burnout, and ineffective professional development opportunities. Based on these factors, four recommendations were made to increase teacher retention by boosting their morale.  

Advantages of qualitative research 1

• Reflects real-world settings , and therefore allows for ambiguities in data, as well as the flexibility to change the method based on new developments.  
• Helps in understanding the feelings or beliefs of the respondents rather than relying only on quantitative data.  
• Uses a descriptive and narrative style of presentation, which may be easier to understand for people from all backgrounds.  
• Some topics involving sensitive or controversial content could be difficult to quantify and so qualitative research helps in analyzing such content.  
• The availability of multiple data sources and research methods helps give a holistic picture.  
• There’s more involvement of participants, which gives them an assurance that their opinion matters, possibly leading to unbiased responses.   

Disadvantages of qualitative research 1

• Large-scale data sets cannot be included because of time and cost constraints.  
• Ensuring validity and reliability may be a challenge because of the subjective nature of the data, so drawing definite conclusions could be difficult.  
• Replication by other researchers may be difficult for the same contexts or situations.  
• Generalization to a wider context or to other populations or settings is not possible.  
• Data collection and analysis may be time consuming.  
• Researcher’s interpretation may alter the results causing an unintended bias.  

Differences between qualitative research and quantitative research 1

Frequently asked questions on qualitative research  

Q: how do i know if qualitative research is appropriate for my study  .

A: Here’s a simple checklist you could use:  

• Not much is known about the subject being studied.  
• There is a need to understand or simplify a complex problem or situation.  
• Participants’ experiences/beliefs/feelings are required for analysis.  
• There’s no existing hypothesis to begin with, rather a theory would need to be created after analysis.  
• You need to gather in-depth understanding of an event or subject, which may not need to be supported by numeric data.  

Q: How do I ensure the reliability and validity of my qualitative research findings?  

A: To ensure the validity of your qualitative research findings you should explicitly state your objective and describe clearly why you have interpreted the data in a particular way. Another method could be to connect your data in different ways or from different perspectives to see if you reach a similar, unbiased conclusion.   

To ensure reliability, always create an audit trail of your qualitative research by describing your steps and reasons for every interpretation, so that if required, another researcher could trace your steps to corroborate your (or their own) findings. In addition, always look for patterns or consistencies in the data collected through different methods.  

Q: Are there any sampling strategies or techniques for qualitative research ?   

A: Yes, the following are few common sampling strategies used in qualitative research :  

1. Convenience sampling  

Selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc.  

2. Purposive sampling  

Participants are grouped according to predefined criteria based on a specific research question. Sample sizes are often determined based on theoretical saturation (when new data no longer provide additional insights).  

3. Snowball sampling  

Already selected participants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other potential participants.  

4. Quota sampling  

While designing the study, the researchers decide how many people with which characteristics to include as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most likely to provide insights into the subject.  

Q: What ethical standards need to be followed with qualitative research ?  

A: The following ethical standards should be considered in qualitative research:  

• Anonymity : The participants should never be identified in the study and researchers should ensure that no identifying information is mentioned even indirectly.  
• Confidentiality : To protect participants’ confidentiality, ensure that all related documents, transcripts, notes are stored safely.  
• Informed consent : Researchers should clearly communicate the objective of the study and how the participants’ responses will be used prior to engaging with the participants.  

Q: How do I address bias in my qualitative research ?  

  A: You could use the following points to ensure an unbiased approach to your qualitative research :  

• Check your interpretations of the findings with others’ interpretations to identify consistencies.  
• If possible, you could ask your participants if your interpretations convey their beliefs to a significant extent.  
• Data triangulation is a way of using multiple data sources to see if all methods consistently support your interpretations.  
• Contemplate other possible explanations for your findings or interpretations and try ruling them out if possible.  
• Conduct a peer review of your findings to identify any gaps that may not have been visible to you.  
• Frame context-appropriate questions to ensure there is no researcher or participant bias.

We hope this article has given you answers to the question “ what is qualitative research ” and given you an in-depth understanding of the various aspects of qualitative research , including the definition, types, and approaches, when to use this method, and advantages and disadvantages, so that the next time you undertake a study you would know which type of research design to adopt.  

References:  

• McLeod, S. A. Qualitative vs. quantitative research. Simply Psychology [Accessed January 17, 2023]. www.simplypsychology.org/qualitative-quantitative.html    
• Omniconvert website [Accessed January 18, 2023]. https://www.omniconvert.com/blog/qualitative-research-definition-methodology-limitation-examples/  
• Busetto L., Wick W., Gumbinger C. How to use and assess qualitative research methods. Neurological Research and Practice [Accessed January 19, 2023] https://neurolrespract.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42466-020-00059  
• QuestionPro website. Qualitative research methods: Types & examples [Accessed January 16, 2023]. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/qualitative-research-methods/  
• Campuslabs website. How to analyze qualitative data [Accessed January 18, 2023]. https://baselinesupport.campuslabs.com/hc/en-us/articles/204305675-How-to-analyze-qualitative-data  
• Thematic website. Qualitative data analysis: Step-by-guide [Accessed January 20, 2023]. https://getthematic.com/insights/qualitative-data-analysis/  
• Lane L. J., Jones D., Penny G. R. Qualitative case study of teachers’ morale in a turnaround school. Research in Higher Education Journal . https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1233111.pdf  
• Meetingsnet website. 7 FAQs about qualitative research and CME [Accessed January 21, 2023]. https://www.meetingsnet.com/cme-design/7-faqs-about-qualitative-research-and-cme     
• Qualitative research methods: A data collector’s field guide. Khoury College of Computer Sciences. Northeastern University. https://course.ccs.neu.edu/is4800sp12/resources/qualmethods.pdf  

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Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems. Instead of collecting numerical data points or intervening or introducing treatments just like in quantitative research, qualitative research helps generate hypothenar to further investigate and understand quantitative data. Qualitative research gathers participants' experiences, perceptions, and behavior. It answers the hows and whys instead of how many or how much. It could be structured as a standalone study, purely relying on qualitative data, or part of mixed-methods research that combines qualitative and quantitative data. This review introduces the readers to some basic concepts, definitions, terminology, and applications of qualitative research.

Qualitative research, at its core, asks open-ended questions whose answers are not easily put into numbers, such as "how" and "why." Due to the open-ended nature of the research questions, qualitative research design is often not linear like quantitative design. One of the strengths of qualitative research is its ability to explain processes and patterns of human behavior that can be difficult to quantify. Phenomena such as experiences, attitudes, and behaviors can be complex to capture accurately and quantitatively. In contrast, a qualitative approach allows participants themselves to explain how, why, or what they were thinking, feeling, and experiencing at a particular time or during an event of interest. Quantifying qualitative data certainly is possible, but at its core, qualitative data is looking for themes and patterns that can be difficult to quantify, and it is essential to ensure that the context and narrative of qualitative work are not lost by trying to quantify something that is not meant to be quantified.

However, while qualitative research is sometimes placed in opposition to quantitative research, where they are necessarily opposites and therefore "compete" against each other and the philosophical paradigms associated with each other, qualitative and quantitative work are neither necessarily opposites, nor are they incompatible. While qualitative and quantitative approaches are different, they are not necessarily opposites and certainly not mutually exclusive. For instance, qualitative research can help expand and deepen understanding of data or results obtained from quantitative analysis. For example, say a quantitative analysis has determined a correlation between length of stay and level of patient satisfaction, but why does this correlation exist? This dual-focus scenario shows one way in which qualitative and quantitative research could be integrated.

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Quantitative and Qualitative Research

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What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks an in-depth understanding of social phenomena within their natural setting. It focuses on the "why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena and relies on the direct experiences of human beings as meaning-making agents in their every day lives. Rather than by logical and statistical procedures, qualitative researchers use multiple systems of inquiry for the study of human phenomena including biography, case study, historical analysis, discourse analysis, ethnography, grounded theory, and phenomenology.

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What is qualitative research?

"Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems. [1]  Instead of collecting numerical data points or intervene or introduce treatments just like in quantitative research, qualitative research helps generate hypotheses as well as further investigate and understand quantitative data."

"Qualitative research at its core, ask open-ended questions whose answers are not easily put into numbers such as ‘how’ and ‘why’. [2]  Due to the open-ended nature of the research questions at hand, qualitative research design is often not linear in the same way quantitative design is. [2]  One of the strengths of qualitative research is its ability to explain processes and patterns of human behavior that can be difficult to quantify. [3]  Phenomena such as experiences, attitudes, and behaviors can be difficult to accurately capture quantitatively, whereas a qualitative approach allows participants themselves to explain how, why, or what they were thinking, feeling, and experiencing at a certain time or during an event of interest."

• Qualitative Study - Steven Tenny; Grace D. Brannan; Janelle M. Brannan; Nancy C. Sharts-Hopko. This article details what qualitative research is, and some of the methodologies used.

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Qualitative vs Quantitative Research Methods & Data Analysis

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What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative?

The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type of data they collect and analyze.

Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.

Qualitative research , on the other hand, collects non-numerical data such as words, images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring subjective experiences, opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.

Qualitative research aims to produce rich and detailed descriptions of the phenomenon being studied, and to uncover new insights and meanings.

Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but not measured, such as language.

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as language. Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives meaning to their social reality.

Qualitative data is non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs, or audio recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews and analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)

Interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as behaviorists (e.g., Skinner ).

Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an appropriate way of carrying out research since it fails to capture the totality of human experience and the essence of being human.  Exploring participants’ experiences is known as a phenomenological approach (re: Humanism ).

Qualitative research is primarily concerned with meaning, subjectivity, and lived experience. The goal is to understand the quality and texture of people’s experiences, how they make sense of them, and the implications for their lives.

Qualitative research aims to understand the social reality of individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as participants feel or live it. Thus, people and groups are studied in their natural setting.

Some examples of qualitative research questions are provided, such as what an experience feels like, how people talk about something, how they make sense of an experience, and how events unfold for people.

Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behavior, operates as it does in a particular context. It can be used to generate hypotheses and theories from the data.

Qualitative Methods

There are different types of qualitative research methods, including diary accounts, in-depth interviews , documents, focus groups , case study research , and ethnography.

The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understanding of how people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world.

The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal experience. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)

Here are some examples of qualitative data:

Interview transcripts : Verbatim records of what participants said during an interview or focus group. They allow researchers to identify common themes and patterns, and draw conclusions based on the data. Interview transcripts can also be useful in providing direct quotes and examples to support research findings.

Observations : The researcher typically takes detailed notes on what they observe, including any contextual information, nonverbal cues, or other relevant details. The resulting observational data can be analyzed to gain insights into social phenomena, such as human behavior, social interactions, and cultural practices.

Unstructured interviews : generate qualitative data through the use of open questions.  This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words.  This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

Diaries or journals : Written accounts of personal experiences or reflections.

Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings, and so on, can be considered qualitative data. Visual data can be used to understand behaviors, environments, and social interactions.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), or discourse analysis .

For example, thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded .

Key Features

• Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
• Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
• The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data; without the active participation of the researcher, no data exists.
• The study’s design evolves during the research and can be adjusted or changed as it progresses. For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality. It is subjective and exists only in reference to the observer.
• The theory is data-driven and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as they are collected.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

• Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from large-scale data sets.
• The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity. For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies.
• Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent, nor can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with confidence.
• The time required for data collection, analysis, and interpretation is lengthy. Analysis of qualitative data is difficult, and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to interpret qualitative data. Great care must be taken when doing so, for example, looking for mental illness symptoms.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

• Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider’s view of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.
• Qualitative descriptions can be important in suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes.
• Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which reflect social reality (Denscombe, 2010).
• Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.

What Is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.

The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between variables , make predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and phenomenon across different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Quantitative Methods

Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things.  However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and questionnaires , can produce both quantitative information.

For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers).

Experimental methods limit how research participants react to and express appropriate social behavior.

Findings are, therefore, likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions that the researcher brings to the investigation.

There are numerous examples of quantitative data in psychological research, including mental health. Here are a few examples:

Another example is the Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), a self-report questionnaire widely used to assess adult attachment styles .

The ECR provides quantitative data that can be used to assess attachment styles and predict relationship outcomes.

Neuroimaging data : Neuroimaging techniques, such as MRI and fMRI, provide quantitative data on brain structure and function.

This data can be analyzed to identify brain regions involved in specific mental processes or disorders.

For example, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a clinician-administered questionnaire widely used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in individuals.

The BDI consists of 21 questions, each scored on a scale of 0 to 3, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. 

Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision-making. We can use statistics to summarize our data, describing patterns, relationships, and connections. Statistics can be descriptive or inferential.

Descriptive statistics help us to summarize our data. In contrast, inferential statistics are used to identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and control groups in a randomized control study).

• Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies in the lab.
• The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias) and is separated from the data.
• The design of the study is determined before it begins.
• For the quantitative researcher, the reality is objective, exists separately from the researcher, and can be seen by anyone.
• Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Limitations of Quantitative Research

• Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions they may have for those participants (Carr, 1994).
• Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).
• Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small-scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.
• Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

• Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as scientifically objective and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).
• Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
• Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
• Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.
• Hypotheses can also be tested because of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).

Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative data with SPSS . Sage.

Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research design, measurement and statistics . Sage.

Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology . Qualitative Research in Psychology , 3, 77–101.

Carr, L. T. (1994). The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research : what method for nursing? Journal of advanced nursing, 20(4) , 716-721.

Denscombe, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social research. McGraw Hill.

Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications Inc.

Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E. (1968). The discovery of grounded theory; strategies for qualitative research. Nursing research, 17(4) , 364.

Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing: Researching People. Longman Cheshire.

Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage

Further Information

• Designing qualitative research
• Methods of data collection and analysis
• Introduction to quantitative and qualitative research
• Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail wagging the dog?
• Qualitative research in health care: Analysing qualitative data
• Qualitative data analysis: the framework approach
• Using the framework method for the analysis of
• Qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research
• Content Analysis
• Grounded Theory
• Thematic Analysis

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Discourse Analysis

Phenomenology In Qualitative Research

Ethnography In Qualitative Research

Narrative Analysis In Qualitative Research

Thematic Analysis: A Step by Step Guide

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Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research in Psychology

Anabelle Bernard Fournier is a researcher of sexual and reproductive health at the University of Victoria as well as a freelance writer on various health topics.

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

• Key Differences

Quantitative Research Methods

Qualitative research methods.

• How They Relate

In psychology and other social sciences, researchers are faced with an unresolved question: Can we measure concepts like love or racism the same way we can measure temperature or the weight of a star? Social phenomena⁠—things that happen because of and through human behavior⁠—are especially difficult to grasp with typical scientific models.

At a Glance

Psychologists rely on quantitative and quantitative research to better understand human thought and behavior.

• Qualitative research involves collecting and evaluating non-numerical data in order to understand concepts or subjective opinions.
• Quantitative research involves collecting and evaluating numerical data. 

This article discusses what qualitative and quantitative research are, how they are different, and how they are used in psychology research.

Qualitative Research vs. Quantitative Research

In order to understand qualitative and quantitative psychology research, it can be helpful to look at the methods that are used and when each type is most appropriate.

Psychologists rely on a few methods to measure behavior, attitudes, and feelings. These include:

• Self-reports , like surveys or questionnaires
• Observation (often used in experiments or fieldwork)
• Implicit attitude tests that measure timing in responding to prompts

Most of these are quantitative methods. The result is a number that can be used to assess differences between groups.

However, most of these methods are static, inflexible (you can't change a question because a participant doesn't understand it), and provide a "what" answer rather than a "why" answer.

Sometimes, researchers are more interested in the "why" and the "how." That's where qualitative methods come in.

Qualitative research is about speaking to people directly and hearing their words. It is grounded in the philosophy that the social world is ultimately unmeasurable, that no measure is truly ever "objective," and that how humans make meaning is just as important as how much they score on a standardized test.

Used to develop theories

Takes a broad, complex approach

Answers "why" and "how" questions

Explores patterns and themes

Used to test theories

Takes a narrow, specific approach

Answers "what" questions

Explores statistical relationships

Quantitative methods have existed ever since people have been able to count things. But it is only with the positivist philosophy of Auguste Comte (which maintains that factual knowledge obtained by observation is trustworthy) that it became a "scientific method."

The scientific method follows this general process. A researcher must:

• Generate a theory or hypothesis (i.e., predict what might happen in an experiment) and determine the variables needed to answer their question
• Develop instruments to measure the phenomenon (such as a survey, a thermometer, etc.)
• Develop experiments to manipulate the variables
• Collect empirical (measured) data
• Analyze data

Quantitative methods are about measuring phenomena, not explaining them.

Quantitative research compares two groups of people. There are all sorts of variables you could measure, and many kinds of experiments to run using quantitative methods.

These comparisons are generally explained using graphs, pie charts, and other visual representations that give the researcher a sense of how the various data points relate to one another.

Basic Assumptions

Quantitative methods assume:

• That the world is measurable
• That humans can observe objectively
• That we can know things for certain about the world from observation

In some fields, these assumptions hold true. Whether you measure the size of the sun 2000 years ago or now, it will always be the same. But when it comes to human behavior, it is not so simple.

As decades of cultural and social research have shown, people behave differently (and even think differently) based on historical context, cultural context, social context, and even identity-based contexts like gender , social class, or sexual orientation .

Therefore, quantitative methods applied to human behavior (as used in psychology and some areas of sociology) should always be rooted in their particular context. In other words: there are no, or very few, human universals.

Statistical information is the primary form of quantitative data used in human and social quantitative research. Statistics provide lots of information about tendencies across large groups of people, but they can never describe every case or every experience. In other words, there are always outliers.

Correlation and Causation

A basic principle of statistics is that correlation is not causation. Researchers can only claim a cause-and-effect relationship under certain conditions:

• The study was a true experiment.
• The independent variable can be manipulated (for example, researchers cannot manipulate gender, but they can change the primer a study subject sees, such as a picture of nature or of a building).
• The dependent variable can be measured through a ratio or a scale.

So when you read a report that "gender was linked to" something (like a behavior or an attitude), remember that gender is NOT a cause of the behavior or attitude. There is an apparent relationship, but the true cause of the difference is hidden.

Pitfalls of Quantitative Research

Quantitative methods are one way to approach the measurement and understanding of human and social phenomena. But what's missing from this picture?

As noted above, statistics do not tell us about personal, individual experiences and meanings. While surveys can give a general idea, respondents have to choose between only a few responses. This can make it difficult to understand the subtleties of different experiences.

Quantitative methods can be helpful when making objective comparisons between groups or when looking for relationships between variables. They can be analyzed statistically, which can be helpful when looking for patterns and relationships.

Qualitative data are not made out of numbers but rather of descriptions, metaphors, symbols, quotes, analysis, concepts, and characteristics. This approach uses interviews, written texts, art, photos, and other materials to make sense of human experiences and to understand what these experiences mean to people.

While quantitative methods ask "what" and "how much," qualitative methods ask "why" and "how."

Qualitative methods are about describing and analyzing phenomena from a human perspective. There are many different philosophical views on qualitative methods, but in general, they agree that some questions are too complex or impossible to answer with standardized instruments.

These methods also accept that it is impossible to be completely objective in observing phenomena. Researchers have their own thoughts, attitudes, experiences, and beliefs, and these always color how people interpret results.

Qualitative Approaches

There are many different approaches to qualitative research, with their own philosophical bases. Different approaches are best for different kinds of projects. For example:

• Case studies and narrative studies are best for single individuals. These involve studying every aspect of a person's life in great depth.
• Phenomenology aims to explain experiences. This type of work aims to describe and explore different events as they are consciously and subjectively experienced.
• Grounded theory develops models and describes processes. This approach allows researchers to construct a theory based on data that is collected, analyzed, and compared to reach new discoveries.
• Ethnography describes cultural groups. In this approach, researchers immerse themselves in a community or group in order to observe behavior.

Qualitative researchers must be aware of several different methods and know each thoroughly enough to produce valuable research.

Some researchers specialize in a single method, but others specialize in a topic or content area and use many different methods to explore the topic, providing different information and a variety of points of view.

There is not a single model or method that can be used for every qualitative project. Depending on the research question, the people participating, and the kind of information they want to produce, researchers will choose the appropriate approach.

Interpretation

Qualitative research does not look into causal relationships between variables, but rather into themes, values, interpretations, and meanings. As a rule, then, qualitative research is not generalizable (cannot be applied to people outside the research participants).

The insights gained from qualitative research can extend to other groups with proper attention to specific historical and social contexts.

Relationship Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

It might sound like quantitative and qualitative research do not play well together. They have different philosophies, different data, and different outputs. However, this could not be further from the truth.

These two general methods complement each other. By using both, researchers can gain a fuller, more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon.

For example, a psychologist wanting to develop a new survey instrument about sexuality might and ask a few dozen people questions about their sexual experiences (this is qualitative research). This gives the researcher some information to begin developing questions for their survey (which is a quantitative method).

After the survey, the same or other researchers might want to dig deeper into issues brought up by its data. Follow-up questions like "how does it feel when...?" or "what does this mean to you?" or "how did you experience this?" can only be answered by qualitative research.

By using both quantitative and qualitative data, researchers have a more holistic, well-rounded understanding of a particular topic or phenomenon.

Qualitative and quantitative methods both play an important role in psychology. Where quantitative methods can help answer questions about what is happening in a group and to what degree, qualitative methods can dig deeper into the reasons behind why it is happening. By using both strategies, psychology researchers can learn more about human thought and behavior.

Gough B, Madill A. Subjectivity in psychological science: From problem to prospect . Psychol Methods . 2012;17(3):374-384. doi:10.1037/a0029313

Pearce T. “Science organized”: Positivism and the metaphysical club, 1865–1875 . J Hist Ideas . 2015;76(3):441-465.

Adams G. Context in person, person in context: A cultural psychology approach to social-personality psychology . In: Deaux K, Snyder M, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology . Oxford University Press; 2012:182-208.

Brady HE. Causation and explanation in social science . In: Goodin RE, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Political Science. Oxford University Press; 2011. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199604456.013.0049

Chun Tie Y, Birks M, Francis K. Grounded theory research: A design framework for novice researchers .  SAGE Open Med . 2019;7:2050312118822927. doi:10.1177/2050312118822927

Reeves S, Peller J, Goldman J, Kitto S. Ethnography in qualitative educational research: AMEE Guide No. 80 . Medical Teacher . 2013;35(8):e1365-e1379. doi:10.3109/0142159X.2013.804977

Salkind NJ, ed. Encyclopedia of Research Design . Sage Publishing.

Shaughnessy JJ, Zechmeister EB, Zechmeister JS.  Research Methods in Psychology . McGraw Hill Education.

By Anabelle Bernard Fournier Anabelle Bernard Fournier is a researcher of sexual and reproductive health at the University of Victoria as well as a freelance writer on various health topics.

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What is Qualitative Research? Methods and Examples

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Qualitative research seeks to gain insights and understand people’s experiences and perspectives by studying social organizations and human behavior. Data in qualitative studies focuses on people’s beliefs and emotional responses. Qualitative data is especially helpful when a company wants to know how customers feel about a product or service, such as in user experience (UX) design or marketing . 

In this guide, we’ll go over:

Qualitative Research Definition

Qualitative research methods and examples, advantages and disadvantages of qualitative approaches, qualitative vs. quantitative research, showing qualitative research skills on resumes.

Researchers use qualitative approaches to “determine answers to research questions on human behavior and the cultural values that drive our thinking and behavior,” says Margaret J. King, director at The Center for Cultural Studies & Analysis in Philadelphia.

Data in qualitative research typically can’t be assessed mathematically — the data is not sets of numbers or quantifiable information. Rather, it’s collections of images, words, notes on behaviors, descriptions of emotions, and historical context. Data is collected through observations, interviews, surveys, focus groups, and secondary research. 

However, a qualitative study needs a “clear research question at its base,” notes King, and the research needs to be “observed, categorized, compared, and evaluated (along a scale or by a typology chart) by reference to a baseline in order to determine an outcome with value as new and reliable information.”

Who Uses Qualitative Research?

Researchers in social sciences and humanities often use qualitative research methods, especially in specific areas of study like anthropology, history, education, and sociology. 

Qualitative methods are also applicable in business, technology , and marketing spaces. For example, product managers use qualitative research to understand how target audiences respond to their products. They may use focus groups to gain insights from potential customers on product prototypes and improvements or surveys from existing customers to understand what changes users want to see. 

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Grounded Theory

Grounded theory is an inductive approach to theory development. In many forms of research, you begin with a hypothesis and then test it to see if you’re correct. In grounded theory, though, you go in without any assumptions and rely on the data you collect to form theories. You start with an open question about a phenomenon you are studying and collect and analyze data until you can form a fully-fledged theory from the information. 

Example: A company wants to improve its brand and marketing strategies. The company performs a grounded theory approach to solving this problem by conducting interviews and surveys with past, current, and prospective customers. The information gathered from these methods helps the company understand what type of branding and marketing their customer-base likes and dislikes, allowing the team to inductively craft a new brand and marketing strategy from the data. 

Action Research

Action research is one part study and one part problem-solving. Through action research, analysts investigate a problem or weakness and develop practical solutions. The process of action research is cyclical —- researchers assess solutions for efficiency and effectiveness and create further solutions to correct any issues found. 

Example: A manager notices her employees struggle to cooperate on group projects. She carefully reviews how team members interact with each other and asks them all to respond to a survey about communication. Through the survey and study, she finds that guidelines for group projects are unclear. After changing the guidelines, she reviews her team again to see if there are any changes to their behavior.  

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Phenomenological Research

Phenomenological research investigates a phenomenon in depth, looking at people’s experiences and understanding of the situation. This sort of study is primarily descriptive and seeks to broaden understanding around a specific incident and the people involved. Researchers in phenomenological studies must be careful to set aside any biases or assumptions because the information used should be entirely from the subjects themselves. 

Example : A researcher wants to better understand the lived experience of college students with jobs. The purpose of this research is to gain insights into the pressures of college students who balance studying and working at the same time. The researcher conducts a series of interviews with several college students, learning about their past and current situations. Through the first few interviews, the researcher builds a relationship with the students. Later discussions are more targeted, with questions prompting the students to discuss their emotions surrounding both work and school and the difficulties and benefits arising from their situation. The researcher then analyzes these interviews, and identifies shared themes to contextualize the experiences of the students. 

Ethnography

Ethnography is an immersive study of a particular culture or community. Through ethnographic research, analysts aim to learn about a group’s conventions, social dynamics, and cultural norms. Some researchers use active observation methods, finding ways to integrate themselves into the culture as much as possible. Others use passive observation, watching closely from the outside but not fully immersing themselves. 

Example: A company hires an external researcher to learn what their company’s culture is actually like. The researcher studies the social dynamics of the employees and may even look at how these employees interact with clients and with each other outside of the office. The goal is to deliver a comprehensive report of the company’s culture and the social dynamics of its employees. 

Case Studies

A case study is a type of in-depth analysis of a situation. Case studies can focus on an organization, belief system, event, person, or action. The goal of a case study is to understand the phenomenon and put it in a real-world context. Case studies are also commonly used in marketing and sales to highlight the benefits of a company’s products or services. 

Example: A business performs a case study of its competitors’ strategies. This case study aims to show why the company should adopt a specific business strategy. The study looks at each competitor’s business structure, marketing campaigns, product offerings, and historical growth trends. Then, using this data on other businesses, the researcher can theorize how that strategy would benefit their company. 

>>MORE: Learn how companies use case study interviews to assess candidates’ research and problem-solving skills. 

Qualitative research methods are great for generating new ideas. The exploratory nature of qualitative research means uncovering unexpected information, which often leads to new theories and further research topics. Additionally, qualitative findings feel meaningful. These studies focus on people, emotions, and societies and may feel closer to their communities than quantitative research that relies on more mathematical and logical data. 

However, qualitative research can be unreliable at times. It’s difficult to replicate qualitative studies since people’s opinions and emotions can change quickly. For example, a focus group has a lot of variables that can affect the outcome, and that same group, asked the same questions a year later, may have entirely different responses. The data collection can also be difficult and time-consuming with qualitative research. Ultimately, interviewing people, reviewing surveys, and understanding and explaining human emotions can be incredibly complex. 

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While qualitative research deals with data that isn’t easily manipulated by mathematics, quantitative research almost exclusively involves numbers and numerical data. Quantitative studies aim to find concrete details, like units of time, percentages, or statistics. 

Besides the types of data used, a core difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the idea of control and replication. 

“Qualitative is less subject to control (as in lab studies) and, therefore, less statistically measurable than quantitative approaches,” says King.

One person’s interview about a specific topic can have completely different responses than every other person’s interview since there are so many variables in qualitative research. On the other hand, quantitative studies can often be replicated. For instance, when testing the effects of a new medication, quantifiable data, like blood test results, can be repeated. Qualitative data, though, like how people feel about the medication, may differ from person to person and from moment to moment. 

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You can show your experience with qualitative research on your resume in your skills or work experience sections and your cover letter . 

In your skills section, you can list types of qualitative research you are skilled at, like conducting interviews, performing grounded theory research, or crafting case studies. 

You can highlight specific examples in the description of your past work or internship experiences. For example, you can talk about a time you used action research to solve a complex issue at your last job. 

Your cover letter is an excellent place to discuss in-depth qualitative research projects you’ve completed. For instance, say you spent a summer conducting ethnographic research or a whole semester running focus groups to get feedback on a product. You can talk about these experiences in your cover letter and note how these skills make you a great fit for the job. 

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An Overview of Qualitative Research Methods

Direct Observation, Interviews, Participation, Immersion, Focus Groups

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Qualitative research is a type of social science research that collects and works with non-numerical data and that seeks to interpret meaning from these data that help understand social life through the study of targeted populations or places.

People often frame it in opposition to quantitative research , which uses numerical data to identify large-scale trends and employs statistical operations to determine causal and correlative relationships between variables.

Within sociology, qualitative research is typically focused on the micro-level of social interaction that composes everyday life, whereas quantitative research typically focuses on macro-level trends and phenomena.

Key Takeaways

Methods of qualitative research include:

• observation and immersion
• open-ended surveys
• focus groups
• content analysis of visual and textual materials
• oral history

Qualitative research has a long history in sociology and has been used within it for as long as the field has existed.

This type of research has long appealed to social scientists because it allows the researchers to investigate the meanings people attribute to their behavior, actions, and interactions with others.

While quantitative research is useful for identifying relationships between variables, like, for example, the connection between poverty and racial hate, it is qualitative research that can illuminate why this connection exists by going directly to the source—the people themselves.

Qualitative research is designed to reveal the meaning that informs the action or outcomes that are typically measured by quantitative research. So qualitative researchers investigate meanings, interpretations, symbols, and the processes and relations of social life.

What this type of research produces is descriptive data that the researcher must then interpret using rigorous and systematic methods of transcribing, coding, and analysis of trends and themes.

Because its focus is everyday life and people's experiences, qualitative research lends itself well to creating new theories using the inductive method , which can then be tested with further research.

Qualitative researchers use their own eyes, ears, and intelligence to collect in-depth perceptions and descriptions of targeted populations, places, and events.

Their findings are collected through a variety of methods, and often a researcher will use at least two or several of the following while conducting a qualitative study:

• Direct observation : With direct observation, a researcher studies people as they go about their daily lives without participating or interfering. This type of research is often unknown to those under study, and as such, must be conducted in public settings where people do not have a reasonable expectation of privacy. For example, a researcher might observe the ways in which strangers interact in public as they gather to watch a street performer.
• Open-ended surveys : While many surveys are designed to generate quantitative data, many are also designed with open-ended questions that allow for the generation and analysis of qualitative data. For example, a survey might be used to investigate not just which political candidates voters chose, but why they chose them, in their own words.
• Focus group : In a focus group, a researcher engages a small group of participants in a conversation designed to generate data relevant to the research question. Focus groups can contain anywhere from 5 to 15 participants. Social scientists often use them in studies that examine an event or trend that occurs within a specific community. They are common in market research, too.
• In-depth interviews : Researchers conduct in-depth interviews by speaking with participants in a one-on-one setting. Sometimes a researcher approaches the interview with a predetermined list of questions or topics for discussion but allows the conversation to evolve based on how the participant responds. Other times, the researcher has identified certain topics of interest but does not have a formal guide for the conversation, but allows the participant to guide it.
• Oral history : The oral history method is used to create a historical account of an event, group, or community, and typically involves a series of in-depth interviews conducted with one or multiple participants over an extended period.
• Participant observation : This method is similar to observation, however with this one, the researcher also participates in the action or events to not only observe others but to gain the first-hand experience in the setting.
• Ethnographic observation : Ethnographic observation is the most intensive and in-depth observational method. Originating in anthropology, with this method, a researcher fully immerses themselves into the research setting and lives among the participants as one of them for anywhere from months to years. By doing this, the researcher attempts to experience day-to-day existence from the viewpoints of those studied to develop in-depth and long-term accounts of the community, events, or trends under observation.
• Content analysis : This method is used by sociologists to analyze social life by interpreting words and images from documents, film, art, music, and other cultural products and media. The researchers look at how the words and images are used, and the context in which they are used to draw inferences about the underlying culture. Content analysis of digital material, especially that generated by social media users, has become a popular technique within the social sciences.

While much of the data generated by qualitative research is coded and analyzed using just the researcher's eyes and brain, the use of computer software to do these processes is increasingly popular within the social sciences.

Such software analysis works well when the data is too large for humans to handle, though the lack of a human interpreter is a common criticism of the use of computer software.

Pros and Cons

Qualitative research has both benefits and drawbacks.

On the plus side, it creates an in-depth understanding of the attitudes, behaviors, interactions, events, and social processes that comprise everyday life. In doing so, it helps social scientists understand how everyday life is influenced by society-wide things like social structure , social order , and all kinds of social forces.

This set of methods also has the benefit of being flexible and easily adaptable to changes in the research environment and can be conducted with minimal cost in many cases.

Among the downsides of qualitative research is that its scope is fairly limited so its findings are not always widely able to be generalized.

Researchers also have to use caution with these methods to ensure that they do not influence the data in ways that significantly change it and that they do not bring undue personal bias to their interpretation of the findings.

Fortunately, qualitative researchers receive rigorous training designed to eliminate or reduce these types of research bias.

• How to Conduct a Sociology Research Interview
• Definition of Idiographic and Nomothetic
• What Is Participant Observation Research?
• Pilot Study in Research
• Conducting Case Study Research in Sociology
• How to Understand Interpretive Sociology
• What Is Ethnography?
• Understanding Secondary Data and How to Use It in Research
• Social Surveys: Questionnaires, Interviews, and Telephone Polls
• Research in Essays and Reports
• Definition and Overview of Grounded Theory
• What Is Naturalistic Observation? Definition and Examples
• A Review of Software Tools for Quantitative Data Analysis
• Content Analysis: Method to Analyze Social Life Through Words, Images
• The Sociology of the Internet and Digital Sociology
• Immersion Definition: Cultural, Language, and Virtual

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Qualitative Research

What is qualitative research.

Qualitative research is the methodology researchers use to gain deep contextual understandings of users via non-numerical means and direct observations. Researchers focus on smaller user samples—e.g., in interviews—to reveal data such as user attitudes, behaviors and hidden factors: insights which guide better designs.

“ There are also unknown unknowns, things we don’t know we don’t know.” — Donald Rumsfeld, Former U.S. Secretary of Defense

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See how you can use qualitative research to expose hidden truths about users and iteratively shape better products.

Qualitative Research Focuses on the “Why”

Qualitative research is a subset of user experience (UX) research and user research . By doing qualitative research, you aim to gain narrowly focused but rich information about why users feel and think the ways they do. Unlike its more statistics-oriented “counterpart”, quantitative research , qualitative research can help expose hidden truths about your users’ motivations, hopes, needs, pain points and more to help you keep your project’s focus on track throughout development. UX design professionals do qualitative research typically from early on in projects because—since the insights they reveal can alter product development dramatically—they can prevent costly design errors from arising later. Compare and contrast qualitative with quantitative research here:

Qualitative research

Quantitative Research

You Aim to Determine

The “why” – to get behind how users approach their problems in their world

The “what”, “where” & “when” of the users’ needs & problems – to help keep your project’s focus on track during development

Loosely structured (e.g., contextual inquiries) – to learn why users behave how they do & explore their opinions

Highly structured (e.g., surveys) – to gather data about what users do & find patterns in large user groups

Number of Representative Users

Often around 5

Ideally 30+

Level of Contact with Users

More direct & less remote (e.g., usability testing to examine users’ stress levels when they use your design)

Less direct & more remote (e.g., analytics)

Statistically

You need to take great care with handling non-numerical data (e.g., opinions), as your own opinions might influence findings

Reliable – given enough test users

Regarding care with opinions, it’s easy to be subjective about qualitative data, which isn’t as comprehensively analyzable as quantitative data. That’s why design teams also apply quantitative research methods, to reinforce the “why” with the “what”.

Qualitative Research Methods You Can Use to Get Behind Your Users

You have a choice of many methods to help gain the clearest insights into your users’ world – which you might want to complement with quantitative research methods. In iterative processes such as user-centered design , you/your design team would use quantitative research to spot design problems, discover the reasons for these with qualitative research, make changes and then test your improved design on users again. The best method/s to pick will depend on the stage of your project and your objectives. Here are some:

Diary studies – You ask users to document their activities, interactions, etc. over a defined period. This empowers users to deliver context-rich information. Although such studies can be subjective—since users will inevitably be influenced by in-the-moment human issues and their emotions—they’re helpful tools to access generally authentic information.

Structured – You ask users specific questions and analyze their responses with other users’.

Semi-structured – You have a more free-flowing conversation with users, but still follow a prepared script loosely.

Ethnographic – You interview users in their own environment to appreciate how they perform tasks and view aspects of tasks.

Usability testing

Moderated – In-person testing in, e.g., a lab.

Unmoderated – Users complete tests remotely: e.g., through a video call.

Guerrilla – “Down-the-hall”/“down-and-dirty” testing on a small group of random users or colleagues.

User observation – You watch users get to grips with your design and note their actions, words and reactions as they attempt to perform tasks.

Qualitative research can be more or less structured depending on the method.

Qualitative Research – How to Get Reliable Results

Some helpful points to remember are:

Participants – Select a number of test users carefully (typically around 5). Observe the finer points such as body language. Remember the difference between what they do and what they say they do.

Moderated vs. unmoderated – You can obtain the richest data from moderated studies, but these can involve considerable time and practice. You can usually conduct unmoderated studies more quickly and cheaply, but you should plan these carefully to ensure instructions are clear, etc.

Types of questions – You’ll learn far more by asking open-ended questions. Avoid leading users’ answers – ask about their experience during, say, the “search for deals” process rather than how easy it was. Try to frame questions so users respond honestly: i.e., so they don’t withhold grievances about their experience because they don’t want to seem impolite. Distorted feedback may also arise in guerrilla testing, as test users may be reluctant to sound negative or to discuss fine details if they lack time.

Location – Think how where users are might affect their performance and responses. If, for example, users’ tasks involve running or traveling on a train, select the appropriate method (e.g., diary studies for them to record aspects of their experience in the environment of a train carriage and the many factors impacting it).

Overall, no single research method can help you answer all your questions. Nevertheless, The Nielsen Norman Group advise that if you only conduct one kind of user research, you should pick qualitative usability testing, since a small sample size can yield many cost- and project-saving insights. Always treat users and their data ethically. Finally, remember the importance of complementing qualitative methods with quantitative ones: You gain insights from the former; you test those using the latter.

Learn More about Qualitative Research

Take our course on User Research to see how to get the most from qualitative research.

Read about the numerous considerations for qualitative research in this in-depth piece.

This blog discusses the importance of qualitative research , with tips.

Explore additional insights into qualitative research here .

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What is the primary focus of qualitative research in user experience?

• To determine statistical significance of user behavior
• To explore user behaviors and motivations in-depth
• To quantify user interaction across multiple platforms

How many participants typically participate in qualitative research studies?

• About 5 to allow in-depth exploration
• Between 30 and 50 for moderate generalization
• Over 100 to guarantee statistical reliability

Which method do researchers often use in qualitative research to understand user experiences in their natural environment?

• Ethnographic interviews
• Laboratory experiments
• Online surveys

What characterizes the analysis of data in qualitative research?

• Simple tabulation of numeric responses
• Statistical analysis of large data sets
• Thematic analysis of detailed descriptions

What is a common challenge researchers face when they conduct qualitative research?

• The ability to obtain a large enough sample size for statistical analysis.
• The ability to remain objective and avoid bias in data interpretation.
• The ability to use advanced statistical tools to analyze data.

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Literature on Qualitative Research

Here’s the entire UX literature on Qualitative Research by the Interaction Design Foundation, collated in one place:

Learn more about Qualitative Research

Take a deep dive into Qualitative Research with our course User Research – Methods and Best Practices .

How do you plan to design a product or service that your users will love , if you don't know what they want in the first place? As a user experience designer, you shouldn't leave it to chance to design something outstanding; you should make the effort to understand your users and build on that knowledge from the outset. User research is the way to do this, and it can therefore be thought of as the largest part of user experience design .

In fact, user research is often the first step of a UX design process—after all, you cannot begin to design a product or service without first understanding what your users want! As you gain the skills required, and learn about the best practices in user research, you’ll get first-hand knowledge of your users and be able to design the optimal product—one that’s truly relevant for your users and, subsequently, outperforms your competitors’ .

This course will give you insights into the most essential qualitative research methods around and will teach you how to put them into practice in your design work. You’ll also have the opportunity to embark on three practical projects where you can apply what you’ve learned to carry out user research in the real world . You’ll learn details about how to plan user research projects and fit them into your own work processes in a way that maximizes the impact your research can have on your designs. On top of that, you’ll gain practice with different methods that will help you analyze the results of your research and communicate your findings to your clients and stakeholders—workshops, user journeys and personas, just to name a few!

By the end of the course, you’ll have not only a Course Certificate but also three case studies to add to your portfolio. And remember, a portfolio with engaging case studies is invaluable if you are looking to break into a career in UX design or user research!

We believe you should learn from the best, so we’ve gathered a team of experts to help teach this course alongside our own course instructors. That means you’ll meet a new instructor in each of the lessons on research methods who is an expert in their field—we hope you enjoy what they have in store for you!

All open-source articles on Qualitative Research

How to do a thematic analysis of user interviews.

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• 4 years ago

How to Visualize Your Qualitative User Research Results for Maximum Impact

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Creating Personas from User Research Results

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Contextual Interviews and How to Handle Them

Understand the User’s Perspective through Research for Mobile UX

Ethnography

7 simple ways to get better results from ethnographic research.

Semi-structured qualitative studies

Pros and cons of conducting user interviews.

Workshops to Establish Empathy and Understanding from User Research Results

How to Moderate User Interviews

Question Everything

Adding Quality to Your Design Research with an SSQS Checklist

• 8 years ago

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Qualitative vs. quantitative data in research: what's the difference?

If you're reading this, you likely already know the importance of data analysis. And you already know it can be incredibly complex.

At its simplest, research and it's data can be broken down into two different categories: quantitative and qualitative. But what's the difference between each? And when should you use them? And how can you use them together?

Understanding the differences between qualitative and quantitative data is key to any research project. Knowing both approaches can help you in understanding your data better—and ultimately understand your customers better. Quick takeaways:

Quantitative research uses objective, numerical data to answer questions like "what" and "how often." Conversely, qualitative research seeks to answer questions like "why" and "how," focusing on subjective experiences to understand motivations and reasons.

Quantitative data is collected through methods like surveys and experiments and analyzed statistically to identify patterns. Qualitative data is gathered through interviews or observations and analyzed by categorizing information to understand themes and insights.

Effective data analysis combines quantitative data for measurable insights with qualitative data for contextual depth.

What is quantitative data?

Qualitative and quantitative data differ in their approach and the type of data they collect.

Quantitative data refers to any information that can be quantified — that is, numbers. If it can be counted or measured, and given a numerical value, it's quantitative in nature. Think of it as a measuring stick.

Quantitative variables can tell you "how many," "how much," or "how often."

Some examples of quantitative data :  

How many people attended last week's webinar? 

How much revenue did our company make last year? 

How often does a customer rage click on this app?

To analyze these research questions and make sense of this quantitative data, you’d normally use a form of statistical analysis —collecting, evaluating, and presenting large amounts of data to discover patterns and trends. Quantitative data is conducive to this type of analysis because it’s numeric and easier to analyze mathematically.

Computers now rule statistical analytics, even though traditional methods have been used for years. But today’s data volumes make statistics more valuable and useful than ever. When you think of statistical analysis now, you think of powerful computers and algorithms that fuel many of the software tools you use today.

Popular quantitative data collection methods are surveys, experiments, polls, and more.

Quantitative Data 101: What is quantitative data?

Take a deeper dive into what quantitative data is, how it works, how to analyze it, collect it, use it, and more.

Learn more about quantitative data →

What is qualitative data?

Unlike quantitative data, qualitative data is descriptive, expressed in terms of language rather than numerical values.

Qualitative data analysis describes information and cannot be measured or counted. It refers to the words or labels used to describe certain characteristics or traits.

You would turn to qualitative data to answer the "why?" or "how?" questions. It is often used to investigate open-ended studies, allowing participants (or customers) to show their true feelings and actions without guidance.

Some examples of qualitative data:

Why do people prefer using one product over another?

How do customers feel about their customer service experience?

What do people think about a new feature in the app?

Think of qualitative data as the type of data you'd get if you were to ask someone why they did something. Popular data collection methods are in-depth interviews, focus groups, or observation.

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What are the differences between qualitative vs. quantitative data?

When it comes to conducting data research, you’ll need different collection, hypotheses and analysis methods, so it’s important to understand the key differences between quantitative and qualitative data:

Quantitative data is numbers-based, countable, or measurable. Qualitative data is interpretation-based, descriptive, and relating to language.

Quantitative data tells us how many, how much, or how often in calculations. Qualitative data can help us to understand why, how, or what happened behind certain behaviors .

Quantitative data is fixed and universal. Qualitative data is subjective and unique.

Quantitative research methods are measuring and counting. Qualitative research methods are interviewing and observing.

Quantitative data is analyzed using statistical analysis. Qualitative data is analyzed by grouping the data into categories and themes.

As you can see, both provide immense value for any data collection and are key to truly finding answers and patterns. 

More examples of quantitative and qualitative data

You’ve most likely run into quantitative and qualitative data today, alone. For the visual learner, here are some examples of both quantitative and qualitative data: 

Quantitative data example

The customer has clicked on the button 13 times. 

The engineer has resolved 34 support tickets today. 

The team has completed 7 upgrades this month. 

14 cartons of eggs were purchased this month.

Qualitative data example

My manager has curly brown hair and blue eyes.

My coworker is funny, loud, and a good listener. 

The customer has a very friendly face and a contagious laugh.

The eggs were delicious.

The fundamental difference is that one type of data answers primal basics and one answers descriptively. 

What does this mean for data quality and analysis? If you just analyzed quantitative data, you’d be missing core reasons behind what makes a data collection meaningful. You need both in order to truly learn from data—and truly learn from your customers. 

What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?

Both types of data has their own pros and cons. 

Advantages of quantitative data

It’s relatively quick and easy to collect and it’s easier to draw conclusions from. 

When you collect quantitative data, the type of results will tell you which statistical tests are appropriate to use. 

As a result, interpreting your data and presenting those findings is straightforward and less open to error and subjectivity.

Another advantage is that you can replicate it. Replicating a study is possible because your data collection is measurable and tangible for further applications.

Disadvantages of quantitative data

Quantitative data doesn’t always tell you the full story (no matter what the perspective). 

With choppy information, it can be inconclusive.

Quantitative research can be limited, which can lead to overlooking broader themes and relationships.

By focusing solely on numbers, there is a risk of missing larger focus information that can be beneficial.

Advantages of qualitative data

Qualitative data offers rich, in-depth insights and allows you to explore context.

It’s great for exploratory purposes.

Qualitative research delivers a predictive element for continuous data.

Disadvantages of qualitative data

It’s not a statistically representative form of data collection because it relies upon the experience of the host (who can lose data).

It can also require multiple data sessions, which can lead to misleading conclusions.

The takeaway is that it’s tough to conduct a successful data analysis without both. They both have their advantages and disadvantages and, in a way, they complement each other. 

Now, of course, in order to analyze both types of data, information has to be collected first.

Let's get into the research.

Quantitative and qualitative research

The core difference between qualitative and quantitative research lies in their focus and methods of data collection and analysis. This distinction guides researchers in choosing an appropriate approach based on their specific research needs.

Using mixed methods of both can also help provide insights form combined qualitative and quantitative data.

Best practices of each help to look at the information under a broader lens to get a unique perspective. Using both methods is helpful because they collect rich and reliable data, which can be further tested and replicated.

What is quantitative research?

Quantitative research is based on the collection and interpretation of numeric data. It's all about the numbers and focuses on measuring (using inferential statistics ) and generalizing results. Quantitative research seeks to collect numerical data that can be transformed into usable statistics.

It relies on measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. By employing statistical methods to analyze the data, it provides a broad overview that can be generalized to larger populations.

In terms of digital experience data, it puts everything in terms of numbers (or discrete data )—like the number of users clicking a button, bounce rates , time on site, and more. 

Some examples of quantitative research: 

What is the amount of money invested into this service?

What is the average number of times a button was dead clicked ?

How many customers are actually clicking this button?

Essentially, quantitative research is an easy way to see what’s going on at a 20,000-foot view. 

Each data set (or customer action, if we’re still talking digital experience) has a numerical value associated with it and is quantifiable information that can be used for calculating statistical analysis so that decisions can be made. 

You can use statistical operations to discover feedback patterns (with any representative sample size) in the data under examination. The results can be used to make predictions , find averages, test causes and effects, and generalize results to larger measurable data pools. 

Unlike qualitative methodology, quantitative research offers more objective findings as they are based on more reliable numeric data.

Quantitative data collection methods

A survey is one of the most common research methods with quantitative data that involves questioning a large group of people. Questions are usually closed-ended and are the same for all participants. An unclear questionnaire can lead to distorted research outcomes.

Similar to surveys, polls yield quantitative data. That is, you poll a number of people and apply a numeric value to how many people responded with each answer.

Experiments

An experiment is another common method that usually involves a control group and an experimental group . The experiment is controlled and the conditions can be manipulated accordingly. You can examine any type of records involved if they pertain to the experiment, so the data is extensive. 

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research does not simply help to collect data. It gives a chance to understand the trends and meanings of natural actions. It’s flexible and iterative.

Qualitative research focuses on the qualities of users—the actions that drive the numbers. It's descriptive research. The qualitative approach is subjective, too. 

It focuses on describing an action, rather than measuring it.

Some examples of qualitative research: 

The sunflowers had a fresh smell that filled the office.

All the bagels with bites taken out of them had cream cheese.

The man had blonde hair with a blue hat.

Qualitative research utilizes interviews, focus groups, and observations to gather in-depth insights.

This approach shines when the research objective calls for exploring ideas or uncovering deep insights rather than quantifying elements.

Qualitative data collection methods

An interview is the most common qualitative research method. This method involves personal interaction (either in real life or virtually) with a participant. It’s mostly used for exploring attitudes and opinions regarding certain issues.

Interviews are very popular methods for collecting data in product design .

Focus groups

Data analysis by focus group is another method where participants are guided by a host to collect data. Within a group (either in person or online), each member shares their opinion and experiences on a specific topic, allowing researchers to gather perspectives and deepen their understanding of the subject matter.

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So which type of data is better for data analysis?

So how do you determine which type is better for data analysis ?

Quantitative data is structured and accountable. This type of data is formatted in a way so it can be organized, arranged, and searchable. Think about this data as numbers and values found in spreadsheets—after all, you would trust an Excel formula.

Qualitative data is considered unstructured. This type of data is formatted (and known for) being subjective, individualized, and personalized. Anything goes. Because of this, qualitative data is inferior if it’s the only data in the study. However, it’s still valuable. 

Because quantitative data is more concrete, it’s generally preferred for data analysis. Numbers don’t lie. But for complete statistical analysis, using both qualitative and quantitative yields the best results. 

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A perfect digital customer experience is often the difference between company growth and failure. And the first step toward building that experience is quantifying who your customers are, what they want, and how to provide them what they need.

Access to product analytics is the most efficient and reliable way to collect valuable quantitative data about funnel analysis, customer journey maps , user segments, and more.

But creating a perfect digital experience means you need organized and digestible quantitative data—but also access to qualitative data. Understanding the why is just as important as the what itself.

Fullstory's DXI platform combines the quantitative insights of product analytics with picture-perfect session replay for complete context that helps you answer questions, understand issues, and uncover customer opportunities.

Start a free 14-day trial to see how Fullstory can help you combine your most invaluable quantitative and qualitative insights and eliminate blind spots.

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Qualitative vs quantitative research.

13 min read You’ll use both quantitative and qualitative research methods to gather survey data. What are they exactly, and how can you best use them to gain the most accurate insights?

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research  is all about  language, expression, body language and other forms of human communication . That covers words, meanings and understanding. Qualitative research is used to describe WHY. Why do people  feel  the way they do, why do they  act  in a certain way, what  opinions  do they have and what  motivates  them?

Qualitative data is used to understand phenomena – things that happen, situations that exist, and most importantly the meanings associated with them. It can help add a ‘why’ element to factual, objective data.

Qualitative research gives breadth, depth and context to questions, although its linguistic subtleties and subjectivity can mean that results are trickier to analyse than quantitative data.

This qualitative data is called  unstructured data by researchers. This is because it has not traditionally had the type of structure that can be processed by computers, until today. It has, until recently at least, been exclusively accessible to human brains. And although our brains are highly sophisticated, they have limited processing power. What can help analyse this structured data to assist computers and the human brain?

Discover the 2023 Market Research Trends Transforming the industry

What is quantitative research?

Quantitative data refers to numerical information. Quantitative research gathers information that can be counted, measured, or rated numerically – AKA quantitative data. Scores, measurements, financial records, temperature charts and receipts or ledgers are all examples of quantitative data.

Quantitative data is often structured data, because it follows a consistent, predictable pattern that computers and calculating devices are able to process with ease. Humans can process it too, although we are now able to pass it over to machines to process on our behalf. This is partly what has made quantitative data so important historically, and why quantitative data – sometimes called ‘hard data’ – has dominated over qualitative data in fields like business, finance and economics.

It’s easy to ‘crunch the numbers’ of quantitative data and produce results visually in graphs, tables and on data analysis dashboards. Thanks to today’s abundance and accessibility of processing power, combined with our ability to store huge amounts of information, quantitative data has fuelled the Big Data phenomenon, putting quantitative methods and vast amounts of quantitative data at our fingertips.

As we’ve indicated, quantitative and qualitative data are entirely different and mutually exclusive categories. Here are a few of the differences between them.

1. Data collection

Data collection methods for quantitative data and qualitative data vary, but there are also some places where they overlap.

2. Data analysis

Quantitative data suits statistical analysis techniques like linear regression, T-tests and ANOVA. These are quite easy to automate, and large quantities of quantitative data can be analyzed quickly.

Analyzing qualitative data needs a higher degree of human judgement, since unlike quantitative data, non numerical data of a subjective nature has certain characteristics that inferential statistics can’t perceive. Working at a human scale has historically meant that qualitative data is lower in volume – although it can be richer in insights.

3. Strengths and weaknesses

When weighing up qualitative vs quantitative research, it’s largely a matter of choosing the method appropriate to your research goals. If you’re in the position of having to choose one method over another, it’s worth knowing the strengths and limitations of each, so that you know what to expect from your results.

Qualitative vs quantitative – the role of research questions

How do you know whether you need qualitative or quantitative research techniques? By finding out what kind of data you’re going to be collecting.

You’ll do this as you develop your research question, one of the first steps to any research program. It’s a single sentence that sums up the purpose of your research, who you’re going to gather data from, and what results you’re looking for.

As you formulate your question, you’ll get a sense of the sort of answer you’re working towards, and whether it will be expressed in numerical data or qualitative data.

For example, your research question might be “How often does a poor customer experience cause shoppers to abandon their shopping carts?” – this is a quantitative topic, as you’re looking for numerical values.

Or it might be “What is the emotional impact of a poor customer experience on regular customers in our supermarket?” This is a qualitative topic, concerned with thoughts and feelings and answered in personal, subjective ways that vary between respondents.

Here’s how to evaluate your research question and decide which method to use:

• Qualitative research:

Use this if your goal is to  understand  something – experiences, problems, ideas.

For example, you may want to understand how poor experiences in a supermarket make your customers feel. You might carry out this research through focus groups or in depth interviews (IDI’s). For a larger scale research method you could start  by surveying supermarket loyalty card holders, asking open text questions, like “How would you describe your experience today?” or “What could be improved about your experience?” This research will provide context and understanding that quantitative research will not.

• Quantitative research:

Use this if your goal is to  test or confirm  a hypothesis, or to study cause and effect relationships. For example, you want to find out what percentage of your returning customers are happy with the customer experience at your store. You can collect data to answer this via a survey.

For example, you could recruit 1,000 loyalty card holders as participants, asking them, “On a scale of 1-5, how happy are you with our store?” You can then make simple mathematical calculations to find the average score. The larger sample size will help make sure your results aren’t skewed by anomalous data or outliers, so you can draw conclusions with confidence.

Qualitative and quantitative research combined?

Do you always have to choose between qualitative or quantitative data?

In some cases you can get the best of both worlds by combining both quantitative and qualitative data.You could use pre quantitative data to understand the landscape of your research. Here you can gain  insights around a topic  and propose a  hypothesis.  Then adopt a quantitative research method to test it out. Here you’ll discover where to focus your survey appropriately or to pre-test your survey, to ensure your questions are understood as you intended. Finally, using a round of qualitative research methods to bring your insights and story to life. This mixed methods approach is becoming increasingly popular with businesses who are looking for in depth insights.

For example, in the supermarket scenario we’ve described, you could start out with a qualitative data collection phase where you use focus groups and conduct interviews with customers. You might find suggestions in your qualitative data that customers would like to be able to buy children’s clothes in the store.

In response, the supermarket might pilot a children’s clothing range. Targeted  quantitative  research could then reveal whether or not those stores selling children’s clothes achieve higher  customer satisfaction  scores  and a  rise in profits  for clothing.

Together, qualitative and quantitative data, combined with statistical analysis, have provided important insights about customer experience, and have proven the effectiveness of a solution to business problems.

Qualitative vs quantitative question types

As we’ve noted, surveys are one of the data collection methods suitable for both quantitative and qualitative research. Depending on the types of questions you choose to include, you can generate qualitative and quantitative data. Here we have summarized some of the survey question types you can use for each purpose.

Qualitative data survey questions

There are fewer survey  question  options for collecting qualitative data, since they all essentially do the same thing – provide the respondent with space to enter information in their own words. Qualitative research is not typically done with surveys alone, and researchers may use a mix of qualitative methods. As well as a survey, they might conduct in depth interviews, use observational studies or hold focus groups.

Open text ‘Other’ box (can be used with multiple choice questions)

Text box (space for short written answer)

Essay box (space for longer, more detailed written answers)

Quantitative data survey questions

These questions will yield quantitative data – i.e. a numerical value.

Net Promoter Score (NPS)

Likert Scale

Radio buttons (respondents choose just one option)

Check boxes (respondents can choose multiple options)

Sliding scale

Star rating

Analysing data (quantitative or qualitative) using technology

We are currently at an exciting point in the history of qualitative analysis. Digital analysis and other methods that were formerly exclusively used for  quantitative data  are now used for interpreting non numerical data too.

Artificial intelligence programs can now be used to analyse open text, and turn qualitative data into structured and semi structured quantitative data that relates to qualitative data topics such as emotion and sentiment, opinion and experience.

Research that in the past would have meant qualitative researchers conducting time-intensive studies using analysis methods like thematic analysis can now be done in a very short space of time. This not only saves time and money, but opens up qualitative data analysis to a much wider range of businesses and organisations.

The most advanced tools can even be used for real-time statistical analysis, forecasting and prediction, making them a powerful asset for businesses.

Qualitative or quantitative – which is better for data analysis?

Historically, quantitative data was much easier to analyse than qualitative data. But as we’ve seen, modern technology is helping qualitative analysis to catch up, making it quicker and less labor-intensive than before.

That means the choice between qualitative and quantitative studies no longer needs to factor in ease of analysis, provided you have the right tools at your disposal. With an integrated platform like Qualtrics, which incorporates data collection, data cleaning, data coding and a powerful suite of analysis tools for both qualitative and quantitative data, you have a wide range of options at your fingertips.

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• Open access
• Published: 18 June 2024

What constitutes an employer of choice? A qualitative triangulation investigation

• Mohamed Mohiya   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6701-3071 1  

Human Resources for Health volume  22 , Article number:  41 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Employer of choice (EOC) is a relatively new phenomenon, particularly in Human Resources Management. Existing employees and prospective talent have reasons and expectations to designate an employer as an EOC. While EOC has received extensive attention from both academics and practitioners over the past few years, the work has mostly focused on managerial and marketing perspectives, and thus far lacks a strong theoretical foundation. Drawing on Social Exchange Theory (SET), based on Human Resources and employees’ perceptions and experiences, this research aims to explore and investigate the factors that constitute/designate an employer as an Employer of Choice EOC. Two qualitative triangulated data sets were collected from existing full-time employees at a Saudi multinational corporation: open interviews and document analysis (cross-sectional and longitudinal). Thematic analysis (TA) was employed to analyze both methods. The findings reveal that company image, training, and development, satisfaction, involvement and commitment, fairness, work culture, reward, opportunities for growth, teamwork, motivation, and corporate social responsibility are the factors that lead employees to designate an employer as an EOC. This research contributes to knowledge conceptually, theoretically, and empirically, mainly in the area of Human Resources Management. This research represents one of the first studies to empirically identify and investigate employee-related factors and evaluate them all together in a multinational Saudi organization. Recognizing the findings of this empirical-based research assists HR managers in designating their organizations as an EOC for current employees and prospective talents.

Peer Review reports

Introduction and research background

One of the top priority goals that strategic HR focusing is to make their organizations designated as Employer of Choice (EOC) to attract and retain talents. In the past few years, companies around the globe have experienced some competition in attracting talented employees [ 58 ]. Companies, therefore, utilise their resources to become an employer of choice [ 47 ]. The war for talent has become one of the top issues for strategic human resources [ 67 ]. One strategy that is likely to become a winner in this talent competition is inducing employees to designate an employer as an Employer of Choice (EOC) [ 50 , 59 ].

The very existence of the concept of an EOC suggests that employees deliberately choose to work for an EOC instead of for other companies [ 20 ]. However, as a concept, Employer of Choice (EOC) is still a relatively new phenomenon, particularly in Human Resources. Based on an analysis of the literature, there are other similar concepts, such as employer branding. Ambler and Barrow [ 1 ], who coined the term “employer brand”, conceptualized it “as the package of functional, economic and psychological benefits provided by employment, and identified with the employing company” (p. xvi). Backhaus and Tikoo [ 4 ] defined employer branding as “a targeted, long-term strategy to manage awareness and perceptions of employees, potential employees, and related stakeholders with regards to a particular organization” (p. 2). Employer branding has further been conceptualized as “a targeted, long-term strategy to manage the awareness and perceptions of employees, potential employees, and related stakeholders with regards to the particular firm” (Sullivan, 2004: 1). In addition, employer branding has been conceptualized as “as building an image of an organization to distinct and desirable employers” ([ 24 ], 48). Nevertheless, like many others, these conceptions in the stream of research on the employer of choice have focused on organizational and managerial perspectives to achieve organizations’ strategic goals. Most importantly, the research has clearly neglected employees’ issues. The present research defines Employer of Choice as the needs and expectations that attract employees to designate an employer as an Employer of Choice.

From the employees’ perspective, it can be considered that an EOC is a place where they are interested in or enthusiastic about working while existing employees are interested in continuing in that workplace and are content with the facilities available. According to Armstrong [ 2 ], employer branding creates EOCs for individuals and instills in them the desire to continue with a given employer. In a different dimension, an employer of choice is summed up by the popular phrase “a great place to work”.

From organizations’ perspectives, there is increasing competitiveness in the job market and the race for talent has generated a requirement on the side of the employers to prove themselves worthy by engaging in different strategies to retain and attract potentially talented people. It has become necessary for employers to attract and retain competent and enthusiastic employees so that all stakeholders are satisfied and the organization is capable of contributing towards business success. Numerous mechanisms are adopted by employers to transform themselves into Employers of Choice (EOC). Nevertheless, even if a firm makes a great effort, no guarantee existing and future employees will consider that company to be their employer of choice. However, a small portion of job seekers consider the status or brand of the employer while deciding to choose or associate with an employer [ 26 ].

There are various attributes regarding EOCs where employees play a critical role in designating an employer as an EOC. Some of these include competitive pay and benefits, the provision of a reasonable degree of security, quality of work life, enhanced future employability, commitment, employer image, supportive leadership, participation of employees, psychological benefits, opportunities for growth, and learning and recognition [ 2 , 27 , 28 , 31 , 32 , 46 ] [ 52 , 70 ]. An EOC provides an incredible work atmosphere, culture, climate, and workplace environment to attract and retain a highly competent workforce. The characteristics of an EOC may aid both the workforce and customers in terms of holistic well-being. Large numbers of progressive organizations have set themselves the goal of becoming an EOC, where people are willing to work at any cost, not only for financial benefits but also for psychological and functional benefits. Thus, the assessment of an employer as an EOC involves working with an exceptional employer who recognizes the achievements of employees in the workplace. Noe [ 33 ] proposed that an employer can be successful through a rigorous evaluation process of determining the leadership qualities, best practices, and culture that would be assets to attract and manage the most talented employees in achieving their goals.

Theoretically, due to a lack or absence of a strong theoretical foundation in EOC research, mainly social theory, this research adopts Social Exchange Theory (SET) for several reasons. First, SET is one of the most influential theories in business and HR mainly found useful in explaining the relationship between employees and employers which is based on reciprocity conveying benefited resources [ 15 , 16 , 38 ]. The approach has the distinct advantage of recognizing employees’ interpersonal and social issues. Second, SET is relational to the context and aim of the present research. Third, this current research is a qualitative study driven by social theory that has been adapted in advance of the data collection. The role of theory is fundamental as a vehicle in the present research. However, qualitative scholars often use theory as something that emerges from the data collection and analysis [ 12 ]. Fourth, the theoretical lens of SET assists in serving the main aim of this research by offering a clearer explanation and better understanding to identify and investigate this new phenomenon, EOC, and factors that designate their EOC. SET sees the factors that contribute to EOC as resources. In general, the relationship between reciprocity and resources in SET is interdependent. Employers need to provide employees with resources that will oblige them to reciprocate in kind with engagement [ 38 ]. In other words, there is no reciprocity without resources. Ultimately, reciprocity within EOC contains and conveys resources. Employees will choose to produce in response to the resources they receive from their employer of choice [ 38 ]. According to Cropanzano and Mitchell [ 15 ], once employees receive socioemotional and economic resources from their employer, they, in return, feel obliged to respond in kind and repay the employer. Therefore, the resources/factors of SET assist in investigating the types of resources that employees expect to receive from employers.

Methodologically speaking, most existing business and HRM studies about EOC in relation to marketing only use wither single quantitative method which indicates there is a qualitative methodological gap, particularly triangulation methods in HR studies. Within the context of the current research, a qualitative approach is not only appropriate but also needed. The two qualitative methods help to uncover unknown antecedents that contribute to designating the employer as an Employer of Choice in a new and undiscovered context, Saudi Arabia organization. Based on the evaluation of relevant empirical studies, the researcher realizes that the approach drawn from the research questions and the overall strategy of the research required a need for qualitative triangulation research methods, compared to a quantitative method. The advantage of qualitative research is that it allows the researcher to gain a greater perspective into the insights of the participant because it provides the opportunity for the power of words to prevail. An example is a semi-structured interview. Instead of tick boxes and Likert scales (quantitative research), qualitative research asks for self-expression and an interpretation of how the subject feels and understands. A qualitative approach seeks answers to questions that stress what and how social experience is created and given meaning. In contrast, quantitative studies emphasize the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables, not processes.

The two triangulated qualitative methods that will be used in the present study are semi-structured interviews and a document analysis approach (combined longitudinal and cross-sectional designs). The two qualitative methods are ‘equally and parallel’ which can be viewed as exact equivalents to serve the purpose of the study by addressing the research question. Most importantly, these two triangulated methods will help improve objectivity on the limitations of qualitative methodology is low objectivity. Moreover, the two qualitative sources offer rich data to answer the research questions sufficiently. In addition, using triangulation methods will minimize the common method bias.

The two approaches tend to be available for data collection in research studies: longitudinal and cross-sectional research—this research uses both. The present research, through having data from the document that provides reactions accumulative of employees’ experiences about EOC covered 2 years long, typically fits the description of longitudinal research. For example, the document analysis covers 2 years and the semi-structured interview covers 3 months. For the present research, both cross-sectional and longitudinal provide rich accounts of the employees’ accumulative experience.

Contextually, the demands and needs for EOC differ from country to country due to business, social, and cultural differences. Based on the analysis of the relevant literature about EOC in the Middle East, particularly Saudi Arabia, it found limited empirical-based evidence studies.

Contextually, based on a review of the literature, it appears there is a lack of empirical knowledge concerning the factors that contribute to EOC designation, especially with regard to employees’ perspectives in the Middle East, particularly in Saudi Arabia. This present research seeks to address this contextual knowledge gap. This study aims to identify and investigate relevant employee-related factors. The study assumes significance since no such attempt has yet been made concerning EOCs in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The objective of the study is thus to identify the factors of an employer that contribute towards making it an EOC based on Social Exchange Theory (SET).

Social exchange theory (SET) and Employer of Choice (EOC)

Some EOC studies have adopted psychological contract theory and signalling theory (e.g., [ 37 ]). Even though Saini and Jawahar’s [ 37 ] study focused heavily on the managerial and psychological aspects, these theories did not consider social and employee perspectives.

This research adopts Social Exchange Theory (SET) as a theoretical lens mainly because it magnifies the importance of reciprocity, or two-way processes [ 15 , 16 , 38 ]. There are several reasons for the value of the social theoretical foundation in the present research. First, SET is one of the most significant conceptual approaches in human resources management and organisational behavior and is based on reciprocity between employees and employers in the workplace [ 15 , 16 , 38 ]. Second, SET is also useful in explaining the core conceptualization of the present research—the notion of the employer of choice. In theory, SET recognizes employees as a party that is reciprocally interdependent with employers. The SET mainly determines the relationship between parties involved, i.e., employer and employee, who always maintain a reciprocal interconnected affiliation. Third, and most importantly, SET’s resources are considered as factors that employees need or expect in order to reciprocate and designate an employer as an Employer of Choice. Fourth, Blau [ 6 ] suggests that social exchanges are voluntary actions that, in the context of the present research, align with the word “choice”. For example, in the context of the present study, if the employer provides resources to employees, in return, employees are expected to reciprocate that by choosing the employer.

Unlike psychological contract theory and signaling theory [ 37 ], SET is a social science theory that considers non-psychological or economic resources in social relationships based on voluntary interactions, not economic transactions. This viewpoint is aligned with other social exchange theorists who suggest, in comparison to economic exchange, that relationships depend on willful actions in contrast to formal actions [ 3 , 6 ]. Relationships based upon social exchange generally have more intangible resources and focus more on resources related to socio-emotional factors, e.g., cognizance, appreciation, or praise [ 36 ]. These intangible resources of SET offer a clearer explanation of how employees view their relationships with employers in the workplace, based on reciprocation and more than mere economic resources.

The present research is driven by SET to explore and identify employee-related factors/resources that designate an employer as an EOC. The role of theory is fundamental as a vehicle in the present research. However, qualitative scholars often use theory as it allows factors to emerge from the data analysis [ 12 ]. Conversely, Silverman [ 43 ] argued that most contemporary qualitative scholars have become increasingly interested in testing and exploring theories. Undoubtedly, there is no reason to prevent the use of qualitative triangulation research in the testing of theories that have been specified in advance of collecting the data [ 12 ]. Further, SET is an ideal theory that could assist in meeting the main aim of the present research of identifying and investigating the factors that make employees choose their employer. SET stipulates that the relationship between reciprocity and resources is interdependent. Employers need to provide employees with resources that will oblige them to reciprocate in kind with engagement [ 38 ]. In other words, there is no reciprocity without resources. Ultimately, reciprocity contains and conveys resources. Therefore, a certain amount of various resources is essential for the existence of an EOC. Employees will choose to engage themselves in response to the resources they receive from their employer [ 38 ]. According to Cropanzano and Mitchell [ 15 ], once employees receive resources associated with their socio-emotional and economic needs from their employer, they, in return, feel indebted and reciprocate with the employer in multiple ways. Therefore, the resources/factors identified in SET assist in investigating the types of resources that employees expect to receive from employers. The ongoing empirical examinations in organizational behavior and development were also taken into consideration to ascertain a fair idea of the concept of EOC and its related factors.

Relevant EOC empirical work

EOC can be best understood through employer branding, supportive leadership, fairness in recruitment processes, opportunities for growth and development, and retaining and attracting talented employees. Chhabra and Mishra [ 13 ] asserted that employer branding reflects the employer’s image and employer-of-choice status, and suggested that the best methods, tools, and techniques must be applied by the employer to motivate, influence, retain, and engage employees. Vinoth and Vasantha [ 46 ] conducted a study using a sample of 364 final-year students to examine the utility of employer branding in choosing an employer. They found that psychological benefits offered by a company are more important than other benefits such as financial or economic and functional benefits when choosing the right employer. Jobseekers are likely to be attracted to those firms that exhibit unlimited employer image value in contrast to those who show a low degree of employer value related to the image. However, other factors have not yet been identified, particularly in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), an issue that the present study seeks to address.

Saini and Jawahar [ 37 ] studied the influence of employment experience and employer rankings on employee recommendation as an EOC. They also probed whether these variables have an impact on employee characteristics. The study was conducted on 39,010 employees, which took 3-year employer rankings (2015–2017) and revealed that employee recommendations are influenced by employees’ experience in the workplace. Further, they (ibid.) observed that employee characteristics such as full-time vs. part-time, tenure, employment status, and employment experience also influenced employee recommendations pertaining to the company as an employer of choice. However, unlike the present research, Saini and Jawahar [ 37 ] focused mostly on managerial perspectives.

In addition, Mau [ 27 ] conducted a recent study focusing on determining the notion of branding the public sector as EOC to recruit and retain the leadership ability of people in the service. This study was undertaken to address a challenge encountered by the government in the recruitment of candidates with optimal capabilities for public services. The Canadian Federal Government undertook an initiative in 2007 to brand their public service. The findings suggested that it was very challenging to provide an exact concept of branding for the public sector, where a diversified workforce was employed [ 27 ]. Although branding was found to be one of the most popular concepts in the public sector as an EOC, it was found that these concepts had flipsides that required immediate attention. Though the Canadian Federal Government took great pains to develop the concept of branding in the public service, they failed to lead federal public services to be considered as an EOC.

Recently, Tanwar and Kumar [ 45 ] conducted a study of college students to ascertain the association between brand dimensions of employers and EOC status. Factor analysis and structural equation modeling were used in the study. Tanwar and Kumar [ 45 ] found that person-organisation fit was perceived as a mediator for EOC and that the dimension related to employer brand required a link with person-organisation fit. It was also determined that social media plays a key moderating role in facilitating EOC. Unlike Tanwar and Kumar’s [ 45 ] research, the present study adopts qualitative and longitudinal methods that offer in-depth understanding in different ways based on employees’ experiences. Most importantly, unlike the present research, the pieces of research discussed appear are not based on theoretical foundations, which means they can be considered more as practical research rather than scholarly/academic work.

Based on the critical evaluation of the relevant literature, most works have been focused on managerial and organisational perspectives and have neglected employees’ perspectives. This research, grounded in employees’ experiences, addresses this significant gap in the literature. Unlike other managerial and organizational studies, this research, through the theoretical lens of Social Exchange Theory, identifies and explores employee-related factors that attract employees and encourage them to designate an employer as an Employer of Choice. Based on these points, the following exploratory research question was developed.

What factors attract employees to reciprocate their designation of an employer as an Employer of Choice (EOC)?

Qualitative triangulation methodology

The primary notion of qualitative research is to develop an understanding of a point rather than to verify it. Due to this, the outcomes of a qualitative investigation can be considered to be novel, reliable, genuine, and trustworthy, in contrast to quantitative research [ 19 , 25 ]. However, in qualitative methodology, subjectivity is a matter of concern [ 11 ].

With quantitative research, the findings have a higher validity as a result of the high degree of representation [ 51 ]—a concern for qualitative research. However, this research uses two triangulation methods, which provide rich data and a consequent increase in validity. For example, in the present study, document analysis, along with the open interviews, are utilized equally to shore up validity.

There is a qualitative methodological gap in the relevant literature about Employer of Choice (EOC). Reflecting on the research question above that emerged from these knowledge gaps, the answers to the research question could be obtained through both qualitative and/or quantitative methods. However, as mentioned in the review section, from the analysis of the relevant studies (e.g. [ 37 ]), it appears that a quantitative approach is favored. Therefore, this research addresses this methodological gap by using a qualitative approach. Within the context of the current research, a qualitative approach is not only appropriate but also needed.

To approach the research question, a mixed triangulation of the qualitative approach to uncover unknown factors that encourage employees to designate an employer as an Employer of Choice (EOC). The two triangulated qualitative methods used in the present study are open interviews and document analyses. The two qualitative methods are applied “equally and in parallel” and can be viewed as exact equivalents to serve the purpose of the study by addressing the research questions. To the researcher’s knowledge, this is the first study of EOC that adopts qualitative triangulation methods—in particular interviews and documentary analysis. The obtained document method is a complete set that draws upon first-hand employee comments spanning a 4-year period which is extracted from the internal organizations’ HR Blog system. The total number of comments is 104.

The second method is open interviews conducted with 22 employees. Triangulation methods assist in capturing different dimensions of the same phenomenon. For example, interviews and document analysis support the interrogation of the data to identify and/or explain factors, problems, or causes that affect employees’ decisions to choose an employer. Thus, the need to use triangulation of multiple data sources is crucial not only because it offers richer data, but also because it allows digging in-depth to obtain fine-grained results that capture what is happening in reality.

In general, triangulation is used as a means of cross-examining results from one form of data collection with those of another. For example, the document analyzed in this research contains 104 employee comments over 4 years, and interviews covering 3 months. For this research, the data triangulation helps create greater confidence in the overall results [ 53 ]. The two triangulated qualitative methods decrease researcher bias [ 56 ]. Multiple qualitative methods are employed in the collecting of data as a means of minimizing bias and limitations inherent in each method ([ 56 ]. For example, unlike with open interviews, the document analysis method used in the current research contains 104 comments written first-hand by employees with no involvement from the researcher, which decreases bias.

Two broad approaches are available for data collection in research studies: longitudinal and cross-sectional research. This research draws on both approaches. Because the data from the document provides cumulative employee reactions and employee perceptions over 4 years, this study most typically fits the description of longitudinal research.

The obtained document from the employer was as a complete set which was extracted from the internal HR Blog platform of a large multinational energy corporation. The obtained document contained interactions and discussions between employees about the Employer of Choice subject. This document contains first-hand, unadulterated comments made by employees on the platform. All documents were extracted from the HR Blog as it is without modifications or editing, as the organization stated. These texts, taken from the platform, are directly and purposively relevant to the aim of the present research.

In general, researchers need to analyze the significance of documents about study problems and aims [ 7 ]. The sampling characteristic for this research is a purposive sampling technique which is widespread in qualitative research. As this research aims to identify and investigate the factors that constitute/designate an employer as an Employer of Choice (EOC), purposive sampling was used for this study to only focus on full-time employees. For example, in interviews, the purposive sampling technique was used to focus on full-time employees. For the second method, document analysis, the received document contains employees' computerized first hand-typed written where employees responded to a question about “What designated employer of choice?” This topic document was rich and detailed information about employees’ cumulative experiences over 4 years.

For interviews, respondents were enrolled via an email sent by HR inviting them to participate. The email was purposefully sent to all employees working full-time in the organization to increase the chance of diversification of participants’ demographic characteristics. The email contains a brief invitation paragraph and several attachments, namely: a plain language statement (including the author’s contact details), and the interview guide. The researcher was copied in the email and at the end of the email, the HR asked prospective participants to contact the author directly for any questions about the research and, most importantly, to arrange the interview time and location, if they have an interest. The reason behind sending these information sheets all together in advance is to give employees time to read and understand and provide them with a clear idea about the project and interview, as well as give them time to read and decide if they would like to participate. In addition, the researcher also provided each participant with a hard copy of these sheets to explain it to them before starting the interviews.

The organization which the data was collected from is a large multinational energy Saudi corporation located in Saudi Arabia. The participants are full-time employees and the demographic characteristics are high (please see Table  1 ).

Three reasons for settling on only 22 interviews. First, from interview number fifteen and onwards, most of the interviewees’ answers started becoming repetitive. Second, the confirmation and validation between the two methods reached a satisfactory level. For example, as interviews and documents were used equally weighted and parallel, some factors that emerged from the preliminary analysis of the document required further questioning, clarification, or confirmation from interviewees during interviews (and vice versa). Third, the diversity of demographic characteristics of participants was high in genders, types of jobs (technical and administrative), years of experience, nationalities, levels of education background, and position levels (please see Table  1 ).

For the present research, thematic analysis was undertaken for both methods because it offers some flexibility when analyzing qualitative data. Thematic analysis should be seen as a foundational method for qualitative analysis [ 10 ]. Qualitative thematic analysis is a commonly used approach to analyze textual material obtained from a range of sources, including interviews and documents. As defined by Braun and Clarke [ 10 ] “ thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (p.6) . However, for thematic analysis, there is no fixed universal method. While key themes/factors have already been identified as concepts from the analysis of literature, other themes are allowed to emerge and they are coded based on the theoretical lens of SET.

For the present research, the process of analyzing the qualitative data involved: preparation of data; familiarisation with data; generating initial codes; collating similar codes into pre-existing or emerging themes; re-reading and reviewing themes that related to the research questions; and refining themes. This process was done through creative engagement with the data and following intuition [ 10 ].

For the present research, the coding process was carried out manually. Unlike other electronic software, Wicks [ 71 ] suggests that manual coding provides the researcher with an opportunity to reflect on the analysis as they immerse themselves in the data. However, one of the disadvantages of using manual coding, in particular with large data sets, is that it is less efficient or manageable [ 40 ]. As a result, this may lead to missing important aspects of the data. However, for the present research, the author has spent a large amount of effort and time to organize, read, and understand the data ensuring there are no missing key information or relevant factors.

Manually, the analysis of interviews’ transcriptions and documents was completed through the use of thematic analysis by starting with coding key factors that were identified based on the frequencies (presented in the conceptual model). Through the identified themes, the data will be allowed to capture an explanation of possible reality through evidence, which ultimately helps address the research questions sufficiently, as suggested by Braun and Clarke [ 10 ]. In the second stage of coding, there were new factors started to emerge based on the data analysis of pre-determined factors. These new emergent factors were coded based on the frequency and relevance of patterns. Through the coding process of thematic analysis, the entire data set is used to explore meaningful, frequent, and relevant patterns that emerge [ 54 ].

The use of two different sources of qualitative data has significantly reduced any potential risks of common method variance (CMV) [ 8 ]. This present research uses two mixed qualitative methods. Two procedural actions were taken to reduce CMV. First, the data were collected from interviews and documents at two different and separate times. Second, during the coding and thematic analysis stage, some of the key factors emerged from the interviews’ transcriptions and others were allowed to emerge from document analysis, but further confirmation and validation were conducted with other sources/methods to avoid any risks of common method variance. Therefore, the results of the investigated factors revealed that the issue of common method variance was not a major issue in this study.

The use of two mixed methods has assisted in overcoming any risks of bias, e.g., social desirability bias (SDB). First, all participants' personal information in the HR Blog where the documents were extracted from was completely anonymous which reduced social desirability bias (SDB). Second, the document analysis method used in the current research contains 104 comments written first-hand by employees with no involvement by the researcher, which consequently, decreases the bias. Third, for the interviews, in the plain language sheet, I mentioned that all of their responses would be confidential their participation is voluntary and they could leave at any time during the interview. Therefore, the use of two mixed methods has not only helped to decrease SDB and increase the genuineness of responses but also significantly increased the results’ confirmation and validation.

Most importantly, as the present research is theory-driven, the SET lens played a fundamental role in the analysis of the data. The coding techniques of thematic analysis necessarily depend on whether or not the themes are “theory-driven” (Braun and Clarke 2006). In the present research, themes have been analyzed, identified and interpreted, and driven or guided by “resources”, as provided in SET.

Findings and discussion

The purpose of this discussion section is to theoretically and empirically analyze, interpret, and establish the significance of the findings in the relevant literature, in particular about the research problem being investigated.

The overall theoretical analysis and interpretation of the present study’s results confirm that designating an employer as an Employer of Choice is based on reciprocity between employee and employer in exchanging resources. This is in line with the SET [ 15 , 38 ] which postulates that employees are involved in a social exchange relationship when they act in favor of another party, with the expectation that this favor is reciprocated in the future. Saks [ 38 ] suggested that employees are more willing to reciprocate or exchange their engagement for resources provided by their employer. Moreover, this is consistent with other studies that have suggested that EOC factors in organizations’ context in the workplace depend on reciprocal interactions [ 9 , 20 , 35 ].

Based on the thematic analysis of findings in this study, several factors were identified as significantly affecting employees’ designation of an employer as an employer of choice. The results that emerged from the analysis are summarised in Table  2 below.

Each of the above factors (present in the table), as identified by the respondents is now discussed in detail.

Company image

It is evident from the table that company image and reputation were of great importance and were ranked first. The vast majority of employees believe that the company image is a fundamental factor for EOC. It can be considered an extremely important factor that could lead to an organization being designated an EOC. Company image can be understood in terms of employees’ desire to continue in the company for a longer period of time or as long as they can. This result substantiates earlier findings mentioned in the literature review (e.g., [ 4 , 18 , 21 , 45 ]).

In contrast to a positive image, a negative image might also lead to negative perceptions of the company’s image [ 21 , 44 ]. However, Lievens and Slaughter [ 24 ] reviewed various articles and pointed out both the positive and negative aspects of company image and emphasized that a positive image of a company influences behavior towards productivity. Applying SET, it can be inferred that employees are attracted to an employer not merely for economic benefits but also for a host of non-economic benefits. Therefore, based on the analysis, company image is a socioemotional factor that was found to contribute strongly towards EOC in this study.

The results about the significance of company image and reputation to designate EOC is broadly consistent with many studies (e.g., [ 55 , 60 , 64 ]. Vast majority of participants believe that the employer’s image and reputation in public through the quality of the products’ brand and services influence the public and, consequently, make employees feel proud of their employer.

Opportunities for training and development

The analysis of the results shows training and development is one of the most important factors that they need and ultimately influence their decision to designate EOC. Employees interested in acquiring new skills through training. In return, employers need to consider this to become EOC. In light of the relevant literature, this result is also in agreement few studies (e.g., [ 61 , 65 ]. However, these studies did not fully focus on EOC as a concept but focused on organizational performance. For example, Salah [ 39 ] suggests that training and development have an impact that leads to an increase in productivity, quality, and performance. These findings were also supported by Karim et al. [ 63 ]. Theoretically, Cropanzano et al. [ 16 ] and Cropanzano and Mitchell [ 15 ] suggest that the employer–employee relationship can be established through reciprocities. Unlike other studies, this study has thus identified an opportunity for drawing on training and development as a significant factor that is capable of contributing toward perceptions of an EOC.

Company’s ability to attract and retain employees

Being able to attract talents in the market and most importantly retain them is found one of the most critical factors for employees to designate any employer as an EOC. More specific to the context of the organization as an employer, organizational attractiveness refers to the extent to which potential employees view an organization as a desirable and positive place to work [ 57 , 69 ].

From the table, it can be observed that attracting and retaining talent is one of the vital components of EOC. This indicates that one of the important employer functions is to attract and retain fresh talent with appropriate competencies to achieve organizational success. Participants believe that the talents that the organization attracts will positively influence them. This factor supports other studies that have been highlighted by many researchers [ 24 , 48 , 52 , 68 ].

Satisfaction, involvement, and commitment

One of the key factors found influencing the designation of EOC is employees’ satisfaction, involvement in decision-making, and organizational commitment. Employees believe that these can be achieved via satisfactory compensation and benefits, other amenities, paid holidays, participation in decision-making and job security are factors that could facilitate perception as an EOC. One of the key attributes of SET is that relationships progress over some time with the help of mutual commitment and satisfaction [ 6 , 15 , 17 , 22 , 29 , 38 ]. The findings from this study in this respect align with several earlier studies which suggest that job satisfaction, commitment, and involvement play a key role in making employees feel loyal to the employer [ 4 , 57 ].

The other significant factor was found to be of importance to employees in developing a positive attitude towards an EOC. Employees perceive that fairness exists in organizations if there are vertical promotions, proper resource allocations, equity, equal treatment, and justice. The current findings from this study are in alignment with previous research by Baldwin [ 5 ] and Polayni and Tompa [ 66 ]. Molm [ 30 ] suggests that fairness is one of the attributes that helps in establishing a good rapport between the employer and employees. Fairness is also found to mitigate conflicts and would be helpful in an employer becoming an EOC. This finding also has its moorings in SET. Treating employees fairly in the workplace mainly in promotion and incentives significantly affects employees’ decision to designate any employer as an EOC.

Work culture and environment

Considerable evidence exists to support the claim that HR practice and supportive behaviors in the company could create a positive work culture and an outstanding work environment in which employees are interested in working with and continuing to work with the employer. According to SET, employee engagement depends on the nature of the environment and culture provided by the employer to their employees [ 38 ]. This is also in line with the findings of Allam [ 49 ], according to whom HRM practices help in establishing good working atmospheres or an appropriate culture so that employees consider continuing with the employer.

The analysis of the findings suggests that organizational culture plays a significant role in making an employer an EOC. Outside of EOC’s context, this result is broadly in agreement with several studies (e.g., [ 62 ]). It seems that organizational culture is not a minor issue for employees. The analysis and interpretation of the data confirm that the organization's culture becomes a pivotal factor for employees to designate any employer as an EOC.

Employers provide appropriate rewards to their employees in return for their commendable performance, which encourages employees to perform further. Rewards refers to offering incentives to employees. Looking at it from the perspective of the SET, as recognized in the literature and the conceptual model, rewards are socioemotional and economic resources that employees may expect to receive from employers. This reciprocity and pattern of exchange is also highlighted in SET [ 6 , 13 , 23 , 41 ]. The findings about rewards are supported by the work of Kucherov and Zavyalova [ 65 ] and Clark and Oswald [ 14 ], who explained that rewards lead to better performances, which could, in turn, lead to the organization being considered an EOC. However, unlike Kucherov and Zavyalova [ 65 ] and other managerialists who associate rewards with job performance, the present research focuses on this as a repayment resource for employees to designate an employer as EOC.

Opportunities for growth, teamwork, and motivation

Career development and growth are found one of the factors that heavily influence the designation of EOC for employees. In the documents, employees pointed out that, at their present company, career prospects are good, employees are part of the growing company worldwide, there is good team conduct, and employees feel motivated when their performance is valued. SET stipulates that decisions made by individuals would be based on expectation of certain outcomes. The factors generated in this study are in alignment with this aspect of SET and alignment with the findings of Cropanzano and Mitchell [ 15 ].

Concern for society

It was found that employees valued their organization’s concern for society. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives aimed at uplifting society have been considered part of leading an employer to be evaluated as an EOC. The interpretation of this finding shows that not just society is affected by CSR, but also employees. It was surprising that employees take the CSR factor to designate an employer's EOC. This found to be significant This finding is consistent with several studies (e.g., [ 34 ]). According to Norbit et al. [ 34 ], employees tend to have a positive attitude towards the companies that are involved in CSR as it enhances the reputation of the organization among stakeholders. Theoretically speaking, CSR is seen as one of the resources that employees expect from employers to make, in return, an employer as EOC.

Based on analysis and interpretations of the findings, through the theoretical lens of Social Exchange Theory, the below figure (Fig.  1 ) proposes a complex theoretical/conceptual model about the antecedents/factors that encourage employees to designate an employer as an EOC.

Conceptual model (created by the author)

Research contributions and limitations

The analysis of findings from the document analysis and interviews has revealed several factors relating to and a deeper understanding of EOC. These findings contribute to theoretical knowledge, particularly SET, and empirical knowledge, specifically with respect to Saudi Arabia. Company image, opportunity for training and development, attracting and retaining, satisfaction, involvement and commitment, fairness, work culture and environment, reward, opportunities for growth, teamwork and motivation, and concern for society emerged as the most important components of EOC in this study. Many of the researchers who have studied SET have observed that the employee–employer relationship depends on exchange, reciprocity, and a relationship that satisfies both parties. It can be considered that an EOC is also dependent on relationships and reciprocity. In the event of this association having longevity, it would be beneficial to both parties and employees would then consider the organization as an EOC.

Many employers implement practices to attract and retain talented employees. EOC involves the inculcation of holistic satisfaction, having a conducive to encouraging work culture and environment, and the overall well-being of employees. Though the majority of employees in this study held a favorable opinion about EOCs, a few lamented the lack of well-being, motivation, promotion criteria, and rigid HR practices. They considered these factors to force employees to change jobs. Management needs to consider such “flipsides” of the organization to retain talent. Researchers argue that reciprocities lead to minimization of employee turnover, maximization of commitment, satisfaction, overcoming of role stress, and creating a pleasing image of the employer in the market [ 28 , 42 ].

The present study is not devoid of limitations. The first limitation of the present research relates to the external factors that might affect employees’ designation of an employer as EOC, such as cultural issues. Hence, it might be argued that the results may be unique to the Saudi context, or may not be applicable to other cultures and countries. Cultural issues can be linked to organizational culture or outside culture, depending on the country and background. For example, future studies may consider investigating the impact of employees’ cultural backgrounds on EOC. There is much room for further progress in determining how cultural factors affect EOC. As a result, further work is required to uncover new knowledge in this area.

The second limitation related to the use of a purposive sampling method to gather the information from the participants, which may influence the generalisability of the findings. However, there are multiple avenues for future research. Standardized tools and mechanisms of data analysis with different variables can be used in future research to acquire further knowledge that will spark new information assimilation about the concept of EOC in more than one organization or Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs).

The third limitation of the present research is that the empirical result cannot be generalized because it used a single case study based on one single organization. However, the theoretical results of SET can be generalized mainly because it recognises employees who are in reciprocal interdependent relations with the employer. The results can be different from organization to organization depending on several factors, such as the type of the industry, and the size of the company.

Availability of data

Data are available from the corresponding author upon request.

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Mohiya, M. What constitutes an employer of choice? A qualitative triangulation investigation. Hum Resour Health 22 , 41 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-024-00928-7

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Cognition of diet quality and dietary management in elderly patients with coronary and other atherosclerotic vascular disease in western China, a qualitative research study

• Jiamengying Chen 1   na1 ,
• Xiaojie Li 1   na1 ,
• Yun Wang 2 ,
• Chunling Zhang 3 ,
• Li Yang 3 ,
• Lvheng Zhao 1 ,
• Qingqing Zhu 1 ,
• Li Wang 4 &
• Yixia Zhou 1 , 2  

BMC Geriatrics volume  24 , Article number:  525 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

Healthy eating is one of the most important nonpharmacologic treatments for patients with atherosclerosis(AS). However, it is unclear how elderly AS patients in western China perceive their dietary status and which type of nutritional assistance they would be willing to receive. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to understand the level of knowledge about current dietary habits and healthy eating habits among elderly AS patients in western China, and the secondary purpose was to identify acceptable nutritional assistance measures or pathways for those patients to help them manage disease progression.

An implementation study approach was used to recruit elderly patients with AS-related diseases in western China for semistructured interviews.

14 participants were included in the study, and the following three themes were identified from the interviews:(1) the diet with regional characteristics; (2) low nutrition-related health literacy; (3) complex attitudes towards nutritional assistance. Most participants had misconceptions about healthy eating, and the sources of their knowledge might not be trustworthy. Participants expressed a preference for personalized nutritional assistance, especially that provided by medical-nursing combined institutions.

Patients in western China need nutritional assistance for their regional dietary habits; therefore, healthy dietary patterns consistent with the regional culture are proposed to improve the prevailing lack of knowledge about healthy diets, improve the dietary structure of patients, and control the development of the disease.

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Patients generally misunderstand dietary information, and their perceptions of dietary quality are different. With improvements in people’s living standards and a general lack of exercise, the incidence of atherosclerosis (AS) is increasing annually. The main incidence group is still the elderly population [ 1 ], and this disease has brought a greater economic burden to people and medical systems [ 2 ].

Poor eating habits are a definite risk factor for AS and one of the important risk factors associated with the burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD) [ 3 ]. In 2016, 2.1 million global deaths from CVD were linked to poor eating habits [ 4 ]. Many studies had shown that most people with AS have poor diet quality and poor knowledge of healthy diets [ 5 ]. Global comparative risk assessment studies have estimated that hundreds of thousands or even millions of deaths in patients with CVD can be attributed to the effects of certain diets and environments [ 6 ]. In China, many scholars had investigated the dietary behaviour of patients with AS. With the further development of the economy and the steady increase in the degree of urbanization [ 7 ], Chinese consumption of fruits, dairy products, snacks, fast food and beverages is increasing significantly, and the dietary pattern is gradually shifting to a high-fat Western diet [ 8 ]. This tendency may be closely related to the increasing incidence of AS-related diseases. China is a vast country, which leads to different eating habits among people in different regions. A study of 11,512 respondents in 47 provinces of China showed that the mortality rate of CVD in the central and western regions was greater than that in the eastern provinces of China, and poor eating habits were one of the risk factors for death. However, we found that the current research is still targeting individuals living in the eastern and northern regions of China [ 9 ]. There is a lack of surveys on people in western China, which may lead to a lack of targeted and personalized nutritional assistance for this population [ 10 ].

Nutritional assistance methods include providing relevant dietary advice [ 11 ], diet intervention measures [ 12 ], diet patterns [ 13 ], nutritional supplements [ 14 ], etc. In previous studies, health education related to diet management has been shown to effectively improve the disease awareness of patients with AS and to have a positive impact on some of its indicators, such as blood lipid levels and body mass index [ 15 ]. Before designing interventions, some investigators did not consider whether participants were willing to accept nutritional assistance, and they lacked an understanding of the participants’ daily life [ 16 ]. Moreover, researchers and clinical staff may be biased against interventions recognized by patients [ 17 ]. The incorporation of the perspective of patients can help researchers explore new interventions or discover new understandings of existing interventions to form higher-quality research. Understanding local eating habits in advance can also help researchers better identify the possible bad eating behaviours of the target group and develop more targeted interventions [ 18 ].

The main purpose of this study was to explore the views of patients with coronary and other atherosclerotic vascular diseases in western China on dietary quality and previously received dietary recommendations or nutritional assistance. The secondary purpose was to determine which nutritional assistance methods are acceptable for these patients to help them improve their health management.

Qualitative approach & research paradigm

This was a qualitative study, and we used a semistructured interview method. Mainly, we discussed how patients with coronary and other atherosclerotic vascular diseases viewed their dietary habits and intake, as well as their views on various nutritional assistance methods and approaches, and explored their feelings and expectations regarding nutritional assistance.

Researcher characteristics and reflexivity

Two researchers (Li Wang, Yixia Zhou) were responsible for the research design, and 1 researcher (Li Yang) who had a clinical nurse–patient relationship with the interviewees recruited and screened participants with the assistance of 3 researchers (Lvheng Zhao, Qingqing Zhu, Yun Wang). Two researchers (Jiamengying Chen, Xiaojie Li) conducted patient interviews under the supervision of a nutrition expert (Chunling Zhang) and entered and analysed the data. A total of 9 researchers participated in this study, all of whom had research/work backgrounds related to nutrition or CVD.

From March 2023 to June 2023, elderly people who visited 3 medical institutions in Guizhou Province, China, were selected as interviewees using purposive sampling methods. The average number of elderly people in the 3 medical institutions is approximately 80 per week. A stable medical team provides medical security and regularly carries out cardiac rehabilitation and other services.

Sampling strategy

The inclusion criteria for patients were as follows: (1) \(\ge\) 60 years old; (2) diagnosed with coronary or other atherosclerotic vascular disease [ 19 ]; (3) clear thinking, able to speak Chinese fluently, including Mandarin or dialect; and (4) signed written informed consent form to voluntarily participate in the study. The exclusion criteria were as follows: (1) cognitive impairment, (2) communication barriers.

After ethical review, posters were placed in cardiovascular clinics and nutrition clinics of medical institutions to recruit volunteers to participate in the study. Information on the poster included the purpose of the study, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and contact information for the principal investigator (Jiamengying Chen, Xiaojie Li). The posters were posted from February 2023 to May 2023, and 16 elderly patients with AS were invited to participate. Due to data saturation, a total of 14 elderly patients with AS were finally interviewed and numbered P1 to P14.

Before beginning the study, the researchers invited potential participants, explained the purpose and methods of the study to the participants who were willing to participate in the study, and interviewed the participants with their consent.

Ethical issues pertaining to human subjects

Before the start of the study, the research team provided written informed consent forms to the eligible participants. This study was approved by the the Ethics Committee of The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou University of Traditional Chinese Medicine (No.: KYW2022007).

Data collection and instruments

Participants participated in research interviews from March 2023 to June 2023. The interviews were conducted in a separate lounge of the medical institutions to ensure participants’ privacy. After obtaining the participants’ consent, the researchers recorded the entire interview, and all recordings were obtained using the same electronic device. All participants were interviewed by the same researcher and supervised by the chief nurses on the research team. The participants had the right to know the educational level, professional title and other information about the researchers.

According to the purpose of the study, the members of the research group conducted a literature review in advance, discussed and formulated the interview outline, and conducted a pre-interview with 2 participants in advance. According to the interview results, the outline was modified, and the interview outline applied in this survey was finally determined. The interview outline consisted of open and closed questions. The main topics of discussion were the participants’ views on the current quality of their diet, whether they feel that their diet should be improved, and whether they were willing to accept medical assistance related to diet management. In addition, the researchers asked participants whether they had received diet-related or nutritionist guidance.

At the end of the interview, the researchers listed many types of nutritional assistance or approaches to participants and asked them to provide preferences for each type of nutritional assistance or approach. Before the interview, the researchers used a warm-up question to create a friendly atmosphere between the interviewer and the interviewee: “If you do not mind, could you tell me something about your AS-related disease?”

Clinical measures

The researchers collected information such as the participants’ age, sex, and types of disease. This information was collected to provide a sufficient sample description and determine whether there was heterogeneity.

Units of study

In this study, the saturation of data collection was used as the end point of the interview process; that is, if the data analysis was repeated with the previous data, and no new coding appeared, then the interview process was considered to be completed. After data saturation, 2 participants were interviewed to ensure that no new coding appeared [ 20 ]. The interview time ranged from 11 minutes and 08 seconds to 27 minutes and 35 seconds, with an average time of 17 minutes and 42 seconds.

Data processing

During the interview, the researcher recorded the patient’s intonation, speech rate, expression, gesture and so on. To reduce the researchers’ memory bias, the recordings were converted into text within 24 hours after the end of the interview and supplemented and modified in combination with the notes of on-site observation [ 21 ] .

Data analysis

This study was conducted by 2 researchers (Jiamengying Chen, Xiaojie Li) using the Colaizzi seven-step method of phenomenological research to guide the data analysis. The 2 researchers independently and repeatedly listened to the audio recordings of the interviews, verified the content, and ultimately analysed the data separately.

During the study, the researcher verified unclear statements in the recordings by contacting the respondent via WeChat or telephone. In addition, the transcribed notes and the themes generated from the analysis were confirmed with the interviewees to ensure that their views were authentically recorded. After the information was completed for thematic extraction and coding, the research team held 1 team meeting to review it. All the researchers commented on and ultimately agreed on the themes and coding of the interviews.

Participant characteristics

Fourteen elderly patients with atherosclerotic vascular disease, with an average age of 75 years, were included in the study. Five participants were male, and 9 participants were female. The disease categories included coronary atherosclerotic heart disease, cerebral infarction, and carotid atherosclerotic plaque. Participant information is shown in Table 1 .

The results of this study show the acceptability of the current dietary status, the understanding of previous nutritional assistance, and the methods of future nutritional assistance in elderly patients with AS-related diseases in western China. The following 3 themes emerged from this study: (1) the diet with regional characteristics; (2) low nutrition-related health literacy; (3) complex attitudes towards nutritional assistance.

The diet with regional characteristics

In terms of staple food preferences, most of the elderly people included in this study claimed that they consumed rice vermicelli for breakfast and lunch because it is “easily digestible” (P3, female, 71 years old). They liked to add animal fats when eating rice vermicelli or noodles (especially ChangWang noodles from Guizhou, China), even if they knew that animal fats can be harmful to the body. These animal fats included solid animal fats and fried animal fats (known as CuiShao) to increase the flavour of the food. Another common breakfast choice among these participants was steamed glutinous rice with chili oil, soy sauce and a variety of side dishes, including “CuiShao”, bacon or sausage, fried peanuts and so on. The family members met the participants’ requests and provided them with this type of food.

“I eat either rice vermicelli or ChangWang noodles every morning. Sometimes (I) do not want to go downstairs, and I let my son or daughter bring it back to me. I think ChangWang noodles need a lot of “CuiShao” to be delicious.”

(P14; Male, 73 years old)

Some participants also said that they were not keen on eating refined rice products or noodles but preferred coarse grains, mainly including “corns, sweet potatoes, and potatoes, because this state produces potatoes” (P8; Female, 66 year old). The discussed cooking methods for the potatoes mainly including frying, fire baking and stir-frying.

“I liked to eat potatoes when I was young, and I also like to eat them now. When I was younger, I would bake my potatoes, but now I prefer fried potatoes.”

(P12; Male, 81 year old)

Some male participants favoured alcohol. They mainly consumed Chinese Baijiu, but all of them reduced their alcohol consumption after learning that they suffered from AS-related diseases. Female participants widely mentioned that they would like to drink Chinese rice wine (Mijiu) (especially homemade) rather than Chinese Baijiu and considered Chinese rice wine (Mijiu) consumption a habit that “everyone in Guizhou should have” (P9; Female, 83 year old).

“I used to drink at least 100 ml of Chinese baijiu; after learning that I was sick, I quit drinking.”

(P13; Male, 64 year old)

Most participants believed that their dietary intake was healthy, while some participants said that after the diagnosis of AS-related diseases, they consciously chose to eat more vegetarian foods, such as ‘Suguadou’, a specialty of Guizhou Province, China, and avoid consuming animal fats.

“After I got sick, I gained some knowledge from the newspaper and TV. It was said that eating a vegetarian diet is good for my health. [Now] I eat a vegetarian diet and do not eat chicken, duck or fish.”

(P2; Female, 61 year old)

Other participants said that they liked and frequently ate “red sour soup”, a Chinese Guizhou specialty, 2 to 3 times a week, or even more frequently. They cooked “red sour soup” in dishes by adding water or soup stock and boiled freshwater fish, lean meat and vegetables. They expressed their preference for ethnic-specific eating habits, and even if they chose to eat out, they would more frequently choose restaurants that sell “red sour soup” because “fish is easy to digest for elderly individuals, so we eat fish in sour soup at restaurants, and we like that too” (P13; Male, 64 year old). Some participants expressed their recognition of the simple cooking method of “red sour soup”. Many participants mentioned their decreasing food intake after entering old age, and they indicated that “I cannot eat much, and they say that the amount of one meal I eat is equal to the amount of one meal that a cat eats” (P4; Female, 77 year old), emphasizing “You need to eat something sour to get an appetite” (P3; Female, 71 year old).

“People in Guizhou should eat red sour soup; I have to eat it several times a week.”

(P11; Male, 82 year old)

For the intake of fruit, many participants thought that fruit consumption was a treat because their family or caregivers did not allow them to eat too much other food outside of dinner, and being provided with fruit could make them feel happy. “They did not allow me to eat too much fruit, and every time I ate fruit, they were worried that my blood sugar would rise” (P1; Female, 90 year old). The participants usually actively discussed their preferences for fruits, including buying their favourite fruits at the market or asking their caregivers to provide some fruits. Some participants mentioned that they liked to drink rosa roxburghii Tratt (RRT) juice or directly ate sliced fresh RRT for “vitamin C supplementation” (P9; Female, 83 year old).

“This plant [RRT] was widely cultivated in my hometown, and when it was ripe, we picked the fruit and ate it. It became a habit!”

(P7; Male, 80 year old)

Low nutrition-related health literacy

Most of the participants did not receive professional nutritionist consulting services and did not know that the hospital had nutrition-related departments. Some participants mentioned that when visiting a hospital, doctors or nurses mentioned diet-related knowledge, such as avoiding a greasy diet and not eating animal fats, but rarely explained the reasons.

“Nutrition department? The hospital has this department?” I do not know what to eat, so the doctor told me, ‘eat less oil and less salt.’ However, he did not tell me why”.

(P3; Female, 71 year old)

The majority of participants stated that they could use the internet to gain much knowledge about healthy eating patterns. In addition to professional notification, participants also obtained diet-related knowledge through newspapers, television, online short video publicity, family notification, etc. “(I) watched many of these kinds of videos on my telephone” (P5; Female, 62 year old). However, they had no way to tell whether the information was correct These information sources contained contradictory content, which made participants unable to distinguish the correctness of the information. Other participants said that they could not learn diet-related knowledge through commonly used health education methods, such as public accounts, videos, and brochures, in tertiary hospitals due to the degradation of vision and hearing caused by age.

“I’m old, my eyesight is poor, and I cannot see with my glasses! I also want to read the brochure [on nutrition], but I cannot see it clearly”.

Most participants could list the relevant nutritional knowledge they knew, and they also performed a small number of healthy eating behaviours, such as the most basic behaviours: quitting smoking and drinking. They believed that the implementation of a healthy diet contributes to recovery from the diseases.

“I stopped smoking or drinking after I got sick! I know that these [cigarettes, alcohol] are not good for the body” .

Some participants blindly implemented diet-related knowledge after acquiring it. These participants believed that consuming dietary supplements can ensure good health, so visiting medical institutions was unnecessary. They thought that the greater the intake of dietary supplements, the better the body they would have, even if their health might be harmed by excessive intake.

“I hardly go to the hospital because I eat a lot of health supplements; my body is fine, and I am fine”.

(P8; Female, 66 year old).

Although in medical institutions, participants received health education on diet-related knowledge, not all patients were able to effectively implement the information. Some patients were not willing to implement the recommended healthy eating patterns, and they did not want to change their preferences. The participants had different understandings of healthy eating patterns. Some participants were aware of systematic dietary patterns that they described as “good” but “difficult to implement” (P2; Female, 61 year old). Others described these eating patterns as “unpalatable”. A common view is that the ingredients of these dietary patterns are difficult or inaccessible to them.

“No, no, [they want me to] eat so many vegetables, like I am a rabbit! I have maintained my eating habits for so many years and cannot change them. These diets are weird; I do not eat avocados, I do not eat oats. If I can live to be a hundred years old if I eat these things, then I would rather die at age eighty”.

(P1; Female, 90 year old)

In addition, many participants said that doctors and nurses could not monitor whether they consumed a healthy diet after leaving hospitals. It is difficult to follow a healthy diet after discharge, especially when most patients and their families do not have a medical background.

“After I was discharged from the hospital, they [the doctors and nurses] did not know what I was eating at home. Doctors and nurses are very busy with work; how can there be time to help us with our eating?”

Complex attitudes towards nutritional assistance

Participants generally expressed fear of diseases. They said, “This disease will stay with me for the rest of my life, and I cannot cure it” (P12; Male, 81 year old). These participants elaborated on their desire to become healthier through nutritional assistance, and they also tended to be more willing to receive dietary-related guidance and assistance and viewed the role of nutritional assistance in delaying the development of AS positively. Personalized nutritional assistance received a positive response from the participants, and they were willing to try nutritional assistance that would help them.

“I dare not to do anything when I suffer from this disease because I fear that something will happen to my blood vessels..... Of course, it is good to be able to eat healthier; people live to eat three meals a day. If the meal tastes good and the body can be healthy, then I will wake up laughing in my dreams” .

The vast majority of participants expressed their willingness to use customized recipes, diet lists, etc., but the implementation process required the understanding and support of their families. Two male participants said that “My wife is the head of the family”, and whether to use custom recipes and diet lists required the cooperation and consent of his wife. Other patients said that because they are old, whether they could cook according to the recipe required the cooperation of their sons and daughters or caregivers (paid by the elderly individuals themselves or their families).

“We are all old and need help with daily activities such as eating and dressing. Some things require children’s help to achieve”.

(P6; Female, 81 year old)

Some participants were not very skilled in the operation of electronic devices such as telephone, computers, or televisions. They also suffered from diseases that caused them to be unable to use communication devices such as telephone. Therefore, they could not receive online health education. They only accepted one-to-one or one-to-many nutritional assistance methods that were held offline. However, some participants mentioned that they would selectively adopt the nutritional recommendations made in the meetings for the public because “not all of them suit me” (P1, female, 90 years old). Other participants suggested that they prefer to use remote online methods for meetings because they “do not have the time or energy to attend the meeting, and it is not safe if the meeting place is far away” (P7; Male, 80 year old); they were worried about traffic safety between hospitals and therefore could not attend the meetings.

“I am old, and I have no idea how to use telephone or computers for online meetings. So, I prefer offline meetings where we do whatever the doctors and nurses say” .

(P14; Male, 73 year old).

Some participants were more likely to take dietary supplements such as vitamins rather than considering other forms of nutritional assistance first. Other participants had their own views on dietary supplements; they might try to consume fresh or “medicinal” (P1; Female, 90 year old) ingredients instead of the dietary supplements prescribed by their doctors. Due to the severity of AS-related diseases, these participants were willing to receive various forms of nutritional assistance. Other participants expressed that they had too much concern and distrust regarding the use of dietary supplements. Some participants were worried about the interaction between dietary supplements and the drug treatment they were currently receiving, while other participants thought that were already using too many oral drugs, and whether dietary supplements were useful was uncertain.

“There are a lot of bad people [selling dietary supplements] now, and it is hard to identify who is good and who is bad”.

Some participants showed the opposite attitude towards nutritional assistance; they believed that they were old enough to receive intervention for their diet. Regarding the malignant cardiovascular events, cerebrovascular events, and amputations that could result from AS-related diseases, these participants stated that they “did not know and did not understand how it could be so serious” (P9; Female, 83 year old).

“I’m so old, I should eat what I want to eat” .

Most of the participants expressed their willingness to try nutritional assistance measures, which were considered beneficial for delaying the development of AS, including medical-nursing combined institutions that could provide them with a diet, but those facilities put forwards higher requirements on the price and quality of the meals. If they did not meet the requirements, they would not choose this nutritional assistance measure.

“The community should do something practical for us old people. We will eat what is good, and we do not eat what is bad”.

Some participants said they were concerned about the price of the diet provided by the medical-nursing combined institutions and were worried about their economic situation. When their income was not enough to pay for the diet provided by the medical and nursing institutions, they would not choose this method. Less income had taken away their freedom of consumption.

“We are all rural people, we have no income, and the cost of eating out is equal to the cost of a few days of our daily life..... If the food is very expensive, we will definitely be unwilling to eat it” .

The results of this study showed the acceptability of the current dietary status, the understanding of previous nutritional assistance, and the methods of future nutritional assistance in elderly patients with AS-related diseases in western China. The theme generated in this study shows that the factors affecting dietary status are multifaceted and complex, and the participants’ dietary preferences had obvious regional characteristics.

The first theme generated by this qualitative research is that the diet with regional characteristics. In this topic, we explored the relationship between participants and their food choices. We found that the participants’ diets had strong regional characteristics, reflecting the regional characteristics of the provinces in western China. The diagnosis of AS-related diseases resulted in some patients changing their eating habits, following the health education of doctors or nurses and choosing to limit alcohol consumption and eat more vegetables. For other participants, there were some difficulties in adhering to healthy eating habits; for example, the tastes and dietary preferences formed during perennial life are difficult to change. The second theme was centred on the implementation of nutritional assistance by participants. We measured participants’ understanding and implantation of knowledge about a healthy diet, which reflected their general misunderstanding of healthy diet knowledge. The third theme was that attitudes towards nutritional assistance were complex; we summarized the participants’ attitudes towards a variety of nutritional assistance approaches. Research has shown that most participants were welcoming and receptive to nutritional assistance, but other patients expressed a resistant attitude. Some participants highlighted their concerns about the price of food.

The participants discussed their current dietary intake with the researchers. In this component of the study, the participants’ dietary preferences showed obvious regionality. This study showed that the mainstream staple food choices for elderly patients with AS-related diseases in western China include rice (including refined rice and its products), glutinous rice, and some coarse grains, such as potatoes and corn. Such staple food choices were suitable for local geographical conditions but might adversely affect the health of participants. Rice products, such as rice vermicelli, were one of the main food choices that participants were interested in. They often mentioned mutton rice vermicelli, beef rice vermicelli, chili chicken rice vermicelli and so on. Most commonly, rice vermicelli and noodles were cooked in boiling water and then put into seasoned broth. Studies have shown that cooked rice flour is a moderate-GI food [ 22 ], and a higher GI index has been shown to be significantly associated with an increased risk of CVD [ 23 ]. Postprandial hyperglycaemia can lead to elevated triglycerides and increased oxidative stress, which have a negative impact on the vascular endothelium [ 24 ].

The participants often mentioned “Cuishao”, bacon, sausage, and fried peanuts. Cuishao is a unique snack and was popular among people living in Guizhou Province, China. Pork (i.e., pork belly meat with more adipose tissue mixed with lean meat) was used as the raw material, and seasonings were added to marinate and then fry the meat. The fried “Cuishao” contained a large amount of oil. Excessive intake of oil can cause a variety of adverse effects on health and may lead to a greater risk of disease, including hypertension, AS and cancer [ 25 ]. During the frying process, a series of chemical reactions, such as the oil oxidation reaction, Maillard reaction and oxidative degradation of proteins, occur in the matrix of fried meat products. These chemical reactions lead to the production of harmful substances, such as trans fatty acids (TFAs), in fried meat products [ 26 ]. Studies have shown that excessive intake of TFAs promotes vascular inflammation and oxidative stress and accelerates the development of AS [ 27 ]. Numerous academic organizations have recommended that the intake of saturated fatty acids and TFAs should be limited to regulate blood lipid levels in high-risk populations [ 28 ]. Importantly, even though the potatoes that people in western China like to eat are a good source of carbohydrates [ 29 ], the frying cooking method leads to an increase in the risk of noninfectious diseases such as CVD and diabetes by affecting inflammatory factors and vascular endothelial function [ 30 ]. This showed that when designing a diet plan for patients with AS-related diseases in western China, the patients should be asked to limit their intake of fried, high-fat foods, even if they like to eat these foods.

Most participants took the initiative to adjust their diet after being diagnosed with the disease. Some participants indicated that they had actively chosen a vegetarian diet or consciously tended to eat vegetables and fruits. People in western China often use boiled water to cook vegetables when they choose to eat vegetables and form a local characteristic dish, “Suguadou”. Commonly consumed vegetable types included kidney beans, immature pumpkin. Studies have shown that the choice of cooking method is related to cardiovascular risk factors. In addition to raw food, boiling is also a healthier cooking method, which is related to healthier cardiovascular conditions [ 31 ]. Boiled cooking methods could also better retain antioxidant compounds in vegetables. We found that people in western China like to eat a seasonal fruit called RRT in summer. This fruit is a medicinal plant and traditional food in western China. In recent years, studies have shown that RRT is rich in vitamin C [ 32 ]. The presence of other substances (organic acids, flavonoids, polyphenols, etc.) can improve dyslipidaemia through the intestinal flora [ 33 ]. Therefore, eating RRT or drinking freshly squeezed fruit juice might improve AS-related diseases.

In addition, people in western China were also keen to eat “red sour soup”. “Red sour soup” is a common fermented seasoning in Guizhou Province, China. It is mainly fermented with “Maolaguo”, red peppers, etc., followed by the addition of Litsea cubeba fruit essential oil [ 34 ]. People often use “red sour soup” to cook vegetables, lean meat slices, fish slices and so on. Studies have shown that “red sour soup” can alleviate nonalcoholic fatty liver disease induced by a high-fat diet in rats and reduce body mass index, total cholesterol, triglyceride, and insulin resistance [ 35 ]. According to a study by Yang et al. [ 36 ], red sour soup can prevent and treat hyperlipidaemia in obese rats by regulating the AMPK signalling pathway, which might be related to the antioxidant and anti-atherosclerotic effects of lycopene and capsaicin, which are abundant among the red sour soup raw materials [ 37 ].

Studies have shown that the fermentation process of red sour soup will produce beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacilli, Acetobacter , and Leuconostoc and acid substances such as lactic acid, acetic acid and citric acid [ 38 ]. These acids regulate inflammation and promote immunity, neuroprotection, and anti-ageing activity [ 39 ]. However, the impact of food as a whole on the health of organisms rather than the impact of a single component of food [ 40 ] should be noted. Therefore, it is necessary to comprehensively consider the impact of red sour soup on human health; that is, the beneficial effects of red sour soup on human health are due to its rich bioactive substances and beneficial components produced during fermentation.

Notably, some male participants mentioned frequent consumption of alcohol. Studies have shown that higher alcohol intake increases the risk of CVD mortality in Chinese men and that alcohol intake does not have a protective effect on CVD [ 41 ]. Although participants might reduce or stop consuming alcohol after the diagnosis of AS-related diseases, past studies have shown that patients who continue to drink alcohol have a similar risk of death to those who have quit [ 42 ]. This suggested that the harm caused to the human body by alcohol consumption is permanent, even if the patient has chosen to quit drinking alcohol.

This study revealed that participants generally lack healthy eating knowledge. Research has shown that among participants, there is a widespread bias towards certain types of food and a misconception regarding nutritional assistance. A survey of elderly individuals [ 43 ] revealed similar findings; for example, some participants believed that “thin” is healthy and “fat” is unhealthy, and they believed that fat, sugar, etc., are “bad” foods and prefer vegetarian food [ 44 ]. However, studies have shown that proper fat intake is beneficial to human health, and people should consume a certain amount of high-quality fat and reduce saturated fat intake [ 45 ]. The intake of omega-3 fatty acids had some benefits for participants with cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases [ 46 ]. Many studies have shown that a plant-based diet can promote vascular endothelial protection and reduce the generation of harmful factors in endothelial cells, which is beneficial for treating AS-related diseases [ 47 ]. A meta-analysis of 55 studies showed that compared to other eating patterns, plant-based diets and whole-grain foods are associated with better prevention of coronary heart disease and multiple metabolic diseases [ 48 ]. However, it is worth noting that even though plant-based diets have been shown to be beneficial to human health, all dietary patterns are associated with potential nutritional risks [ 49 ]. Studies have shown that long-term intake of a vegan diet may lead to a lack of micronutrients, resulting in potential nutritional risks [ 50 ]. Therefore, for elderly patients with AS-related diseases, dietary guidance should include prompting patients to choose a balanced diet, consuming abundant plant-based foods, and correcting their misunderstanding regarding their current dietary patterns.

In contrast, there were also some participants who had received relevant health education, but the information provided by the internet may conflict with it, making it difficult for them to consume a healthy diet. Numerous studies have shown that the quality of health-related information that patients can learn on the internet is mixed [ 51 ]. Many sources of information were nonprofessionals who had not received medical professional training, which leads to mixed and inaccurate or biased information that may mislead patients and even have a negative impact on their health [ 52 ]. However, even if there was erroneous or unconfirmed information, viewing internet videos was still a popular method of health education for patients. Health education, in which professional people use networks, can significantly improve patients’ compliance behaviour and reduce costs [ 53 ]. However, in this survey, some participants were unable to obtain health knowledge by reading or watching videos because of old age, illness or disability. At the same time, some participants suggested that after leaving the medical environment, doctors or nurses could not guide and supervise their diet, which led them to collect relevant health knowledge in other ways, and their compliance behaviour gradually decreased over time. Doctors or nurses should carry out continuous and personalized health education for patients. Notably, only providing advice on improving diet and activity behaviours is not enough to change and maintain these behaviours in the long run. Effective health education that supports behavioural changes requires effective incentives and promotion, including environmental support [ 54 ], and provides patients with intervention methods suitable for their culture, age and other characteristics [ 55 ].

The majority of participants accepted nutritional assistance. Our survey showed that elderly participants with AS-related diseases need personalized nutritional assistance to improve their physical condition. In addition to the need for nutritional assistance, they also need corresponding dietary support from the government or institutions because the diseases limits their physical movement [ 56 ]. At the same time, because of the decline in functional living ability, many participants showed dependence on their families. This finding was consistent with most studies [ 57 ]. With the widespread promotion of medical-nursing combinations in China, meals are increasingly being prepared by medical-nursing combined institutions rather than by the patients themselves, community health service institutions, etc., to improve diet quality. Based on the patient interviews, we found that the nutritional assistance provided by medical-nursing combined institutions may be more suitable for and accepted by elderly patients with AS-related diseases. Medical-nursing combined institutions could help elderly people with full and partial disability to solve the problems of meals, medical treatment and self-care at a lower cost. In some European and American countries, there have been similar nutritional assistance models for elderly people, but most of them involve modelled nutrition management, such as communities providing three meals a day to elderly people in the form of meal boxes. However, this intervention model cannot be used for personalized service [ 58 ].

In contrast, some participants thought that they did not need to receive nutritional assistance. They held the mentality of ‘being so old’ and had a resistant and unacceptable attitude towards nutritional assistance. This might be because they think they were old enough to no longer have to put much effort into fighting the death caused by the diseases. This study revealed that elderly people with increasing age are becoming increasingly more deeply aware of the limitations of their lives. They could accept death as an inevitable event and reduce their avoidance of death [ 59 ]. However, it should be noted that the participants’ lack of healthy diet knowledge may have led them to mistakenly believe that diet cannot significantly improve the clinical manifestations of AS-related diseases, so they still maintain unhealthy eating habits and refuse to perform healthy lifestyles. Moreover, these participants might underestimate the consequences of poor lifestyles, resulting in serious cardiovascular events, including vascular obstruction and vascular rupture. These conditions might lead to paralysis, dysphagia and other symptoms, which would result in reduced or even loss of self-care ability and a significant reduction in quality of life [ 60 ].

This study has several limitations. The research team tried to recruit participants with heterogeneous characteristics, including age, sex, family status, and education level. However, due to the purposive sampling method, the results of this study may not be extended to the wider Chinese or international population of elderly patients with coronary and other atherosclerotic vascular diseases. This study excluded individuals who did not speak Chinese. Therefore, we cannot determine whether the samples of this study included multicultural or multiethnic groups.

This study showed that elderly patients with coronary and other atherosclerotic vascular diseases who are living in western China have regional dietary preferences, which may have a certain impact on their disease development. They have different views due to differences in sex, disease status, personal habits, and modes of receiving dietary knowledge. These views are mainly regarding their own dietary status, cooking behaviours, and dietary management models. Regional and individual differences may influence the effects of diet management. In the future, for research regarding the dietary management of elderly patients with coronary and other atherosclerotic vascular diseases in western China, researchers should conduct personalized and sex-specific dietary management interventions according to their regional dietary preferences and consider whether individual patients are able to receive relevant nutritional assistance. Medical and nursing combination institutions can provide them with modelled nutrition management, such as providing three meals in the form of lunch boxes or open canteens. They can also use a variety of methods, such as face-to-face conversations and meetings, to provide them with dietary advice and flexibly use the internet to achieve online intervention. Changes in dietary behaviour may have a positive impact on the overall dietary quality of this population and may improve the patient’s disease status and prognosis.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due ethical reasons but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

• Atherosclerosis

Cardiovascular Disease

rosa roxburghii Tratt

Tras Fatty Acid

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all the participants in this study for their willingness to participate in this study and to express their views honestly.

This research was funded by the following projects: nsfc-funded project-The mechanism of MCPIP1 regulating Myocardin in vascular smooth muscle cells on atherosclerosis (No.82160099); Science and Technology Plan Project of Guizhou Province-Construction and Application of Internet of Things + Traditional Chinese Medicine Characteristic Intelligent Health Care System (No.Qiankehe support [2022] generally 263); Guizhou Provincial Health Commission Project (No.WJW-llc-H2021(11-01)).

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Nursing School, Guizhou University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guiyang City, Guizhou Province, China

Jiamengying Chen, Xiaojie Li, Lvheng Zhao, Qingqing Zhu & Yixia Zhou

Nursing School, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang City, Guizhou Province, China

Yun Wang & Yixia Zhou

The Second Affiliated Hospital, Guizhou University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guiyang City, Guizhou Province, China

Chunling Zhang & Li Yang

School of Nursing, Suzhou Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province, China

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Data curation, J.C., X.L., Y.W. and L.Z.; Investigation, J.C., X.L. and Q.Z.; Methodology, Y.Z. and L.W.; Interviewees recruited, C.Z., L.Y., L.Z, Q.Z. and Y.W.; Writing original manuscript, J.C.; Revised the manuscript, X.L. and L.W.

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Chen, J., Li, X., Wang, Y. et al. Cognition of diet quality and dietary management in elderly patients with coronary and other atherosclerotic vascular disease in western China, a qualitative research study. BMC Geriatr 24 , 525 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-024-05058-2

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What is Qualitative in Qualitative Research

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What is qualitative research? If we look for a precise definition of qualitative research, and specifically for one that addresses its distinctive feature of being “qualitative,” the literature is meager. In this article we systematically search, identify and analyze a sample of 89 sources using or attempting to define the term “qualitative.” Then, drawing on ideas we find scattered across existing work, and based on Becker’s classic study of marijuana consumption, we formulate and illustrate a definition that tries to capture its core elements. We define qualitative research as an iterative process in which improved understanding to the scientific community is achieved by making new significant distinctions resulting from getting closer to the phenomenon studied. This formulation is developed as a tool to help improve research designs while stressing that a qualitative dimension is present in quantitative work as well. Additionally, it can facilitate teaching, communication between researchers, diminish the gap between qualitative and quantitative researchers, help to address critiques of qualitative methods, and be used as a standard of evaluation of qualitative research.

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What is Qualitative in Research

Unsettling definitions of qualitative research, what is “qualitative” in qualitative research why the answer does not matter but the question is important.

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If we assume that there is something called qualitative research, what exactly is this qualitative feature? And how could we evaluate qualitative research as good or not? Is it fundamentally different from quantitative research? In practice, most active qualitative researchers working with empirical material intuitively know what is involved in doing qualitative research, yet perhaps surprisingly, a clear definition addressing its key feature is still missing.

To address the question of what is qualitative we turn to the accounts of “qualitative research” in textbooks and also in empirical work. In his classic, explorative, interview study of deviance Howard Becker ( 1963 ) asks ‘How does one become a marijuana user?’ In contrast to pre-dispositional and psychological-individualistic theories of deviant behavior, Becker’s inherently social explanation contends that becoming a user of this substance is the result of a three-phase sequential learning process. First, potential users need to learn how to smoke it properly to produce the “correct” effects. If not, they are likely to stop experimenting with it. Second, they need to discover the effects associated with it; in other words, to get “high,” individuals not only have to experience what the drug does, but also to become aware that those sensations are related to using it. Third, they require learning to savor the feelings related to its consumption – to develop an acquired taste. Becker, who played music himself, gets close to the phenomenon by observing, taking part, and by talking to people consuming the drug: “half of the fifty interviews were conducted with musicians, the other half covered a wide range of people, including laborers, machinists, and people in the professions” (Becker 1963 :56).

Another central aspect derived through the common-to-all-research interplay between induction and deduction (Becker 2017 ), is that during the course of his research Becker adds scientifically meaningful new distinctions in the form of three phases—distinctions, or findings if you will, that strongly affect the course of his research: its focus, the material that he collects, and which eventually impact his findings. Each phase typically unfolds through social interaction, and often with input from experienced users in “a sequence of social experiences during which the person acquires a conception of the meaning of the behavior, and perceptions and judgments of objects and situations, all of which make the activity possible and desirable” (Becker 1963 :235). In this study the increased understanding of smoking dope is a result of a combination of the meaning of the actors, and the conceptual distinctions that Becker introduces based on the views expressed by his respondents. Understanding is the result of research and is due to an iterative process in which data, concepts and evidence are connected with one another (Becker 2017 ).

Indeed, there are many definitions of qualitative research, but if we look for a definition that addresses its distinctive feature of being “qualitative,” the literature across the broad field of social science is meager. The main reason behind this article lies in the paradox, which, to put it bluntly, is that researchers act as if they know what it is, but they cannot formulate a coherent definition. Sociologists and others will of course continue to conduct good studies that show the relevance and value of qualitative research addressing scientific and practical problems in society. However, our paper is grounded in the idea that providing a clear definition will help us improve the work that we do. Among researchers who practice qualitative research there is clearly much knowledge. We suggest that a definition makes this knowledge more explicit. If the first rationale for writing this paper refers to the “internal” aim of improving qualitative research, the second refers to the increased “external” pressure that especially many qualitative researchers feel; pressure that comes both from society as well as from other scientific approaches. There is a strong core in qualitative research, and leading researchers tend to agree on what it is and how it is done. Our critique is not directed at the practice of qualitative research, but we do claim that the type of systematic work we do has not yet been done, and that it is useful to improve the field and its status in relation to quantitative research.

The literature on the “internal” aim of improving, or at least clarifying qualitative research is large, and we do not claim to be the first to notice the vagueness of the term “qualitative” (Strauss and Corbin 1998 ). Also, others have noted that there is no single definition of it (Long and Godfrey 2004 :182), that there are many different views on qualitative research (Denzin and Lincoln 2003 :11; Jovanović 2011 :3), and that more generally, we need to define its meaning (Best 2004 :54). Strauss and Corbin ( 1998 ), for example, as well as Nelson et al. (1992:2 cited in Denzin and Lincoln 2003 :11), and Flick ( 2007 :ix–x), have recognized that the term is problematic: “Actually, the term ‘qualitative research’ is confusing because it can mean different things to different people” (Strauss and Corbin 1998 :10–11). Hammersley has discussed the possibility of addressing the problem, but states that “the task of providing an account of the distinctive features of qualitative research is far from straightforward” ( 2013 :2). This confusion, as he has recently further argued (Hammersley 2018 ), is also salient in relation to ethnography where different philosophical and methodological approaches lead to a lack of agreement about what it means.

Others (e.g. Hammersley 2018 ; Fine and Hancock 2017 ) have also identified the treat to qualitative research that comes from external forces, seen from the point of view of “qualitative research.” This threat can be further divided into that which comes from inside academia, such as the critique voiced by “quantitative research” and outside of academia, including, for example, New Public Management. Hammersley ( 2018 ), zooming in on one type of qualitative research, ethnography, has argued that it is under treat. Similarly to Fine ( 2003 ), and before him Gans ( 1999 ), he writes that ethnography’ has acquired a range of meanings, and comes in many different versions, these often reflecting sharply divergent epistemological orientations. And already more than twenty years ago while reviewing Denzin and Lincoln’ s Handbook of Qualitative Methods Fine argued:

While this increasing centrality [of qualitative research] might lead one to believe that consensual standards have developed, this belief would be misleading. As the methodology becomes more widely accepted, querulous challengers have raised fundamental questions that collectively have undercut the traditional models of how qualitative research is to be fashioned and presented (1995:417).

According to Hammersley, there are today “serious treats to the practice of ethnographic work, on almost any definition” ( 2018 :1). He lists five external treats: (1) that social research must be accountable and able to show its impact on society; (2) the current emphasis on “big data” and the emphasis on quantitative data and evidence; (3) the labor market pressure in academia that leaves less time for fieldwork (see also Fine and Hancock 2017 ); (4) problems of access to fields; and (5) the increased ethical scrutiny of projects, to which ethnography is particularly exposed. Hammersley discusses some more or less insufficient existing definitions of ethnography.

The current situation, as Hammersley and others note—and in relation not only to ethnography but also qualitative research in general, and as our empirical study shows—is not just unsatisfactory, it may even be harmful for the entire field of qualitative research, and does not help social science at large. We suggest that the lack of clarity of qualitative research is a real problem that must be addressed.

Towards a Definition of Qualitative Research

Seen in an historical light, what is today called qualitative, or sometimes ethnographic, interpretative research – or a number of other terms – has more or less always existed. At the time the founders of sociology – Simmel, Weber, Durkheim and, before them, Marx – were writing, and during the era of the Methodenstreit (“dispute about methods”) in which the German historical school emphasized scientific methods (cf. Swedberg 1990 ), we can at least speak of qualitative forerunners.

Perhaps the most extended discussion of what later became known as qualitative methods in a classic work is Bronisław Malinowski’s ( 1922 ) Argonauts in the Western Pacific , although even this study does not explicitly address the meaning of “qualitative.” In Weber’s ([1921–-22] 1978) work we find a tension between scientific explanations that are based on observation and quantification and interpretative research (see also Lazarsfeld and Barton 1982 ).

If we look through major sociology journals like the American Sociological Review , American Journal of Sociology , or Social Forces we will not find the term qualitative sociology before the 1970s. And certainly before then much of what we consider qualitative classics in sociology, like Becker’ study ( 1963 ), had already been produced. Indeed, the Chicago School often combined qualitative and quantitative data within the same study (Fine 1995 ). Our point being that before a disciplinary self-awareness the term quantitative preceded qualitative, and the articulation of the former was a political move to claim scientific status (Denzin and Lincoln 2005 ). In the US the World War II seem to have sparked a critique of sociological work, including “qualitative work,” that did not follow the scientific canon (Rawls 2018 ), which was underpinned by a scientifically oriented and value free philosophy of science. As a result the attempts and practice of integrating qualitative and quantitative sociology at Chicago lost ground to sociology that was more oriented to surveys and quantitative work at Columbia under Merton-Lazarsfeld. The quantitative tradition was also able to present textbooks (Lundberg 1951 ) that facilitated the use this approach and its “methods.” The practices of the qualitative tradition, by and large, remained tacit or was part of the mentoring transferred from the renowned masters to their students.

This glimpse into history leads us back to the lack of a coherent account condensed in a definition of qualitative research. Many of the attempts to define the term do not meet the requirements of a proper definition: A definition should be clear, avoid tautology, demarcate its domain in relation to the environment, and ideally only use words in its definiens that themselves are not in need of definition (Hempel 1966 ). A definition can enhance precision and thus clarity by identifying the core of the phenomenon. Preferably, a definition should be short. The typical definition we have found, however, is an ostensive definition, which indicates what qualitative research is about without informing us about what it actually is :

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials – case study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts – that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals’ lives. (Denzin and Lincoln 2005 :2)

Flick claims that the label “qualitative research” is indeed used as an umbrella for a number of approaches ( 2007 :2–4; 2002 :6), and it is not difficult to identify research fitting this designation. Moreover, whatever it is, it has grown dramatically over the past five decades. In addition, courses have been developed, methods have flourished, arguments about its future have been advanced (for example, Denzin and Lincoln 1994) and criticized (for example, Snow and Morrill 1995 ), and dedicated journals and books have mushroomed. Most social scientists have a clear idea of research and how it differs from journalism, politics and other activities. But the question of what is qualitative in qualitative research is either eluded or eschewed.

We maintain that this lacuna hinders systematic knowledge production based on qualitative research. Paul Lazarsfeld noted the lack of “codification” as early as 1955 when he reviewed 100 qualitative studies in order to offer a codification of the practices (Lazarsfeld and Barton 1982 :239). Since then many texts on “qualitative research” and its methods have been published, including recent attempts (Goertz and Mahoney 2012 ) similar to Lazarsfeld’s. These studies have tried to extract what is qualitative by looking at the large number of empirical “qualitative” studies. Our novel strategy complements these endeavors by taking another approach and looking at the attempts to codify these practices in the form of a definition, as well as to a minor extent take Becker’s study as an exemplar of what qualitative researchers actually do, and what the characteristic of being ‘qualitative’ denotes and implies. We claim that qualitative researchers, if there is such a thing as “qualitative research,” should be able to codify their practices in a condensed, yet general way expressed in language.

Lingering problems of “generalizability” and “how many cases do I need” (Small 2009 ) are blocking advancement – in this line of work qualitative approaches are said to differ considerably from quantitative ones, while some of the former unsuccessfully mimic principles related to the latter (Small 2009 ). Additionally, quantitative researchers sometimes unfairly criticize the first based on their own quality criteria. Scholars like Goertz and Mahoney ( 2012 ) have successfully focused on the different norms and practices beyond what they argue are essentially two different cultures: those working with either qualitative or quantitative methods. Instead, similarly to Becker ( 2017 ) who has recently questioned the usefulness of the distinction between qualitative and quantitative research, we focus on similarities.

The current situation also impedes both students and researchers in focusing their studies and understanding each other’s work (Lazarsfeld and Barton 1982 :239). A third consequence is providing an opening for critiques by scholars operating within different traditions (Valsiner 2000 :101). A fourth issue is that the “implicit use of methods in qualitative research makes the field far less standardized than the quantitative paradigm” (Goertz and Mahoney 2012 :9). Relatedly, the National Science Foundation in the US organized two workshops in 2004 and 2005 to address the scientific foundations of qualitative research involving strategies to improve it and to develop standards of evaluation in qualitative research. However, a specific focus on its distinguishing feature of being “qualitative” while being implicitly acknowledged, was discussed only briefly (for example, Best 2004 ).

In 2014 a theme issue was published in this journal on “Methods, Materials, and Meanings: Designing Cultural Analysis,” discussing central issues in (cultural) qualitative research (Berezin 2014 ; Biernacki 2014 ; Glaeser 2014 ; Lamont and Swidler 2014 ; Spillman 2014). We agree with many of the arguments put forward, such as the risk of methodological tribalism, and that we should not waste energy on debating methods separated from research questions. Nonetheless, a clarification of the relation to what is called “quantitative research” is of outmost importance to avoid misunderstandings and misguided debates between “qualitative” and “quantitative” researchers. Our strategy means that researchers, “qualitative” or “quantitative” they may be, in their actual practice may combine qualitative work and quantitative work.

In this article we accomplish three tasks. First, we systematically survey the literature for meanings of qualitative research by looking at how researchers have defined it. Drawing upon existing knowledge we find that the different meanings and ideas of qualitative research are not yet coherently integrated into one satisfactory definition. Next, we advance our contribution by offering a definition of qualitative research and illustrate its meaning and use partially by expanding on the brief example introduced earlier related to Becker’s work ( 1963 ). We offer a systematic analysis of central themes of what researchers consider to be the core of “qualitative,” regardless of style of work. These themes – which we summarize in terms of four keywords: distinction, process, closeness, improved understanding – constitute part of our literature review, in which each one appears, sometimes with others, but never all in the same definition. They serve as the foundation of our contribution. Our categories are overlapping. Their use is primarily to organize the large amount of definitions we have identified and analyzed, and not necessarily to draw a clear distinction between them. Finally, we continue the elaboration discussed above on the advantages of a clear definition of qualitative research.

In a hermeneutic fashion we propose that there is something meaningful that deserves to be labelled “qualitative research” (Gadamer 1990 ). To approach the question “What is qualitative in qualitative research?” we have surveyed the literature. In conducting our survey we first traced the word’s etymology in dictionaries, encyclopedias, handbooks of the social sciences and of methods and textbooks, mainly in English, which is common to methodology courses. It should be noted that we have zoomed in on sociology and its literature. This discipline has been the site of the largest debate and development of methods that can be called “qualitative,” which suggests that this field should be examined in great detail.

In an ideal situation we should expect that one good definition, or at least some common ideas, would have emerged over the years. This common core of qualitative research should be so accepted that it would appear in at least some textbooks. Since this is not what we found, we decided to pursue an inductive approach to capture maximal variation in the field of qualitative research; we searched in a selection of handbooks, textbooks, book chapters, and books, to which we added the analysis of journal articles. Our sample comprises a total of 89 references.

In practice we focused on the discipline that has had a clear discussion of methods, namely sociology. We also conducted a broad search in the JSTOR database to identify scholarly sociology articles published between 1998 and 2017 in English with a focus on defining or explaining qualitative research. We specifically zoom in on this time frame because we would have expect that this more mature period would have produced clear discussions on the meaning of qualitative research. To find these articles we combined a number of keywords to search the content and/or the title: qualitative (which was always included), definition, empirical, research, methodology, studies, fieldwork, interview and observation .

As a second phase of our research we searched within nine major sociological journals ( American Journal of Sociology , Sociological Theory , American Sociological Review , Contemporary Sociology , Sociological Forum , Sociological Theory , Qualitative Research , Qualitative Sociology and Qualitative Sociology Review ) for articles also published during the past 19 years (1998–2017) that had the term “qualitative” in the title and attempted to define qualitative research.

Lastly we picked two additional journals, Qualitative Research and Qualitative Sociology , in which we could expect to find texts addressing the notion of “qualitative.” From Qualitative Research we chose Volume 14, Issue 6, December 2014, and from Qualitative Sociology we chose Volume 36, Issue 2, June 2017. Within each of these we selected the first article; then we picked the second article of three prior issues. Again we went back another three issues and investigated article number three. Finally we went back another three issues and perused article number four. This selection criteria was used to get a manageable sample for the analysis.

The coding process of the 89 references we gathered in our selected review began soon after the first round of material was gathered, and we reduced the complexity created by our maximum variation sampling (Snow and Anderson 1993 :22) to four different categories within which questions on the nature and properties of qualitative research were discussed. We call them: Qualitative and Quantitative Research, Qualitative Research, Fieldwork, and Grounded Theory. This – which may appear as an illogical grouping – merely reflects the “context” in which the matter of “qualitative” is discussed. If the selection process of the material – books and articles – was informed by pre-knowledge, we used an inductive strategy to code the material. When studying our material, we identified four central notions related to “qualitative” that appear in various combinations in the literature which indicate what is the core of qualitative research. We have labeled them: “distinctions”, “process,” “closeness,” and “improved understanding.” During the research process the categories and notions were improved, refined, changed, and reordered. The coding ended when a sense of saturation in the material arose. In the presentation below all quotations and references come from our empirical material of texts on qualitative research.

Analysis – What is Qualitative Research?

In this section we describe the four categories we identified in the coding, how they differently discuss qualitative research, as well as their overall content. Some salient quotations are selected to represent the type of text sorted under each of the four categories. What we present are examples from the literature.

Qualitative and Quantitative

This analytic category comprises quotations comparing qualitative and quantitative research, a distinction that is frequently used (Brown 2010 :231); in effect this is a conceptual pair that structures the discussion and that may be associated with opposing interests. While the general goal of quantitative and qualitative research is the same – to understand the world better – their methodologies and focus in certain respects differ substantially (Becker 1966 :55). Quantity refers to that property of something that can be determined by measurement. In a dictionary of Statistics and Methodology we find that “(a) When referring to *variables, ‘qualitative’ is another term for *categorical or *nominal. (b) When speaking of kinds of research, ‘qualitative’ refers to studies of subjects that are hard to quantify, such as art history. Qualitative research tends to be a residual category for almost any kind of non-quantitative research” (Stiles 1998:183). But it should be obvious that one could employ a quantitative approach when studying, for example, art history.

The same dictionary states that quantitative is “said of variables or research that can be handled numerically, usually (too sharply) contrasted with *qualitative variables and research” (Stiles 1998:184). From a qualitative perspective “quantitative research” is about numbers and counting, and from a quantitative perspective qualitative research is everything that is not about numbers. But this does not say much about what is “qualitative.” If we turn to encyclopedias we find that in the 1932 edition of the Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences there is no mention of “qualitative.” In the Encyclopedia from 1968 we can read:

Qualitative Analysis. For methods of obtaining, analyzing, and describing data, see [the various entries:] CONTENT ANALYSIS; COUNTED DATA; EVALUATION RESEARCH, FIELD WORK; GRAPHIC PRESENTATION; HISTORIOGRAPHY, especially the article on THE RHETORIC OF HISTORY; INTERVIEWING; OBSERVATION; PERSONALITY MEASUREMENT; PROJECTIVE METHODS; PSYCHOANALYSIS, article on EXPERIMENTAL METHODS; SURVEY ANALYSIS, TABULAR PRESENTATION; TYPOLOGIES. (Vol. 13:225)

Some, like Alford, divide researchers into methodologists or, in his words, “quantitative and qualitative specialists” (Alford 1998 :12). Qualitative research uses a variety of methods, such as intensive interviews or in-depth analysis of historical materials, and it is concerned with a comprehensive account of some event or unit (King et al. 1994 :4). Like quantitative research it can be utilized to study a variety of issues, but it tends to focus on meanings and motivations that underlie cultural symbols, personal experiences, phenomena and detailed understanding of processes in the social world. In short, qualitative research centers on understanding processes, experiences, and the meanings people assign to things (Kalof et al. 2008 :79).

Others simply say that qualitative methods are inherently unscientific (Jovanović 2011 :19). Hood, for instance, argues that words are intrinsically less precise than numbers, and that they are therefore more prone to subjective analysis, leading to biased results (Hood 2006 :219). Qualitative methodologies have raised concerns over the limitations of quantitative templates (Brady et al. 2004 :4). Scholars such as King et al. ( 1994 ), for instance, argue that non-statistical research can produce more reliable results if researchers pay attention to the rules of scientific inference commonly stated in quantitative research. Also, researchers such as Becker ( 1966 :59; 1970 :42–43) have asserted that, if conducted properly, qualitative research and in particular ethnographic field methods, can lead to more accurate results than quantitative studies, in particular, survey research and laboratory experiments.

Some researchers, such as Kalof, Dan, and Dietz ( 2008 :79) claim that the boundaries between the two approaches are becoming blurred, and Small ( 2009 ) argues that currently much qualitative research (especially in North America) tries unsuccessfully and unnecessarily to emulate quantitative standards. For others, qualitative research tends to be more humanistic and discursive (King et al. 1994 :4). Ragin ( 1994 ), and similarly also Becker, ( 1996 :53), Marchel and Owens ( 2007 :303) think that the main distinction between the two styles is overstated and does not rest on the simple dichotomy of “numbers versus words” (Ragin 1994 :xii). Some claim that quantitative data can be utilized to discover associations, but in order to unveil cause and effect a complex research design involving the use of qualitative approaches needs to be devised (Gilbert 2009 :35). Consequently, qualitative data are useful for understanding the nuances lying beyond those processes as they unfold (Gilbert 2009 :35). Others contend that qualitative research is particularly well suited both to identify causality and to uncover fine descriptive distinctions (Fine and Hallett 2014 ; Lichterman and Isaac Reed 2014 ; Katz 2015 ).

There are other ways to separate these two traditions, including normative statements about what qualitative research should be (that is, better or worse than quantitative approaches, concerned with scientific approaches to societal change or vice versa; Snow and Morrill 1995 ; Denzin and Lincoln 2005 ), or whether it should develop falsifiable statements; Best 2004 ).

We propose that quantitative research is largely concerned with pre-determined variables (Small 2008 ); the analysis concerns the relations between variables. These categories are primarily not questioned in the study, only their frequency or degree, or the correlations between them (cf. Franzosi 2016 ). If a researcher studies wage differences between women and men, he or she works with given categories: x number of men are compared with y number of women, with a certain wage attributed to each person. The idea is not to move beyond the given categories of wage, men and women; they are the starting point as well as the end point, and undergo no “qualitative change.” Qualitative research, in contrast, investigates relations between categories that are themselves subject to change in the research process. Returning to Becker’s study ( 1963 ), we see that he questioned pre-dispositional theories of deviant behavior working with pre-determined variables such as an individual’s combination of personal qualities or emotional problems. His take, in contrast, was to understand marijuana consumption by developing “variables” as part of the investigation. Thereby he presented new variables, or as we would say today, theoretical concepts, but which are grounded in the empirical material.

Qualitative Research

This category contains quotations that refer to descriptions of qualitative research without making comparisons with quantitative research. Researchers such as Denzin and Lincoln, who have written a series of influential handbooks on qualitative methods (1994; Denzin and Lincoln 2003 ; 2005 ), citing Nelson et al. (1992:4), argue that because qualitative research is “interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and sometimes counterdisciplinary” it is difficult to derive one single definition of it (Jovanović 2011 :3). According to them, in fact, “the field” is “many things at the same time,” involving contradictions, tensions over its focus, methods, and how to derive interpretations and findings ( 2003 : 11). Similarly, others, such as Flick ( 2007 :ix–x) contend that agreeing on an accepted definition has increasingly become problematic, and that qualitative research has possibly matured different identities. However, Best holds that “the proliferation of many sorts of activities under the label of qualitative sociology threatens to confuse our discussions” ( 2004 :54). Atkinson’s position is more definite: “the current state of qualitative research and research methods is confused” ( 2005 :3–4).

Qualitative research is about interpretation (Blumer 1969 ; Strauss and Corbin 1998 ; Denzin and Lincoln 2003 ), or Verstehen [understanding] (Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias 1996 ). It is “multi-method,” involving the collection and use of a variety of empirical materials (Denzin and Lincoln 1998; Silverman 2013 ) and approaches (Silverman 2005 ; Flick 2007 ). It focuses not only on the objective nature of behavior but also on its subjective meanings: individuals’ own accounts of their attitudes, motivations, behavior (McIntyre 2005 :127; Creswell 2009 ), events and situations (Bryman 1989) – what people say and do in specific places and institutions (Goodwin and Horowitz 2002 :35–36) in social and temporal contexts (Morrill and Fine 1997). For this reason, following Weber ([1921-22] 1978), it can be described as an interpretative science (McIntyre 2005 :127). But could quantitative research also be concerned with these questions? Also, as pointed out below, does all qualitative research focus on subjective meaning, as some scholars suggest?

Others also distinguish qualitative research by claiming that it collects data using a naturalistic approach (Denzin and Lincoln 2005 :2; Creswell 2009 ), focusing on the meaning actors ascribe to their actions. But again, does all qualitative research need to be collected in situ? And does qualitative research have to be inherently concerned with meaning? Flick ( 2007 ), referring to Denzin and Lincoln ( 2005 ), mentions conversation analysis as an example of qualitative research that is not concerned with the meanings people bring to a situation, but rather with the formal organization of talk. Still others, such as Ragin ( 1994 :85), note that qualitative research is often (especially early on in the project, we would add) less structured than other kinds of social research – a characteristic connected to its flexibility and that can lead both to potentially better, but also worse results. But is this not a feature of this type of research, rather than a defining description of its essence? Wouldn’t this comment also apply, albeit to varying degrees, to quantitative research?

In addition, Strauss ( 2003 ), along with others, such as Alvesson and Kärreman ( 2011 :10–76), argue that qualitative researchers struggle to capture and represent complex phenomena partially because they tend to collect a large amount of data. While his analysis is correct at some points – “It is necessary to do detailed, intensive, microscopic examination of the data in order to bring out the amazing complexity of what lies in, behind, and beyond those data” (Strauss 2003 :10) – much of his analysis concerns the supposed focus of qualitative research and its challenges, rather than exactly what it is about. But even in this instance we would make a weak case arguing that these are strictly the defining features of qualitative research. Some researchers seem to focus on the approach or the methods used, or even on the way material is analyzed. Several researchers stress the naturalistic assumption of investigating the world, suggesting that meaning and interpretation appear to be a core matter of qualitative research.

We can also see that in this category there is no consensus about specific qualitative methods nor about qualitative data. Many emphasize interpretation, but quantitative research, too, involves interpretation; the results of a regression analysis, for example, certainly have to be interpreted, and the form of meta-analysis that factor analysis provides indeed requires interpretation However, there is no interpretation of quantitative raw data, i.e., numbers in tables. One common thread is that qualitative researchers have to get to grips with their data in order to understand what is being studied in great detail, irrespective of the type of empirical material that is being analyzed. This observation is connected to the fact that qualitative researchers routinely make several adjustments of focus and research design as their studies progress, in many cases until the very end of the project (Kalof et al. 2008 ). If you, like Becker, do not start out with a detailed theory, adjustments such as the emergence and refinement of research questions will occur during the research process. We have thus found a number of useful reflections about qualitative research scattered across different sources, but none of them effectively describe the defining characteristics of this approach.

Although qualitative research does not appear to be defined in terms of a specific method, it is certainly common that fieldwork, i.e., research that entails that the researcher spends considerable time in the field that is studied and use the knowledge gained as data, is seen as emblematic of or even identical to qualitative research. But because we understand that fieldwork tends to focus primarily on the collection and analysis of qualitative data, we expected to find within it discussions on the meaning of “qualitative.” But, again, this was not the case.

Instead, we found material on the history of this approach (for example, Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias 1996 ; Atkinson et al. 2001), including how it has changed; for example, by adopting a more self-reflexive practice (Heyl 2001), as well as the different nomenclature that has been adopted, such as fieldwork, ethnography, qualitative research, naturalistic research, participant observation and so on (for example, Lofland et al. 2006 ; Gans 1999 ).

We retrieved definitions of ethnography, such as “the study of people acting in the natural courses of their daily lives,” involving a “resocialization of the researcher” (Emerson 1988 :1) through intense immersion in others’ social worlds (see also examples in Hammersley 2018 ). This may be accomplished by direct observation and also participation (Neuman 2007 :276), although others, such as Denzin ( 1970 :185), have long recognized other types of observation, including non-participant (“fly on the wall”). In this category we have also isolated claims and opposing views, arguing that this type of research is distinguished primarily by where it is conducted (natural settings) (Hughes 1971:496), and how it is carried out (a variety of methods are applied) or, for some most importantly, by involving an active, empathetic immersion in those being studied (Emerson 1988 :2). We also retrieved descriptions of the goals it attends in relation to how it is taught (understanding subjective meanings of the people studied, primarily develop theory, or contribute to social change) (see for example, Corte and Irwin 2017 ; Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias 1996 :281; Trier-Bieniek 2012 :639) by collecting the richest possible data (Lofland et al. 2006 ) to derive “thick descriptions” (Geertz 1973 ), and/or to aim at theoretical statements of general scope and applicability (for example, Emerson 1988 ; Fine 2003 ). We have identified guidelines on how to evaluate it (for example Becker 1996 ; Lamont 2004 ) and have retrieved instructions on how it should be conducted (for example, Lofland et al. 2006 ). For instance, analysis should take place while the data gathering unfolds (Emerson 1988 ; Hammersley and Atkinson 2007 ; Lofland et al. 2006 ), observations should be of long duration (Becker 1970 :54; Goffman 1989 ), and data should be of high quantity (Becker 1970 :52–53), as well as other questionable distinctions between fieldwork and other methods:

Field studies differ from other methods of research in that the researcher performs the task of selecting topics, decides what questions to ask, and forges interest in the course of the research itself . This is in sharp contrast to many ‘theory-driven’ and ‘hypothesis-testing’ methods. (Lofland and Lofland 1995 :5)

But could not, for example, a strictly interview-based study be carried out with the same amount of flexibility, such as sequential interviewing (for example, Small 2009 )? Once again, are quantitative approaches really as inflexible as some qualitative researchers think? Moreover, this category stresses the role of the actors’ meaning, which requires knowledge and close interaction with people, their practices and their lifeworld.

It is clear that field studies – which are seen by some as the “gold standard” of qualitative research – are nonetheless only one way of doing qualitative research. There are other methods, but it is not clear why some are more qualitative than others, or why they are better or worse. Fieldwork is characterized by interaction with the field (the material) and understanding of the phenomenon that is being studied. In Becker’s case, he had general experience from fields in which marihuana was used, based on which he did interviews with actual users in several fields.

Grounded Theory

Another major category we identified in our sample is Grounded Theory. We found descriptions of it most clearly in Glaser and Strauss’ ([1967] 2010 ) original articulation, Strauss and Corbin ( 1998 ) and Charmaz ( 2006 ), as well as many other accounts of what it is for: generating and testing theory (Strauss 2003 :xi). We identified explanations of how this task can be accomplished – such as through two main procedures: constant comparison and theoretical sampling (Emerson 1998:96), and how using it has helped researchers to “think differently” (for example, Strauss and Corbin 1998 :1). We also read descriptions of its main traits, what it entails and fosters – for instance, an exceptional flexibility, an inductive approach (Strauss and Corbin 1998 :31–33; 1990; Esterberg 2002 :7), an ability to step back and critically analyze situations, recognize tendencies towards bias, think abstractly and be open to criticism, enhance sensitivity towards the words and actions of respondents, and develop a sense of absorption and devotion to the research process (Strauss and Corbin 1998 :5–6). Accordingly, we identified discussions of the value of triangulating different methods (both using and not using grounded theory), including quantitative ones, and theories to achieve theoretical development (most comprehensively in Denzin 1970 ; Strauss and Corbin 1998 ; Timmermans and Tavory 2012 ). We have also located arguments about how its practice helps to systematize data collection, analysis and presentation of results (Glaser and Strauss [1967] 2010 :16).

Grounded theory offers a systematic approach which requires researchers to get close to the field; closeness is a requirement of identifying questions and developing new concepts or making further distinctions with regard to old concepts. In contrast to other qualitative approaches, grounded theory emphasizes the detailed coding process, and the numerous fine-tuned distinctions that the researcher makes during the process. Within this category, too, we could not find a satisfying discussion of the meaning of qualitative research.

Defining Qualitative Research

In sum, our analysis shows that some notions reappear in the discussion of qualitative research, such as understanding, interpretation, “getting close” and making distinctions. These notions capture aspects of what we think is “qualitative.” However, a comprehensive definition that is useful and that can further develop the field is lacking, and not even a clear picture of its essential elements appears. In other words no definition emerges from our data, and in our research process we have moved back and forth between our empirical data and the attempt to present a definition. Our concrete strategy, as stated above, is to relate qualitative and quantitative research, or more specifically, qualitative and quantitative work. We use an ideal-typical notion of quantitative research which relies on taken for granted and numbered variables. This means that the data consists of variables on different scales, such as ordinal, but frequently ratio and absolute scales, and the representation of the numbers to the variables, i.e. the justification of the assignment of numbers to object or phenomenon, are not questioned, though the validity may be questioned. In this section we return to the notion of quality and try to clarify it while presenting our contribution.

Broadly, research refers to the activity performed by people trained to obtain knowledge through systematic procedures. Notions such as “objectivity” and “reflexivity,” “systematic,” “theory,” “evidence” and “openness” are here taken for granted in any type of research. Next, building on our empirical analysis we explain the four notions that we have identified as central to qualitative work: distinctions, process, closeness, and improved understanding. In discussing them, ultimately in relation to one another, we make their meaning even more precise. Our idea, in short, is that only when these ideas that we present separately for analytic purposes are brought together can we speak of qualitative research.

Distinctions

We believe that the possibility of making new distinctions is one the defining characteristics of qualitative research. It clearly sets it apart from quantitative analysis which works with taken-for-granted variables, albeit as mentioned, meta-analyses, for example, factor analysis may result in new variables. “Quality” refers essentially to distinctions, as already pointed out by Aristotle. He discusses the term “qualitative” commenting: “By a quality I mean that in virtue of which things are said to be qualified somehow” (Aristotle 1984:14). Quality is about what something is or has, which means that the distinction from its environment is crucial. We see qualitative research as a process in which significant new distinctions are made to the scholarly community; to make distinctions is a key aspect of obtaining new knowledge; a point, as we will see, that also has implications for “quantitative research.” The notion of being “significant” is paramount. New distinctions by themselves are not enough; just adding concepts only increases complexity without furthering our knowledge. The significance of new distinctions is judged against the communal knowledge of the research community. To enable this discussion and judgements central elements of rational discussion are required (cf. Habermas [1981] 1987 ; Davidsson [ 1988 ] 2001) to identify what is new and relevant scientific knowledge. Relatedly, Ragin alludes to the idea of new and useful knowledge at a more concrete level: “Qualitative methods are appropriate for in-depth examination of cases because they aid the identification of key features of cases. Most qualitative methods enhance data” (1994:79). When Becker ( 1963 ) studied deviant behavior and investigated how people became marihuana smokers, he made distinctions between the ways in which people learned how to smoke. This is a classic example of how the strategy of “getting close” to the material, for example the text, people or pictures that are subject to analysis, may enable researchers to obtain deeper insight and new knowledge by making distinctions – in this instance on the initial notion of learning how to smoke. Others have stressed the making of distinctions in relation to coding or theorizing. Emerson et al. ( 1995 ), for example, hold that “qualitative coding is a way of opening up avenues of inquiry,” meaning that the researcher identifies and develops concepts and analytic insights through close examination of and reflection on data (Emerson et al. 1995 :151). Goodwin and Horowitz highlight making distinctions in relation to theory-building writing: “Close engagement with their cases typically requires qualitative researchers to adapt existing theories or to make new conceptual distinctions or theoretical arguments to accommodate new data” ( 2002 : 37). In the ideal-typical quantitative research only existing and so to speak, given, variables would be used. If this is the case no new distinction are made. But, would not also many “quantitative” researchers make new distinctions?

Process does not merely suggest that research takes time. It mainly implies that qualitative new knowledge results from a process that involves several phases, and above all iteration. Qualitative research is about oscillation between theory and evidence, analysis and generating material, between first- and second -order constructs (Schütz 1962 :59), between getting in contact with something, finding sources, becoming deeply familiar with a topic, and then distilling and communicating some of its essential features. The main point is that the categories that the researcher uses, and perhaps takes for granted at the beginning of the research process, usually undergo qualitative changes resulting from what is found. Becker describes how he tested hypotheses and let the jargon of the users develop into theoretical concepts. This happens over time while the study is being conducted, exemplifying what we mean by process.

In the research process, a pilot-study may be used to get a first glance of, for example, the field, how to approach it, and what methods can be used, after which the method and theory are chosen or refined before the main study begins. Thus, the empirical material is often central from the start of the project and frequently leads to adjustments by the researcher. Likewise, during the main study categories are not fixed; the empirical material is seen in light of the theory used, but it is also given the opportunity to kick back, thereby resisting attempts to apply theoretical straightjackets (Becker 1970 :43). In this process, coding and analysis are interwoven, and thus are often important steps for getting closer to the phenomenon and deciding what to focus on next. Becker began his research by interviewing musicians close to him, then asking them to refer him to other musicians, and later on doubling his original sample of about 25 to include individuals in other professions (Becker 1973:46). Additionally, he made use of some participant observation, documents, and interviews with opiate users made available to him by colleagues. As his inductive theory of deviance evolved, Becker expanded his sample in order to fine tune it, and test the accuracy and generality of his hypotheses. In addition, he introduced a negative case and discussed the null hypothesis ( 1963 :44). His phasic career model is thus based on a research design that embraces processual work. Typically, process means to move between “theory” and “material” but also to deal with negative cases, and Becker ( 1998 ) describes how discovering these negative cases impacted his research design and ultimately its findings.

Obviously, all research is process-oriented to some degree. The point is that the ideal-typical quantitative process does not imply change of the data, and iteration between data, evidence, hypotheses, empirical work, and theory. The data, quantified variables, are, in most cases fixed. Merging of data, which of course can be done in a quantitative research process, does not mean new data. New hypotheses are frequently tested, but the “raw data is often the “the same.” Obviously, over time new datasets are made available and put into use.

Another characteristic that is emphasized in our sample is that qualitative researchers – and in particular ethnographers – can, or as Goffman put it, ought to ( 1989 ), get closer to the phenomenon being studied and their data than quantitative researchers (for example, Silverman 2009 :85). Put differently, essentially because of their methods qualitative researchers get into direct close contact with those being investigated and/or the material, such as texts, being analyzed. Becker started out his interview study, as we noted, by talking to those he knew in the field of music to get closer to the phenomenon he was studying. By conducting interviews he got even closer. Had he done more observations, he would undoubtedly have got even closer to the field.

Additionally, ethnographers’ design enables researchers to follow the field over time, and the research they do is almost by definition longitudinal, though the time in the field is studied obviously differs between studies. The general characteristic of closeness over time maximizes the chances of unexpected events, new data (related, for example, to archival research as additional sources, and for ethnography for situations not necessarily previously thought of as instrumental – what Mannay and Morgan ( 2015 ) term the “waiting field”), serendipity (Merton and Barber 2004 ; Åkerström 2013 ), and possibly reactivity, as well as the opportunity to observe disrupted patterns that translate into exemplars of negative cases. Two classic examples of this are Becker’s finding of what medical students call “crocks” (Becker et al. 1961 :317), and Geertz’s ( 1973 ) study of “deep play” in Balinese society.

By getting and staying so close to their data – be it pictures, text or humans interacting (Becker was himself a musician) – for a long time, as the research progressively focuses, qualitative researchers are prompted to continually test their hunches, presuppositions and hypotheses. They test them against a reality that often (but certainly not always), and practically, as well as metaphorically, talks back, whether by validating them, or disqualifying their premises – correctly, as well as incorrectly (Fine 2003 ; Becker 1970 ). This testing nonetheless often leads to new directions for the research. Becker, for example, says that he was initially reading psychological theories, but when facing the data he develops a theory that looks at, you may say, everything but psychological dispositions to explain the use of marihuana. Especially researchers involved with ethnographic methods have a fairly unique opportunity to dig up and then test (in a circular, continuous and temporal way) new research questions and findings as the research progresses, and thereby to derive previously unimagined and uncharted distinctions by getting closer to the phenomenon under study.

Let us stress that getting close is by no means restricted to ethnography. The notion of hermeneutic circle and hermeneutics as a general way of understanding implies that we must get close to the details in order to get the big picture. This also means that qualitative researchers can literally also make use of details of pictures as evidence (cf. Harper 2002). Thus, researchers may get closer both when generating the material or when analyzing it.

Quantitative research, we maintain, in the ideal-typical representation cannot get closer to the data. The data is essentially numbers in tables making up the variables (Franzosi 2016 :138). The data may originally have been “qualitative,” but once reduced to numbers there can only be a type of “hermeneutics” about what the number may stand for. The numbers themselves, however, are non-ambiguous. Thus, in quantitative research, interpretation, if done, is not about the data itself—the numbers—but what the numbers stand for. It follows that the interpretation is essentially done in a more “speculative” mode without direct empirical evidence (cf. Becker 2017 ).

Improved Understanding

While distinction, process and getting closer refer to the qualitative work of the researcher, improved understanding refers to its conditions and outcome of this work. Understanding cuts deeper than explanation, which to some may mean a causally verified correlation between variables. The notion of explanation presupposes the notion of understanding since explanation does not include an idea of how knowledge is gained (Manicas 2006 : 15). Understanding, we argue, is the core concept of what we call the outcome of the process when research has made use of all the other elements that were integrated in the research. Understanding, then, has a special status in qualitative research since it refers both to the conditions of knowledge and the outcome of the process. Understanding can to some extent be seen as the condition of explanation and occurs in a process of interpretation, which naturally refers to meaning (Gadamer 1990 ). It is fundamentally connected to knowing, and to the knowing of how to do things (Heidegger [1927] 2001 ). Conceptually the term hermeneutics is used to account for this process. Heidegger ties hermeneutics to human being and not possible to separate from the understanding of being ( 1988 ). Here we use it in a broader sense, and more connected to method in general (cf. Seiffert 1992 ). The abovementioned aspects – for example, “objectivity” and “reflexivity” – of the approach are conditions of scientific understanding. Understanding is the result of a circular process and means that the parts are understood in light of the whole, and vice versa. Understanding presupposes pre-understanding, or in other words, some knowledge of the phenomenon studied. The pre-understanding, even in the form of prejudices, are in qualitative research process, which we see as iterative, questioned, which gradually or suddenly change due to the iteration of data, evidence and concepts. However, qualitative research generates understanding in the iterative process when the researcher gets closer to the data, e.g., by going back and forth between field and analysis in a process that generates new data that changes the evidence, and, ultimately, the findings. Questioning, to ask questions, and put what one assumes—prejudices and presumption—in question, is central to understand something (Heidegger [1927] 2001 ; Gadamer 1990 :368–384). We propose that this iterative process in which the process of understanding occurs is characteristic of qualitative research.

Improved understanding means that we obtain scientific knowledge of something that we as a scholarly community did not know before, or that we get to know something better. It means that we understand more about how parts are related to one another, and to other things we already understand (see also Fine and Hallett 2014 ). Understanding is an important condition for qualitative research. It is not enough to identify correlations, make distinctions, and work in a process in which one gets close to the field or phenomena. Understanding is accomplished when the elements are integrated in an iterative process.

It is, moreover, possible to understand many things, and researchers, just like children, may come to understand new things every day as they engage with the world. This subjective condition of understanding – namely, that a person gains a better understanding of something –is easily met. To be qualified as “scientific,” the understanding must be general and useful to many; it must be public. But even this generally accessible understanding is not enough in order to speak of “scientific understanding.” Though we as a collective can increase understanding of everything in virtually all potential directions as a result also of qualitative work, we refrain from this “objective” way of understanding, which has no means of discriminating between what we gain in understanding. Scientific understanding means that it is deemed relevant from the scientific horizon (compare Schütz 1962 : 35–38, 46, 63), and that it rests on the pre-understanding that the scientists have and must have in order to understand. In other words, the understanding gained must be deemed useful by other researchers, so that they can build on it. We thus see understanding from a pragmatic, rather than a subjective or objective perspective. Improved understanding is related to the question(s) at hand. Understanding, in order to represent an improvement, must be an improvement in relation to the existing body of knowledge of the scientific community (James [ 1907 ] 1955). Scientific understanding is, by definition, collective, as expressed in Weber’s famous note on objectivity, namely that scientific work aims at truths “which … can claim, even for a Chinese, the validity appropriate to an empirical analysis” ([1904] 1949 :59). By qualifying “improved understanding” we argue that it is a general defining characteristic of qualitative research. Becker‘s ( 1966 ) study and other research of deviant behavior increased our understanding of the social learning processes of how individuals start a behavior. And it also added new knowledge about the labeling of deviant behavior as a social process. Few studies, of course, make the same large contribution as Becker’s, but are nonetheless qualitative research.

Understanding in the phenomenological sense, which is a hallmark of qualitative research, we argue, requires meaning and this meaning is derived from the context, and above all the data being analyzed. The ideal-typical quantitative research operates with given variables with different numbers. This type of material is not enough to establish meaning at the level that truly justifies understanding. In other words, many social science explanations offer ideas about correlations or even causal relations, but this does not mean that the meaning at the level of the data analyzed, is understood. This leads us to say that there are indeed many explanations that meet the criteria of understanding, for example the explanation of how one becomes a marihuana smoker presented by Becker. However, we may also understand a phenomenon without explaining it, and we may have potential explanations, or better correlations, that are not really understood.

We may speak more generally of quantitative research and its data to clarify what we see as an important distinction. The “raw data” that quantitative research—as an idealtypical activity, refers to is not available for further analysis; the numbers, once created, are not to be questioned (Franzosi 2016 : 138). If the researcher is to do “more” or “change” something, this will be done by conjectures based on theoretical knowledge or based on the researcher’s lifeworld. Both qualitative and quantitative research is based on the lifeworld, and all researchers use prejudices and pre-understanding in the research process. This idea is present in the works of Heidegger ( 2001 ) and Heisenberg (cited in Franzosi 2010 :619). Qualitative research, as we argued, involves the interaction and questioning of concepts (theory), data, and evidence.

Ragin ( 2004 :22) points out that “a good definition of qualitative research should be inclusive and should emphasize its key strengths and features, not what it lacks (for example, the use of sophisticated quantitative techniques).” We define qualitative research as an iterative process in which improved understanding to the scientific community is achieved by making new significant distinctions resulting from getting closer to the phenomenon studied. Qualitative research, as defined here, is consequently a combination of two criteria: (i) how to do things –namely, generating and analyzing empirical material, in an iterative process in which one gets closer by making distinctions, and (ii) the outcome –improved understanding novel to the scholarly community. Is our definition applicable to our own study? In this study we have closely read the empirical material that we generated, and the novel distinction of the notion “qualitative research” is the outcome of an iterative process in which both deduction and induction were involved, in which we identified the categories that we analyzed. We thus claim to meet the first criteria, “how to do things.” The second criteria cannot be judged but in a partial way by us, namely that the “outcome” —in concrete form the definition-improves our understanding to others in the scientific community.

We have defined qualitative research, or qualitative scientific work, in relation to quantitative scientific work. Given this definition, qualitative research is about questioning the pre-given (taken for granted) variables, but it is thus also about making new distinctions of any type of phenomenon, for example, by coining new concepts, including the identification of new variables. This process, as we have discussed, is carried out in relation to empirical material, previous research, and thus in relation to theory. Theory and previous research cannot be escaped or bracketed. According to hermeneutic principles all scientific work is grounded in the lifeworld, and as social scientists we can thus never fully bracket our pre-understanding.

We have proposed that quantitative research, as an idealtype, is concerned with pre-determined variables (Small 2008 ). Variables are epistemically fixed, but can vary in terms of dimensions, such as frequency or number. Age is an example; as a variable it can take on different numbers. In relation to quantitative research, qualitative research does not reduce its material to number and variables. If this is done the process of comes to a halt, the researcher gets more distanced from her data, and it makes it no longer possible to make new distinctions that increase our understanding. We have above discussed the components of our definition in relation to quantitative research. Our conclusion is that in the research that is called quantitative there are frequent and necessary qualitative elements.

Further, comparative empirical research on researchers primarily working with ”quantitative” approaches and those working with ”qualitative” approaches, we propose, would perhaps show that there are many similarities in practices of these two approaches. This is not to deny dissimilarities, or the different epistemic and ontic presuppositions that may be more or less strongly associated with the two different strands (see Goertz and Mahoney 2012 ). Our point is nonetheless that prejudices and preconceptions about researchers are unproductive, and that as other researchers have argued, differences may be exaggerated (e.g., Becker 1996 : 53, 2017 ; Marchel and Owens 2007 :303; Ragin 1994 ), and that a qualitative dimension is present in both kinds of work.

Several things follow from our findings. The most important result is the relation to quantitative research. In our analysis we have separated qualitative research from quantitative research. The point is not to label individual researchers, methods, projects, or works as either “quantitative” or “qualitative.” By analyzing, i.e., taking apart, the notions of quantitative and qualitative, we hope to have shown the elements of qualitative research. Our definition captures the elements, and how they, when combined in practice, generate understanding. As many of the quotations we have used suggest, one conclusion of our study holds that qualitative approaches are not inherently connected with a specific method. Put differently, none of the methods that are frequently labelled “qualitative,” such as interviews or participant observation, are inherently “qualitative.” What matters, given our definition, is whether one works qualitatively or quantitatively in the research process, until the results are produced. Consequently, our analysis also suggests that those researchers working with what in the literature and in jargon is often called “quantitative research” are almost bound to make use of what we have identified as qualitative elements in any research project. Our findings also suggest that many” quantitative” researchers, at least to some extent, are engaged with qualitative work, such as when research questions are developed, variables are constructed and combined, and hypotheses are formulated. Furthermore, a research project may hover between “qualitative” and “quantitative” or start out as “qualitative” and later move into a “quantitative” (a distinct strategy that is not similar to “mixed methods” or just simply combining induction and deduction). More generally speaking, the categories of “qualitative” and “quantitative,” unfortunately, often cover up practices, and it may lead to “camps” of researchers opposing one another. For example, regardless of the researcher is primarily oriented to “quantitative” or “qualitative” research, the role of theory is neglected (cf. Swedberg 2017 ). Our results open up for an interaction not characterized by differences, but by different emphasis, and similarities.

Let us take two examples to briefly indicate how qualitative elements can fruitfully be combined with quantitative. Franzosi ( 2010 ) has discussed the relations between quantitative and qualitative approaches, and more specifically the relation between words and numbers. He analyzes texts and argues that scientific meaning cannot be reduced to numbers. Put differently, the meaning of the numbers is to be understood by what is taken for granted, and what is part of the lifeworld (Schütz 1962 ). Franzosi shows how one can go about using qualitative and quantitative methods and data to address scientific questions analyzing violence in Italy at the time when fascism was rising (1919–1922). Aspers ( 2006 ) studied the meaning of fashion photographers. He uses an empirical phenomenological approach, and establishes meaning at the level of actors. In a second step this meaning, and the different ideal-typical photographers constructed as a result of participant observation and interviews, are tested using quantitative data from a database; in the first phase to verify the different ideal-types, in the second phase to use these types to establish new knowledge about the types. In both of these cases—and more examples can be found—authors move from qualitative data and try to keep the meaning established when using the quantitative data.

A second main result of our study is that a definition, and we provided one, offers a way for research to clarify, and even evaluate, what is done. Hence, our definition can guide researchers and students, informing them on how to think about concrete research problems they face, and to show what it means to get closer in a process in which new distinctions are made. The definition can also be used to evaluate the results, given that it is a standard of evaluation (cf. Hammersley 2007 ), to see whether new distinctions are made and whether this improves our understanding of what is researched, in addition to the evaluation of how the research was conducted. By making what is qualitative research explicit it becomes easier to communicate findings, and it is thereby much harder to fly under the radar with substandard research since there are standards of evaluation which make it easier to separate “good” from “not so good” qualitative research.

To conclude, our analysis, which ends with a definition of qualitative research can thus both address the “internal” issues of what is qualitative research, and the “external” critiques that make it harder to do qualitative research, to which both pressure from quantitative methods and general changes in society contribute.

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Acknowledgements

Financial Support for this research is given by the European Research Council, CEV (263699). The authors are grateful to Susann Krieglsteiner for assistance in collecting the data. The paper has benefitted from the many useful comments by the three reviewers and the editor, comments by members of the Uppsala Laboratory of Economic Sociology, as well as Jukka Gronow, Sebastian Kohl, Marcin Serafin, Richard Swedberg, Anders Vassenden and Turid Rødne.

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Challenges and coping mechanisms of parents of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: a qualitative study

• Wongelawit Mesfin 1 &
• Kassahun Habtamu 1  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  354 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that has manifestations of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. It affects every facet of a child’s life, including one’s own emotions, family and school life, and social interaction. The few available studies on ADHD conducted in Ethiopia focus on teachers’ awareness and the prevalence of ADHD. None of these studies has taken into account parents of children who have ADHD. The present study, therefore, aimed to find out the challenges and coping mechanisms of parents who have children with ADHD.

A phenomenological qualitative study was conducted to explore the experiences of parents who have children with ADHD. The study was carried out in Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. Fourteen parents and two healthcare providers were involved in the study. Participants were selected using a purposive sampling technique. In-depth interviews were conducted with parents of children with ADHD ( n  = 8) and healthcare providers ( n  = 2). One focus group discussion (FGD), consisting of six members, was also conducted with parents. A topic guide for conducting the interviews and FGD was developed. Interviews and the FGD were audio-recorded. The data were transcribed verbatim, translated into English, and then analyzed using a thematic analysis approach.

With regard to challenges of parents of children with ADHD, three themes emerged: social challenges, economic challenges and psychological challenges. Stigma is found to be the most common challenge. Other challenges included worry about the child’s future, lack of social support, strained relationships with others, impact on their job, and marital conflict. Concerning coping mechanisms, two themes emerged: Inward and outward means of coping. The inward means of coping included prayer and developing an optimistic mindset whereas the outward means were family support, healthcare providers’ guidance, and social avoidance.

Conclusions

The study found that parents of children with ADHD experience several aspects of psychological, social, and economic challenges. Support from healthcare professionals, family members, and the community at large is found to be useful for parents to cope with these challenges. Future research should focus on evaluating interventions that would help parents with ADHD cope with the challenges they experience.

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Introduction

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) defines attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, disorganization, and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity [ 1 ]. Inattention and disorganization entail inability to stay on task, seemingly not to listen, and losing materials, at levels that are inconsistent with age or developmental level [ 2 ]. Hyperactivity-impulsivity, on the other hand, refers to over-activity, fidgeting, inability to stay seated, intruding into other people’s activities, and inability to wait- symptoms that are excessive for age or developmental level [ 3 ]. These symptoms have to present prior to age 12 years, have also been present in two settings (at home and school) and they interfere with, or reduce the quality of social, academic, or occupational functioning [ 1 ]. ADHD is believed to occur in all cultures in about 5% of children and about 2.5% of adults [ 4 ]. The prevalence of ADHD worldwide is estimated to be around 6 in 100 children and adolescents and 3 in 100 adults [ 5 , 6 ].

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there are three categories of ADHD [ 7 ]. The first is the predominately inattentive type. In this category are those children with poor attention who may forget time and again, are easily distracted, sidetracked from a task, appear not to be listening, are messy, take time to initiate doing things and lose their possessions regularly. The second category is the predominately hyperactive/impulsive type. Children with hyperactivity may often be restless, fidgety, full of energy or “always on the go”, loud, continuously chattering, unable to stay seated (in the classroom, workplace, etc.), running about or climbing in inappropriate places and unable to play or do leisure activities quietly. Children with symptoms of impulsivity may often do things without thinking, have difficulty waiting for their turn in games or a queue, interrupt people in conversation, blurt out answers before the question is finished, look intrusive and start using other people’s things without permission [ 8 ]. The third one, which is the combined type, has symptoms from both the inattentive and the hyperactive/impulsive types.

ADHD has an impact on the different aspects of a child’s life, such as poor peer relationships, and low self-esteem [ 9 ]. Children with ADHD show significant academic underachievement and educational problems [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]. For instance, they score significantly lower on reading and arithmetic tests than controls [ 13 ].

ADHD is commonly associated with elevated levels of parenting stress because the parents’ perceptions of the demands of their role as parents exceed their resources to cope with them [ 14 ]. Stress from parenting is a set of processes that starts off from efforts to adapt to calls of parenthood and results in unwanted psychological and physiological responses [ 15 ]. Apart from higher emotional impact, impaired family activities, less parental warmth, and higher parental depression and anxiety, parents of children diagnosed with ADHD reported higher stress [ 16 ]. A study has shown that the children’s problems affect the parenting stress more than parenting stress affects the children’s problems [ 17 ]. For instance, a study showed that South African parents experienced difficulties such as negative emotions, economic problems, inadequate social support, stigma, and extra care giving responsibilities [ 18 ]. Tanzanian parents experienced difficulties in handling children whose level of functioning was impaired due to abnormal and disruptive behaviour such as not being able to follow parental instructions [ 19 ]. They are also faced with psychological problems due to caring demands exacerbated by a lack of support and stigma from the community, disruptions in family functioning and social interactions among family members.

Parents need coping mechanisms to deal with the challenges they are facing in raising a child with ADHD. Folkman & Lazarus [ 20 ] explained coping as an individual’s continuous effort in thoughts and actions to manage specific external or internal demands appraised to be challenging and overwhelming to the individual. In addition, coping is considered highly contextual, in that its effectiveness is determined by the ability to change over time and across different conditions. There is no previous study on the coping mechanisms of parents who have children with ADHD in Ethiopia. Nevertheless, a study on mothers of autistic children found that religion, experience sharing, and social support are the most commonly used coping mechanisms [ 21 ]. A similar study on parents of children with intellectual disability showed that religion (praying, fasting, and attending church ceremonies), experience sharing with like parents and maintaining smooth relations with their children’s teachers are their coping mechanisms [ 22 ].

Few studies have been conducted on the prevalence, risk and protective factors and impact of ADHD in the Ethiopian context [ 23 , 24 , 25 ]. Nevertheless, to the best of our knowledge, there are no studies done on the challenges and coping mechanisms of parents of children with ADHD in the Ethiopian context. This study, therefore, aimed to explore the challenges and coping mechanisms of parents of children with ADHD.

Study design

A phenomenological qualitative study was conducted. A qualitative approach was more suitable for this study as it seeks to acquire an in-depth understanding of the experiences of parents with ADHD through exploration instead of measurement [ 26 ]. According to Draper [ 27 ], qualitative research investigates a phenomenon considering the context of people’s everyday lives and also attempts to understand and explain the world from participants’ points of view. Green & Thorogood [ 28 ] concur by stating that the focus of qualitative research is to find explanations for questions such as “what”, “how” or “why” of an occurrence.

This study intended to assess the challenges parents of children with ADHD face and the coping mechanisms they use. Data were gathered by using in-depth and key informant interviews and focus group discussion. In doing so, the study gave participants the freedom to articulate their experiences with their own words rather than choosing words from a predetermined list. The study also adopted Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model as its theoretical framework [ 29 ].

Study setting

The study was conducted at St. Paul Hospital, located in Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. The present site of the hospital building was constructed in 1968/69 and could admit 400 inpatients and 300 outpatients. St. Paul’s Hospital opened a medical college during the Ethiopian Millennium celebration in 2007 after serving the nation as a hospital for six decades. Afterward, it was renamed St. Paul’s Hospital Millennium Medical Collage (SPHMMC) by the Ministry of Health of Ethiopia. At present, it has more than 2,500 clinical, academic and administrative staff. While the inpatient capacity is 700 beds, more than 2,000 outpatient and emergency clients visit the health facility every day. St. Paul Hospital has a vision of becoming a medical university with a prestigious academic and research center, and one of the most sought- after medical care providers [ 30 ].

The Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Department of the hospital launched its service around 8 years ago. It provides services to children and adolescents who have different types of psychiatric conditions such as depression, autism spectrum disorder, ADHD, intellectual disability, substance use disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder. On average, around ten patients pay a visit to the department daily. Service users will have their follow-ups until age 18 years in the Department and then will get transferred to the Adult Psychiatry Department. There are two resident psychiatrists, one senior psychiatrist, two psychologists and two nurses who are providing services in the Department.

Participants

Purposive sampling was used to select participants in the study. This was carried out until saturation was reached. Parents who have children with diagnosed ADHD and healthcare providers who are providing treatment to children with ADHD participated in the study. Participants had to meet the following inclusion criteria to be included in the study: being a parent to a child with a diagnosis of ADHD, ability to communicate fluently in Amharic, and willingness to participate in the study. As for the healthcare providers, the study included the two of them who were on duty during the study. The target population of this study was parents of children who have ADHD at St. Paul Hospital and health care professionals who were providing services to these children and their parents. The nurse provided the information on whether parents had children with ADHD or not. Then, parents were asked for their oral consent to participate in the study.

There is no formula to acquire a sample size in qualitative research. Rather, most scholars agree on the concept of data saturation to reach to sample size. Englander [ 31 ] argued that sample size in qualitative research is often determined on the basis of theoretical saturation (the point in data collection when new data no longer bring additional insights to the research questions). Sandelowski [ 32 ] suggested that the assessment of the sample size’s appropriateness becomes a “matter of judgment”, depending on the milestones retained in the attention field by the researcher.

Creswell [ 33 ] recommended interviews with up to 10 people in phenomenological research so this study planned to interview two healthcare professionals and eight parents who have a child with ADHD. Regarding the focus group discussion, Johnson & Christensen [ 34 ] suggested that focus groups usually contain 6–12 persons. Krueger [ 35 ] suggested 6–9 focus group members and groups with more than 12 participants tend to limit each person’s opportunity to share insights and observations while focus groups with less than 6 participants make it difficult to sustain a discussion. One focus group discussion was conducted comprising six parents who have a child with ADHD.

Methods and procedures of data collection

In-depth and key informant interviews and focus group discussion (FGD) were used as methods of data collection. Both interviews and FGD gave the participants the autonomy to express their experiences in raising children with ADHD. In-depth interviews and FGD were conducted with parents of children with ADHD. Healthcare professionals who diagnose and provide treatment to children with ADHD at St. Paul Hospital were also interviewed. Triangulation is of vital significance in qualitative research in terms of data collection method and data source. Having different respondents for the interview and FGD enriched the information gathered. The sequence for the data collection was from individual interviews with parents to focus group discussion with parents and then to individual interviews with healthcare providers. The major reason for this sequence was that in-depth interview with parents was the primary method of data collection and it was easier to make the interview with parents iterative than the interview with healthcare providers as well as the FGD with parents. In addition, the interview with parents shaped both the FGD and the interview with healthcare providers.

We developed a topic guide for the interviews and the focus group discussion (Supplementary Material 1 ). The questions within the topic guide we used for parents focused on finding out parents’ reactions to the first diagnosis of their child, the change after diagnosis, their positive experiences, the challenges they face and their coping mechanisms. For the healthcare providers, the questions focused on finding out about parents’ reactions to the first diagnosis of their children, the challenges of parents and the support given by the healthcare providers. For each guiding question, planned probes were included.

Interviews involve a one-to-one in-depth discussion where the researcher adopts the role of an “investigator.” This implies the researcher asks questions, controls the dynamics of the discussion, or engages in dialogue with a specific individual at a time [ 36 ]. According to Nyumba [ 36 ] in a focus group discussion, researchers adopt the role of a “facilitator” or a “moderator.” In this setting, the researcher facilitates or moderates a group discussion between participants and not between the researcher and the participants. The study was conducted in a naturalistic setting of the out-patient of the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at St. Paul’s Hospital. Both the interviews and focus group discussion were conducted in Amharic and electronically recorded. This allowed the researcher to refer to the data gathered anytime and also avoid recall bias. In-depth interviews with parents lasted between 30 and 50 min, whereas the FGD took 90 min. The key informant interview with one of the healthcare providers lasted 45 min and with the other 60 min.

Data analysis

Data were transcribed verbatim and then translated into English. We followed the following four steps in analyzing the data: (a) familiarization with the data, (b) generating initial codes and searching for themes, (c) reviewing themes, and (d) naming themes [ 28 ].

In the course of getting familiar with the data, we listened to the audio recordings several times and transcribed the recordings into text format. Then meticulous reading of the transcripts was carried out with the aim of spotting keywords or phrases describing the experiences of the informants. Labeling and organizing the relevant pieces enabled the coding to be achieved which subsequently helped in identifying key themes. The formation and naming of these key themes were a result of the grouping of related themes. Then the subthemes were formed.

Ethical considerations

We confirm that the study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of the School of Psychology, Addis Ababa University, and the Ethics Committee of St. Paul’s Hospital Millennium Medical College. The study was carried out in a manner that was transparent to all the participants. All the participants in the study were well informed of the aim of the study. Only those who gave their oral informed consent to participate in the study were included. The participants were assured that the data gathered would only be used for research purpose. In addition, they were reassured that the use of the voice recording was solely for the research.

Assurance of confidentiality was attained by giving pseudonyms to participants. At the end of the interview, all participants were debriefed. Finally, the researcher offered the chance of getting the findings of the research to the participants.

The socio-demographic characteristics of the interview and FGD participants are presented in Table  1 .

The in-depth interview participants were eight in number and all were biological parents. Seven mothers and a father participated in the interview. All were married, except one (who was divorced), in terms of marital status. The age of the parents who participated in the interview ranged from 27 to 48 years. Concerning their religion, two of them were Muslims, two of them were Orthodox Christians and the rest four were Protestants. With regards to educational level, one was not able to read and write, two were seventh graders, three were tenth graders, one was eleventh grader and one had a BA degree. When it comes to occupation, five of them were stay at home mothers, one a cleaner, one tea and coffee vendor and one a pastor. Respondents of the focus group discussion were six biological parents. The group consisted of four mothers and two fathers, with age ranging from thirty to sixty. When it comes to marital status, there was one single parent, four married and one cohabiting with a partner. Four of them were orthodox Christians whereas the other two were Protestant or Muslim. Regarding their educational level, two of them had first degree, one had diploma, two of them completed 12th grade and one was a tenth grader. Concerning their occupation, the two degree holders both were teachers, one self-employed and three of them were stay-at home mothers.

Concerning the socio-demographic characteristics of health care professionals, one was a female General Practitioner and the other was a male third-year Psychiatry resident. Both were single. In terms of religion, one was Muslim and the other Protestant.

The major themes along with their sub-themes that emerged from the data are presented in Table  2 .

Parents’ reaction to their children’s diagnosis

For the question about their reaction when the healthcare provider first informed them about their children’s diagnosis, parents responded that they reacted with a range of feelings. There was no ‘right’ way to feel to come to terms with the diagnosis and move on with everyday life. The healthy thing to do was to recognize and validate these feelings. Some accepted it, some were shocked and confused and others were engulfed with different feelings. Apart from those who accepted it easily, we had observed other parents responding with sadness and teary eyes or even sobbing.

Parents’ acceptance of their children’s diagnosis is a way of melding the condition in their lives without engaging in any intrapersonal conflict. Intrapersonal conflict was a fight within oneself with one’s thoughts and values. The intrapersonal conflict for parents like these might be in the form of self-blame, guilt, blaming others, becoming mad at God, or taking the incident as a punishment from God. Easy acceptance of their children’s diagnosis was possible for some parents because of the prior information they got from different sources.

While we were living in Saudi Arabia, I had seen TV programs that enabled me to have a clue concerning children’s mental health. So accepting it was not that much of a trouble to me. (INTV, Fatuma) As a teacher, I knew the behaviour of children. I had noticed something wasn’t right when it came to the behaviour of my son. I couldn’t understand why he didn’t have the motivation and the patience to study. I searched over the internet and finally took him for an assessment. (FGD, Afework)

Shock and confusion

Hearing the unexpected news yielded two predominant emotions: shock and confusion. Shock was a reaction to a surprising and unpleasant incident while confusion was a state where one feels disoriented, cannot think clearly and is unable to make a decision. Two of the interviewed mothers had the following to say:

My daughter was on Thyroxine tablets that were prescribed to her by doctors in Saudi Arabia. Back then I was told that my daughter’s behaviour was a result of the side effect of this medication. But when we came to Ethiopia, she was diagnosed with ADHD. As I had accepted what the doctors from Saudi Arabia said about the behaviour of my daughter, finding out she had a mental health condition was shocking. The two different opinions of the doctors made me confused. Why the doctors did come up with two different diagnoses? (INTV, Sifan) I didn’t expect my daughter would be diagnosed with a mental health condition so it was shocking news for me. I raised my daughter alone and struggled to support us. God knew what I was going through and had helped my problems come to pass. So, when this happened I was confused why God allowed another problem to happen to me. I had seen no hope until my daughter started taking the medication. (INTV, Tirunesh)

Emotional ambivalence

Some of the parents reported that they experienced emotional ambivalence (a state where one has a mixture of emotions that might contradict each other). These included anxiety, hopelessness, depression, guilt, self-blame, denial, shame, self-doubt, sadness and blame. Anxiety arises from the feeling of uncertainty and fear about what the future holds for their children. Blaming others, guilt and self-blame were effects of the search for possible causes of the disorder. Parents moved down memory lane to dig out what they should have done. Anxiety, fear and insecurity could lead to denial about the incident. Feelings of shame arise when parents think about what society might say about their child’s diagnosis. Parents also might doubt themselves about their competence as a parent.

The news about the diagnosis erupted mixed emotions in other parents which included denial, anxiety, sadness, hopelessness, shame and self-blame. One mother whose son had epilepsy explained the assurance they had in prayer for the spiritual healing of their son. Not seeing any progress made her sought professional help. He was not only diagnosed with epilepsy but also with ADHD. What she had felt was anxiety, hopelessness, confusion, shame and self-blame. This was what another sobbing mother had to say:

My son had swallowed a coin and we took him to the hospital. X-ray images were taken thrice. I blame myself for not refusing when the medical practitioners did that. So I believe the exposure to the X-ray that day caused my son’s ADHD. I felt as though I’d failed so I blamed myself for that . In addition, I had shame, denial and guilt. (FGD, Mesert)

A father had also the following to share:

As our neighbors told us, my son had fallen several times when he was very little and we believe that his ADHD was a result of it. A teacher was complaining about my son’s behaviour to his mother. His mother told the teacher that he had started holy water treatment for his behaviour. The principal of the school overheard their conversation and later on warned us that he must get assessed by a professional. As the school is an international school, she also wanted a medical certificate after his assessment in order for them to support him afterwards. I had felt shame and sadness. (FGD, Workneh)

The two healthcare professionals described what the reactions of parents were when they were first told about the diagnosis of their children. The resident psychiatrist reported that most parents got confused, shocked, and exhibited denial.

The general practitioner shared her observation as:

Most of the parents did not have a clue about ADHD and often were perplexed and assumed ADHD was as a full-blown psychosis. Moreover, parents wrestled with self-blame if something had happened in the past which they might think had caused their child’s disorder. This included a fall of the child that took place during the early years, instances during their pregnancy, etc. (INTV, GP)

Parental change after diagnosis

Parents reported that they experienced a change in themselves after they knew about the diagnosis of their children. These included an increased understanding of ADHD and better care provision.

Awareness about ADHD

For some of the parents, the change after the diagnosis of the child was an increased understanding about the condition not only for themselves but also for the ones that were close to them. Two parents shared the changes that took place with them as follows:

I thought my son’s condition was associated with supernatural evil manifestation and that was the reason why we chose prayer prior to getting him professionally evaluated. Our perspective has shifted after his diagnosis. (INTV, Deraretu) The first time I heard about ADHD was in the psychiatrist’s office during my son’s assessment. When I go home, I shared the information with my wife. Later on, I told my elder sister about it as she sometimes looked after him. (INTV, Haile)

Knowing about their children’s condition has enabled some parents to become better caregiver to their children. One parent described it as:

I not only give him unique attention to his needs but also strive for his emotional well-being. I am always more watchful when relatives come to visit us so that they don’t call him “naughty” or something else. Whenever I had to go pay a visit to a relative, I wanted to take my other kids along and leave my son home. On the one hand, I feel like I am protecting him from harsh comments. On the other hand I knew this would make him feel lonely. In the end, I refrained from doing this and went by myself. (INTV, Tayitu)

Another parent added:

I came to know that physical exercise helps with concentration. I always encourage my son to do regular physical exercises. (FGD, Afework)

Positive experiences while parenting a child with ADHD

Even though their situation was unfortunate and dubious, parents gained some sort of positive experience in the upbringing of their children with ADHD. These included knowledge, advocacy, and inspiration.

For most of the parents, their knowledge of ADHD increased after the diagnosis. Moreover, they shared what they knew with the ones they believed should know about their children’s condition as described in the quotations below.

A teacher had called my son stupid which had been informed to the director. As the teachers didn’t have a clue about ADHD, I made a brief explanation about his condition to all of them. (INT, Haile) Fellow teachers used to tell me to support my son academically as if I was negligent towards this. I tutored a lot of children and enabled them to be high achievers academically. I knew my son had a good potential but the perspective of others differed about it. I shared what I knew about the condition with a heavy heart knowing it was not a one-time incident. I wish people were aware of ADHD. (FGD, Afework)

Becoming an advocate for children with ADHD was another positive experience gained for most of the parents. Parents have become advocates with the intention creating a supportive environment for their children. The quotation below supports this narration.

If I see children who have similar behaviour as my son’s, the first thing that comes to mind is his condition (ADHD). Whenever I take a taxi and observe a hyperactive child, I try to play with them and defend them if any negative comment is forwarded. (INTV, Kedija)

Another parent claimed that he not only became an advocate for children with ADHD but also for mental health in general.

During a discussion about mental health, I made sure people dropped any myths they might have about ADHD and other mental health issues. Even the ones we considered worst like schizophrenia can be managed with medication and normal life can be attained. (FGD, Workneh)

Inspiration

Some of the parents wanted to share their experiences with other similar parents and also get encouraged by other parents who have children with other neurodevelopmental disorders. A parent highlighted her positive experience in terms of knowledge of ADHD, inspiration, and advocacy as follows.

While waiting for my son’s turn at the hospital, I always engage in a conversation with other parents. If the parents have a newly diagnosed child, I tell them their journey might be challenging but it’s manageable. I told them how I managed my son’s epilepsy and ADHD. If their child has autism or another condition, it’s my turn to learn from their strength. (FGD, Mesert)

Challenges of parents of children with ADHD

The study found that parents of children with ADHD experienced psychological, social, and economic challenges. More specifically, these included worry about the future of the child, stigma, lack of social support, strained relationship with others, impact on their job, marital conflict, teachers’ lack of knowledge on ADHD, and having anxiety and depression symptoms.

Social challenges

Social challenges were those challenges originating from society and have negative consequences on the individual. Stigma was found to be one of the major social challenges for the majority of the parents. This included a negative, biased and unfair belief about ADHD. An excuse for laziness, way out of trouble, wrongly disciplined, and judgment on parents were some of the aspects of stigmata associated with ADHD.

Less social support from relatives and neighbors and a low level of knowledge of teachers take up the next level of challenges. The less social support from relatives and neighbors might be the result of stigma. Strained relationships and marital conflict are the challenges that stood out for a few parents in addition to other social challenges. Due to the stigma and social avoidance, some parents had strained relationships with members of their community. Others had conflicts with their partners regarding the diagnosis and treatment of their child’s ADHD.

A parent stated her experience as:

I face different setbacks but the one that hurts me most is my marital conflict. My husband doesn’t seem to care about my son who has ADHD. Ever since my son’s diagnosis, he isolated himself from anything connected to my son’s condition. In regards to my son’s school, the school administration informed me that my son wasn’t up to the criteria set for kids with autism and therefore had to leave the school. I took the case to the Ministry of Education. So I carry the entire burden by myself. (FGD, Muluemebet)

Another mother added:

I have a similar story. My mother-in-law believes that my son’s condition is brought by evil spirits and the remedy is in the hands of a shaman. As she has inflicted this idea in my husband’s head, a fight arises whenever my son’s condition is raised. One day my son was late to come home. But when he returned, his father locked the door and started beating him up. He opened the door to let him out on the arrival of the police. Even though I had explained to my sisters about my son’s condition, they suggested I should look for a detention facility for children like him. Due to my son’s condition, I no longer work and am a housewife. I sometimes get judged about my son by individuals from my church’s congregation. (FGD, Mesert)

Economic challenges

Economic challenges were those challenges that put economic turmoil on an individual due to mental health conditions. Quitting job to take care of their children with ADHD was the challenge to many of the parents. As taking care of children with ADHD demands a lot of patience, parents especially mothers fear other caregivers might lose their temper and hurt their children, and, therefore, quit their job to look after these children. Few parents reported the stress they had because of their socioeconomic status and others terminated their children’s follow-up due to financial strain. Overall, parents of children with ADHD described the impact on jobs and expenses associated with the child’s illness.

Spending extra time on school-related activities, such as helping the child to do homework and assignments was found to be difficult and frustrating not only for the child but also for the parent as well. A parent stated that her life is always nothing but stress. This parent carries the burden of being a single mother, divorced, financially constrained, and a daughter with a mental health condition who always worries about the actions of her landlord and stigma.

My husband abandoned me the minute our daughter had her first seizure. She no longer has seizures but I have never heard from him. Because of her behaviour, I got to relocate and met new landlords frequently. As I am the sole breadwinner, the financial constraint is enormous. With the earnings I get from selling tea and coffee, meeting my needs of living expenses coupled with my daughter’s follow-up is so nerve-racking. Moreover not knowing her condition, people always judge me for not raising a well-behaved child. (INTV, Tirunesh)

Psychological challenges

Psychological challenges as a result of being a parent of children with ADHD which included stress, anxiety, sadness, loneliness, helplessness, hopelessness, and depression were frequently aired in the interviews and FGD. Most of the parents worried about their child’s future. Parents worried a lot about who would have the patience to take care of these children when they were no longer alive. A mother claimed she had been depressed for some time until recently. This mother felt helplessness and had no happiness in life.

Here is what two mothers had to say about the psychological challenges of parents of children with ADHD.

I was in a queue waiting for a taxi with my daughter. She wanted to play around but I refused to let her go because I feared a car might hit her. She knelt, started crying and would not stand up. One guy interfered and asked me why she was crying. He was so suspicious that I abducted someone else’s child. An ugly scene was created which later involved the police. I explained her condition to them and the case was solved. I was humiliated. Another issue that I face constantly is with my daughter’s handwriting. Her teachers said that her handwriting is below her peers. Her teachers not only complain about her behaviour but also her handwriting. This deeply made me sad and angry. (FGD, Sifan) I constantly worry a lot about my son. I always beg my son not to go out of our compound but boredom seems the rationale for him to do so. Some boys have got sexually molested near where we live. My prior warnings and advice I gave him didn’t seem to work as I had to tell him time and time again. (FGD, Mesert)

The first author witnessed one of the parents who participated in the interview throwing the appointment card on the nurse’s desk and shouting at her which later ended up in crying. The interviewer calmed her down and she said she was so stressed out. According to her, nurses in the other department mistreated her and people were judging her. She later apologized to the nurse for the way she behaved.

When it comes to the challenges that parents of children with ADHD faced, the resident explained that they faced stigma, hopelessness, and depression.

The general practitioner added:

ADHD affects every aspect of the lives of these parents. The significant challenge that parents face is at the school where these children go to. Unless they have comorbid conditions, children with ADHD go to regular schools and are bombarded by the harsh criticisms and judgments of their teachers who lack knowledge about ADHD. In addition, managing the child’s behaviour daily, stress, concern about the future of the child, impact on their job and marital conflict were other challenges that parents faced. Upon discovering heredity as being one possible etiology of ADHD, most couples argued over who passed it on to the child and mothers ended up taking the blame mostly. Some couples don’t reach an agreement on whether to continue with the follow-up or not. This mostly resulted in the discontinuation of the treatment. Some fathers also expressed feelings of doubt about the mother’s competence as a parent. Sometimes the diagnosis of the child involves not only the parents but also in-laws. (INTV, GP)

Some parents whose children had become teens explained another psychological challenge as:

My son used to take his medication properly. The doctors had increased the dosage of his medication. I was the one who gave him the medication every night. By the time he became a teen, he started refusing to take his medication and going for follow-ups. My wife and I couldn’t force him to continue and we are waiting on him to start again. The journey takes a different lain when children with ADHD become adolescents. (FGD, Afework) My son doesn’t want to go to the hospital now. The different mental conditions of the children he saw at the hospital tormented him emotionally. By the time he became a teen, he claimed he wasn’t as mentally ill as the others and did not see the point of going to the hospital. As the medication had made a huge difference for him, I did not want him to stop taking it. So I usually go to the hospital without him for the prescription. I usually inform the doctors about his status and any change in his behaviour if any and they adjust the dosage accordingly. I wanted to have more kids but changed my mind after his diagnosis. (INTV, Menen)

Coping mechanisms of parents of children with ADHD

Parents reported different types of coping mechanisms they use to deal with the challenges they face when raising children with ADHD. Parents used a combination of different coping mechanisms which could be broadly grouped into two: inward means and outward means.

Inward means

The inward means were the mechanisms that the parents perform to come up with a positive outlook. These included prayer and the state of being an optimist. Prayer decreased stress, gave a sense of relief, improved self-esteem, and increased spirituality. Due to challenges like isolation and stigma, prayer was a way to connect to their Creator where parents feel their worries and fears are heard without judgment and validation for what they go through. Being optimist during difficult times helped with handling stress and boosted resilience.

Prayer was practiced as the first coping mechanism by almost all parents. Being optimistic was another coping mechanism for other parents. Below are what three parents had to say about their use of inward coping mechanisms:

I observed my daughter grasping something faster than her siblings and knew she had potential. So I believe that Allah has created her for a bigger purpose in life. I pray and lean on Him to help her be what He wants her to be. (FGD, Sifan) With a lot of challenges that are going on in my life, prayer is the one thing that calms me down. As my elder sisters are living within the same compound, we have daily prayer. I pray about my son a lot. I believe God has a bigger purpose in my son’s life. (FGD, Mesert) I don’t know what I would do without prayer. Being a single mom with a mentally ill child, facing financial constrain, and living in a hypercritical society is so exhausting. When I pray to God for my provision, He miraculously makes it available. (INTV, Tirunesh) Even though I am faced with different challenges, I am trying to see the bright side of life. Whenever I take my child for a checkup, I get a chance to observe other mothers who have children with autism or other disorders. My challenges mean little when compared with theirs. This makes me grateful and hopeful. (FGD, Sifan)

Outward means

The outward means referred to coping mechanisms that parents get from their environment. These coping mechanisms included family support, healthcare providers’ guidance, and social avoidance. Every appointment gave a chance to the parents to get little information. Few but very close individuals knew about their child’s condition and give support to these parents. Others use avoiding social gatherings and interactions as a coping mechanism. In fear of the stigma, these parents had decided to meet up with only those who knew their child’s condition. Some even did not have friends that they can talk to.

Some parents reported that guidance from healthcare providers was one of the most useful coping mechanisms. Healthcare providers’ guidance in combination with other coping mechanisms was used by many parents. Some parents also used family support as a coping mechanism.

I haven’t told anyone about my son’s condition except my sister who is supportive of me. I don’t allow my son to go out and play with kids from the neighborhood for fear of being called names and getting bullied. I had observed a few kids who exhibited similar behaviour as my son and I believed their parents kept their conditions undisclosed. I therefore did the same thing and kept it a secret. My son had a seizure in the beginning and people had compassion for such illness not for his ADHD. Due to this, I prefer my son’s seizure over his ADHD. I wish people would stop being judgmental towards any illness. (INTV, Tayitu)

A mother expressed how the assistance she got from the health care providers became one of her coping mechanisms as

In the beginning, my husband and I were so much focused on prayer as a solution to our child’s problem. But after a while, the continuous aid from the healthcare providers became one of our coping means. (INTV, Deraretu)

A mother used social avoidance as a coping mechanism and expressed it as

I take him [the child with ADHD] anywhere I go like grocery shopping and other places he shouldn’t supposed to go like funerals. I have avoided meeting up with my friends. My parents’ place is a safe haven for my son and me. I am longing to see a support group with whom I can talk freely without being judged. (INTV, Fatuma)

The study shows that the reaction of parents during and after the diagnosis of their children varies from simple acceptance to a mixture of different emotions. Some of the parents noticed deviant behaviour in their children and got their children assessed due to their doubt and later on accepted their child’s diagnosis easily. Due to prior knowledge they have had on ADHD, these parents accepted the diagnosis easily as it gave them relief regarding their doubt. This finding is similar to other studies done on ASD diagnosis in a way that parental suspicion of a child’s developmental problems leads to getting an early diagnosis and coping more with the diagnosis than those not suspicious [ 37 , 38 ]. A study by Dosreis et al. [ 39 ] had a similar finding on parents of children with ADHD that acceptance was achieved by 38% of parents as their main concern was trying to find an explanation for the difficult behaviour of their children.

For parents whose children have been diagnosed with mental illness, resolution is a fundamental part of the process en route to acceptance [ 40 , 41 ]. According to Pianta and Marvin [ 42 ], resolution can be taken as accepting the diagnosis and integrating it into one’s life while refusing to accept self-blame. Milshtein et al. [ 40 ] argued resolution is a perception of complying and acknowledging the diagnosis and its inference. For parents of children with ASD, acceptance and normalization are very important to give the best possible life to their children [ 21 ].

Upon finding out about their child’s diagnosis, the majority of participants flaunted their reactions with a variety of emotions which include hopelessness, confusion, shame, guilt, self-blame, confusion, anxiety and denial. This is consistent with the findings of other previous studies done on the commonly experienced emotions about a child’s mental health diagnosis which include helplessness, devastation, sadness, loneliness, guilt, anxiety, and grief [ 43 , 44 ]. Parents of children with mental illness go through a feeling of loneliness, misunderstanding, stigma and rejection, grief and self-blame, cynicism, unhappiness, guilt, and anxiety [ 44 ]. In congruence with other studies [ 40 , 41 ], the findings of this study showed no relationship between the reactions of parents to diagnosis and parental demography. Fathers and mothers of children with ADHD reacted similarly.

The positive experiences parents gain while raising children with ADHD include knowledge, advocacy, and inspiration. Consistent with our study, Ustilaite and Cvetkova [ 45 ] revealed that parents of children with disabilities gained a range of positive experiences like inner parental growth, family relationships, finding new spiritual and material resources and feelings such as love, emotional bond with the child, and child as a source of joy and happiness.

Parents who are involved in this study experience different types of psychological, social, and economic challenges while raising children with ADHD. From these, parents’ concern for the future well-being of children and stigma from the community stood out. Social challenges include stigma, limited social interaction, marital conflict, strained relationships, teachers’ lack of knowledge of ADHD, and low social support. According to Sirey and colleagues [ 46 ], stigma is a socially formulated observable fact that encompasses stereotyping, labeling, segregation, loss of status, and nepotism which are allowed to take place in social circumstances by individuals with power. A “culture of suspicion”, about mental health treatment particularly if it involves a child, has been created by the stigmatizing convictions towards people with mental health conditions [ 47 ].

The finding that some parents have challenges in their social interaction and have strained relationships is similar to a previous study [ 48 ] which found that children’s ADHD has negatively influenced parents’ social lives and forced them to have frictions in their relationships. Other similar studies have revealed that parents had feelings of isolation from their friends and families, due to other adults being intolerant of their children’s behaviour [ 18 , 49 ]. In regards to marital conflict, this study has similar findings to other studies [ 18 , 50 ] which found that it is a result of unlike opinions among parents on the diagnosis and treatment of their child. Other studies revealed that it might be caused by troubles with a child’s behavior [ 51 ]. In a study conducted by Wymbs et al. [ 52 ] parents who had a child with ADHD were not only more likely to divorce but also had a shorter latency to divorce than parents of children without ADHD.

Ambikile and Outwater [ 53 ] found that the challenges of Tanzanian parents who have children with mental disorders including ADHD were insufficient children’s social services, stigma, childcare strain, lack of public awareness of mental illness, absence of social support, and troubles with social life. As per the different studies conducted in Ethiopia [ 54 , 55 ], a large number of teachers lack knowledge on ADHD. This negatively impacts the parents and that is what the present study identified as one of the challenges for the parents.

A study carried out in Ethiopia on parents of children with ASD revealed that parents have a social burden [ 56 ]. Other similar studies [ 57 , 58 ] found that the challenges of parents of children with ASD were marital conflict, time-consuming, lack of social support, stigma, the severity of the child’s behaviour, child’s inability to understand feelings and needs, inadequate service (school and treatment), and lack of self-care. In another study, separation from a partner, family/societal reactions, and social isolation are the challenges of parents who have children with intellectual disability [ 59 ].

The study found that parents of children with ADHD experience severe economic challenges and this is consistent with findings of previous studies. For instance, Fridman et al. [ 60 ] found that parents of children with ADHD are likely to quit their jobs to take care of their children. Kvist et al. [ 61 ] also concluded that having a child with ADHD will decrease the labor supply of parents. This is likely to put parents to severe economic strain. Studies conducted in Ethiopia [ 62 , 63 ] found that parents of children with neurodevelopmental disorders experience such economic challenges as financial difficulty, lack of education and training, lack of financial support and employment opportunities.

Parents of children with ADHD also experience several psychological challenges. The current study revealed that what constantly worries parents is that who, in a highly stigmatized society, would have the patience to take care of their children in their absence. Cheung & Theule [ 64 ] and Durukan et al. [ 65 ] found a higher prevalence of depression and anxiety than parents of children without ADHD. This was similar to the experiences of some of the respondents in the present study. The present finding is in line with the study by Deault [ 66 ] that parents of children with ADHD have stress on which the children might play a role. In addition, Minichil et al. [ 67 ] found out that parents of children with mental health conditions can go through depression due to low social support which is also prevailing in this study. In another study, parents of children with ADHD reported that they experience greater levels of parenting stress than parents of children with autism [ 68 ] or with serious conditions such as Epilepsy [ 69 ]. Another study revealed that the distress is related to isolation, stigma, and frustration due to the lack of support [80].

Studies conducted in Ethiopia [ 65 , 66 , 67 ] found that the psychological challenges of parents of children with ASD were stress, concern about the child’s future, and psychological burden. According to Negash [ 59 ] uncertainty about the future, emotional disturbance, and spiritual crises were the challenges of parents who have children with intellectual disability. Tanzanian parents who have children with mental disorders including ADHD experience stress, sadness, bitterness and concern about the present as well as the future life of their children [ 53 ]. Three-fourths of parents in Nepal who have children with intellectual disability suffer from severe stress to clinically significant stress caused by their children’s disorder [ 70 ].

The present study adopted the Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model as its theoretical model. This theory describes the existence of multifaceted levels of the environment with an effect on the development of a child [ 29 ]. The theory demonstrates the development of a child within a system, the interaction between the systems, and the influences they have on each other and the child. According to the views of the theory, a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment is where a child develops. When we compare the ecological model with all the challenges parents of children with ADHD are going through, here are some of our observations. At the microsystem level, it was found that the low level of knowledge the teachers have about ADHD has an impact on the parents. The reaction of some church members about the behaviour of a child with ADHD and the humiliation it has on the parents exhibit the bi-directional influence of the microsystems. At the exosystem, what was observed were the interactions of the parents with their neighbors, with friends of the parents, with their in-laws and relatives, and the way our mass media wrongly portrays mental health. At the macrosystem level, it was observed how these parents were affected by the stigma that exists about mental health. At the chronosystem level, the experience of some parents going through divorce, separation and an incident where a mother was forced to relocate from place to place due to her child’s condition was encountered. In addition, as explained by the ecological theory, the child will lack the means to explore other parts of the environment if the interaction in the immediate microsystem breaks down. The absence of acceptance in the child/parent (child/other significant adult) relations will make the children look for attention in an improper place. These inadequacies appear during adolescence as anti-social behaviour, absence of directing oneself and self-control [ 29 ]. This was somehow partially evident with the two parents who have teens with ADHD.

For the majority of the parents, adaptive strategies like religion, optimism, guidance from professionals and family support are used as coping mechanisms. Almost all of the parents use prayer as a coping strategy. Parents reported that they feel less stressed and believe that better days will come after praying. Healthcare providers’ guidance is also another coping mechanism that most parents use to deal with their challenges. The support from family members also played a role as a coping strategy. Research has revealed that religion is used to going through unpleasant experiences and trying to make meaning out of them and finally coming up with an optimistic outlook [ 71 ]. A Tanzanian study found that support from professionals, spiritual help from traditional healers and religious leaders, and assistance in child care from other family members were the coping mechanisms used by parents who have children with mental disorders including ADHD [ 53 ]. For parents of children with ASD, trying to make meaning out of the situation, support groups, being optimistic and religiosity were used as coping mechanisms [ 56 ]. Another similar study found that religion, social support, increased knowledge of autism, acceptance and cherishing little progress are the coping mechanisms for parents who have children with ASD [ 58 ].

Parents in the present study use optimism as a coping mechanism and this is consistent with the finding of a study by Oelofsen and Richardson [ 72 ] which revealed that parents of children with ADHD used an optimistic belief of having control over the situation, high sense of coherence and support as coping strategies. Parents from Hong Kong use acceptance, problem-centered coping methods and situational-based acts as their coping strategies [ 73 ]. A Nepalese study revealed that coping strategies used by Nepalese parents who have children with intellectual disability were acceptance, societal support, positive reinterpretation and growth, planning, inhibition of competing actions and use of emotional social support [ 70 ]. A similar study in Ethiopia found that spiritual beliefs, hope (better future) and relationships with other similar parents were the coping mechanisms of parents of children with intellectual disability [ 59 ].

Other parents use maladaptive coping strategies like social avoidance as a coping mechanism for the challenges they face. Avoidance coping strategies take place when stressful circumstances, experiences, or complicated opinions and feelings are averted to use as a coping strategy. This study is in line with one study that revealed that mothers who have children with ADHD use avoidance as one of their coping strategies [ 74 ].

Strengths and limitations

We substantiated the views of parents who have children with ADHD by interviewing healthcare providers who are providing treatment to children with ADHD. We also used different methods of data collection (i.e. in-depth interviews and FGD) for triangulation purpose. Nevertheless, the findings of this study need to be interpreted taking several limitations into account. This is a qualitative study and generalizability of the findings of the study to other populations and study setting would not be possible. The participants were recruited from one government hospital and those who are attending private health centers might have different experiences. All respondents are from Addis Ababa and their experiences might be different from those living in the rural areas where the stigma is believed to be higher. In addition, the majority of the participants of the study are mothers and the experiences reported in the study may not represent fathers who have children with ADHD.

Parents of children with ADHD experience various psychological, social and economic challenges. Support from healthcare professionals, family members and society at large plays a role for parents to cope with these challenges. Knowledge about ADHD prior to the diagnosis of the child has helped parents to easily accept the condition. Easy acceptance of the diagnosis reduces the psychological challenges of the parents. By creating awareness to society, most of the challenges of parents who have children with ADHD can be minimized.

The concerned government body has to consider the financial constraints parents are facing and facilitate further medication subsidies not only for children with ADHD but also for children with other neurodevelopmental disorders. This will encourage parents who intend to discontinue their children’s follow-up because of financial constraints to reconsider their intention. Healthcare facilities diagnosing and treating children with ADHD need to see the desperate need to facilitate for the parents to set up a support group where they would be able to exchange their experiences with like parents which in turn serve as a coping mechanism.

Policymakers need to observe the lack of teachers’ awareness about ADHD and the skill to handle children with ADHD as one of the challenges for parents of children with ADHD and work to design strategy to provide training that would equip teachers with the necessary knowledge in dealing with students with ADHD. As per the narratives of some of the parents, they are in constant brawls with their children who just became adolescents over their refusal to take medication. This can be an area for further study. Another focus for future research can be evaluating interventions that would help parents with ADHD cope with the challenges they experience. Quantitative studies that would estimate the burden and associated factors of parents who have children with ADHD are also warranted.

Data availability

The data used for this analysis will become available through the first author at any time from now up on reasonable request.

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Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

American Psychological Association

Autism Spectrum Disorder

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We are enormously thankful to the parents as well as the healthcare professionals who participated in this study.

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W.M. and K.H. conceived and designed the study. W.M. did recruitment of the participants and led the data collection process. W.M. did the data analysis in close consultation with K.H. W.M. produced the first draft of the manuscript. K.H. supported in the interpretation of data and significantly contributed in the writing of the manuscript. Both authors approved the final manuscript to be submitted for publication.

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Mesfin, W., Habtamu, K. Challenges and coping mechanisms of parents of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: a qualitative study. BMC Psychol 12 , 354 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01828-0

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The Challenge

Educators often pose questions about qualitative research. For example, a program director might say: “I collect data from my residents about their learning experiences in a new longitudinal clinical rotation. If I want to know about their learning experiences, should I use qualitative methods? I have been told that there are many approaches from which to choose. Someone suggested that I use grounded theory, but how do I know this is the best approach? Are there others?”

What Is Known

Qualitative research is the systematic inquiry into social phenomena in natural settings. These phenomena can include, but are not limited to, how people experience aspects of their lives, how individuals and/or groups behave, how organizations function, and how interactions shape relationships. In qualitative research, the researcher is the main data collection instrument. The researcher examines why events occur, what happens, and what those events mean to the participants studied. 1 , 2

Qualitative research starts from a fundamentally different set of beliefs—or paradigms—than those that underpin quantitative research. Quantitative research is based on positivist beliefs that there is a singular reality that can be discovered with the appropriate experimental methods. Post-positivist researchers agree with the positivist paradigm, but believe that environmental and individual differences, such as the learning culture or the learners' capacity to learn, influence this reality, and that these differences are important. Constructivist researchers believe that there is no single reality, but that the researcher elicits participants' views of reality. 3 Qualitative research generally draws on post-positivist or constructivist beliefs.

Qualitative scholars develop their work from these beliefs—usually post-positivist or constructivist—using different approaches to conduct their research. In this Rip Out, we describe 3 different qualitative research approaches commonly used in medical education: grounded theory, ethnography, and phenomenology. Each acts as a pivotal frame that shapes the research question(s), the method(s) of data collection, and how data are analyzed. 4 , 5

Choosing a Qualitative Approach

Before engaging in any qualitative study, consider how your views about what is possible to study will affect your approach. Then select an appropriate approach within which to work. Alignment between the belief system underpinning the research approach, the research question, and the research approach itself is a prerequisite for rigorous qualitative research. To enhance the understanding of how different approaches frame qualitative research, we use this introductory challenge as an illustrative example.

The clinic rotation in a program director's training program was recently redesigned as a longitudinal clinical experience. Resident satisfaction with this rotation improved significantly following implementation of the new longitudinal experience. The program director wants to understand how the changes made in the clinic rotation translated into changes in learning experiences for the residents.

Qualitative research can support this program director's efforts. Qualitative research focuses on the events that transpire and on outcomes of those events from the perspectives of those involved. In this case, the program director can use qualitative research to understand the impact of the new clinic rotation on the learning experiences of residents. The next step is to decide which approach to use as a frame for the study.

The table lists the purpose of 3 commonly used approaches to frame qualitative research. For each frame, we provide an example of a research question that could direct the study and delineate what outcomes might be gained by using that particular approach.

Methodology Overview

How You Can Start TODAY

• 1 Examine the foundations of the existing literature: As part of the literature review, make note of what is known about the topic and which approaches have been used in prior studies. A decision should be made to determine the extent to which the new study is exploratory and the extent to which findings will advance what is already known about the topic.
• 2 Find a qualitatively skilled collaborator: If you are interested in doing qualitative research, you should consult with a qualitative expert. Be prepared to talk to the qualitative scholar about what you would like to study and why . Furthermore, be ready to describe the literature to date on the topic (remember, you are asking for this person's expertise regarding qualitative approaches—he or she won't necessarily have content expertise). Qualitative research must be designed and conducted with rigor (rigor will be discussed in Rip Out No. 8 of this series). Input from a qualitative expert will ensure that rigor is employed from the study's inception.
• 3 Consider the approach: With a literature review completed and a qualitatively skilled collaborator secured, it is time to decide which approach would be best suited to answering the research question. Questions to consider when weighing approaches might include the following:
• • Will my findings contribute to the creation of a theoretical model to better understand the area of study? ( grounded theory )
• • Will I need to spend an extended amount of time trying to understand the culture and process of a particular group of learners in their natural context? ( ethnography )
• • Is there a particular phenomenon I want to better understand/describe? ( phenomenology )

What You Can Do LONG TERM

• 1 Develop your qualitative research knowledge and skills : A basic qualitative research textbook is a valuable investment to learn about qualitative research (further reading is provided as online supplemental material). A novice qualitative researcher will also benefit from participating in a massive online open course or a mini-course (often offered by professional organizations or conferences) that provides an introduction to qualitative research. Most of all, collaborating with a qualitative researcher can provide the support necessary to design, execute, and report on the study.
• 2 Undertake a pilot study: After learning about qualitative methodology, the next best way to gain expertise in qualitative research is to try it in a small scale pilot study with the support of a qualitative expert. Such application provides an appreciation for the thought processes that go into designing a study, analyzing the data, and reporting on the findings. Alternatively, if you have the opportunity to work on a study led by a qualitative expert, take it! The experience will provide invaluable opportunities for learning how to engage in qualitative research.

Supplementary Material

The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, the Department of the Navy, the Department of Defense, or the US government.

References and Resources for Further Reading

CRIM 321 is a foundational course that introduces students to qualitative research methods in crimin