A black widow is a spider.
Conclusion: black widows have 8 legs
A person does not actually need to witness or experience an event to draw logically reasoned conclusions about what is likely. For example, a social worker may be trained in the knowledge that persons with traumatic brain injury (TBI) in their histories have a greater likelihood than the general population to experience problems in family relationships, unemployment, social isolation, homelessness, incarceration, depression, and suicide risk (Mantell, et al, 2017). In meeting a client with a TBI history, the social worker might reason that it is important to screen for the risk of each of these problems. The social worker does not need to wait for these problems to be observed; the knowledge gained through reasoning and logic is sufficient to warrant paying attention to the possibility of their being present or emerging.
Sometimes a line of reasoning seems rational and logical, but when carefully analyzed, you see that it is not logically valid—it is fallible, or capable of being in error. A fallacious argument is an unsound argument characterized by faulty reasoning. Fallacious arguments or flawed logic can result in the development of mistaken beliefs, misconceptions, and erroneous knowledge. For example, in the 1940s to 1950s a mistaken theory of autism was offered in the professional literature (see Rimland, 1964): the “refrigerator mother” theory was that the low levels of warmth parents were observed directing to an autistic child caused the child’s autism symptoms. The logic flaw in this case was a very common error: drawing a false causal conclusion from a correlational observation. The observed parental behavior actually was a sensitive response to behavioral cues presented by the children with autism, not a cause of the autism. Thus, the “refrigerator mother” misconception was influenced by logical fallacy. Clearly, the knowledge gained through reasoning is only as good as the weakest link in the chain of ideas and logic applied.
Emotion and affect . Human feelings have a powerful influence on what we think and understand about the world around us. Another word for emotion is affect (not to be confused with effect, pronounced with an “a as in apple”). For example, the advertising, entertainment, and news media have long recognized that individuals more strongly remember information to which they have developed an emotional response. This explains why we see so many cute puppies, adorable children, attempts at humor, and dramatic disaster footage in advertising and news programming. This also is why we are more likely to remember the score of a game our favorite team played than the scores of other games. It is why we remember news events that “hit close to home” compared to other reported world events.
The strongest emotions we experience as human beings may have developed as ways to improve our individual chances for survival. For example, by avoiding experiences that elicit fear we may be avoiding danger and risk of harm. By avoiding that which we find disgusting, we may be avoiding that which could make us ill. A lot of questions surround the emotional world—the origins of emotions and what is innate versus learned, for example. One thing that research since the 1970s concerning affective education has demonstrated is that how we interpret our own and others’ emotions (affect) has a strong influence on how we behave in different situations (e.g., Baskin & Hess, 1980). Because the ability to identify and label emotions (knowledge of your own and those of other people) has such a significant impact on interpersonal interactions and behaviors, a great deal of attention has been directed towards trying to understand individual differences in “emotional intelligence” or “EQ” (see Goleman, 1995).
Faith. Religious faith is only one aspect of how faith relates to knowledge. For some individuals, religious teachings provide them with knowledge surrounding certain topics. What a person knows through faith is considered to require no further analysis or proof—that is the nature of faith. For this reason, we can include other sources of knowledge derived through faith. This includes relying on knowledge attained through information shared by a mentor, expert, or authority. Identifying someone as an authority is intensely personal and individualized. Just as “beauty is in the eye of the beholder,” perceptions of another person’s expertise are relative. One person might have faith in the expert opinion shared by a parent, grandparent, sibling, or best friend. Another person might place greater faith in the opinions expressed by celebrities, sports figures, news anchors, or political leaders. Social work interns may place faith in the expertise shared by field instructors and course instructors. Social work clients often rely on the knowledge shared by others in their support or treatment group who may have experienced similar challenges in life.
Knowledge derived from experts and authority is not foolproof, however. First, there may be differences of opinion expressed by different experts. For example, legal counsel on different sides of a court case often engage expert witnesses who have diametrically opposed expert opinions. Jury members are then faced with the challenge of evaluating the experts’ qualifications to decide which opinion is more reliable. Second, the knowledge held by experts and authorities is subject to the same sources of bias and limitation as any knowledge. For example, the expertise of social work supervisors was (at least partially) influenced by their supervisors’ expertise, which was influenced by their supervisors’ expertise, and so on. What if the original was wrong from the start? Or, more likely, what if that knowledge no longer applies to the current environment? In short, faith in the knowledge of authority needs to be tempered by awareness that knowledge from these sources is fallible.
“ Arguments from authority carry little weight—‘authorities’ have made mistakes in the past and will do so again” (Sagan, 1987, p. 12).
Imagination and Intuition. Sometimes what a person “knows” is not based on external events or objects, knowledge might be generated as new ideas or concepts completely through internal processes. Imagination, creativity, and intuition are special forms of cognitive activity, resulting in the creation of unique forms of knowledge. You have probably been exposed to examples of highly imaginative, creative art, music, film, dance, or literature. Sometimes the original insights we gain from these creations make them seem like sheer genius. We might say the same thing about a person’s apparent cognitive leaps that we might call intuition: seeming to know something without being able to trace where the knowledge was derived; it comes from reasoning that happens at an unconscious level. These ways of knowing combine elements from other forms previously discussed, but in different ways: perception, memory, emotion, language, and reasoning, for example. This is what leads to that “aha” moment when a new idea is born.
Take a moment to complete the following activity.
Earlier, you read that language is one way that culture has a powerful influence on knowledge. The influence of culture is not only in terms of what we know, but also in terms of how we learn what we know. The book Women’s Ways of Knowing : The Development of Self, Voice, and Mind (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986) describes the results of a deep qualitative study of how women develop their views and knowledge. The women’s development of knowledge was heavily influenced by their cultural experiences with authority, particularly in learning from family and schools. The authors included an analysis of five different ways of knowing, outlined below. These may very well express others’ ways of knowing, based on their own experiences with majority culture, not only based on gender.
Silence . As a way of knowing, silence is an expression of “blind” obedience to authority as a means of avoiding trouble or punishment. The concept of silence refers to an absence of self-expression and personal voice. The authors indicated that individuals characterized by silence also found the use of words to be dangerous and that words were often used as weapons.
Received Knowledge. Carriers of this way of knowing rely on others for knowledge, even knowledge about themselves. They tend to learn by listening to others, lacking confidence in their own original ideas or thoughts. There is a heavy reliance on authority as a source of knowledge. As a result, thinking is characterized by an inability to tolerate ambiguity, and is concretely dualistic—everything is categorized as good or evil, us or them, and black or white with no shades in between.
Subjective Knowledge. Subjective knowledge is highly individualistic because personal experience, “inward listening” and intuition are major sources of knowledge. A sense of voice exists, expressed as personal opinion. The source of knowledge is internal, and the authority listened to is self—and this knowledge is more important than knowledge from external sources.
Procedural Knowledge. Objective approaches are applied to the process of acquiring, developing, and communicating procedural knowledge. In other words, careful observation and critical analysis are required. Knowledge can come from multiple external sources, but only after careful internal critical analysis of the arguments provided by those sources. There exists awareness that others and one’s self can be wrong, and an effort to remove the impact of feelings from the process of objective analysis.
Constructed Knowledge. This is an integrative view where both subjective and objective strategies apply to knowledge. Ambiguity is tolerated well, as are apparent contradictions in what one knows. There exists a strong, constantly developing sense of self in relation to the external world. Constructed knowledge involves belief that knowledge is relative to context and frame of reference, and a person is responsible for actively trying to understand by “examining, questioning, and developing the systems that they will use for constructing knowledge” (see https://www.colorado.edu/UCB/AcademicAffairs/ftep/publications/documents/WomensWaysofKnowing.pdf ).
As we have seen, much of what humans “know” is susceptible to bias and distortion, often represents only partial or incomplete knowledge, and socially constructed knowledge varies as a function of the different societies constructing it. The concept of critical thinking describes approaches to knowledge and knowing that rely on disciplined, logical analysis, and knowledge that is informed by evidence. Critical thinking extends beyond simple memorization of facts and information; it involves the analysis and evaluation of information, leading to reasoned, “thought-out” judgments and conclusions. You might recognize elements of critical thinking in the procedural and constructed ways of knowing previously described. A person engaged in critical thinking expresses curiosity about the topic or issue under consideration, seeks information and evidence related to the topic or issue, is open to new ideas, has a “healthy questioning attitude” about new information, and is humbly able to admit that a previously held opinion or idea was wrong when faced with new, contradictory information or evidence (DeLecce, n.d.).
Carl Sagan (1987) argued that critical thinking is, “the ability to construct, and to understand, a reasoned argument and—especially important—to recognize a fallacious or fraudulent argument” (p. 12). To understand what a fallacious argument might be, we can examine the concepts of logic: a branch of philosophy dedicated to developing the principles of rational thought. Sagan’s (1987) discussion of critical thinking indicated that it does not matter how much we might like the conclusions drawn from a train of reasoning; what matters is the extent to which the chain of logic “works.” He also contended that untestable propositions are worthless—if you cannot check out the assertions, it is not worthwhile considering. However, Sagan also reminded readers that critical thinking and science itself exist in a state of constant tension between two apparently contradictory attitudes:
“an openness to new ideas, no matter how bizarre or counterintuitive they may be, and the most ruthless skeptical scrutiny of all ideas, old and new. This is how deep truths are winnowed from deep nonsense” (Sagan, 1987, p. 12).
This quote describes the quality of a critical thinker mentioned earlier: simultaneously being open-minded and having a reasonable degree of skepticism about new information or ideas.
In terms of social work and social work education, being able to apply critical thinking skills, particularly “the principles of logic, scientific inquiry, and reasoned discernment” has been a curriculum expectation since the 1990s (Mathias, 2015, p. 457). The characteristics of critical thinking in social work include rational, reasoned thinking about complex, “fuzzy” problems that lack at least some elements of relevant information and readily apparent solutions (Mathias, 2015; Milner & Wolfer, 2014). Critical thinking in social work practice involves initially suspending judgment, then engaging in the process of generating relevant questions, considering assumptions, seeking information and divergent viewpoints, and applying logical, creative problem solving.
Strong arguments appear in the published literature concerning the importance of scientific reasoning in social work practice, and its significance to critical thinking and problem solving (e.g., see Gambrill, 1997; Gibbs & Gambrill, 1999; Gibbs et al., 1995). Francis Bacon is credited with presenting an approach to scientific method that is a foundation for science today (Dick, 1955). The Merriam-Webster definition of scientific method ( https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/scientific%20method ) is:
Principles and procedures for the systematic pursuit of knowledge involving the recognition and formulation of a problem, the collection of data though observation and experiment, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.
What you may find interesting is that different authors suggest different numbers of steps in the process called scientific method—between four and ten! Let’s look at what these descriptions have in common:
Step 1. It all begins with an observation about something that arouses curiosity. For example, a social work investigator and her colleague observed an emerging population of people who rely on emergency food pantry support for relatively long periods of time—despite the programs’ intended period of emergency support being relatively short-term (Kaiser & Cafer, 2016).
Step 2. The observation leads the curious social worker to develop a specific research question. In our example, the investigators asked what might be “the differences, particularly in food security status and use of federal support programs, between traditional, short-term emergency pantry users and an emerging population of long-term users” (Kaiser & Cafer, 2016, p. 46).
Step 3. Out of their questions, the social work scientist develops hypotheses. This may come from a review of existing knowledge about the topic—knowledge that is relevant but may not be sufficient to directly answer the question(s) developed in step 2. In our food security example, the investigators reviewed information from literature, community practice, and community sources to help identify key dimensions to explore. The hypothesis was, essentially, that exploring three factors would be informative: longevity, regularity, and trends of food pantry use.
Step 4. The social work scientist develops a systematic experiment or other means of systematically collecting data to answer the research question(s) or test the research hypotheses from steps 2 and 3. Kaiser and Cafer (2016) described their research methodology for randomly selecting their sample of study participants, their research variables and measurement tools, and their data collection procedures.
Step 5. The social worker will analyze the collected data and draw conclusions which answer the research question. This analysis not only includes the results of the study, but also an assessment of the study’s limitations of the methods used for the knowledge developed and the implications of the study findings. Our working example from the food security study described the approaches to data analysis that were used. They found that almost 67% of 3,691 food pantry users were long-term users, most commonly female and white. Being a persistent user (versus short-term user) was predicted by having Social Security, retirement, pension, or SSI/disability payment income. Also, the probability of being a persistent pantry user increased with participant age. The authors also discussed other patterns in use as related to some of the other study variables and the implications related to food security and economic vulnerability (Kaiser & Cafer, 2016).
Step 6. Social work scientists share their resulting knowledge with colleagues and others through professional presentations, training sessions, and professional publications. As noted in the reference list to this module, the investigators in our study example published their findings in a professional journal (see Kaiser & Cafer, 2016).
Step 7. The social work scientist then may ask new, related questions, and progress through the stages anew. In our food security example, the authors concluded with a new question: would raising minimum wage or establishing a living wage be a better means of supporting families in the precarious position of long-term dependence on emergency food pantry support?
As you can see, the scientific process potentially incorporates multiple sources of knowledge that we have discussed in this module and allows for inclusion of various methods of investigation depending on the nature of the research questions being asked. The result of quality science, regardless of methodology, is called research or scientific evidence.
In an interview where he was asked if religion and science could ever be reconciled, Stephen Hawking responded:
“There is a fundamental difference between religion, which is based on authority, [and] science, which is based on observation and reason. Science will win because it works.”
It may not be necessary to continue pitting these two ways of knowing against each other. Engaging in science involves multiple ways of knowing. Scientific activity requires a certain degree of imagination about which might be true, rational reasoning about how to demonstrate what might be true, perception and observation of what is happening, memory about what has happened in the past, language to communicate about the process and results, an emotional investment in what is being explored, (sometimes) a certain degree of intuition, and faith in the scientific process and what has come before. Acknowledging the collaborative, constructive, dynamic nature of scientific knowledge development, consider a quote Sir Isaac Newton borrowed from an earlier popular saying:
“If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.”
This does not mean always having noncritical faith in the results of science, however. Scientific results are wrong sometimes. Sometimes scientific results are inconsistent. Sometimes scientific results are difficult to interpret. For example, are eating eggs bad for you? In the early 1970s, a link between cholesterol levels in the body and heart disease was detected. The advice coming from that observation was that people should limit their consumption of cholesterol-containing foods (like eggs) to prevent heart disease. However, this conclusion was based on faulty logic: eating cholesterol was not the cause of the elevated cholesterol levels; cholesterol was being produced by the body. Further research indicated no increased risk of heart disease with eating eggs; the elevated cholesterol problem stems from other unhealthy behavior patterns. This example demonstrates the serial, sequential, accumulating nature of scientific knowledge where previous assumptions and conclusions are questioned and tested in further research. We need to accept a degree of uncertainty as complex problems are unraveled, because science is imperfect. Again, quoting Carl Sagan (1987):
“Of course, scientists make mistakes in trying to understand the world, but there is a built-in error-correcting mechanism: The collective enterprise of creative thinking and skeptical thinking together keeps the field on track” (p. 12).
Critically important is that science be conducted and shared with integrity. Research integrity concerns conducting all aspects of research with honesty, fairness, and accuracy. This includes objectively examining data, being guided by results rather than preconceived notions, and accurately reporting results and implications. Research integrity , or “good” science means that a study’s methods and results can be objectively evaluated by others, and the results can be replicated when a study is repeated by others. Science nerds enjoy the playfulness presented in the scientific humor magazine called The Journal of Irreproducible Results ( www.jir.com ).
Take a moment to complete the following activity. For each statement, decide if it is accurate (True) or not (False).
Imperfect Science versus Pseudoscience. Even “good” science has certain limitations, imperfections, and uncertainties. For example, conclusions drawn from statistical analyses are always based on probability. In later modules you will learn what it means when a statistical test has p <.05 and about the 95% confidence interval (CI) of a statistical value. In practical terms, this means that we cannot be 100% certain that conclusions drawn from any one study’s statistical results are accurate. While accepting that we should not engage in unquestioning acceptance even of “good” science, it is even more important to avoid unquestioning acceptance of information offered through “poor” science. Especially, it is important to recognize what is being presented as scientific knowledge when it is not science. By way of introducing the importance of scientific data and statistics, Professor Michael Starbird (2006, p. 12) introduced a famous quote by the author Mark Twain:
“There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics.”
Professor Starbird’s response was:
“It is easy to lie with statistics, but it is easier to lie without them.”
Pseudoscience is about information that pretends to be based on science when it is not. This includes practices that are claimed to be based on scientific evidence when the “evidence” surrounding their use was gathered outside of appropriate scientific methods. You may have learned about “snake oil salesmen” from our country’s early history—people who fraudulently sold products with (usually secret) ingredients having unverifiable or questionable benefits for curing health problems—these products often caused more harm than cure! The pseudoscientific “evidence” used in marketing these products often included (unverifiable) expert opinions or anecdotal evidence from “satisfied” customers. See the historical advertisement about Wizard Oil and all the ills that it will cure: rheumatism (joint pain), neuralgia (nerve pain), toothache, headache, diphtheria, sore throat, lame back, sprains, bruises, corns, cramps, colic, diarrhea, and all pain and inflammation. The product was 65% alcohol and other active ingredients included turpentine, ammonia, capsicum, camphor, gum camphor, fir oil, sassafras oil, cajeput oil, thyme oil, according to the Smithsonian National Museum of American History. Fortunately, Wizard Oil was a liniment, applied topically and not consumed orally.
What does this look like in present times? We still, to this day, have people relying on unsubstantiated products and treatment techniques, much of which can be identified as “quackery.” For example, 9% of out-of-pocket health care spending in the United States pays for complementary health approaches (e.g., vitamins, dietary supplements, natural product supplements and alternative practitioners): over $30 billion (Nahin, Barnes, & Stussman, 2016). Many alternative and complementary health approaches lack a strong scientific evidence base—that does not necessarily mean that they offer no health benefits, but it may be that they do not help and sometimes they cause harm, especially with overuse. Proponents of these approaches adopt what Gambrill and Gibbs (2017) refer to as a “casual approach” to evidence, where weak evidence is accepted equally to strong evidence, and an open mind is equated with being non-critical.
Three reasons why this matters in social work (and other professions) are:
Treatment failure with untested, ineffectual interventions can discourage a person from ever seeking help again, including from programs that have a strong track record of success. Engaging in these ineffectual interventions may also deplete a person’s resources to the point where evidence-supported interventions may not be affordable.
Despite limitations, pseudoscience does become applied. For example, the book about “psychomythology” called 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology (Lilienfeld, Lynn, Ruscio, & Beyerstein, 2010) discusses implications of the myth that most humans use only 10% of their potential brain power. The authors suggest that this myth is pervasive, in part because it would be great if true, and because it is exploitable and lucratively marketable through programs, devices, and practices available for purchase that will help people tap into the unused 90% reserve.
Learning to Recognize Pseudoscience . In Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology , the authors identified ten signs that raise the probability that we are looking at pseudoscience rather than science (Lilienfeld, Lynn, & Lohr, 2015). In their book Science and Pseudoscience in Social Work , Thyer and Pignotti (2015) help explain these signs. The ten signs are summarized here.
“Ladies and Gentlemen, consciousness is merely the potentiality of quantum locality expressing itself beyond the constraints of four-dimensional space-time. And, that is the externalization of what we call love.”
“Mindfulness, on the other hand, differentiates itself into the multi-dimensional expanse of external reality. It really is that simple. Quantum perception embraces all potential space-time events exponentially. Cosmic balance is simply the way the universe transcodes the raw potential of quantum energy into unbridled happiness.”
When broken down and analyzed this way, you might wonder why people believe in pseudoscience, especially in the face of challenges from more critical thinkers. At least two forces are in play at these times. One is that people sometimes desperately seek simple, effective solutions to difficult problems. Parents tormented by watching their child disappear into the altered state of schizophrenia, individuals haunted by the cravings induced by addiction, anyone who experiences wrenching grief over the death of someone they love: these people are particularly susceptible to pseudoscientific claims.
The second reason people often stick to pseudoscientific beliefs despite a lack of evidence relates to a psychological phenomenon known as cognitive dissonance. A significant internal conflict is created when a person’s deeply held belief or attitude is challenged by contradictory beliefs, attitudes, or evidence. The discomfort of this conflicted experience is called cognitive dissonance . The person is left with few choices: change the original belief/attitude to fit the new information, remain in limbo with the two in conflict, or refute the new information and stick to the original belief/attitude. Remaining in limbo is an extremely uncomfortable state, so the person is likely to restore balance and comfort by selecting one of the other two options. Thus, it is not unusual for a person to reject the new evidence and cling to the original belief.
Consider the example of how you might respond to a homeless person on the street who asks you for money. Why does this scenario make you feel uncomfortable? On one hand, you see yourself as a kindly, generous, giving person who cares about other people. On the other hand, you do not want to give your hard-earned money away to strangers. These two beliefs come into conflict when the person in need asks for money, a conflict you experience as the uncomfortable state of cognitive dissonance. (One solution is to resort to rationalization to resolve the conflict and not give the money: it is not good to reinforce this behavior, the money might do harm if the homeless person buys alcohol or drugs with it, someone else with more money than I have will donate, my taxes go to providing services to this type of person so I have already donated, letting on that I have any money will make me vulnerable to being robbed, and other reasons.)
Emerging Science. Does all of this mean that all unproven techniques are pointless and should be avoided? No, not really. After all, we should consider the observation attributed to Sir Isaac Newton:
“What we know is a drop, what we don’t know is an ocean.”
Knowledge and science are always emerging and evolving. It is possible that what is unheard of today is going to be common knowledge in the future. In other words, what is today an alternative or complementary treatment approach may eventually become a standard practice based on evidence of its effectiveness and safety. For example, not long ago, meditation practices were considered to be unconfirmed alternative mental health intervention strategies. Evidence supports the inclusion of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) and meditation alongside other intervention strategies for addressing a range of mental health concerns (Edenfield & Saeed, 2012). This includes stress reduction, anxiety, depression, and combat veterans’ post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Khusid & Vythilingam, 2016, Perestelo-Perez, et al., 2017).
A more current conundrum concerns the use of EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing) therapy as a treatment approach for addressing PTSD. As scientific study progresses, elements of this therapy that are similar to other evidence-supported approaches seem to have significant treatment benefits, but it is unclear that all of the eye-movement procedures are necessary elements (Lancaster, Teeters, Gros, & Back, 2016). Investigators are learning more about EMDR as the mechanisms of change in the treatment process are being more systematically and scientifically investigated. This EMDR therapy example fits into that part of the ocean about which we do not know enough. It serves as a reminder that we need to be mindful of the tension between what we know is true, what could be true, and what masquerades as truth.
Distinguishing between Facts and Opinions
We hear hundreds of statements of fact and opinion every day—from family, friends, the media, and experts in our field. It is important to decipher which are facts and which are opinions in making decisions about important matters. A fact is information that can be objectively proven or demonstrated. An opinion is a personal belief or point of view, is subjective, and proof is not relevant. Just because a person expresses an opinion does not mean that person has useful knowledge to impart.
“There are in fact two things, science and opinion; the former begets knowledge, the latter ignorance” (Hippocrates, circa 395 BC).
In a 1987 essay, The Fine Art of Baloney Detection: How Not to be Fooled, Carl Sagan addressed the importance of critical thinking and a healthy degree of skepticism about the information and knowledge that we encounter. He stated that:
“Skeptical habits of thought are essential for nothing less than our survival—because baloney, bamboozles, bunk, careless thinking, flimflam and wishes disguised as facts are not restricted to parlor magic and ambiguous advice on matters of the heart. Unfortunately, they ripple through mainstream political, social, religious and economic issues in every nation” (p. 13).
It is worth noting that they also ripple through the world of professional practice, as well. So, how do we tell the difference when we are provided with practice-related information? Here are some ways of assessing the information (Surbhi, 2016).
The Problem with Expert Opinion. Over years of practice, social workers develop a wealth of experience in identifying and addressing certain problems encountered in routine practice. Under the heading of “practice makes perfect,” experience contributes to developing a certain degree of practice wisdom and expert opinion. What is important in this label is the word “opinion.” Experience does not change facts, it shapes opinion. Expert opinion is not, in itself, a bad thing to turn to. The problem lies in non-critical reliance on expert opinion. Let’s consider an example that a social work intern experienced in practice.
At intake in a mental health center, Mr. R (aged 34) describes recent scary incidents where he has experienced a loss of memory for certain events and found himself in dangerous situations. Most recently, he “came to” standing on the edge of a river embankment with the potential of falling into rushing water at night. He has complete amnesia for how he came to be at the river. In supervision, the intern suggested two hypotheses: Mr. R has a dissociative disorder and these incidents might involve suicidality, or Mr. R has alcohol (or other substance-induced) blackouts. The intern’s social work supervisor discounted the first hypothesis on the grounds that dissociative disorders do not occur in men, only women. Furthermore, the supervisor stated that dissociative disorders are rare, making it unlikely that the intern would encounter this in a first semester field placement, since most practitioners never see such a case in an entire career. The supervisor indicated that the proper assessment would be a substance use disorder.
Relatively few facts are present in this example. They include:
The following either fall short of being demonstrable facts or represent opinion:
Based on this analysis, the social work intern should consider the “expert opinion” of the supervisor but should also seek more information to confirm the hypothesis of a substance use disorder. The intern should also keep an open mind to the other possibilities, including dissociative disorder (often related to a trauma experience) and suicidality, and seek information that either supports or refutes these alternative conclusions.
The Problem with Groupthink . Sometimes an individual makes decisions or judgments in conformity with a group’s thinking, decisions that run contrary to what that individual would have decided alone. The process of group think typically refers to faulty decision-making resulting in a group’s systematic errors. Groupthink is characterized by individuals abandoning their own critical analysis, reality testing, and reasoning—possibly abandoning their own moral reasoning (Street, 1997). An example discussed by the originator of the groupthink concept was the space shuttle Challenger disaster: the commission appointed to determine the probable causes of this incident concluded, among other things, that “a highly flawed decision process was an important contributing cause of the disaster (Janis, 1991, p. 235). A more everyday example follows:
Four friends on vacation at Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park hiked out to view an active volcano. They arrived at a point where park rangers had posted signs indicating that no one should go further because of the danger of breaking through thin lava. The group members were disappointed that they could only see the active lava flow in the distance. The group’s informal leader announced they had come this far and it looked safe enough; he encouraged everyone to follow him out onto the lava bed to get a closer look. Two other members started to willingly go along with him. One member decided that she was not going to cave in to group think, and told the others so. The two following the leader soon turned back, as well, conceding that this was ill-advised. The “leader” eventually agreed, and returned safely, too.
Critics of the original groupthink model proposed by Janis (1991) argue with the emphasis placed on certain aspects of group cohesion as a precursor to the observation that group decision-making can be faulty. However, researchers have observed that “the propensity for the group to display groupthink symptoms” is greatest when the group is characterized by a high degree of cohesion based on the socioemotional dimension and a low degree of task-oriented cohesion (Street, 2017, p. 78). This difference in groupthink occurrence is attributed to the importance placed on analytical (critical) thinking in task-oriented groups. These findings have important implications for social work practitioners working in organizations and communities, in particular.
Social Work 3401 Coursebook Copyright © by Dr. Audrey Begun is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
While social work as a profession has remained in a state of flux for some years, dedicated professionals continue to support individuals, families, and communities at their most troubled times.
Their professional dedication remains underpinned by core skills, including a “commitment to human, relation-based practice” and methods and interventions garnered from multiple disciplines (Rogers, Whitaker, Edmondson, & Peach, 2020, p. 9).
This article introduces how social workers select the best approaches and interventions for meeting the needs of their service users.
Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology, including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees.
Selecting an appropriate method & intervention, top 5 methods used by social workers, 8 best social work interventions, social work & domestic violence: 4 helpful methods, positivepsychology.com’s useful resources, a take-home message.
The “constantly evolving nature of social life” has made it difficult to build a single and standard model for social work (Parker, 2013, p. 311). A framework that offers a clear process for social workers to engage with service users and implement appropriate interventions is, however, vital.
As a result, social work has combined various interdisciplinary concepts and social work theories with firsthand, experiential knowledge to develop an evidence base for social workers’ decisions.
While more than one model is used to describe social work practice, Parker (2013) offers a simplified perspective built from three elements: assessment , intervention , and review.
The model is not linear; the stages merge, overlap, and require a degree of flexibility, analysis, and critical thinking to implement (Parker, 2013).
Although the final review stage is vital to social workers’ “statutory and legal obligations” and in ensuring care plans remain appropriate, this article focuses on choosing suitable methods of assessment and intervention (Parker, 2013, p. 317).
The assessment stage aims to understand the situation affecting the service user, directly or via referral. It can be complex, often involving many contributing factors, and sometimes seem as much art as science (Parker, 2013).
Typically, assessments are perspectives constructed at a particular time and place, and include the following elements (Parker, 2013):
Throughout the assessment, it is essential to engage and partner with all interested parties, sharing the reasons for the evaluation, how it will be used, and the rights of those involved.
“A good assessment allows the social worker to plan openly with service users what comes next” (Parker, 2013, p. 315). The plan forms the basis for selecting or putting together the intervention and how goals and objectives will be met.
The selection of methods and interventions is further influenced by the social worker’s underlying belief systems, value bases, and theoretical preferences.
The term intervention is sometimes challenged within social work because of its suggestion of doing something to others without their consent. As with counseling and therapy, it is most valuable when put together as part of an alliance between social workers and service users (Parker, 2013).
The process must be transparent, with the social worker able to explain the evidence base leading to informed decisions. Such openness requires a detailed understanding of the theories and knowledge underpinning the models chosen and why they are appropriate and effective (Parker, 2013).
Finding appropriate methods and models can help make sense of the experiences of others.
Popular in the United Kingdom, care management is closely linked to the use of community care to meet the needs of adult health and social care. Earlier implementations were managed from the top down and accessed via the benefits system, leading to ever-increasing governmental social security bills. Over time, more autonomy has been given to the community, encouraging independence, choice, and control at a local level (Hutchinson, 2013).
The most common care management approach within the UK is known as social entrepreneurship . The person’s needs are assessed by a care manager , who acts as a liaison to other services to meet the service user’s needs.
“One of the main strengths of the care management approach is the centrality of needs-led assessment from which all other plans and actions are negotiated” (Hutchinson, 2013, p. 321). However, the challenges of this approach involve the resource-limited system. Funding can be insufficient, often leading to ever-tightening eligibility criteria.
The strengths-based and solution-focused approaches to social care help develop alliances with service users while recognizing their uniqueness (Rogers et al., 2020).
These social work methods focus less on managing risk and what people lack, and more on their innate ability to grow and develop by building on their strengths.
The strengths-based method is based on several underlying principles, including (modified from Rogers et al., 2020):
Crucially, these approaches work toward solving problems now while building resources and skills for the future. They are also flexible and efficiently combine with other social work methods and techniques (Rogers et al., 2020).
Rather than professionals being seen as experts, who come in and give their (sometimes restricted) view of the situation, the narrative method takes an alternative approach (Cooper, 2020). It recognizes that problems are often found in the broader system of relationships rather than the individual.
The narrative approach states that the “problem is the problem, rather than a failing in the person themselves” (Cooper, 2020, p. 261).
However, narrative social work has received criticism. If we externalize the problem, are we absolving the individual and removing them from responsibility? Of course, that needn’t be the case.
A common approach within narrative social work is to ask the individual what advice they would give a friend when faced with a similar situation. Narrative therapy recognizes that actions are just that: ‘actions’ (they do not define a person). As such, they can be changed.
Groupwork is another essential method and technique within social work; indeed, it has been a mainstay within the profession since the 1930s (Doel, 2013).
Groupwork offers several different functions, including social control, social action, education, and therapy. Some groups have expected outcomes or goals, while others are more organic, allowing the purpose to develop as the group evolves. For example, a social worker may create a group to support women in a particular neighborhood with severe mental health problems or veterans having trouble finding their place in society.
The group process involves an awareness of what is happening at two levels: first, the individual within the group, and second, the group itself. It includes considering the stages through which the group passes and the relationships and communication that form within (Doel, 2013).
The task-centered method favors developing skills in people so that they may use them to solve future problems and fostering increased autonomy (Edmondson, 2020).
Ultimately, the approach is “value-led, evidence-based and practical” (Edmondson, 2020, p. 271). It promotes positive change through forming partnerships with individuals, groups, and communities, rather than a more limiting focus on tasks (job, duty, and chores) defined by predictability and routine (Edmondson, 2020).
Task-centered social work is less about form filling and more about identifying and solving problems, and setting and achieving realistic changes and goals (Edmondson, 2020).
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With a large variety of methods and theoretical approaches available to social workers, there is an even greater choice surrounding interventions.
The following list contains some of our favorites, and while arising from several methodologies, they can be integrated and used as appropriate for the service user.
Problem-free talk can be used at any time, but it is particularly helpful at the start of an intervention as a reminder that “the person is more than the sum of their difficulties” (Rogers et al., 2020, p. 246).
The social worker encourages the service user to discuss aspects of their lives that are not a source of problems, adding a note of positivity often missed when focusing on obstacles and challenging aspects of their lives (Rogers et al., 2020).
The miracle question encourages the individual to visualize their world without the problem they currently face and is often found in the toolkit of solution-focused practitioners (Rogers et al., 2020).
Imagining a better future is a powerful tool for thinking positively and motivating change.
Like the miracle question, the vision statement uses imagination to explore a possible future. Social workers can use it with families to compare where they are now versus where they would like to be (Rogers & Cooper, 2020).
For example, what might my children say about me now ? And what would I like my children to say about me 10 years from now ?
The process is a powerful intervention for identifying the changes that are needed and the obstacles to be overcome to reach happier times as a family.
4. circular questioning.
Changing perspective can be a powerful and helpful process for service users. Putting someone in another’s shoes by using circular questioning , can introduce new ideas and information, and encourage a greater awareness of a situation (Rogers & Cooper, 2020).
For example, a family member might be asked to describe how a parent, sibling, or child would react to or feel about a situation. Sharing such thoughts can help them understand how others perceive them and improve their understanding of their role in the family.
A child whose life has been affected through social care involvement may be confused and unclear about what has happened and why (Cooper, 2020).
A story or book can be written for the child to explain why they were adopted or put in care to provoke open conversations and confirm that the situation was not their fault.
However, it is vital to consider that the story must be age appropriate and will most likely avoid certain factors of the decision making regarding care.
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The reasons a child was taken from a family may be unsuitable for sharing with the child. Instead, a letter can be written that provides a complete picture (rather than the more edited life-story book) for opening sometime in the future, possibly near their 18th birthday (Cooper, 2020).
We should not assume that a problem has always existed or that the individual can never handle similar situations.
Instead, through attentive and active listening, it is possible to pick up on coping skills or strategies that have worked in the past and may be transferable to existing or new situations. Ask the service user coping questions to identify times when they have “coped with a problem or uncover how a service user manages with a continuing issue” (Rogers et al., 2020, p. 247).
To address or prepare for problems, it can be helpful for people to identify and understand what qualities, strengths, and resources they have available (Rogers et al., 2020).
When entrenched in a problem or difficult situation, we can remain single minded and lose sight of positive personal characteristics that can help (Rogers et al., 2020).
While there has been significant progress in multiple agencies working together to safeguard children, approaches to ensuring the safety of women and children remain fragmented (Humphreys, 2013).
However, there has been considerable success in increasing domestic violence awareness, which “has led to greater attention being paid to the development of legislation, policy and practice” (Humphreys, 2013, p. 155).
Several methods can be helpful in cases of domestic violence, including the following:
Domestic violence is extremely damaging. It is, therefore, vital that good practice in social work is also reflected in cross-cultural practice principles and inter-agency collaboration and that an appropriate political and legal framework is in place (Edmondson & Ashworth, 2020).
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“Social work and society are caught in an intense and changing relationship” (Cree, 2013, p. 3). The role and influence of familial, religious, and political frameworks have reduced, and social workers are increasingly called upon to help groups left at the margins and in need.
While social work may once have been informal and voluntary, it is now often enshrined in regulations and statutory agencies. As society moves forward, social work must keep up, advancing as a caring profession and collaborating with service users and other agencies to find the best outcome for all concerned.
With such growing demand and developing expectations, social workers must show professionalism while recognizing and promoting the fundamental principles of human rights. They require appropriate theories , knowledge, and methods to determine the needs of the people they support and to recognize what action will be most helpful (Rogers et al., 2020).
The methods adopted by professionals do not work in isolation but support other competencies while working with others and collaborating with the service user to provide a relation-based practice.
We hope you enjoyed reading this article and that it inspires you to learn more about this developing discipline. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .
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The process of developing global standards for the education and training of the social work profession1 is as important as the product; the actual standards that have been developed. In undertaking such an initiative it was also vital that minority opinions were considered and reflected in the development of the document. Thus, Appendix A describes fully the processes that were involved in developing the standards, and it documents the minority views that were expressed. Given the centrality of the process- product dialectic, and the fact that the principles underscoring the standards emerged, to a large extent, out of the processes, it is vital that the standards are read in conjunction with Appendices A and B. Appendix B provides the concluding comments and discusses the kinds of caution that must be exercised in the use of the document. Having duly considered all the concerns expressed in Appendices A and B, and having considered the need to take into account context-specific realities, and the ambiguities surrounding the education and practice of social work professionals, this document details nine sets of standards in respect of: the school’s core purpose or mission statement; programme objectives and outcomes; programme curricula including fieldwork; core curricula; professional staff; social work students; structure, administration, governance and resources; cultural diversity; and social work values and ethics. As a point of departure, the international definition of the social work profession is accepted, and the core purposes and functions of social work are summarised.
In July 2001, both the IASSW and the IFSW reached agreement on adopting the following international definition of social work:
The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilising theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work.
Both the definition and the commentaries that follow are set within the parameters of broad ethical principles that cannot be refuted on an ideological level. However, the fact that social work is operationalised differently both within nation states and regional boundaries, and across the world, with its control and status-quo maintaining functions being dominant in some contexts, cannot be disputed. Lorenz (2001) considered the ambiguities, tensions and contradictions of the social work profession, which have to be constantly negotiated and re-negotiated, rather than resolved, to constitute its success and challenge. It is, perhaps, these very tensions that lend to the richness of the local- global dialectic, and provide legitimacy for the development of global standards. According to Lorenz (2001:12): “It is its paradigmatic openness that gives this profession the chance to engage with very specific (and constantly changing) historical and political contexts while at the same time striving for a degree of universality, scientific reliability, professional autonomy and moral accountability.”
Social work, in various parts of the world, is targeted at interventions for social support and for developmental, protective, preventive and/or therapeutic purposes. Drawing on available literature, the feedback from colleagues during consultations and the commentary on the international definition of social work, the following core purposes of social work have been identified:
1. standards regarding the school’s core purpose or mission statement.
All schools should aspire toward the development of a core purpose statement or a mission statement which:
1.1 Is clearly articulated so those major stakeholders4 who have an investment in such a core purpose or mission understand it.
1.2 Reflects the values and the ethical principles of social work.
1.3 Reflects aspiration towards equity with regard to the demographic profile of the institution’s locality. The core purpose or mission statement should thus incorporate such issues as ethnic and gender representation on the faculty, as well as in recruitment and admission procedures for students.
1.4 Respects the rights and interests of service users and their participation in all aspects of delivery of programmes.
In respect of programme objectives and expected outcomes, schools should endeavour to reach the following:
2.1 A specification of its programme objectives and expected higher education outcomes.
2.2 A reflection of the values and ethical principles of the profession in its programme design and implementation.
2.3 Identification of the programme’s instructional methods, to ensure they support the achievement of the cognitive and affective development of social work students.
2.4 An indication of how the programme reflects the core knowledge, processes, values and skills of the social work profession, as applied in context-specific realities.
2.5 An indication of how an initial level of proficiency with regard to self-reflective5 use of social work values, knowledge and skills is to be attained by social work students.
2.6 An indication of how the programme meets the requirements of nationally and/or regionally/internationally defined professional goals, and how the programme addresses local, national and/or regional/international developmental needs and priorities.
2.7 As social work does not operate in a vacuum, the programme should take account of the impact of interacting cultural, economic, communication, social, political and psychological global factors.
2.8 Provision of an educational preparation that is relevant to beginning social work professional practice with individuals, families, groups and/or communities in any given context.
2.9 Self-evaluation to assess the extent to which its programme objectives and expected outcomes are being achieved.
2.10 External peer evaluation as far as is reasonable and financially viable. This may be in the form of external peer moderation of assignments and/or written examinations and dissertations, and external peer review and assessment of curricula.
2.11 The conferring of a distinctive social work qualification at the certificate, diploma, first degree or post-graduate level as approved by national and/or regional qualification authorities, where such authorities exist.
With regard to standards regarding programme curricula, schools should consistently aspire towards the following:
3.1 The curricula and methods of instruction being consistent with the school’s programme objectives, its expected outcomes and its mission statement.
3.2 Clear plans for the organisation, implementation and evaluation of the theory and field education components of the programme.
3.3 Involvement of service users in the planning and delivery of programmes.
3.4 Recognition and development of indigenous or locally specific social work education and practice from the traditions and cultures of different ethnic groups and societies, insofar that such traditions and cultures do not violate human rights.
3.5 Specific attention to the constant review and development of the curricula.
3.6 Ensuring that the curricula help social work students to develop skills of critical thinking and scholarly attitudes of reasoning, openness to new experiences and paradigms, and commitment to life-long learning.
3.7 Field education should be sufficient in duration and complexity of tasks and learning opportunities to ensure that students are prepared for professional practice.
3.8 Planned co-ordination and links between the school and the agency/field placement setting
3.9 Provision of orientation for fieldwork supervisors or instructors.
3.10 Appointment of field supervisors or instructors who are qualified and experienced, as determined by the development status of the social work profession in any given country, and provision of orientation for fieldwork supervisors or instructors. 3.11 Provision for the inclusion and participation of field instructors in curriculum development.
3.12 A partnership between the educational institution and the agency (where applicable) and service users in decision-making regarding field education and the evaluation of student’s fieldwork performance.
3.13 Making available, to fieldwork instructors or supervisors, a field instruction manual that details its fieldwork standards, procedures, assessment standards/criteria and expectations.
3.14 Ensuring that adequate and appropriate resources, to meet the needs of the fieldwork component of the programme, are made available.
In respect core curricula, schools should aspire toward the following:
4.1 An identification of and selection for inclusion in the programme curricula, as determined by local, national and/or regional/international needs and priorities.
4.2 Notwithstanding the provision of 4.1 there are certain core curricula that may be seen to be universally applicable. Thus the school should ensure that social work students, by the end of their first Social Work professional qualification, have had exposure to the following core curricula which are organised into four conceptual components:
4.1.1 Domain of the Social Work Profession
4.2.2 Domain of the Social Work Professional:
4.2.3 Methods of Social Work Practice:
*Supervised fieldwork education, with due consideration to the provisions of Item 3 above.
4.2.4 Paradigm of the Social Work Profession:
With regard to professional staff, schools should aspire towards:
5.1 The provision of professional staff, adequate in number and range of expertise, who have appropriate qualifications as determined by the development status of the social work profession in any given country. As far as possible a Masters level qualification in social work, or a related discipline (in countries where social work is an emerging discipline), should be required.
5.2 The provision of opportunities for staff participation in the development of its core purpose or mission, in the formulation of the objectives and expected outcomes of the programme, and in any other initiative that the school might be involved in.
5.3 Provision for the continuing professional development of its staff, particularly in areas of emerging knowledge.
5.4 A clear statement, where possible, of its equity-based policies or preferences, with regard to considerations of gender, ethnicity, ‘race’ or any other form of diversity in its recruitment and appointment of staff.
5.5 Sensitivity to languages relevant to the practice of social work in that context.
5.6 In its allocation of teaching, fieldwork instruction, supervision and administrative workloads, making provision for research and publications.
5.7 Making provision for professional staff, as far as is reasonable and possible, to be involved in the formulation, analysis and the evaluation of the impact of social policies, and in community outreach initiatives.
In respect of social work students, schools should endeavor to reach the following:
6.1 Clear articulation of its admission criteria and procedures.
6.2 Student recruitment, admission and retention policies that reflect the demographic profile of the locality that the institution is based in with active involvement of practitioners and service users in relevant processes. Due recognition should be given to minority groups10 that are under-represented and/or under-served. Relevant criminal convictions, involving abuse of others or human rights violations, must be taken into account given the primary responsibility of protecting and empowering service users.
6.3 Provision for student advising that is directed toward student orientation, assessment of the student’s aptitude and motivation for a career in social work, regular evaluation of the student’s performance and guidance in the selection of courses/modules.
6.4 Ensuring high quality of the educational programme whatever the mode of delivery. In the case of distance, mixed-mode, decentralised and/or internet- based teaching, mechanisms for locally-based instruction and supervision should be put in place, especially with regard to the fieldwork component of the programme.
6.5 Explicit criteria for the evaluation of student’s academic and fieldwork performance.
6.6 Non-discrimination against any student on the basis of ‘race’, colour, culture, ethnicity, linguistic origin, religion, political orientation, gender, sexual orientation, age, marital status, physical status and socio-economic status.
6.7 Grievance and appeals procedures which are accessible, clearly explained to all students and operated without prejudice to the assessment of students.
With regard to structure, administration, governance and resources, the school and/or the educational institution should aspire towards the following:
7.1 Social work programmes are implemented through a distinct unit known as a Faculty, School, Department, Centre or Division, which has a clear identity within the educational institution.
7.2 The school has a designated Head or Director who has demonstrated administrative, scholarly and professional competence, preferably in the profession of social work.
7.3 The Head or Director has primary responsibility for the co-ordination and professional leadership of the school, with sufficient time and resources to fulfil these responsibilities.
7.4 The school’s budgetary allocation is sufficient to achieve its core purpose or mission and the programme objectives. 7.5 The budgetary allocation is stable enough to ensure programme planning and sustainability.
7.6 There are adequate physical facilities, including classroom space, offices for professional and administrative staff and space for student, faculty and field- liaison meetings, and the equipment necessary for the achievement of the school’s core purpose or mission and the programme objectives.
7.7 Library and, where possible, internet resources, necessary to achieve the programme objectives, are made available.
7.8 The necessary clerical and administrative staff are made available for the achievement of the programme objectives.
7.9 Where the school offers distance, mixed-mode, decentralised and/or internet- based education there is provision of adequate infrastructure, including classroom space, computers, texts, audio-visual equipment, community resources for fieldwork education, and on-site instruction and supervision to facilitate the achievement of its core purpose or mission, programme objectives and expected outcomes.
7.10 The school plays a key role with regard to the recruitment, appointment and promotion of staff.
7.11 The school strives toward gender equity in its recruitment, appointment, promotion and tenure policies and practices.
7.12 In its recruitment, appointment, promotion and tenure principles and procedures, the school reflects the diversities of the population that it interacts with and serves.
7.13 The decision-making processes of the school reflect participatory principles and procedures.
7.14 The school promotes the development of a cooperative, supportive and productive working environment to facilitate the achievement of programme objectives.
7.15 The school develops and maintains linkages within the institution, with external organisations, and with service users relevant to its core purpose or mission and its objectives.
With regard to cultural and ethnic diversity schools should aspire towards the following:
8.1 Making concerted and continuous efforts to ensure the enrichment of the educational experience by reflecting cultural and ethnic diversity, and gender analysis in its programme.
8.2 Ensuring that the programme, either through mainstreaming into all courses/modules and/or through a separate course/module, has clearly articulated objectives in respect of cultural and ethnic diversity, and gender analysis.
8.3 Indicating that issues regarding gender analysis and cultural and ethnic diversity, are represented in the fieldwork component of the programme.
8.4 Ensuring that social work students are provided with opportunities to develop self-awareness regarding their personal and cultural values, beliefs, traditions and biases and how these might influence the ability to develop relationships with people, and to work with diverse population groups.
8.5 Promoting sensitivity to, and increasing knowledge about, cultural and ethnic diversity, and gender analysis. 8.6 Minimising group stereotypes and prejudices11 and ensuring that racist behaviours, policies and structures are not reproduced through social work practice.
8.7 Ensuring that social work students are ableto form relationships with, and treat all persons with respect and dignity irrespective of such persons’ cultural and ethnic beliefs and orientations.
8.8 Ensuring that social work students are schooled in a basic human rights approach, as reflected in international instruments such as the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) and the UN Vienna Declaration (1993).12
8.9 Ensuring that the programme makes provision for social work students to know themselves both as individuals and as members of collective socio-cultural groups in terms of strengths and areas for further development.
In view of the recognition that social work values, ethics and principles are the core components of the profession, schools should consistently aspire towards:
9.1 Focused and meticulous attention to this aspect of the programme in curricula design and implementation.
9.2 Clearly articulated objectives with regard to social work values, principles and ethical conduct.
9.3 Registration of professional staff and social work students (insofar as social work students develop working relationships with people via fieldwork placements) with national and/or regional regulatory (whether statutory or non-statutory) bodies, with defined codes of ethics.13 Members of such bodies are generally bound to the provisions of those codes.
9.4 Ensuring that every social work student involved in fieldwork education, and every professional staff member, is aware of the boundaries of professional practice and what might constitute unprofessional conduct in terms of the code of ethics. Where students violate the code of ethics, programme staff may take necessary and acceptable remedial and/or initial disciplinary measures, or counsel the student out of the programme.
9.5 Taking appropriate action in relation to those social work students and professional staff who fail to comply with the code of ethics, either through an established regulatory social work body, established procedures of the educational institution, and/or through legal mechanisms.
9.6 Ensuring that regulatory social work bodies are broadly representative of the social work profession, including, where applicable, social workers from both the public and private sector, and of the community that it serves, including the direct participation of service users.
9.7 Upholding, as far as is reasonable and possible, the principles of restorative rather than retributive justice14 in disciplining either social work students or professional staff who violate the code of ethics.
The Global Minimum Qualifying Standards15 Committee was formally established as a joint initiative of the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) and the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) at the joint IASSW/IFSW Conference in Montreal, Canada in July 2000 (see Appendix C for a list of the Committee members). This discussion document was put together with the input of various Committee members, a review of relevant documents, e-mail consultations, and personal consultations with colleagues wherever possible
On the whole there was a favourable response to IASSW and IFSW developing a standards setting document that elucidates what social work represents on a global level. This document that identifies certain universals, may be used as a guideline to develop national standards with regard to social work education and training. Such a document should reflect some consensus around key issues, roles and purposes of social work. However, given the profession’s historically fragmented strands; the contemporary debates around social work’s intra-professional identity; its identity vis-à- vis other categories of personnel in the welfare sector such as development workers, child care workers, probation officers, community workers and youth workers (where such categories of personnel are differentiated from social work); and the enormous diversities across nations and regions, there was some scepticism about the possibility of identifying any such ‘universal’. The suggestion was that such a document must be sufficiently flexible to be applicable to any context. Such flexibility should allow for interpretations of locally specific social work education and practice, and take into account each country’s or region’s socio-political, cultural, economic and historical contexts while adhering to international standards.
The main reasons for the development of global standards were to (stated in no particular order of priority):
Clearly not all of the above expressed purposes are feasible, e.g. it is not feasible via such an endeavour to draw a clear distinction between social workers and non-social workers, neither might we be able to realise the objective of protecting ‘clients’ through the standards. Facilitating the movement of social workers from one country to another is a contentious issue in view of the direct recruitment of social workers from some countries to others, e.g. from South Africa and the Caribbean to the United Kingdom to the disadvantage of South Africa and the Caribbean. However, from an ethical point of view the migration of those social workers that wish to practice in another country should be enabled and not blocked. The retention of social work skills within countries is dependent on such factors as service conditions, salaries and validation of the profession which need to be addressed on national levels.
A few participants expressed the view that the document should go further to include more practical guidelines. These practical guidelines should include: a multi-tiered classification for the basic qualification, e.g. with a range from the number of years of basic schooling, plus at least one year of full time social work education to a degree with 3 or 4 years of social work education (the minimum period of practical training should be specified in such a classification); the acknowledgement and recognition of prior learning experiences; and the identification of core competencies, knowledge and skills as applied to context-specific realities. A very small minority went as fa
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Washington, D.C .—From mass incarceration, climate change, and an aging population to immigration, mental illness and rising income inequality, the most pressing issues facing America have something fundamental in common: the social factor. As a call to action on these and other urgent problems, the American Academy of Social Work and Social Welfare is launching the Grand Challenges for Social Work . The Grand Challenges will promote innovation, collaboration, and expansion of proven, evidence-based programs to create meaningful, measurable progress on solving these and other urgent social problems within a decade. The official launch of the Grand Challenges for Social Work takes place today at the opening plenary session of the Society for Social Work and Research 20 th Anniversary Annual Conference in Washington, D.C. with the UW School of Social Work Dean and SSWR President Edwina Uehara.
“Social factors contribute more mightily to the individual condition of people than any other single factor: more than disease, the environment, genetics, or technology,” said Richard P. Barth , President of AASWSW and the dean, University of Maryland School of Social Work. “Understanding and improving the way that social factors interact with other forces is critical to our future. This is why we say, ‘social is fundamental,’ and why the Grand Challenges for Social Work are so needed to drive social progress that is powered by science.” The SSWR conference includes more than 50 presentations from leading researchers and experts from around the country related to the 12 Grand Challenges.
Watch the Grand Challenges for Social Work video here .
Together, the 12 Grand Challenge s for Social Work define a bold, science-based social agenda that promotes individual and family well-being, a stronger social fabric, and a just society that fights exclusion and marginalization, creates a sense of belonging, and offers pathways for social and economic progress. Here is a description of the underlying problems, strategies, and goals of each of the 12 Grand Challenges for Social Work:
Building bridges within and beyond social work The Grand Challenges for Social Work create an opportunity for social work researchers and practitioners to collaborate widely with each other and with many other fields and disciplines, including health care, law enforcement, education, civil rights, technology, and climate science.
“For young people who are interested in making a big impact in the world, and who care deeply about social justice, these Grand Challenges are going to be very appealing,” said Darla Spence Coffey, PhD, President and CEO of the Council on Social Work Education and a member of the Grand Challenges National Advisory Board.
The UW School of Social Work played a critical role in the development of the Grand Challenges for Social Work initiative. In 2012, the School co-sponsored a conference on Bainbridge Island, Washington, with several national organizations and schools of social work. It was there that Dean Uehara and faculty from the University of Washington proposed the idea of a Grand Challenges effort to capture the public’s imagination, mobilize the profession, and spur breakthroughs in social work science, practice and research.
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This chapter presents a broad overview of social work as a profession and its global expansion and discusses some of the critical challenges it faces. It raises the question, whether social work has met its mission and the politics surrounding it. Some of the changes and challenges discussed include colonization, neocolonization, and decolonization; deprofessionalization; populism, nationalism, and welfare chauvinism; digitalization and online trends; and the sustainable development goals, climate change, and disasters. Finally, the chapter briefly reflects on the implications of these challenges for professional supervision in social work.
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Pawar, M., Anscombe, A...W.(. (2022). Changes and Challenges in Social Work: Implications for Professional Supervision. In: Enlightening Professional Supervision in Social Work. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18541-0_2
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Social work is a practice profession and an academic discipline that recognizes that interconnected historical, socio-economic, cultural, spatial, political and personal factors serve as opportunities and/or barriers to human wellbeing and development. Structural barriers contribute to the perpetuation of inequalities, discrimination ...
Abstract An examination of the way in which social workers use knowledge suggests an instrumental approach to knowledge use. This approach has important implications for moving the profession toward greater accountability in the practice of social work. Unless educators can motivate practitioners to change the way in which they ask questions and make predictions, it is unlikely that ...
Collaborative Problem-Solving: Social workers engage in collaborative problem-solving with their clients. They work together to explore the client's concerns, goals, and available resources, and then develop strategies and plans of action that are mutually agreed upon. Strengths-Based Perspective: Social workers focus on identifying and ...
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Social work is a practice-based profession and an academic discipline that promotes social change and development, social cohesion, and the empowerment and liberation of people. Principles of social justice, human rights, collective responsibility and respect for diversities are central to social work. Underpinned by theories of social work ...
In this chapter we (a) review the early development of the problem-solving model for social work practice; (b) discuss the later development of the problem solving model in terms of its extension to and further elaboration by generalist models of social work practice; (c) provide an overview of how the problem-solving model allows for the integration of the scientific and artistic elements of ...
The four models presented for social problem solving have several common elements. The seminal social problem solving model [6] and the revised models all share core steps in the problem solving process, including recognizing the problem, generating alternatives, deciding on an action, and implementing the action.
Problem-Solving Theory and Social Work The notion of problem solving is at the core of several theoretical frameworks across disciplines, but the nature of the problems, methods, and resolution strategies are more discipline speci fic. In social work, problem-solving theories have informed the development and evolution of social work practice throughout the history of the profession. Since the ...
Aim Social workers are often called to intervene in situations that are difficult to solve because of their complexity. The article proposes a theoretical framework grounded in complexity and chaos theories that explores the structure and non-linear causality of complex systems, their complex and non-linear dynamics and different conditions leading to adjustment, adaptation and learning.
This chapter examines the task-centred model to illustrate the application of problem-solving theory for social work intervention. First, it provides a brief description of the problem-solving model. Its historical development and key principles and concepts are...
Social is fundamental. Humans are highly social, and social interactions are the most influential force on our planet. Social relationships in families, communities, organizations, education, and governance are basic to human growth, problem solving, and achievements of all kinds.
Critical thinking in social work practice involves initially suspending judgment, then engaging in the process of generating relevant questions, considering assumptions, seeking information and divergent viewpoints, and applying logical, creative problem solving.
Social work is a versatile and worthy profession to consider. Integrity, decency, honesty, and justice are values held in high regard by social work professionals. If you decide to become a social worker, you will also join a field that provides considerable career mobility and opportunity.
The first Section, "Preamble," summarizes the social work profession's mission and core values. The second section, Purpose of the NASW Code of Ethics, provides an overview of the Code's main functions and a brief guide for dealing with ethical issues or dilemmas in social work practice. The third section, Ethical Principles, presents broad ethical principles, based on social work's core ...
This article introduces how social workers select the best methods, approaches, and interventions for meeting the needs of their service users.
The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilising theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work.
Helen Perlman's (1957) social casework model, which drew on the problem-solving model prominent at that time in social work and other disciplines, such as Dewey's work in education (Sarfaraz and Ishrat 2012), was an influential model until recent times.
The Grand Challenges for Social Work create an opportunity for social work researchers and practitioners to collaborate widely with each other and with many other fields and disciplines, including health care, law enforcement, education, civil rights, technology, and climate science.
There have been a number of professions in the world, but social work is central among them. It has a scientific base and problem-solving theories and processes.
The NASW Code of Ethics and the ASWB Model Social Work Practice Act serve as foundation documents in the development of the supervision standards. These standards support the practice of social workers in various work settings and articulate the importance of a collective professional understanding of supervision within the social work community.
Her research interests include cognitive-behavioral interventions to prevent and remediate students' social-emotional and behavioral difficulties, social problem solving, interventions targeting students' self-regulatory abilities, and effective supports for teachers of students with behavior problems.
Social work is a practice-based profession and an academic discipline that promotes social change and development, social cohesion, and the empowerment and liberation of people. Principles of social justice, human rights, collective responsibility and respect for diversities are central to social work. Underpinned by theories of social work, social sciences, humanities and indigenous ...
Social Work: A Problem Solving Profession