when to use a citation in a research paper

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In-Text Citations: The Basics

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Note:  This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resource for the older APA 6 style  can be found here .

Reference citations in text are covered on pages 261-268 of the Publication Manual. What follows are some general guidelines for referring to the works of others in your essay.

Note:  On pages 117-118, the Publication Manual suggests that authors of research papers should use the past tense or present perfect tense for signal phrases that occur in the literature review and procedure descriptions (for example, Jones (1998)  found  or Jones (1998)  has found ...). Contexts other than traditionally-structured research writing may permit the simple present tense (for example, Jones (1998)  finds ).

APA Citation Basics

When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, like, for example, (Jones, 1998). One complete reference for each source should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

If you are referring to an idea from another work but  NOT  directly quoting the material, or making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication and not the page number in your in-text reference.

On the other hand, if you are directly quoting or borrowing from another work, you should include the page number at the end of the parenthetical citation. Use the abbreviation “p.” (for one page) or “pp.” (for multiple pages) before listing the page number(s). Use an en dash for page ranges. For example, you might write (Jones, 1998, p. 199) or (Jones, 1998, pp. 199–201). This information is reiterated below.

Regardless of how they are referenced, all sources that are cited in the text must appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

In-text citation capitalization, quotes, and italics/underlining

• Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones.
• If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four letters long or greater within the title of a source:  Permanence and Change . Exceptions apply to short words that are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs:  Writing New Media ,  There Is Nothing Left to Lose .

( Note:  in your References list, only the first word of a title will be capitalized:  Writing new media .)

• When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word:  Natural-Born Cyborgs .
• Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of Hitchcock's  Vertigo ."
• If the title of the work is italicized in your reference list, italicize it and use title case capitalization in the text:  The Closing of the American Mind ;  The Wizard of Oz ;  Friends .
• If the title of the work is not italicized in your reference list, use double quotation marks and title case capitalization (even though the reference list uses sentence case): "Multimedia Narration: Constructing Possible Worlds;" "The One Where Chandler Can't Cry."

Short quotations

If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and page number for the reference (preceded by "p." for a single page and “pp.” for a span of multiple pages, with the page numbers separated by an en dash).

You can introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.

If you do not include the author’s name in the text of the sentence, place the author's last name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation.

Long quotations

Place direct quotations that are 40 words or longer in a free-standing block of typewritten lines and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented 1/2 inch from the left margin, i.e., in the same place you would begin a new paragraph. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation 1/2 inch from the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout, but do not add an extra blank line before or after it. The parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark.

Because block quotation formatting is difficult for us to replicate in the OWL's content management system, we have simply provided a screenshot of a generic example below.

Formatting example for block quotations in APA 7 style.

Quotations from sources without pages

Direct quotations from sources that do not contain pages should not reference a page number. Instead, you may reference another logical identifying element: a paragraph, a chapter number, a section number, a table number, or something else. Older works (like religious texts) can also incorporate special location identifiers like verse numbers. In short: pick a substitute for page numbers that makes sense for your source.

Summary or paraphrase

If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference and may omit the page numbers. APA guidelines, however, do encourage including a page range for a summary or paraphrase when it will help the reader find the information in a longer work. 

Appropriate Level of Citation

The number of sources you cite in your paper depends on the purpose of your work. For most papers, cite one or two of the most representative sources for each key point. Literature review papers, however, typically include a more exhaustive list of references.

Provide appropriate credit to the source (e.g., by using an in-text citation) whenever you do the following:

• paraphrase (i.e., state in your own words) the ideas of others
• directly quote the words of others
• refer to data or data sets
• reprint or adapt a table or figure, even images from the internet that are free or licensed in the Creative Commons
• reprint a long text passage or commercially copyrighted test item

Avoid both undercitation and overcitation. Undercitation can lead to plagiarism and/or self-plagiarism . Overcitation can be distracting and is unnecessary.

For example, it is considered overcitation to repeat the same citation in every sentence when the source and topic have not changed. Instead, when paraphrasing a key point in more than one sentence within a paragraph, cite the source in the first sentence in which it is relevant and do not repeat the citation in subsequent sentences as long as the source remains clear and unchanged.

Figure 8.1 in Chapter 8 of the Publication Manual provides an example of an appropriate level of citation.

Determining the appropriate level of citation is covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 8.1 and the Concise Guide Section 8.1

Related handouts

• In-Text Citation Checklist (PDF, 227KB)
• Six Steps to Proper Citation (PDF, 112KB)

From the APA Style blog

How to cite your own translations

If you translate a passage from one language into another on your own in your paper, your translation is considered a paraphrase, not a direct quotation.

Key takeaways from the Psi Chi webinar So You Need to Write a Literature Review

This blog post describes key tasks in writing an effective literature review and provides strategies for approaching those tasks.

How to cite a work with a nonrecoverable source

In most cases, nonrecoverable sources such as personal emails, nonarchived social media livestreams (or deleted and unarchived social media posts), classroom lectures, unrecorded webinars or presentations, and intranet sources should be cited only in the text as personal communications.

The “outdated sources” myth

The “outdated sources” myth is that sources must have been published recently, such as the last 5 to 10 years. There is no timeliness requirement in APA Style.

From COVID-19 to demands for social justice: Citing contemporary sources for current events

The guidance in the seventh edition of the Publication Manual makes the process of citing contemporary sources found online easier than ever before.

Citing classical and religious works

A classical or religious work is cited as either a book or a webpage, depending on what version of the source you are using. This post includes details and examples.

Academic Writer—APA’s essential teaching resource for higher education instructors

Academic Writer’s advanced authoring technology and digital learning tools allow students to take a hands-on approach to learning the scholarly research and writing process.

APA Style webinar on citing works in text

Attend the webinar, “Citing Works in Text Using Seventh Edition APA Style,” on July 14, 2020, to learn the keys to accurately and consistently citing sources in APA Style.

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APA Citation Style, 7th Edition: In-Text Citations & Paraphrasing

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When do I use in-text citations?

When should you add in-text citations in your paper .

There are several rules of thumb you can follow to make sure that you are citing your paper correctly in APA 7 format. 

• Think of your paper broken up into paragraphs. When you start a paragraph, the first time you add a sentence that has been paraphrased from a reference -> that's when you need to add an in-text citation. 
• Continue writing your paragraph, you do NOT need to add another in-text citation until: 1) You are paraphrasing from a NEW source, which means you need to cite NEW information OR 2) You need to cite a DIRECT quote, which includes a page number, paragraph number or Section title. 
• Important to remember : You DO NOT need to add an in-text citation after EVERY sentence of your paragraph. 

What do in-text citations look like?

In-text citation styles: .

Let's look at these examples if they were written in text: 

An example with 1 author:

Parenthetical citation:  Following American Psychological Association (APA) style guidelines will help you to cultivate your own unique academic voice as an expert in your field (Forbes, 2020). 

Narrative citation : Forbes (2020) shared that by following American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines, students would learn to find their own voice as experts in the field of nursing. 

An example with 2 authors: 

Parenthetical citation: Research on the use of progressive muscle relaxation for stress reduction has demonstrated the efficacy of the method (Bennett & Miller, 2019). 

Narrative citation: As shared by Bennett and Miller (2019), research on the use of progressive muscle relaxation for stress reduction has demonstrated the efficacy of the method. 

An example with 3 authors: 

Parenthetical citation: Guided imagery has also been shown to reduce stress, length of hospital stay, and symptoms related to medical and psychological conditions (Jones et al., 2020).

Narrative citation: Jones et al. (2020) shared that guided imagery has also been shown to reduce stress, length of hospital stay, and symptoms related to medical and psychological conditions. 

An example with a group/corporate author: 

Parenthetical citation: Dr. Philip G. Rogers, senior vice president at the American Council on Education, was recently elected as the newest chancellor of the university (East Carolina University, 2020). 

Narrative citation: Recently shared on the East Carolina University (2020) website, Dr. Philip G. Rogers, senior vice president at the American Council on Education, was elected as the newest chancellor. 

Tips on Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is recreating someone else's ideas into your own words & thoughts, without changing the original meaning (gahan, 2020).  .

Here are some best practices when you are paraphrasing: 

• How do I learn to paraphrase? IF you are thoroughly reading and researching articles or book chapters for a paper, you will start to take notes in your own words . Those notes are the beginning of paraphrased information.
• Read the original information, PUT IT AWAY, then rewrite the ideas in your own words . This is hard to do at first, it takes practice, but this is how you start to paraphrase. 
• It's usually better to paraphrase, than to use too many direct quotes. 
• When you start to paraphrase, cite your source. 
• Make sure not to use language that is TOO close to the original, so that you are not committing plagiarism. 
• Use theasaurus.com to help you come up with like/similar phrases if you are struggling. 
• Paraphrasing (vs. using direct quotes) is important because it shows that YOU ACTUALLY UNDERSTAND the information you are reading. 
• Paraphrasing ALLOWS YOUR VOICE to be prevalent in your writing. 
• The best time to use direct quotes is when you need to give an exact definition, provide specific evidence, or if you need to use the original writer's terminology. 
• BEST PRACTICE PER PARAGRAPH: On your 1st paraphrase of a source, CITE IT. There is no need to add another in-text citation until you use a different source, OR, until you use a direct quote. 

References : 

Gahan, C. (2020, October 15). How to paraphrase sources . Scribbr.com .   https://tinyurl.com/y7ssxc6g  

Citing Direct Quotes

When should i use a direct quote in my paper .

Direct quotes should only be used occasionally: 

• When you need to share an exact definition 
• When you want to provide specific evidence or information that cannot be paraphrased
• When you want to use the original writer's terminology

From:  https://americanlibrariesmagazine.org/whaddyamean/ 

Definitions of direct quotes: 

• Western Oregon University's APA Guidelines on Direct Quotes This is an excellent quick tutorial on how to format direct quotes in APA 7th edition. Bookmark this page for future reference!

Carrie Forbes, MLS

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Learn why citing with APA matters

Watch the following video: .

How to cite in APA Style (7th edition)

(Looking for the old 6th edition guide?)

Most academic writing cites others' ideas and research, for several reasons:

• Sources that support your ideas give your paper authority and credibility
• Shows you have researched your topic thoroughly
• Crediting sources protects you from plagiarism
• A list of sources can be a useful record for further research

Different academic disciplines prefer different citation styles, most commonly  APA and MLA styles. 

Besides these styles, there are  Chicago ,  Turabian ,  AAA ,  AP , and more. Only use the most current edition of the citation style.

Ask your instructors which citation style they want you to use for assignments.

Prefer an interactive, video-based tutorial? Click the image below:

More questions? Check out the authoritative source: APA style blog

When to cite.

To avoid plagiarism, provide a citation for ideas that are not your own:

• Direct quotation
• Paraphrasing of a quotation, passage, or idea
• Summary of another's idea or research
• Specific reference to a fact, figure, or phrase

You do not need to cite common knowledge (ex. George Washington was the first President of the United States) or proverbs unless you are using a direct quotation. When in doubt, cite your source.

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• is the right thing to do  to give credit to those who had the idea
• shows that you have read and understand  what experts have had to say about your topic
• helps people find the sources  that you used in case they want to read more about the topic
• provides   evidence  for your arguments
• is professional and  standard practice   for students and scholars

What is a Citation?

A citation identifies for the reader the original source for an idea, information, or image that is referred to in a work.

• In the body of a paper, the  in-text citation  acknowledges the source of information used.
• At the end of a paper, the citations are compiled on a  References  or  Works Cited  list. A basic citation includes the author, title, and publication information of the source. 

From:  Lemieux  Library,  University  of Seattle 

Why Should You Cite?

Quoting Are you quoting two or more consecutive words from a source? Then the original source should be cited and the words or phrase placed in quotes. 

Paraphrasing If an idea or information comes from another source,  even if you put it in your own words , you still need to credit the source.  General vs. Unfamiliar Knowledge You do not need to cite material which is accepted common knowledge. If in doubt whether your information is common knowledge or not, cite it. Formats We usually think of books and articles. However, if you use material from web sites, films, music, graphs, tables, etc. you'll also need to cite these as well.

Plagiarism is presenting the words or ideas of someone else as your own without proper acknowledgment of the source. When you work on a research paper and use supporting material from works by others, it's okay to quote people and use their ideas, but you do need to correctly credit them. Even when you summarize or paraphrase information found in books, articles, or Web pages, you must acknowledge the original author.

Citation Style Help

Helpful links:

• MLA ,  Works Cited : A Quick Guide (a template of core elements)
• CSE  (Council of Science Editors)

For additional writing resources specific to styles listed here visit the  Purdue OWL Writing Lab

Citation and Bibliography Resources

• How to Write an Annotated Bibliography
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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / How to Cite Sources

How to Cite Sources

Here is a complete list for how to cite sources. Most of these guides present citation guidance and examples in MLA, APA, and Chicago.

If you’re looking for general information on MLA or APA citations , the EasyBib Writing Center was designed for you! It has articles on what’s needed in an MLA in-text citation , how to format an APA paper, what an MLA annotated bibliography is, making an MLA works cited page, and much more!

MLA Format Citation Examples

The Modern Language Association created the MLA Style, currently in its 9th edition, to provide researchers with guidelines for writing and documenting scholarly borrowings.  Most often used in the humanities, MLA style (or MLA format ) has been adopted and used by numerous other disciplines, in multiple parts of the world.

MLA provides standard rules to follow so that most research papers are formatted in a similar manner. This makes it easier for readers to comprehend the information. The MLA in-text citation guidelines, MLA works cited standards, and MLA annotated bibliography instructions provide scholars with the information they need to properly cite sources in their research papers, articles, and assignments.

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APA Format Citation Examples

The American Psychological Association created the APA citation style in 1929 as a way to help psychologists, anthropologists, and even business managers establish one common way to cite sources and present content.

APA is used when citing sources for academic articles such as journals, and is intended to help readers better comprehend content, and to avoid language bias wherever possible. The APA style (or APA format ) is now in its 7th edition, and provides citation style guides for virtually any type of resource.

Chicago Style Citation Examples

The Chicago/Turabian style of citing sources is generally used when citing sources for humanities papers, and is best known for its requirement that writers place bibliographic citations at the bottom of a page (in Chicago-format footnotes ) or at the end of a paper (endnotes).

The Turabian and Chicago citation styles are almost identical, but the Turabian style is geared towards student published papers such as theses and dissertations, while the Chicago style provides guidelines for all types of publications. This is why you’ll commonly see Chicago style and Turabian style presented together. The Chicago Manual of Style is currently in its 17th edition, and Turabian’s A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations is in its 8th edition.

Citing Specific Sources or Events

• Declaration of Independence
• Gettysburg Address
• Martin Luther King Jr. Speech
• President Obama’s Farewell Address
• President Trump’s Inauguration Speech
• White House Press Briefing

Additional FAQs

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6 Interesting Citation Facts

The world of citations may seem cut and dry, but there’s more to them than just specific capitalization rules, MLA in-text citations , and other formatting specifications. Citations have been helping researches document their sources for hundreds of years, and are a great way to learn more about a particular subject area.

Ever wonder what sets all the different styles apart, or how they came to be in the first place? Read on for some interesting facts about citations!

1. There are Over 7,000 Different Citation Styles

You may be familiar with MLA and APA citation styles, but there are actually thousands of citation styles used for all different academic disciplines all across the world. Deciding which one to use can be difficult, so be sure to ask you instructor which one you should be using for your next paper.

2. Some Citation Styles are Named After People

While a majority of citation styles are named for the specific organizations that publish them (i.e. APA is published by the American Psychological Association, and MLA format is named for the Modern Language Association), some are actually named after individuals. The most well-known example of this is perhaps Turabian style, named for Kate L. Turabian, an American educator and writer. She developed this style as a condensed version of the Chicago Manual of Style in order to present a more concise set of rules to students.

3. There are Some Really Specific and Uniquely Named Citation Styles

How specific can citation styles get? The answer is very. For example, the “Flavour and Fragrance Journal” style is based on a bimonthly, peer-reviewed scientific journal published since 1985 by John Wiley & Sons. It publishes original research articles, reviews and special reports on all aspects of flavor and fragrance. Another example is “Nordic Pulp and Paper Research,” a style used by an international scientific magazine covering science and technology for the areas of wood or bio-mass constituents.

4. More citations were created on  EasyBib.com  in the first quarter of 2018 than there are people in California.

The US Census Bureau estimates that approximately 39.5 million people live in the state of California. Meanwhile, about 43 million citations were made on EasyBib from January to March of 2018. That’s a lot of citations.

5. “Citations” is a Word With a Long History

The word “citations” can be traced back literally thousands of years to the Latin word “citare” meaning “to summon, urge, call; put in sudden motion, call forward; rouse, excite.” The word then took on its more modern meaning and relevance to writing papers in the 1600s, where it became known as the “act of citing or quoting a passage from a book, etc.”

6. Citation Styles are Always Changing

The concept of citations always stays the same. It is a means of preventing plagiarism and demonstrating where you relied on outside sources. The specific style rules, however, can and do change regularly. For example, in 2018 alone, 46 new citation styles were introduced , and 106 updates were made to exiting styles. At EasyBib, we are always on the lookout for ways to improve our styles and opportunities to add new ones to our list.

Why Citations Matter

Here are the ways accurate citations can help your students achieve academic success, and how you can answer the dreaded question, “why should I cite my sources?”

They Give Credit to the Right People

Citing their sources makes sure that the reader can differentiate the student’s original thoughts from those of other researchers. Not only does this make sure that the sources they use receive proper credit for their work, it ensures that the student receives deserved recognition for their unique contributions to the topic. Whether the student is citing in MLA format , APA format , or any other style, citations serve as a natural way to place a student’s work in the broader context of the subject area, and serve as an easy way to gauge their commitment to the project.

They Provide Hard Evidence of Ideas

Having many citations from a wide variety of sources related to their idea means that the student is working on a well-researched and respected subject. Citing sources that back up their claim creates room for fact-checking and further research . And, if they can cite a few sources that have the converse opinion or idea, and then demonstrate to the reader why they believe that that viewpoint is wrong by again citing credible sources, the student is well on their way to winning over the reader and cementing their point of view.

They Promote Originality and Prevent Plagiarism

The point of research projects is not to regurgitate information that can already be found elsewhere. We have Google for that! What the student’s project should aim to do is promote an original idea or a spin on an existing idea, and use reliable sources to promote that idea. Copying or directly referencing a source without proper citation can lead to not only a poor grade, but accusations of academic dishonesty. By citing their sources regularly and accurately, students can easily avoid the trap of plagiarism , and promote further research on their topic.

They Create Better Researchers

By researching sources to back up and promote their ideas, students are becoming better researchers without even knowing it! Each time a new source is read or researched, the student is becoming more engaged with the project and is developing a deeper understanding of the subject area. Proper citations demonstrate a breadth of the student’s reading and dedication to the project itself. By creating citations, students are compelled to make connections between their sources and discern research patterns. Each time they complete this process, they are helping themselves become better researchers and writers overall.

When is the Right Time to Start Making Citations?

Make in-text/parenthetical citations as you need them.

As you are writing your paper, be sure to include references within the text that correspond with references in a works cited or bibliography. These are usually called in-text citations or parenthetical citations in MLA and APA formats. The most effective time to complete these is directly after you have made your reference to another source. For instance, after writing the line from Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities : “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times…,” you would include a citation like this (depending on your chosen citation style):

(Dickens 11).

This signals to the reader that you have referenced an outside source. What’s great about this system is that the in-text citations serve as a natural list for all of the citations you have made in your paper, which will make completing the works cited page a whole lot easier. After you are done writing, all that will be left for you to do is scan your paper for these references, and then build a works cited page that includes a citation for each one.

Need help creating an MLA works cited page ? Try the MLA format generator on EasyBib.com! We also have a guide on how to format an APA reference page .

2. Understand the General Formatting Rules of Your Citation Style Before You Start Writing

While reading up on paper formatting may not sound exciting, being aware of how your paper should look early on in the paper writing process is super important. Citation styles can dictate more than just the appearance of the citations themselves, but rather can impact the layout of your paper as a whole, with specific guidelines concerning margin width, title treatment, and even font size and spacing. Knowing how to organize your paper before you start writing will ensure that you do not receive a low grade for something as trivial as forgetting a hanging indent.

Don’t know where to start? Here’s a formatting guide on APA format .

3. Double-check All of Your Outside Sources for Relevance and Trustworthiness First

Collecting outside sources that support your research and specific topic is a critical step in writing an effective paper. But before you run to the library and grab the first 20 books you can lay your hands on, keep in mind that selecting a source to include in your paper should not be taken lightly. Before you proceed with using it to backup your ideas, run a quick Internet search for it and see if other scholars in your field have written about it as well. Check to see if there are book reviews about it or peer accolades. If you spot something that seems off to you, you may want to consider leaving it out of your work. Doing this before your start making citations can save you a ton of time in the long run.

Finished with your paper? It may be time to run it through a grammar and plagiarism checker , like the one offered by EasyBib Plus. If you’re just looking to brush up on the basics, our grammar guides  are ready anytime you are.

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Which citation style should I use?

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Citing Sources: Which citation style should I use?

The citation style you choose will largely be dictated by the discipline in which you're writing. For many assignments your instructor will suggest or require a certain style. If you're not sure which one to use, it's always best to check with your instructor or, if you are submitting a manuscript, the publisher to see if they require a certain style. In many cases, you may not be required to use any particular style as long as you pick one and use it consistently. If you have some flexibility, use the guide below to help you decide.

Disciplinary Citation Styles

• Social Sciences
• Sciences & Medicine
• Engineering

When in doubt, try: Chicago Notes

• Architecture & Landscape Architecture → try Chicago Notes or Chicago Author-Date
• Art → try Chicago Notes
• Art History → use  Chicago Notes
• Dance → try Chicago Notes or MLA
• Drama → try Chicago Notes or MLA
• Ethnomusicology → try Chicago Notes
• Music → try Chicago Notes
• Music History → use  Chicago Notes
• Urban Design & Planning → try Chicago Notes or Chicago Author-Date

When in doubt, try: MLA

• Cinema Studies → try MLA
• Classics → try Chicago Notes
• English → use  MLA
• History → use   Chicago Notes
• Linguistics → try MLA
• Languages → try MLA
• Literatures → use  MLA
• Philosophy → try MLA
• Religion → try Chicago Notes

When in doubt, try: APA or Chicago Notes

• Anthropology → try Chicago Author-Date
• Business → try APA (see also Citing Business Information from Foster Library)
• Communication → try APA
• Criminology & Criminal Justice → try Chicago Author-Date
• Economics → try APA
• Education → try APA
• Geography → try APA
• Government & Law (for non-law students) → try Chicago Notes
• History → try Chicago Notes
• Informatics → try APA
• Law (for law students) → use Bluebook
• Library & Information Science → try APA
• Museology → try Chicago Notes
• Political Science → try Chicago Notes
• Psychology → use  APA
• Social Work → try APA
• Sociology → use  ASA or Chicago Author-Date

When in doubt, try: CSE Name-Year or CSE Citation-Sequence

• Aquatic & Fisheries Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Astronomy → try AIP or CSE Citation-Sequence
• Biology & Life Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Chemistry → try ACS
• Earth & Space Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Environmental Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Forest Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Health Sciences: Public Health, Medicine, & Nursing → use AMA or NLM
• Marine Sciences → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Mathematics → try AMS or CSE Citation-Sequence
• Oceanography → try CSE Name-Year or APA
• Physics → try AIP or CSE Citation-Sequence
• Psychology  → use  APA

When in doubt, try: CSE Name-Year or IEEE

• Aeronautics and Astronautics → try CSE Citation-Sequence
• Bioengineering → try AMA or NLM
• Chemical Engineering → try ACS
• Civil and Environmental Engineering → try CSE Name-Year
• Computational Linguistics → try CSE Citation-Sequence
• Computer Science & Engineering → try IEEE
• Electrical and Computer Engineering → try IEEE
• Engineering (general) → try IEEE or CSE Name-Year
• Human Centered Design & Engineering → try IEEE
• Human-Computer Interaction + Design → try IEEE
• Industrial and Systems Engineering → try CSE Name-Yea r
• Mechanical Engineering → try Chicago Notes or Chicago Author-Date

See also: Additional Citation Styles , for styles used by specific engineering associations.

Pro Tip: Citation Tools Save Time & Stress!

If you’re enrolled in classes that each require a different citation style, it can get confusing really fast! The tools on the Quick Citation Generators section can help you format citations quickly in many different styles.

• << Previous: Why are there so many citation styles?
• Next: Citation Style Guides >>
• Last Updated: May 1, 2024 12:48 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uw.edu/research/citations

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• Referencing

A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples

Published on 14 February 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 15 September 2023.

Referencing is an important part of academic writing. It tells your readers what sources you’ve used and how to find them.

Harvard is the most common referencing style used in UK universities. In Harvard style, the author and year are cited in-text, and full details of the source are given in a reference list .

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Table of contents

Harvard in-text citation, creating a harvard reference list, harvard referencing examples, referencing sources with no author or date, frequently asked questions about harvard referencing.

A Harvard in-text citation appears in brackets beside any quotation or paraphrase of a source. It gives the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication, as well as a page number or range locating the passage referenced, if applicable:

Note that ‘p.’ is used for a single page, ‘pp.’ for multiple pages (e.g. ‘pp. 1–5’).

An in-text citation usually appears immediately after the quotation or paraphrase in question. It may also appear at the end of the relevant sentence, as long as it’s clear what it refers to.

When your sentence already mentions the name of the author, it should not be repeated in the citation:

Sources with multiple authors

When you cite a source with up to three authors, cite all authors’ names. For four or more authors, list only the first name, followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Sources with no page numbers

Some sources, such as websites , often don’t have page numbers. If the source is a short text, you can simply leave out the page number. With longer sources, you can use an alternate locator such as a subheading or paragraph number if you need to specify where to find the quote:

Multiple citations at the same point

When you need multiple citations to appear at the same point in your text – for example, when you refer to several sources with one phrase – you can present them in the same set of brackets, separated by semicolons. List them in order of publication date:

Multiple sources with the same author and date

If you cite multiple sources by the same author which were published in the same year, it’s important to distinguish between them in your citations. To do this, insert an ‘a’ after the year in the first one you reference, a ‘b’ in the second, and so on:

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A bibliography or reference list appears at the end of your text. It lists all your sources in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, giving complete information so that the reader can look them up if necessary.

The reference entry starts with the author’s last name followed by initial(s). Only the first word of the title is capitalised (as well as any proper nouns).

Sources with multiple authors in the reference list

As with in-text citations, up to three authors should be listed; when there are four or more, list only the first author followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Reference list entries vary according to source type, since different information is relevant for different sources. Formats and examples for the most commonly used source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal with no DOI

• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Sometimes you won’t have all the information you need for a reference. This section covers what to do when a source lacks a publication date or named author.

No publication date

When a source doesn’t have a clear publication date – for example, a constantly updated reference source like Wikipedia or an obscure historical document which can’t be accurately dated – you can replace it with the words ‘no date’:

Note that when you do this with an online source, you should still include an access date, as in the example.

When a source lacks a clearly identified author, there’s often an appropriate corporate source – the organisation responsible for the source – whom you can credit as author instead, as in the Google and Wikipedia examples above.

When that’s not the case, you can just replace it with the title of the source in both the in-text citation and the reference list:

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Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

A Harvard in-text citation should appear in brackets every time you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source.

The citation can appear immediately after the quotation or paraphrase, or at the end of the sentence. If you’re quoting, place the citation outside of the quotation marks but before any other punctuation like a comma or full stop.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

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Home » How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and Examples

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Paper Citation

Research paper citation refers to the act of acknowledging and referencing a previously published work in a scholarly or academic paper . When citing sources, researchers provide information that allows readers to locate the original source, validate the claims or arguments made in the paper, and give credit to the original author(s) for their work.

The citation may include the author’s name, title of the publication, year of publication, publisher, and other relevant details that allow readers to trace the source of the information. Proper citation is a crucial component of academic writing, as it helps to ensure accuracy, credibility, and transparency in research.

How to Cite Research Paper

There are several formats that are used to cite a research paper. Follow the guide for the Citation of a Research Paper:

Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Smith, John. The History of the World. Penguin Press, 2010.

Journal Article

Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, vol. Volume Number, no. Issue Number, Year of Publication, pp. Page Numbers.

Example : Johnson, Emma. “The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture.” Environmental Science Journal, vol. 10, no. 2, 2019, pp. 45-59.

Research Paper

Last Name, First Name. “Title of Paper.” Conference Name, Location, Date of Conference.

Example : Garcia, Maria. “The Importance of Early Childhood Education.” International Conference on Education, Paris, 5-7 June 2018.

Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Title, Publisher, Date of Publication, URL.

Example : Smith, John. “The Benefits of Exercise.” Healthline, Healthline Media, 1 March 2022, https://www.healthline.com/health/benefits-of-exercise.

News Article

Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Name of Newspaper, Date of Publication, URL.

Example : Robinson, Sarah. “Biden Announces New Climate Change Policies.” The New York Times, 22 Jan. 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/22/climate/biden-climate-change-policies.html.

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example: Smith, J. (2010). The History of the World. Penguin Press.

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), page range.

Example: Johnson, E., Smith, K., & Lee, M. (2019). The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture. Environmental Science Journal, 10(2), 45-59.

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of paper. In Editor First Initial. Last Name (Ed.), Title of Conference Proceedings (page numbers). Publisher.

Example: Garcia, M. (2018). The Importance of Early Childhood Education. In J. Smith (Ed.), Proceedings from the International Conference on Education (pp. 60-75). Springer.

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of webpage. Website name. URL

Example: Smith, J. (2022, March 1). The Benefits of Exercise. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/benefits-of-exercise

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Newspaper name. URL.

Example: Robinson, S. (2021, January 22). Biden Announces New Climate Change Policies. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/22/climate/biden-climate-change-policies.html

Chicago/Turabian style

Please note that there are two main variations of the Chicago style: the author-date system and the notes and bibliography system. I will provide examples for both systems below.

Author-Date system:

• In-text citation: (Author Last Name Year, Page Number)
• Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.
• In-text citation: (Smith 2005, 28)
• Reference list: Smith, John. 2005. The History of America. New York: Penguin Press.

Notes and Bibliography system:

• Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, Title of Book (Place of publication: Publisher, Year), Page Number.
• Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: John Smith, The History of America (New York: Penguin Press, 2005), 28.
• Bibliography citation: Smith, John. The History of America. New York: Penguin Press, 2005.

JOURNAL ARTICLES:

• Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. “Article Title.” Journal Title Volume Number (Issue Number): Page Range.
• In-text citation: (Johnson 2010, 45)
• Reference list: Johnson, Mary. 2010. “The Impact of Social Media on Society.” Journal of Communication 60(2): 39-56.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, “Article Title,” Journal Title Volume Number, Issue Number (Year): Page Range.
• Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. “Article Title.” Journal Title Volume Number, Issue Number (Year): Page Range.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: Mary Johnson, “The Impact of Social Media on Society,” Journal of Communication 60, no. 2 (2010): 39-56.
• Bibliography citation: Johnson, Mary. “The Impact of Social Media on Society.” Journal of Communication 60, no. 2 (2010): 39-56.

RESEARCH PAPERS:

• Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title of Paper.” Conference Proceedings Title, Location, Date. Publisher, Page Range.
• In-text citation: (Jones 2015, 12)
• Reference list: Jones, David. 2015. “The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture.” Proceedings of the International Conference on Climate Change, Paris, France, June 1-3, 2015. Springer, 10-20.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, “Title of Paper,” Conference Proceedings Title, Location, Date (Place of publication: Publisher, Year), Page Range.
• Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Paper.” Conference Proceedings Title, Location, Date. Place of publication: Publisher, Year.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: David Jones, “The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture,” Proceedings of the International Conference on Climate Change, Paris, France, June 1-3, 2015 (New York: Springer, 10-20).
• Bibliography citation: Jones, David. “The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture.” Proceedings of the International Conference on Climate Change, Paris, France, June 1-3, 2015. New York: Springer, 10-20.
• In-text citation: (Author Last Name Year)
• Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. URL.
• In-text citation: (Smith 2018)
• Reference list: Smith, John. 2018. “The Importance of Recycling.” Environmental News Network. https://www.enn.com/articles/54374-the-importance-of-recycling.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, “Title of Webpage,” Website Name, URL (accessed Date).
• Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. URL (accessed Date).
• Footnote/Endnote citation: John Smith, “The Importance of Recycling,” Environmental News Network, https://www.enn.com/articles/54374-the-importance-of-recycling (accessed April 8, 2023).
• Bibliography citation: Smith, John. “The Importance of Recycling.” Environmental News Network. https://www.enn.com/articles/54374-the-importance-of-recycling (accessed April 8, 2023).

NEWS ARTICLES:

• Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title of Article.” Name of Newspaper, Month Day.
• In-text citation: (Johnson 2022)
• Reference list: Johnson, Mary. 2022. “New Study Finds Link Between Coffee and Longevity.” The New York Times, January 15.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, “Title of Article,” Name of Newspaper (City), Month Day, Year.
• Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Name of Newspaper (City), Month Day, Year.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: Mary Johnson, “New Study Finds Link Between Coffee and Longevity,” The New York Times (New York), January 15, 2022.
• Bibliography citation: Johnson, Mary. “New Study Finds Link Between Coffee and Longevity.” The New York Times (New York), January 15, 2022.

Harvard referencing style

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example: Smith, J. (2008). The Art of War. Random House.

Journal article:

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of journal, volume number(issue number), page range.

Example: Brown, M. (2012). The impact of social media on business communication. Harvard Business Review, 90(12), 85-92.

Research paper:

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year of publication). Title of paper. In Editor’s First initial. Last name (Ed.), Title of book (page range). Publisher.

Example: Johnson, R. (2015). The effects of climate change on agriculture. In S. Lee (Ed.), Climate Change and Sustainable Development (pp. 45-62). Springer.

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of page. Website name. URL.

Example: Smith, J. (2017, May 23). The history of the internet. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-the-internet

News article:

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of newspaper, page number (if applicable).

Example: Thompson, E. (2022, January 5). New study finds coffee may lower risk of dementia. The New York Times, A1.

IEEE Format

Author(s). (Year of Publication). Title of Book. Publisher.

Smith, J. K. (2015). The Power of Habit: Why We Do What We Do in Life and Business. Random House.

Journal Article:

Author(s). (Year of Publication). Title of Article. Title of Journal, Volume Number (Issue Number), page numbers.

Johnson, T. J., & Kaye, B. K. (2016). Interactivity and the Future of Journalism. Journalism Studies, 17(2), 228-246.

Author(s). (Year of Publication). Title of Paper. Paper presented at Conference Name, Location.

Jones, L. K., & Brown, M. A. (2018). The Role of Social Media in Political Campaigns. Paper presented at the 2018 International Conference on Social Media and Society, Copenhagen, Denmark.

• Website: Author(s) or Organization Name. (Year of Publication or Last Update). Title of Webpage. Website Name. URL.

Example: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2019, August 29). NASA’s Mission to Mars. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/topics/journeytomars/index.html

• News Article: Author(s). (Year of Publication). Title of Article. Name of News Source. URL.

Example: Johnson, M. (2022, February 16). Climate Change: Is it Too Late to Save the Planet? CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/16/world/climate-change-planet-scn/index.html

Vancouver Style

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “The study conducted by Smith and Johnson^1 found that…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of book. Edition if any. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example: Smith J, Johnson L. Introduction to Molecular Biology. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley-Blackwell; 2015.

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “Several studies have reported that^1,2,3…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of article. Abbreviated name of journal. Year of publication; Volume number (Issue number): Page range.

Example: Jones S, Patel K, Smith J. The effects of exercise on cardiovascular health. J Cardiol. 2018; 25(2): 78-84.

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “Previous research has shown that^1,2,3…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of paper. In: Editor(s). Title of the conference proceedings. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication. Page range.

Example: Johnson L, Smith J. The role of stem cells in tissue regeneration. In: Patel S, ed. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Regenerative Medicine. London: Academic Press; 2016. p. 68-73.

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “According to the World Health Organization^1…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of webpage. Name of website. URL [Accessed Date].

Example: World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public [Accessed 3 March 2023].

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “According to the New York Times^1…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of article. Name of newspaper. Year Month Day; Section (if any): Page number.

Example: Jones S. Study shows that sleep is essential for good health. The New York Times. 2022 Jan 12; Health: A8.

Author(s). Title of Book. Edition Number (if it is not the first edition). Publisher: Place of publication, Year of publication.

Example: Smith, J. Chemistry of Natural Products. 3rd ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, 2015.

Journal articles:

Author(s). Article Title. Journal Name Year, Volume, Inclusive Pagination.

Example: Garcia, A. M.; Jones, B. A.; Smith, J. R. Selective Synthesis of Alkenes from Alkynes via Catalytic Hydrogenation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2019, 141, 10754-10759.

Research papers:

Author(s). Title of Paper. Journal Name Year, Volume, Inclusive Pagination.

Example: Brown, H. D.; Jackson, C. D.; Patel, S. D. A New Approach to Photovoltaic Solar Cells. J. Mater. Chem. 2018, 26, 134-142.

Author(s) (if available). Title of Webpage. Name of Website. URL (accessed Month Day, Year).

Example: National Institutes of Health. Heart Disease and Stroke. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/heart-disease-and-stroke (accessed April 7, 2023).

News articles:

Author(s). Title of Article. Name of News Publication. Date of Publication. URL (accessed Month Day, Year).

Example: Friedman, T. L. The World is Flat. New York Times. April 7, 2023. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/07/opinion/world-flat-globalization.html (accessed April 7, 2023).

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a book should include the following information, in this order:

• Title of book (in italics)
• Edition (if applicable)
• Place of publication
• Year of publication

Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, et al. Molecular Cell Biology. 4th ed. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman; 2000.

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a journal article should include the following information, in this order:

• Title of article
• Abbreviated title of journal (in italics)
• Year of publication; volume number(issue number):page numbers.

Chen H, Huang Y, Li Y, et al. Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on depression in adolescents and young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(6):e207081. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.7081

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a research paper should include the following information, in this order:

• Title of paper
• Name of journal or conference proceeding (in italics)
• Volume number(issue number):page numbers.

Bredenoord AL, Kroes HY, Cuppen E, Parker M, van Delden JJ. Disclosure of individual genetic data to research participants: the debate reconsidered. Trends Genet. 2011;27(2):41-47. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2010.11.004

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a website should include the following information, in this order:

• Title of web page or article
• Name of website (in italics)
• Date of publication or last update (if available)
• URL (website address)
• Date of access (month day, year)

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. How to protect yourself and others. CDC. Published February 11, 2022. Accessed February 14, 2022. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a news article should include the following information, in this order:

• Name of newspaper or news website (in italics)
• Date of publication

Gorman J. Scientists use stem cells from frogs to build first living robots. The New York Times. January 13, 2020. Accessed January 14, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/13/science/living-robots-xenobots.html

Bluebook Format

One author: Daniel J. Solove, The Future of Reputation: Gossip, Rumor, and Privacy on the Internet (Yale University Press 2007).

Two or more authors: Martha Nussbaum and Saul Levmore, eds., The Offensive Internet: Speech, Privacy, and Reputation (Harvard University Press 2010).

Journal article

One author: Daniel J. Solove, “A Taxonomy of Privacy,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 154, no. 3 (January 2006): 477-560.

Two or more authors: Ethan Katsh and Andrea Schneider, “The Emergence of Online Dispute Resolution,” Journal of Dispute Resolution 2003, no. 1 (2003): 7-19.

One author: Daniel J. Solove, “A Taxonomy of Privacy,” GWU Law School Public Law Research Paper No. 113, 2005.

Two or more authors: Ethan Katsh and Andrea Schneider, “The Emergence of Online Dispute Resolution,” Cyberlaw Research Paper Series Paper No. 00-5, 2000.

WebsiteElectronic Frontier Foundation, “Surveillance Self-Defense,” accessed April 8, 2023, https://ssd.eff.org/.

News article

One author: Mark Sherman, “Court Deals Major Blow to Net Neutrality Rules,” ABC News, January 14, 2014, https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory/court-deals-major-blow-net-neutrality-rules-21586820.

Two or more authors: Siobhan Hughes and Brent Kendall, “AT&T Wins Approval to Buy Time Warner,” Wall Street Journal, June 12, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/at-t-wins-approval-to-buy-time-warner-1528847249.

In-Text Citation: (Author’s last name Year of Publication: Page Number)

Example: (Smith 2010: 35)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Book. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example: Smith J. Biology: A Textbook. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2010.

Example: (Johnson 2014: 27)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Article. Abbreviated Title of Journal. Year of publication;Volume(Issue):Page Numbers.

Example: Johnson S. The role of dopamine in addiction. J Neurosci. 2014;34(8): 2262-2272.

Example: (Brown 2018: 10)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Paper. Paper presented at: Name of Conference; Date of Conference; Place of Conference.

Example: Brown R. The impact of social media on mental health. Paper presented at: Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association; August 2018; San Francisco, CA.

Example: (World Health Organization 2020: para. 2)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Webpage. Name of Website. URL. Published date. Accessed date.

Example: World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. WHO website. https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-coronavirus-2019. Updated August 17, 2020. Accessed September 5, 2021.

Example: (Smith 2019: para. 5)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Article. Title of Newspaper or Magazine. Year of publication; Month Day:Page Numbers.

Example: Smith K. New study finds link between exercise and mental health. The New York Times. 2019;May 20: A6.

Purpose of Research Paper Citation

The purpose of citing sources in a research paper is to give credit to the original authors and acknowledge their contribution to your work. By citing sources, you are also demonstrating the validity and reliability of your research by showing that you have consulted credible and authoritative sources. Citations help readers to locate the original sources that you have referenced and to verify the accuracy and credibility of your research. Additionally, citing sources is important for avoiding plagiarism, which is the act of presenting someone else’s work as your own. Proper citation also shows that you have conducted a thorough literature review and have used the existing research to inform your own work. Overall, citing sources is an essential aspect of academic writing and is necessary for building credibility, demonstrating research skills, and avoiding plagiarism.

Advantages of Research Paper Citation

There are several advantages of research paper citation, including:

• Giving credit: By citing the works of other researchers in your field, you are acknowledging their contribution and giving credit where it is due.
• Strengthening your argument: Citing relevant and reliable sources in your research paper can strengthen your argument and increase its credibility. It shows that you have done your due diligence and considered various perspectives before drawing your conclusions.
• Demonstrating familiarity with the literature : By citing various sources, you are demonstrating your familiarity with the existing literature in your field. This is important as it shows that you are well-informed about the topic and have done a thorough review of the available research.
• Providing a roadmap for further research: By citing relevant sources, you are providing a roadmap for further research on the topic. This can be helpful for future researchers who are interested in exploring the same or related issues.
• Building your own reputation: By citing the works of established researchers in your field, you can build your own reputation as a knowledgeable and informed scholar. This can be particularly helpful if you are early in your career and looking to establish yourself as an expert in your field.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How to Cite a Research Paper

Last Updated: March 29, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was reviewed by Gerald Posner and by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . Gerald Posner is an Author & Journalist based in Miami, Florida. With over 35 years of experience, he specializes in investigative journalism, nonfiction books, and editorials. He holds a law degree from UC College of the Law, San Francisco, and a BA in Political Science from the University of California-Berkeley. He’s the author of thirteen books, including several New York Times bestsellers, the winner of the Florida Book Award for General Nonfiction, and has been a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize in History. He was also shortlisted for the Best Business Book of 2020 by the Society for Advancing Business Editing and Writing. There are 8 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 417,300 times.

When writing a paper for a research project, you may need to cite a research paper you used as a reference. The basic information included in your citation will be the same across all styles. However, the format in which that information is presented is somewhat different depending on whether you're using American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association (MLA), Chicago, or American Medical Association (AMA) style.

Referencing a Research Paper

• In APA style, cite the paper: Last Name, First Initial. (Year). Title. Publisher.
• In Chicago style, cite the paper: Last Name, First Name. “Title.” Publisher, Year.
• In MLA style, cite the paper: Last Name, First Name. “Title.” Publisher. Year.

Citation Help

• For example: "Kringle, K., & Frost, J."

• For example: "Kringle, K., & Frost, J. (2012)."
• If the date, or any other information, are not available, use the guide at https://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2012/05/missing-pieces.html .

• For example: "Kringle, K., & Frost, J. (2012). Red noses, warm hearts: The glowing phenomenon among North Pole reindeer."
• If you found the research paper in a database maintained by a university, corporation, or other organization, include any index number assigned to the paper in parentheses after the title. For example: "Kringle, K., & Frost, J. (2012). Red noses, warm hearts: The glowing phenomenon among North Pole reindeer. (Report No. 1234)."

• For example: "Kringle, K., & Frost, J. (2012). Red noses, warm hearts: The glowing phenomenon among North Pole reindeer. (Report No. 1234). Retrieved from Alaska University Library Archives, December 24, 2017."

• For example: "(Kringle & Frost, 2012)."
• If there was no date on the research paper, use the abbreviation n.d. : "(Kringle & Frost, n.d.)."

• For example: "Kringle, Kris, and Jack Frost."

• For example: "Kringle, Kris, and Jack Frost. "Red Noses, Warm Hearts: The Glowing Phenomenon among North Pole Reindeer." Master's thesis."

• For example: "Kringle, Kris, and Jack Frost. "Red Noses, Warm Hearts: The Glowing Phenomenon among North Pole Reindeer." Master's thesis, Alaska University, 2012."

• For example: "Kringle, Kris, and Jack Frost. "Red Noses, Warm Hearts: The Glowing Phenomenon among North Pole Reindeer." Master's thesis, Alaska University, 2012. Accessed at https://www.northpolemedical.com/raising_rudolf."

• Footnotes are essentially the same as the full citation, although the first and last names of the authors aren't inverted.
• For parenthetical citations, Chicago uses the Author-Date format. For example: "(Kringle and Frost 2012)."

• For example: "Kringle, Kris, and Frost, Jack."

• For example: "Kringle, Kris, and Frost, Jack. "Red Noses, Warm Hearts: The Glowing Phenomenon Among North Pole Reindeer.""

• For example, suppose you found the paper in a collection of paper housed in university archives. Your citation might be: "Kringle, Kris, and Frost, Jack. "Red Noses, Warm Hearts: The Glowing Phenomenon Among North Pole Reindeer." Master's Theses 2000-2010. University of Alaska Library Archives. Accessed December 24, 2017."

• For example: "(Kringle & Frost, p. 33)."

• For example: "Kringle K, Frost J."

• For example: "Kringle K, Frost J. Red noses, warm hearts: The glowing phenomenon among North Pole reindeer."

• For example: "Kringle K, Frost J. Red noses, warm hearts: The glowing phenomenon among North Pole reindeer. Nat Med. 2012; 18(9): 1429-1433."

• For example, if you're citing a paper presented at a conference, you'd write: "Kringle K, Frost J. Red noses, warm hearts: The glowing phenomenon among North Pole reindeer. Oral presentation at Arctic Health Association Annual Summit; December, 2017; Nome, Alaska."
• To cite a paper you read online, you'd write: "Kringle K, Frost J. Red noses, warm hearts: The glowing phenomenon among North Pole reindeer. https://www.northpolemedical.com/raising_rudolf"

• For example: "According to Kringle and Frost, these red noses indicate a subspecies of reindeer native to Alaska and Canada that have migrated to the North Pole and mingled with North Pole reindeer. 1 "

Community Q&A

• If you used a manual as a source in your research paper, you'll need to learn how to cite the manual also. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• If you use any figures in your research paper, you'll also need to know the proper way to cite them in MLA, APA, AMA, or Chicago. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://askus.library.wwu.edu/faq/116659
• ↑ https://guides.libraries.psu.edu/apaquickguide/intext
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/chicago_manual_17th_edition/cmos_formatting_and_style_guide/general_format.html
• ↑ https://libanswers.snhu.edu/faq/48009
• ↑ https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_in_text_citations_the_basics.html
• ↑ https://morningside.libguides.com/MLA8/location
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/ama_style/index.html

About This Article

To cite a paper APA style, start with the author's last name and first initial, and the year of publication. Then, list the title of the paper, where you found it, and the date that you accessed it. In a paper, use a parenthetical reference with the last name of the author and the publication year. For an MLA citation, list the author's last name and then first name and the title of the paper in quotations. Include where you accessed the paper and the date you retrieved it. In your paper, use a parenthetical reference with the author's last name and the page number. Keep reading for tips on Chicago and AMA citations and exceptions to the citation rules! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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A Beginner’s Guide to Citations, References and Bibliography in Research Papers

As an academician, terms such as citations, references and bibliography might be a part of almost every work-related conversation in your daily life. However, many researchers, especially during the early stages of their academic career, may find it hard to differentiate between citations, references and bibliography in research papers and often find it confusing to implement their usage. If you are amongst them, this article will provide you with some respite. Let us start by first understanding the individual terms better.

Citation in research papers:  A citation appears in the main text of the paper. It is a way of giving credit to the information that you have specifically mentioned in your research paper by leading the reader to the original source of information. You will need to use citation in research papers whenever you are using information to elaborate a particular concept in the paper, either in the introduction or discussion sections or as a way to support your research findings in the results section.

Reference in research papers:  A reference is a detailed description of the source of information that you want to give credit to via a citation. The references in research papers are usually in the form of a list at the end of the paper. The essential difference between citations and references is that citations lead a reader to the source of information, while references provide the reader with detailed information regarding that particular source.

Bibliography in research papers:

A bibliography in research paper is a list of sources that appears at the end of a research paper or an article, and contains information that may or may not be directly mentioned in the research paper. The difference between reference and bibliography in research is that an individual source in the list of references can be linked to an in-text citation, while an individual source in the bibliography may not necessarily be linked to an in-text citation.

It’s understandable how these terms may often be used interchangeably as they are serve the same purpose – namely to give intellectual and creative credit to an original idea that is elaborated in depth in a research paper. One of the easiest ways to understand when to use an in-text citation in research papers, is to check whether the information is an ongoing work of research or if it has been proven to be a ‘fact’ through reproducibility. If the information is a proven fact, you need not specifically add the original source to the list of references but can instead choose to mention it in your bibliography. For instance, if you use a statement such as “The effects of global warming and climate changes on the deterioration of environment have been described in depth”, you need not use an in-text citation, but can choose to mention key sources in the bibliography section. An example of a citation in a research paper would be if you intend to elaborate on the impact of climate change in a particular population and/or a specific geographical location. In this case, you will need to add an in-text citation and mention the correct source in the list of references.

Now that you have understood the basic similarities and differences in these terms, you should also know that every journal follows a particular style and format for these elements. So when working out how to write citations and add references in research papers, be mindful of using the preferred style of your target journal before you submit your research document.

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The Student’s Guide To Citation Styles: Here’s When (And How) To Cite

Citing resources will also avoid plagiarism, by crediting to those who provided the research used to create a paper.

• 1.1 When Not to Cite a Source
• 2 The Main Types of Sources
• 3 How to Cite
• 4 Programs for Creating Citations

When to Cite a Source

Include a citation whenever you can. If you are not sure whether or not to cite a source, cite it. You should reference and cite whenever you:

• Quote directly from a source.
• Summarize or paraphrase another writer’s ideas, concepts or opinions.
• Anywhere you find data, facts and information used in your paper.
• Images, visuals, graphs and charts you use in your work.

When Not to Cite a Source

You do not have to cite your source if the information you use is common knowledge. For example, the first African American President of the U.S. is Barack Obama; however, if you aren’t sure if it is common knowledge or not, go ahead and cite it, just to be safe.

The Main Types of Sources

There are three main types of sources: primary, secondary and peer-reviewed.

Primary sources may be in their original form or digitized, or reprinted or reproduced in some form. They are first-hand accounts of an event or period in history, or original documents. Primary sources include:

• Texts – Novels, letters, diaries, government reports, newspaper articles and autobiographies. Images – Paintings, photographs and advertisements.
• Artifacts – Sculptures, buildings and clothing.
• Audio-Visual – Oral history like interviews, songs, films and photos.

Secondary sources are written about primary sources and are one or more steps away from the original source. They include discussions, comments and interpretations regarding the primary source or original material. Examples of secondary source materials are as follows:

• Articles from magazines, journals and newspapers.
• Textbooks, histories and encyclopedias.
• Book, play, concert and movie reviews, criticisms and commentaries.
• Articles from scholarly journals that assess or discuss the original research of others.
• Peer Reviewed

Usually published as an article in a medical or professional publication, such as a journal, a peer-reviewed source undergoes multiple critiques by top scholars in a particular field. Peer-reviewed articles offer authoritative information of the highest quality that scholarly disciplines can provide. Peer-reviewed and scholarly articles have these characteristics:

• List the journal of publication and author credentials.
• Are an abstract from a larger publication.
• Include a large amount of in-text citations, references, endnotes, footnotes and cited works, as well as a bibliography and appendix.
• Contain sections like methodology, conclusion and results.
• Have numerous in-text tables, charts and graphs.
• Use complex wording specific to the field.

How to Cite

When you cite data from another author’s work, explain all related aspects of the work clearly and concisely using your own words. Always provide a reference to the work directly following the information you have provided.

Most colleges and organizations use a variety of citation styles. The citation style often depends on the professor, so always check before beginning a paper. No matter what the style you use for citing your paper, the process is always the same:

• Consult the appropriate style guide for examples of how to produce in-text citations, reference lists and bibliographies.
• Some style guides are available via citation software that helps track sources for the use in creating bibliographies, in-text citations and reference lists.
• Use one standard style in a consistent manner throughout the entire paper.

Researchers and writers should understand some of the following styles:

The American Psychology Association – Use this style for education, psychology, sociology and other social sciences.

• Example of APA style for a book with one author:

Doe, J. (1999). Causes of the Civil War . Ohio: Smith Books.

Resources :

• Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association
• APA Formatting and Style Guide : Available online from The Owl at Purdue, this contains examples of reference list entries and in-text citations.
• Basics of APA Style Tutorial : Available online from the APA, this outlines citing and writing guidelines.

Modern Language Association – Use this style for arts, literature and the humanities.

• Example of MLA style for a book with one author:

Doe, John: “Causes of the Civil War.” Smith.

• MLA 2009 Formatting and Style Guide : Available online from The Owl at Purdue, with many examples for producing works cited entries and in-text footnotes.
• MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing : Available online from The Owl at Purdue, contains examples.

American Medical Association or the National Library of Medicine for health, medicine and biological sciences.

• Example of AMA for a book with one author:

Doe JD. Causes of the Civil War . Columbus, OH: Smith Books; 1999.

• Example of NLM for a book with one author:

Doe, JD. Causes of the Civil War. Columbus (OH): Smith Books; 1999.

• AMA Manual of Style: A Guide for Authors and Editors
• Citing Medicine: The NLM Style Guide for authors, editors and publishers ; available online from the National Library of Medicine.
• A Comparison of AMA and NLM styles

Students and researchers commonly use the Chicago Manual of Style guide, or Turabian, for most real-world subjects in magazines, books, newspapers and many other non-scholarly publications.

• Example of Chicago style for a book with one author:

Doe, John. 1999. Causes of the Civil War . Columbus, Ohio:

Smith Books.

• CMS: Provide by the Perdue Owl Online Writing Laboratory.

There are a variety of scientific style guides depending on the particular field, whether it be biology, chemistry, engineering.

• Example of Scientific Style for a book with one author:

John D. Doe. Causes of the Civil War. Columbus (OH): Smith Press: 1999.

• ACS : American Chemical Society
• ACS Style Guidelines : Available online from UW-Madison Libraries, providing examples for citing references in the text and the bibliography of a research paper.
• IEEE : Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers
• IEEE Editorial Style Manual : An online PDF that provides editorial guidelines for IEEE letters, journals and transactions, with citation examples.
• The Writer’s Handbook – CSE Citation

More Citation Examples

The following resources provide more examples for formatting citations:

• Citing References Wiki  – Maintained by LexisNexis, this guide includes examples from APA, MLA, Chicago and Turabian.
• Research and Documentation Online – Compiled by Diana Hacker, this guide includes APA, CMS, CSE and MLA styles

Programs for Creating Citations

The following resources provide programs to help researchers create citations:

• Landmark Citation Machine
• Citation Builder

When using a citation program, always check for errors before inserting them into your reference or works cited page.

The Annotated Bibliography or Reference Section

The reference page is also called the annotated bibliography , and it should go at the end of the research paper. The purpose of annotated bibliographies is to link each source to one another in an orderly fashion.

Here are six key factors for writing an annotation:

• Clearly state the qualifications and authority of the author early in the annotation. Example:
• Explain the main purpose and scope of the text in a few brief sentences.This is not like an abstract, which is a synopsis of the entire piece; rather, it is the main theme or concept. Example:
• Note the relation of the paper to other works in the field. Example:
• Clarify the author’s main opinion or conclusion in relation to the overall theme. Example:
• Indicate your target audience and the level of reading difficulty. Example:
• End with a summary comment. Example:

Completed example:

For more guidelines on creating an annotated bibliography, see the  Purdue OWL: Annotated Bibliographies  site, which includes  additional sample annotations .

Adding citations may seem difficult at first; however, the more you practice, the easier it will become for you. By using a style guide and checking examples, citing all your sources is simple and complete.

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• Harvard Library
• Research Guides
• Harvard Graduate School of Design - Frances Loeb Library

Write and Cite

• Using Sources and AI
• Academic Integrity

Why acknowledge sources?

When is citing necessary, citing textual sources, citing images and non-textual sources, citing generative ai, links to style guides and citation resources.

• Academic Writing
• From Research to Writing
• GSD Writing Services
• Grants and Fellowships
• Reading, Notetaking, and Time Management
• Theses and Dissertations

Reasons for citing sources are based on academic, professional, and cultural values. At the GSD, we cite to promote

• Integrity and honesty by acknowledging the creative and intellectual work of others.
• The pursuit of knowledge by enabling others to locate the materials you used.
• The development of design excellence through research into scholarly conversations related to your subject.

Cite your source whenever you quote, summarize, paraphrase, or otherwise include someone else's

• Words 
• Opinions, thoughts, interpretations, or arguments
• Original research, designs, images, video, etc.
• Chicago Style

Citations follow different rules for structure and content depending on which style you use. At the GSD, mostly you will use Chicago or APA style. Often you can choose the style you prefer, but it's good to ask your professor or TA/TF. Whichever style you use, be consistent. We recommend using Zotero , a citation-management tool, to structure your citations for you, but you should always check to make sure the tool captures the correct information in the correct place.

 Chicago Style 

Citing print sources.

Footnote - long (first time citing the source)

1. Joseph Rykwert, The Idea of a Town: The Anthropology of Urban Form in Rome, Italy and the Ancient World , (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976), 35.

Footnote - short (citing the source again)

1. Rykwert, The Idea of a Town , 35.

In-text citation (alternative to footnotes)

(Rykwert 1976, 35)

Bibliography (alphabetical order and hanging indentation)

Rykwert, Joseph. The Idea of a Town: the Anthropology of Urban Form in Rome, Italy and the Ancient World . New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976.

Chapter 

1. Diane Favro, “The Street Triumphant: The Urban Impact of Roman Triumphal Parades,” in Streets: Critical Perspectives on Public Space , ed. Zeynep Çelik , Diana Favro, and Richard Ingersoll (Berkeley: University of California Press,1994), 153.

1. Favro, “The Street Triumphant,” 156.

In-text citation (called "author-date," an alternative to footnotes)

(Favro 1994, 153)

Bibliography  (alphabetical order and hanging indentation)

Favro, Diane. “The Street Triumphant: The Urban Impact of Roman Triumphal Parades.” In Streets: Critical Perspectives on Public Space, edited by Zeynep Çelik, Diane G. Favro, and Richard Ingersoll, 151-164. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.

Journal Article 

1. Hendrik Dey, “From ‘Street’ to ‘Piazza’: Urban Politics, Public Ceremony, and the Redefinition of platea in Communal Italy and Beyond” Speculum 91, no.4 (October 2016): 919.

1. Dey, “From ‘Street’ to ‘Piazza,’” 932.

Dey, Hendrik. “From ‘Street’ to ‘Piazza’: Urban Politics, Public Ceremony, and the Redefinition of platea in Communal Italy and Beyond.” Speculum 91, no.4 (October 2016): 919-44.

 APA Style 

In-text citation  

(Rykwert 1976 p. 35)

Footnote  (for supplemental information)

1. From  The idea of a town: The anthropology of urban form in Rome, Italy and the ancient world by Joseph  Rykwert, 1976, New Jersey:  Princeton University Press.

Bibliography/Reference  (alphabetical order and hanging indentation)

Rykwert, J. (1976).  The idea of a town: The anthropology of urban form in Rome, Italy and the ancient world .  Princeton University Press.

In-Text Citation

(Favro   1994 p.153)

Footnote (for supplemental information)

1. From the chapter "The street triumphant: The urban impact of Roman triumphal parades" in  Streets: Critical perspectives on public space,  edited by Zeynep Çelik , Diana Favro, and Richard Ingersoll, 1994, Berkeley: University of California Press.

Favro, D. (1994) “The street triumphant: The Urban Impact of Roman Triumphal Parades.” In Zeynep Çelik, Diane G. Favro, and Richard Ingersoll (Eds.),  Streets: Critical Perspectives on Public Space ( pp.151-164). University of California Press.

(Dey 2016 p.919)

Footnote  (for supplemental material)

1. From the article “From ‘street’ to ‘Piazza’: Urban politics, public ceremony, and the Redefinition of platea in Communal Italy and Beyond” by  Hendrik Dey in   Speculum 91(4), 919.  www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/spc/2016/91/4

Dey, H. (2016). From "street" to "piazza": Urban politics, public ceremony, and the redefinition of platea in communal Italy and beyond.  Speculum 91 (4), 919-44. www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/spc/2016/91/4

Citing Visual Sources 

Visual representations created by other people, including photographs, maps, drawings, models, graphs, tables, and blueprints, must be cited.  Citations for visual material may be included at the end of a caption or in a list of figures, similar to but usually separate from the main bibliography.

When they are not merely background design, images are labeled as figures and numbered. In-text references to them refer to the figure number. Sometimes you will have a title after the figure number and a brief descriptive caption below it. 

If you choose to include the citation under the caption, format it like a footnote entry. If you would prefer to have a list of figures for citation information, organize them by figure number and use the format of a bibliographic entry. 

The construction of citations for artwork and illustrations is more flexible and variable than textual sources. Here we have provided an example with full bibliographic information. Use your best judgment and remember that the goals are to be consistent and to provide enough information to credit your source and for someone else to find your source.

Some borrowed material in collages may also need to be cited, but the rules are vague and hard to find. Check with your professor about course standards. 

Visual representations created by other people, including photographs, maps, drawings, models, graphs, tables, and blueprints, must be cited. In APA style, tables are their own category, and all other visual representations are considered figures. Tables and figures both follow the same basic setup. 

When they are not merely background design, images are labeled as figures and numbered and titled above the image. If needed to clarify the meaning or significance of the figure, a note may be placed below it. In-text references to visual sources refer to the figure number (ex. As shown in Figure 1..."). 

Citations for visual material created by other people may either be included under the figure or note or compiled in a list of figures, similar to but usually separate from the main bibliography.

Figures may take up a whole page or be placed at the top or bottom of the page with a blank double-space below or above it.

If you choose to include the citation under the figure, format it like a bibliographic entry. If you would prefer to have a list of figures for citation information, organize them by figure number and use the format of a bibliographic entry. Here is a detailed example. Some figures will require less bibliographic information, but it is a good practice to include as much as you can.

The construction of citations for artwork and illustrations is more flexible and variable than for textual sources. Here we have provided an example with full bibliographic information. Use your best judgment and remember that the goals are to be consistent and to provide enough information to credit your source and for someone else to find your source.

Citing Generative AI

The rules for citing the use of generative AI, both textual and visual, are still evolving. For guidelines on when to cite the use of AI, please refer to the section on Academic Integrity. Here, we will give you suggestions for  how to cite based on what the style guides say and what Harvard University encourages. We again recommend that you to ask your instructors about their expectations for use and citation and to remain consistent in your formatting.

The Chicago Manual of Style currently states that "for most types of writing, you can simply acknowledge the AI tool in your text" with a parenthetical comment stating the use of a specific tool. For example: (Image generated by Midjourney). 

For academic papers or research articles, you should have a numbered footnote or endnote

Footnote - prompt not included in the text of the paper

1. ChatGPT, response to "Suggest three possible responses from community stakeholders to the proposed multi-use development project," OpenAI, March 28, 2024, https://chat.openai.com/chat.

Footnote - prompt included in the text of the paper

1. Text generated by ChatGPT, OpenAI, March 28, 2024, https://chat.oenai.com/chat

Footnote - edited AI-generated text

1. Text generated by ChatGPT, OpenAI, March 28, 2024, edited for clarity, https://chat.oenai.com/chat

In-text citation  (called "author-date," an alternative to footnotes)

(Text generated by ChatGPT, OpenAI) or (Text generated by ChatGPT, OpenAI, edited for clarity)

Chicago does not encourage including generative AI in a bibliography unless the tool also generates a direct link to the same generated content.

https://www-chicagomanualofstyle-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/qanda/data/faq/topics/Documentation/faq0422.html

The APA style team currently says to "describe how you used the tool in your Methods section or in a comparable section of your paper," perhaps the introduction for literature reviews and response papers. In your paper, state the prompt followed by the resulting generated text. Cite generative AI use according to the rules you would use for citing an algorithm. Include the URL if it leads directly to the same generated material; otherwise, the URL is optional.

(OpenAI, 2024) 

Footnote   (for supplemental material)

APA does not yet provide a structure or example for a footnote. If you need to mention generative AI in a footnote, stay as consistent with formatting as possible.

OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

These links take you to external resources for further research on citation styles.

• Chicago Manual of Style 17th Edition Online access to the full manual through Hollis with a quick guide, Q&A, video tutorials, and more.
• CMOS Shop Talk: How Do I Format a List of Figures? A brief description of how to format a list of figures with an attached sample document.
• Documenting and Citing Images in Chicago A Research guide from USC with nice examples of images with citations.
• Harvard Guide to Citing Sources A guide from Harvard Libraries on citing sources in Chicago style.
• A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations: Chicago Style for Students and Researchers A Chicago manual specifically for students with clear and detailed information about citing for papers rather than publications.
• Chicago Manual of Style Q&A Citing Generative Artificial Intelligence
• APA Style The main page of the official APA website that directs you to various topics on style and formatting
• APA Style Manual 7th Edition Online access to the full APA Style Manual (scanned) through Hollis.
• APA Style Common Reference Examples A list of sample references organized by type.
• APA Style Sample Papers Links to sample papers that model how to create citations in APA.
• Formatting Checklist This page is a quick guide to all kinds of formatting, from the title page to the bibliography, with links to more detailed instructions.
• Harvard Guide to Citing Sources A guide from Harvard Libraries on citing sources in APA style.
• Journal Article References This page contains reference examples for journal articles.
• In-Text Citations in APA Style A place to learn more about rules for citing sources in your text.
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Critically Thinking About “Citing Up”

Considering credibility, familiarity, and patience when citing research..

Posted June 12, 2024 | Reviewed by Davia Sills

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I came across an interesting social media post recently in preparation for a professional skills development workshop that I was presenting. The post discussed how academics tend to “cite up” in terms of referencing older, more famous scholars relative to more junior researchers. I thought about this proposition in light of my own citation strategies and knowledge of bibliometrics and concluded that this statement is likely true, but probably not for any explicit bias against junior researchers, as some might posit.

First and foremost, we must consider the purpose of citing research—to represent a source of evidence and indicate that someone didn’t just make up what they’re saying. It’s been established in previous work, and we pay that research kudos to further our argument in context. References are also useful for “ cutting a long story short”—one can cite another’s work that can more fully explain a concept without having to reiterate the whole thing. When I use a reference in my arguments, given that I’m trying to convince the reader of my point, I want to use the most credible source(s) that I can find.

Possible reasons for “citing up”

If Author A is at the apex of credible sources in the field, I’m going to cite them where appropriate. Indeed, if I was reviewing a relevant paper and didn’t see Author A cited, I might be concerned. Of course, one can include multiple citations, but perhaps the reason why more junior or early career researchers are not cited (relative to the Author As out there) is that other researchers may not be as familiar with the early career researchers”—Author Es’—research.

Maybe the citing researcher remembers the research but not the name of the author. Obviously, Author E’s work hasn’t seemed to “stick” yet, maybe because they’re yet to make a bigger impact in the field. Sure, that’s largely the citing researcher’s issue for not having better organized their reading and note-taking, but simply, it’s also an issue of accessibility. If a researcher can’t remember Author E’s name in this context, the credibility of Author A will more than suffice. “Citing up” is not a slight here; it’s just that Author E’s contribution might not be that impactful, accessible, or memorable to a more established researcher. Moreover, I must admit there might be a level of laziness here.

For example, the scenario above is context-dependent. If I can’t remember Author E, that’s fine; I have Author A to cite. However, if Author E is the only appropriate citation, the citing strategy will change. If I know a claim is fundamental to my rationale but I can’t remember where it came from, despite knowing I’ve seen solid evidence for it in the past, I will search for Author E’s paper until I find it (because I have to if there’s no Author A to rely on). This might take time and effort.

I can imagine that some researchers will be reading this and thinking, “Surely, others are reading the new literature and taking notes as they go along or maybe even writing the rationale as they engage the new literature.” Ideally, this should be the case; indeed, it’s a handy way of keeping up-to-date with the literature. However, this does not always happen.

I imagine more established researchers in a field are “familiar enough” with it to write a rationale without having to look up papers every few lines and, instead, are more likely to write what they know. Such is human nature. When they eventually get some free time, they might dedicate a few hours to reading recently published papers. I’m also aware that some researchers are better at this than others. Obviously, this is worrying in the realm of research—perhaps more worrying altogether than the issue of “citing-up.”

With that, what are the chances that a researcher has read every paper in their field? Slim-to-none. Given the exponential increase in the amount of information available to people in the past 25 years and, likewise, the increase in the amount of Ph.D. degrees awarded and research being conducted, being up-to-date with all work in a field just isn’t feasible.

So, maybe “lazy” is unfair in context. Maybe these researchers are indeed reading as much as they can, but because the amount that’s feasible is finite relative to the seemingly endless new research that’s coming out, they might be “pickier” in what they read; for example, prioritizing known and credible researchers in their field. So, there’s a good chance that when only Author A is cited regarding a particular finding, it’s quite possible that it’s because the citing researcher has never even heard of Author E’s paper, let alone read it.

Takeaways for early-career researchers

“New” papers—regardless of when and by whom they’re read, need “sticking power,” and by that, I mean that the research is well-conducted: It is well-written, and interesting food for thought is provided. I compile and read new papers every month—maybe one per session has any sticking power—and that’s not because I’m some kind of research snob; rather, it’s the case that much of it failed some of the criteria above. With that, if the paper had well-conducted research, was well-written, and provided either something novel or some food for thought, then regardless of familiarity, this paper (and its author) would be on my radar for the future. So, just as much as older researchers may be set in their bibliographies or “lazy” referencing, it is most definitely up to younger researchers to publish impactful work.

I completely understand how this is frustrating for early career researchers. I was there once, too. Even though it’s been well over 10 years since I received my Ph.D., I still find myself trying to make the aforementioned impact necessary to be considered one of those “A” researchers in the field. Of course, I get annoyed when I see missed opportunities for other researchers to cite my work. But I’m realistic enough to recognize that maybe they have not come across my work, I have not made a large enough impact for it to be noticed, or the research they did cite was sufficient to make their point. I don’t take it personally, and neither should young researchers. Their time will come, but they must be patient.

Consider the research by Morris, Wooding, and Grant (2011), where it was suggested that it takes approximately 17 years on average for health research implementation from “bench to bedside.” That’s a long time for “research to be realized.” I know citations are different and should be more visible quicker in the land of research, but the same logic applies. Patience—and continued hard work (i.e., to advance one’s research acumen)—are necessary for citation success.

Again, I don’t think that “citing up” is consciously done to slight early career academics; researchers are not conspiring against their junior colleagues—at least, not in my field. If anything, they want to see them and their field flourish. Instead, I think it’s more likely that this issue boils down to an implicit bias (which we all face on a day-to-day basis) toward what we know as familiar, accessible, and credible.

Morris, Z. S., Wooding, S., & Grant, J. (2011). The answer is 17 years, what is the question: understanding time lags in translational research. Journal of the royal society of medicine , 104 (12), 510-520.

Christopher Dwyer, Ph.D., is a lecturer at the Technological University of the Shannon in Athlone, Ireland.

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Predicting citation impact of academic papers across research areas using multiple models and early citations

• Open access
• Published: 25 June 2024

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• Fang Zhang 1 , 2 &
• Shengli Wu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2008-1736 1 , 3  

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As the volume of scientific literature expands rapidly, accurately gauging and predicting the citation impact of academic papers has become increasingly imperative. Citation counts serve as a widely adopted metric for this purpose. While numerous researchers have explored techniques for projecting papers’ citation counts, a prevalent constraint lies in the utilization of a singular model across all papers within a dataset. This universal approach, suitable for small, homogeneous collections, proves less effective for large, heterogeneous collections spanning various research domains, thereby curtailing the practical utility of these methodologies. In this study, we propose a pioneering methodology that deploys multiple models tailored to distinct research domains and integrates early citation data. Our approach encompasses instance-based learning techniques to categorize papers into different research domains and distinct prediction models trained on early citation counts for papers within each domain. We assessed our methodology using two extensive datasets sourced from DBLP and arXiv. Our experimental findings affirm that the proposed classification methodology is both precise and efficient in classifying papers into research domains. Furthermore, the proposed prediction methodology, harnessing multiple domain-specific models and early citations, surpasses four state-of-the-art baseline methods in most instances, substantially enhancing the accuracy of citation impact predictions for diverse collections of academic papers.

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Introduction

The rapid advancement of science and technology has led to a staggering increase in the number of academic publications produced globally each year (Zhu & Ban, 2018 ). In this ever-growing landscape, effectively evaluating the impact of research papers has become a critical issue (Castillo et al., 2007 ; Chakraborty et al., 2014 ; Li et al., 2019 ; Yan et al., 2011 ). Citation count, which measures the frequency with which a paper is referenced by other works, is widely recognized as the most prevalent metric for assessing the influence of academic papers, authors, and institutions (Bu et al., 2021 ; Cao et al., 2016 ; Lu et al., 2017 ; Redner, 1998 ; Stegehuis et al., 2015 ; Wang et al., 2021 ). Building upon the foundation of citation counts, numerous additional measures have been proposed to quantify research impact from various perspectives (Braun et al., 2006 ; Egghe, 2006 ; Garfield, 1972 , 2006 ; Hirsch, 2005 ; Persht, 2009 ; Yan & Ding, 2010 ).

Predicting the impact of scientific papers has garnered significant research attention due to its profound implications (Abramo et al., 2019 ; Abrishami & Aliakbary, 2019 ; Bai et al., 2019 ; Cao et al., 2016 ; Chen & Zhang, 2015 ; Li et al., 2019 ; Liu et al., 2020 ; Ma et al., 2021 ; Ruan et al., 2020 ; Su, 2020 ; Wang et al., 2013 , 2021 , 2023 ; Wen et al., 2020 ; Xu et al., 2019 ; Yan et al., 2011 ; Yu et al., 2014 ; Zhao & Feng, 2022 ; Zhu & Ban, 2018 ). See “ Citation count prediction ” section for more detailed discussion about them. Accurately forecasting the future citation impact of academic papers, particularly those recently published, offers invaluable benefits to various stakeholders within the research ecosystem. Precisely predicting the impact of papers, especially those published for a short time, would be helpful for researchers to find potentially high-impact papers and interesting research topics at an earlier stage. It is also helpful for institutions, government agencies, and funding bodies to evaluate published papers, researchers, and project proposals, among others.

For large and diverse collections encompassing papers from various research areas, a one-size-fits-all approach to citation impact prediction may be inadequate. Even within a broad field like Computing, sub-fields such as Theoretical Computing, Artificial Intelligence, Systems, and Applications can exhibit distinct citation patterns. Previous study has demonstrated that citation dynamics can vary significantly across research areas, journals, researchers in different age groups, among other factors (Kelly, 2015 ; Levitt & Thelwall, 2008 ; Mendoza, 2021 ; Milz & Seifert, 2018 ). To illustrate this point, let us consider an example from the DBLP dataset used in our study. Figure  1 a depicts the average citation distributions of papers in three research areas: Cryptography, Computer Networks, and Software Engineering. We can observe striking differences in their citation patterns:

Software Engineering papers consistently attract relatively few citations over time, without a pronounced peak in their citation curve.

Artificial Intelligence papers garner the highest citation counts among the three areas. Their citation curve rises rapidly, peaking around year 4, followed by a gradual decline until year 7, after which the decrease becomes more precipitous.

Cryptography papers exhibit a steadily increasing citation trend over the first 10 years, reaching a peak around year 11, followed by a slow decline in citations thereafter.

Citation patterns in different research areas or different classes of the same research area

These divergent citation patterns across research areas highlight the limitations of employing a single, universal model for citation impact prediction. In light of these observations, a more effective strategy would be to segment papers into distinct groups based on their research areas and develop tailored prediction models for each group. By accounting for the unique citation characteristics of different domains, such a group-specific modelling approach has the potential to significantly enhance the accuracy and reliability of citation impact predictions, particularly for large and heterogeneous collections of academic papers.

Citation patterns are not solely determined by research areas but also influenced by the quality and intrinsic characteristics of individual papers. Even within the same research area, the citation dynamics of papers can vary considerably (Garfield, 2006 ; Wang et al., 2021 ; Yan & Ding, 2010 ). High-impact papers may exhibit significantly different citation trajectories compared to average or low-impact works. Accounting for these differences by employing multiple models tailored to papers with varying citation potential could further improve prediction performance. Figure  1 b illustrates this phenomenon using an example from the Embedded & Real-Time Systems research area. All papers in this domain can be categorized into four classes based on their cumulative citation counts ( cc ) over 15 years: cc  < 10, 10 ≤  cc  < 50, 50 ≤  cc  < 100, and cc  ≥ 100. The general pattern observed for all the curves is that they initially increase for a few years and then decrease afterwards. However, the peak point varies depending on the total number of citations. Papers with higher citation counts take more years to reach their peak point. This finding suggests that class-based prediction can be a viable approach for our prediction task, as it account for the varying peak times based on the citation count classes.

If all of the papers are not classified, then it is necessary to have a classification system that encompasses multiple categories and an automated method for allocating each paper into one or more suitable categories. For a large collection of papers to be classified, both the effectiveness and efficiency of the allocating method are crucial factors to consider.

Taking into account all the observations mentioned earlier, we propose MM, a prediction method based on Multiple Models tailored for different research areas and citation counts, to predict the future citation counts of a paper. This work makes the following contributions:

A new instance-based learning method is introduced to classify papers into a given number of research areas. Both paper contents (titles and abstracts) and citations are considered separately. An ensemble-based method is then employed to make the final decision. Experiments with the DBLP dataset demonstrate that the proposed method can achieve excellent classification performance.

A prediction method for paper citation counts is proposed. For any paper to be predicted, a suitable prediction model is chosen based on its research area and early citation history. This customized approach enables each document to use a fitting model.

Experiments with two datasets show that the proposed prediction method outperforms four baseline methods in this study, demonstrating its superiority.

The remainder of this article is structured as follows: “ Related work ” section reviews related work on citation count prediction and classification of academic papers. “ Methodology ” section describes the proposed method in detail. “ Experimental settings and results ” section presents the experimental settings, procedures, and results, along with an analysis of the findings. Finally, “ Conclusion ” section concludes the paper.

Related work

In this work, the primary task is citation count prediction of papers, while classification of scientific papers serves as an additional task that may be required for the prediction task. Accordingly, we review some related work on citation count prediction and classification of academic papers separately in the following sections.

• Citation count prediction

In the literature, there are numerous papers on predicting the citation counts of scientific papers. These methods can be categorized into three groups based on the information used for prediction.

The first group relies solely on the paper’s citation history as input. Wang et al. ( 2013 ) developed a model called WSB to predict the total number of citations a paper will receive, assuming its earlier citation data is known. Cao et al. ( 2016 ) proposed a data analytic approach to predict the long-term citation count of a paper using its short-term (three years after publication) citation data. Given a large collection of papers C with long citation histories, for a paper p with a short citation history, they matched it with a group of papers in C with similar early citation data and then used those papers in C to predict p’s later citation counts. Abrishami and Aliakbary ( 2019 ) proposed a long-term citation prediction method called NNCP based on Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) and the sequence-to-sequence model. Their dataset comprised papers published in five authoritative journals: Nature, Science, NEJM (The New England Journal of Medicine), Cell, and PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences). Wang et al. ( 2021 ) introduced a nonlinear predictive combination model, NCFCM, that utilized multilayer perceptron (MLP) to combine WSB and an improved version of AVR for predicting citation counts.

The second group uses not only the citation data but also some other extracted features from the paper or the wider academic network for the prediction task. Yu et al. ( 2014 ) adopted a stepwise multiple regression model using four groups of 24 features, including paper, author, publication, and citation-related features. Bornmann et al. ( 2014 ) took the percentile approach of Hazen ( 1914 ), considering the journal’s impact and other variables such as the number of authors, cited references, and pages. Castillo et al. ( 2007 ) used information about past papers written by the same author(s). Chen and Zhang ( 2015 ) applied Gradient Boosting Regression Trees (GBRT) with six paper content features and 10 author features. Bai et al. ( 2019 ) made long-term predictions using the Gradient Boosting Decision Tree (GBDT) model with five features, including the citation count within 5 years after publication, authors’ impact factor, h-index, Q value, and the journal's impact factor. Akella et al. ( 2021 ) exploited 21 features derived from social media shares, mentions, and reads of scientific papers to predict future citations with various machine learning models, such as Random Forest, Decision Tree, Gradient Boosting, and others. Xu et al. ( 2019 ) extracted 22 features from heterogeneous academic networks and employed a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to capture the complex nonlinear relationship between early network features and the final cumulative citation count. Ruan et al. ( 2020 ) employed a four-layer BP neural network to predict the 5th year citation counts of papers, using a total of 30 features, including paper, author, publication, reference, and early citation-related features. By extracting high-level semantic features from metadata text, Ma et al. ( 2021 ) adopted a neural network to consider both semantic information and the early citation counts to predict long-term citation counts. Wang et al. ( 2023 ) applied neural network technology to a heterogeneous network including author and paper information. Huang et al. ( 2022 ) argued that citations should not be treated equally, as the citing text and the section in which the citation occurs significantly impact its importance. Thus, they applied deep learning models to perform fine-grained citation prediction—not just citation count for the whole paper but citation count occurring in each section.

The third group uses other types of information beyond those mentioned above. To investigate the impact of peer-reviewing data on prediction performance, Li et al. ( 2019 ) adopted a neural network prediction model, incorporating an abstract-review match method and a cross-review match mechanism to learn deep features from peer-reviewing texts. Combining these learned features with breadth features (topic distribution, topic diversity, publication year, number of authors, and average author h-index), they employed a multilayer perceptron (MLP) to predict citation counts. Li et al. ( 2022 ) also utilized peer-reviewing text for prediction, using an aspect-aware capsule network. Zhao and Feng ( 2022 ) proposed an end-to-end deep learning framework called DeepCCP, which takes an early citation network as input and predicts the citation count using both GRU and CNN, instead of extracting features.

Citation counts of a paper can be affected by many factors such as research areas, paper types, age, sex, and other aspects of the authors (Andersen & Nielsen, 2018 ; Mendoza, 2021 ; Thelwall, 2020 ). Levitt and Thelwall ( 2008 ) compared patterns of annual citations of highly cited papers across six research areas. To our knowledge, Abramo et al. ( 2019 ) is the only work that uses multiple regression models for prediction, with one model for each subject category. Abramo et al. ( 2019 ) is the most relevant to our work in this article. However, there are two major differences. First, we propose a paper classification method in this paper, while no paper classification is required in Abramo et al. ( 2019 ). Second, we apply multiple models for papers in each category, whereas only one model is used for each category in Abramo et al. ( 2019 ).

Classification of scientific papers

Classification of scientific papers becomes a critical issue when organizing and managing an increasing number of publications through computerized solutions. In previous research, typically, meta-data such as title, abstract, keywords, and citations of papers were used for this task, while full text was not considered due to its unavailability in most situations.

Various machine learning methods, such as K-Nearest Neighbors (Lukasik et al., 2013 ; Waltman & Van Eck, 2012 ), K-means (Kim & Gil, 2019 ), and Naïve Bayes (Eykens et al., 2021 ), have been applied. Recently, deep neural network models, such as Convolutional Neural Networks (Daradkeh et al., 2022 ; Rivest et al., 2021 ), Recurrent Neural Networks (Hoppe et al., 2021 ; Semberecki & Maciejewski, 2017 ), and pre-trained language models (Hande et al., 2021 ; Kandimalla et al., 2020 ), have also been utilized.

One key issue is the classification system to be used. There are many different classification systems. Both Thomson Reuters’ Web of Science database (WoS) and Elsevier’s Scopus database have their own general classification systems, covering many subjects/research areas. Some systems focus on one particular subject, such as the medical subject headings (MeSH), the physics and astronomy classification scheme (PACS), the Chemical Abstracts Sections, the journal of economic literature (JEL), and the ACM Computing Classification System.

Based on the WoS classification system, Kandimalla et al. ( 2020 ) applied a deep attentive neural network (DANN) to a collection of papers from the WoS database for the classification task. It was assumed that each paper belonged to only one category, and only abstracts were used.

Zhang et al. ( 2022 ) compared three classification systems: Thomson Reuters’ Web of Science, Fields of Research provided by Dimensions, and the Subjects Classification provided by Springer Nature. Among these, the second one was generated by machine learning methods automatically, while the other two were generated manually by human experts. It is found there are significant inconsistency between machine and human-generated systems.

Rather than using an existing classification system, some researchers build their own classification system using the collection to be classified or other resources such as Wikipedia.

Shen et al. ( 2018 ) organized scientific publications into a hierarchical concept structure of up to six levels. The first two levels (similar to areas and sub-areas) were manually selected, while the others were automatically generated. Wikipedia pages were used to represent the concepts. Each publication or concept was represented as an embedding vector, thus the similarity between a publication and a concept could be calculated by the cosine similarity of their vector representations. It is a core component for the construction of the Microsoft Academic Graph.

In the same vein as Shen et al. ( 2018 ), Toney-Wails and Dunham ( 2022 ) also used Wikipedia pages to represent concepts and build the classification system. Both publications and concepts were represented as embedding vectors. Their database contains more than 184 million documents in English and more than 44 million documents in Chinese.

Mendoza et al. ( 2022 ) presented a benchmark corpus and a classification system as well, which could be used for the academic paper classification task. The classification system used is the 36 subjects defined in the UK Research Excellent Framework. Footnote 1 According to Cressey and Gibney ( 2014 ), this practice is the largest overall assessment of university research outputs ever undertaken globally. The 191,000 submissions to REF 2014 comprise a very good data set because every paper was manually categorized by experts when submitted.

Liu et al. ( 2022 ) described the NLPCC 2022 Task 5 Track 1, a multi-label classification task for scientific literature, where one paper may belong to multiple categories simultaneously. The data set, crawled from the American Chemistry Society’s publication website, comprises 95,000 papers’ meta-data including titles and abstracts. A hierarchical classification system, with a maximum of three levels, was also defined.

As we can see, the classification problem of academic papers is quite complicated. Many classification systems and classification methods are available. However, classification systems and classification methods are related to each other. The major goal of this work is to perform citation count prediction of published papers, in which classification of papers is a basic requirement. For example, considering the DBLP dataset which includes over four million papers, special consideration is required to perform the classification task effectively and efficiently. We used the classification system from CSRankings, Footnote 2 which included a set of four categories (research areas) and 26 sub-categories in total. A group of top venues were identified for each sub-category. However, many more venues in DBLP are not assigned to any category. We used all those recommended venue papers in the CSRankings system as representative papers of a given research area. An instance-based learning approach was used to measure the semantic similarity of the target paper and all the papers in a particular area. A decision could be made based on the similarity scores that the target paper obtained for all research areas. Besides, citation data between the target paper and all the papers in those recommended venues is also considered. Quite different from those proposed classification methods before, this instance-based learning approach suits our purpose well. See “ Methodology ” section for more details.

Methodology

This research aims to predict the number of citations of academic papers in the next couple of years based on their metadata including title, abstract and citation data since publication. The main idea of our approach is: for a paper, depends on its research area and early citation count, we use a specific model to make the prediction. There are two key issues. Academic paper classification and citation count prediction methods. Let us detail them one by one in the following subsections.

Computing classification system

To carry out the classification task of academic papers, a suitable classification system is required. There are many classification systems available for natural science, social science, humanities, or specific branches of science or technology. Since one of the datasets used in this study is DBLP, which includes over four million papers on computer science so far, we will focus our discussion on classification systems and methods for computer science.

In computer science, there are quite a few classification systems available. For example, both the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and the China Computer Federation (CCF) define their own classification systems. However, both are not very suitable for our purpose. The ACM’s classification system is quite complicated, but it does not provide any representative venues for any of the research areas. The CCF defines 10 categories and recommends dozens of venues in each category. However, some journals and conferences publish papers in more than one category, but they are only recommended in one category. For instance, both the journals IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering and Data and Knowledge Engineering publish papers on Information Systems and Artificial Intelligence, but they are only recommended in the Database/Data Mining/Content Retrieval category.

In this research, we used the classification system from CSRankings. This system divides computer science into four areas: AI, System, Theory, and Interdisciplinary Areas. Then, each area is further divided into several sub-areas, totalling 26 sub-areas. We flatten these 26 sub-areas for classification, while ignoring the four general areas at level one. One benefit of using this system is that it lists several key venues for every sub-area. For example, three venues are identified for Computer Vision: CVPR (IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition), ECCV (European Conference on Computer Vision), and ICCV (IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision). This is very useful for the paper classification task, as we will discuss now.

Paper classification

For this research, we need a classification algorithm that can perform the classification task for all the papers in the DBLP dataset effectively and efficiently.

Although many classification methods have been proposed, we could not find a method that suits our case well. Therefore, we developed our own approach. Using the classification system of CSRankings, we assume that all the papers published in those identified venues belong to that given research area, referred to as seed papers. For all the non-seed papers, we need to decide the areas to which they belong. This is done by considering three aspects together: content, references, and citations. Let us look at the first aspect first.

The collection of all the seed papers, denoted as C , was indexed using the Search engine Lucene Footnote 3 with the BM25 model. Both titles and abstracts were used in the indexing process. Each research area \({a}_{k}\) is presented by all its seed papers C ( \({a}_{k}\) ). For a given non-seed paper p , we use its title and abstract as a query to search for similar papers in C . Then each seed paper s will obtain a score (similarity between p and s )

in which b 1 and b 2 are two parameters (set to 0.75 and 1.2, respectively, as default setting values of Lucene in the experiments), T s is the set of all the terms in s , \(AL(C)\) is the average length of all the documents in C , \(f\left({t}_{j},s\right)\) is the term frequency of \({t}_{j}\) in s , \(idf\left({t}_{j}\right)\) is the inverse document frequency of \({t}_{j}\) in collection C with all the seed papers. \(idf\left({t}_{j}\right)\) is defined as

in which \(\left|C\right|\) is the number of papers in \(C\) , and \(\left|C({t}_{j})\right|\) is the number of papers in C satisfying the condition that \({t}_{j}\) appears in them. For a paper p and a research area \({a}_{k}\) , we can calculate the average similarity score between p and all the seed papers in C ( \({a}_{k}\) ) as

where C ( \({a}_{k}\) ) is the collection of seed papers in area \({a}_{k}\) .

We also consider citations between \(p\) and any of the papers in C . Citations in two different directions are considered separately: \(citingNum\left( p,{a}_{k}\right)\) denotes the number of papers in C ( \({a}_{k}\) ) that p cites, and \(citedNum\left(p,{a}_{k}\right)\) denotes the number of papers in C ( \({a}_{k}\) ) that cites p . Now we want to combine the three features. Normalization is required. For example, \(sim\left({p,a}_{k}\right)\) can be normalized by

in which \(RA\) is the set of 26 research areas. \(citingNum\left(p,{a}_{k}\right)\) and \(citedNum\left(p,{a}_{k}\right)\) can be normalized similarly. Then we let

for any \({a}_{k}\in RArea\) , in which \({\beta }_{1}\) , \({\beta }_{2}\) , and \({\beta }_{3}\) are three parameters. When applying Eq.  5 to \(p\) and all 26 research areas, we may obtain corresponding scores for each area. p can be put to research area \({a}_{k}\) if \(score\left(p,{a}_{k}\right)\) is the biggest among all 26 scores for all research areas. The values of \({\beta }_{1}\) , \({\beta }_{2}\) , and \({\beta }_{3}\) are decided by Euclidean Distance with multiple linear regression with a training data set (Wu et al., 2023 ). Compared with other similar methods such as Stacking with MLS and StackingC, this method can achieve comparable performance but much more efficient than the others. It should be very suitable for large-scale datasets.

In this study, we assume that each paper just belongs to one of the research areas. If required, this method can be modified to support multi-label classification, then a paper may belong to more than one research area at the same time. We may set a reasonable threshold \(\tau\) , and for any testing paper \(p\) and research area \({a}_{k}\) , if \(score\left(p,{a}_{k}\right)>\tau\) , then paper \(p\) belongs to research area \({a}_{k}\) . However, this is beyond the scope of this research, and we leave it for further study.

In summary, the proposed classification algorithm instance-based learning (IBL) is sketched as follows:

As we observed that papers in the same research area may have different citation patterns, it is better to treat them using multiple prediction models rather than one unified model. Therefore, for all the papers in a research area, we divide them into up to 10 groups according to the number of citations already obtained in the first m years. In a specific research area, for a group of papers considered, we count the number of citations they obtained during a certain period. We use cc ( i ) to represent the number of papers cited i times, where i ranges from 0 to n .

A threshold of 100 is set. We consider the values of cc (0), cc (1),…, cc ( n ) in order. If cc (0) is greater than or equal to the threshold, we create a group with those papers that received zero citations. Otherwise, we combine cc (0) with cc (1), and if the sum is still less than the threshold, we continue adding the next value cc (2), and so on, until the cumulative sum reaches or exceeds the threshold. At this point, we create a group with all the papers contributing to that cumulative sum. We then move on to the next unassigned value of cc ( i ) and repeat the process, creating new groups until all papers are assigned to a group. The last group may contain fewer than 100 papers, but it is still considered a valid group.

A regression model is set for each of these groups for prediction. For the training data set, all the papers are classified by research area with known citation history of up to t years. For all the papers belonging to a group \({g}_{i}\) inside a research area \({a}_{k}\) , we put their information together. Consider

\({c}_{0}\) , \({c}_{1}\) , …, \({c}_{m}\) , and \({\text{c}}_{t}\) are citation counts of all the papers involved up to year 0, 1,…, m , and in year t ( t  ≥  m ). We can train the weights \({\text{w}}_{0}\) , \({\text{w}}_{1}\) ,…, \({\text{w}}_{m}\) , and b for this group by multiple linear regression using \({c}_{0}\) , \({c}_{1}\) , …, \({c}_{m}\) as independent variables and \(c^{\prime}_{t}\) as the target variable. The same applies to all other groups and research areas.

To predict the future citation counts of a paper, we need to decide which research area and group that paper should be in. Then the corresponding model can be chosen for the prediction. Algorithm MM is sketched as follows:

Note that classification and citation count prediction are two separate tasks. When performing the citation count prediction task, it is required that all the papers involved should have a research area label. Such a requirement can be satisfied in different ways. For example, in the WoS system, it has a list of journals, and each journal is assigned to one or two research areas. All the papers published in those journals are classified by the journals publishing them. In arXiv, an open-access repository of scientific papers, all the papers are assigned a research area label by the authors when uploading them. When performing the citation count prediction task on such datasets, we do not need to do anything else. However, for papers in DBLP, all the papers are not classified. It is necessary to classify them in some way before we can perform citation count prediction for all the papers involved. In this study, we proposed an instance-based learning approach, which provides an efficient and effective solution to this problem.

Experimental settings and results

Two datasets were used for this study. One is a DBLP dataset, and other is an arXiv dataset.

We downloaded a DBLP dataset (Tang et al., 2008 ). Footnote 4 It contains 4,107,340 papers in computer science and 36,624,464 citations from 1961 to 2019. For every paper, the dataset provides its metadata, such as title, abstract, references, authors and their affiliations, publication year, the venue in which the paper was published, and citations since publication. Some subsets of it were used in this study.

For the classification part, we used two subsets of the dataset. The first one ( C 1 ) is all the papers published in those 72 recommended venues in CSRankings between 1965 and 2019. There are 191,727 papers. C 1 is used as seed papers for all 26 research areas. The second subset ( C 2 ) includes 1300 papers, 50 for each research area. Those papers were randomly selected from a group of 54 conferences and journals and judged manually. C 2 is used for the testing of the proposed classification method.

For the prediction part, we also used two subsets. One subset for training and the other for testing. The training dataset ( C 3 ) includes selected papers published between 1990 and 1994, and the testing dataset ( C 4 ) includes selected papers published in 1995. For all those papers between 1990 and 1994 or in 1995, we removed those that did not get any citation and those with incomplete information. After such processing, we obtain 38,247 papers for dataset C 3 , and 9967 papers for dataset C 4 .

We also downloaded an arXiv dataset (Saier and Farber, 2020 ). Footnote 5 It contains 1,043,126 papers in many research areas including Physics, Mathematics, Computer Science, and others, with 15,954,664 citations from 1991 to 2022. For every paper, its metadata such as title, abstract, references, authors and affiliations, publication year, and citations since publication was provided. Importantly, each paper is given a research area label by the authors. Therefore, it is no need to classify papers when we use this dataset for citation count prediction. Two subsets were generated in this study. One subset for training and the other for testing. The training dataset ( C 5 ) includes all the papers published between 2008 and 2013, and the testing dataset ( C 6 ) includes all the papers published in 2014. There are 5876 papers in dataset C 5 and 1471papers in dataset C 6 .

Classification results

In the CSRankings classification system, there are a total of 26 special research areas. A few top venues are recommended for each of them. We assume that all the papers published in those recommended conferences belong to the corresponding research area solely. For example, three conferences CVPR, ECCV, and ICCV are recommended for Computer Vision. We assume that all the papers published in these three conferences belong to the Computer Vision research area but no others.

To evaluate the proposed method, we used a set of 1300 non-seed papers ( C 2 ). It included 50 papers for each research area. All of them were labelled manually. In Eq.  5 , three parameters need to be trained. Therefore, we divided those 1300 papers into two equal partitions of 650, and each included the same number of papers in every research area. Then the two-fold cross-validation was performed. Table 1 shows the average performance.

We can see that the proposed method with all three features, content similarity (Sim), citation to other papers (To evaluate the proposed method, we used a set of 1300 non-seed papers ( C 2 ). It included 50 papers for each research area. All of them were labelled manually. In Eq.  5 , three parameters need to be trained. Therefore, we divided those 1300 papers into two equal partitions of 650, and each included the same number of papers in every research area. Then the two-fold cross-validation was performed. Table 1 shows the average performance.

We can see that the proposed method with all three features, content similarity ( \(sim\) ), citation to other papers ( \(citingNum\) ), and citation by others ( \(citedNum\) ), are useful for the classification task. Roughly citation in both directions ( \(citingNum+citedNum\) ) and content similarity ( \(sim\) ) have the same ability. Considering three features together, we can obtain an accuracy, or an F-measure, of approaching 0.8. We are satisfied with this solution. On the one hand, its classification performance is good compared with other methods in the same category, e.g., (Ambalavanan & Devarakonda, 2020 ; Kandimalla et al., 2020 ). In Kandimalla et al. ( 2020 ), F-scores across 81 subject categories are between 0.5 and 0.8 (See Fig.  1 in that paper). In Ambalavanan and Devarakonda ( 2020 ), the four models ITL, Cascade Learner, Ensemble-Boolean, and Ensemble-FFN obtain an F-score of 0.553, 0.753, 0.628, and 0.477, respectively, on the Marshall dataset they experimented with (see Table  4 in their paper). Although those results may not be comparable since the datasets used are different, it is an indicator that our method is very good. Besides, our method can be implemented very efficiently. When the seed papers are indexed, we can deal with a large collection of papers very quickly with very little resource. The method is very scalable.

Setting for the prediction task

For the proposed method MM, we set 10 as the number of groups in each research area for the DBLP dataset, and 5 for the arXiv dataset. This is mainly because the arXiv dataset is smaller and has fewer papers in each research area.

Apart from MM, five baseline prediction methods were used for comparison:

Mean of early years (MEY). It is a simple prediction function which returns the average of early citations of the paper as its predicted citations in the future (Abrishami & Aliakbary, 2019 ).

AVR. Assume that there is a collection of papers with known citation history as the training data set. For a given paper for prediction, this method finds a group of most similar papers in the training set relating to their early citations (with the minimal sum of the squared citation count difference over the years), and then utilizes the average citations of those similar papers in the subsequent years as the predicted citation counts of the paper (Cao et al., 2016 ).

RNN adopts a Recurrent Neural Network to predict papers’ future citation counts based on their early citation data (Abrishami & Aliakbary, 2019 ).

OLS. Linear regression is used for the prediction model (Abramo et al., 2019 ). There are four variants. Both OLS_res and OLS_log only use early citations as independent variables in their prediction models, while OLS2_res and OLS2_log use early citations and impact factors of journals in their prediction models. OLS_res and OLS2_res apply a linear regularization to their early citations, while OLS_log and OLS2_log apply a logarithmic regularization to their early citations.

NCFCM adopts a neural network to predict papers’ future citation counts based on early citation data and two simple prediction model data (Wang et al., 2021 ).

Evaluation metrics

Two popular metrics are used to evaluate the proposed method and compare it with the baselines: mean square error (MSE) and the coefficient of determination (R 2 ). For a given set of actual values Y \(=\{{y}_{1},{y}_{2},\dots ,{y}_{n}\}\) and set of predicted values \(\widehat{Y\boldsymbol{ }}=\{{\widehat{y}}_{1},{\widehat{y}}_{2},\dots ,{\widehat{y}}_{n}\}\) , MSE and R 2 are defined as follows:

where \({\overline{y} }_{i}\) is the average of all n values in y . MSE measures the variation of the predicted values from the actual values, thus smaller values of MSE are desirable. R 2 measures the corelation between the predicted values and actual values, and its value is between 0 and 1, where R 2  = 0 means no correlation, R 2  = 1 means a perfect positive correlation between the predicted values and the actual values, thus larger values of R 2 are desirable.

Evaluation results

Evaluation has been carried out on two different aspects: overall performance for all the papers and for 100 highly citated papers.

Overall prediction performance

For papers with 0–5 years of citation history, we predict their citation counts in three continuous years in the future. The results are shown in Tables 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 . “Zero years of early citation data” means that the prediction was made in the same year as the paper was published. “One year of early citation data” means that the prediction was made in the next year as the paper was published. The number in bold indicates the best performance.

One can see that MM performs the best in most cases. In a few cases, OLS2_res performs the best. This is because OLS2_res considers both the paper’s early citation history and the journal’s impact factor, and the latter is not considered in any other method. In this way, it gives OLS2_res some advantages, especially when the citation history is very short. In a few cases, RNN performs the best on the arXiv dataset. In one case, AVE and NCFCM tied for first place in R 2 . Because linear regression is used in both OLS_res and MM, a comparison between them is able to show that dividing papers into multiple research areas is a very useful strategy for us to obtain better prediction performance. See “ Ablation Study of MM ” section for further experiments and analysis.

Prediction performance of highly cited papers

An important application of citation prediction is the early detection of highly cited papers (Abrishami & Aliakbary, 2019 ). Therefore, we evaluate the performance of the proposed method and its competitors in predicting highly cited papers. Based on the total citation counts in 2000 (DBLP) and in 2019 (arXiv), 100 most cited papers were selected for prediction. For all the papers involved, we compute the MSE values between the predicted citation counts and the actual citation counts of them. The results are shown in Table  8 .

From Table  8 , one can see that MM performs better than all the others, except when k  = 0 (which means zero years of early citation data) OLS2_res performs slightly better than MM in the DBLP dataset. In all other cases, MM outperforms the competing methods.

Ablation study of MM

MM mainly incorporates two factors including research area and early citation counts into consideration. It is desirable to find how these two factors impact prediction performance. Another angle is the number of groups divided in each research area. To find out the impact of these features on prediction performance, we define some variants that implement none or one of the features of MM.

MM-RA (RA). A variant of the MM algorithm that only considers research area but not early citation counts.

MM-CC (CC). A variant of the MM algorithm that only considers early citation counts.

MM-5. A variant of the MM algorithm that divides all the papers in the area into 5 instead of 10 groups.

MEY. It is a simplest variant of MM. It considers neither research area nor early citation counts.

Now let us have a look at how these variants perform compared with the original algorithm. See Tables 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 for the results. It is not surprising that MM performs better than three variants of MM including RA, CC and MEY, while MEY, the variant with none of the two components, performs the worst in predicting the citation counts of papers. Such a phenomenon demonstrates that both components including research area and early citation counts are useful for prediction performance, either used separately or in combination. However, the usefulness of these two components is not the same. The performance of CC is not as good as RA when k  = 0 and k  = 1, but better than RA when k  > 1. Understandably, this indicates that RA is a more useful resource than citation history when the citation history is short, but the latter becomes more and more useful when the citation history becomes longer.

When applying the standard MM algorithm, we divide all the papers in one research area into 10 groups based on the number of citations they obtain in the early years. MM-5 reduces the number of groups from 10 to 5 simply by combining two neighbouring groups to one. MM is better than MM-5 in most cases and on average. The difference between them is small in most cases. However, it is noticeable that MM-5 performs better than MM in two cases, mainly because the size of some of the groups is very small, and the prediction based on such small groups is not very accurate.

Impact of classification on MM

For the DBLP dataset, some papers were classified automatically through the venues in which they were published, while many others were classified through the classification method IBL. It would be interesting to make a comparison of these two groups when performing the prediction task. The results are shown in Table  16 We can see that the group of non-seed papers gets better perdition results than the group of seed papers by a clear margin in all the cases. This demonstrates that the two methods IBL and MM can work together well for achieving good prediction results. On the other hand, such a result is a little surprising. Why can the non-seed group perform better than the seed group? One major reason is for the citation count prediction task, MSE values and citation counts have a strong positive correlation. In this case, there are 2346 seed papers ( C 7 ), whose average citation count is 6.339, while there are 7621 non-seed papers ( C 8 ), whose average citation count is 3.085. These two groups are not directly comparable because of the difference in average citation counts. Note that C 4  =  C 7  +  C 8 (see “ Datasets ” section for C 4 ’s definition).

To make the comparison fair to both parties, we select a subgroup from each of them by adding a restriction: those papers obtain a citation count in the range of [10,20] by the year 2000. We obtain 318 papers ( C 9 ) from the seed paper group and 418 papers ( C 10 ) from the non-seed paper group. Coincidentally, the average citation counts for both sub-groups are the same: 13.443. This time, the two groups are in a perfect condition for a comparison. Table 17 shows the results. Not surprisingly, those MSE value pairs are very close. It demonstrates that for papers either classified by our classification algorithm IBL, or categorized by recommended top venues, the prediction is equally good. It also implies that IBL can perform the classification work properly.

Different from previous studies, this paper applies multiple models to predict the citation counts of papers in the next couple of years, and each model fits a special research area and early citation history of the paper in question. The rationale behind this is: in general, papers in different research areas and with different early citation counts have their own citation patterns. To verify the prediction performance of the proposed method, we have tested it with two datasets taken from DBLP and arXiv. The experimental results show that the proposed MM method outperforms all the baseline methods involved in most cases in two tasks: the overall prediction performance of a large collection of paper and prediction performance of a group of highly cited papers.

As an important component of prediction for research papers, we have also presented a novel instance-based learning model for classification of research papers. By predefining a small group of papers in each category, the proposed method can classify new papers very efficiently with good accuracy.

As our future work, we would incorporating other types of information such as publication venues and author information. Then, prediction performance can be further improved. Secondly, we plan to explore using some deep learning methods for research paper classification. For example, such methods can be used to compare the content similarity of two research papers.

https://ref.ac.uk/2014/

https://CSRankings.org

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Zhang, F., Wu, S. Predicting citation impact of academic papers across research areas using multiple models and early citations. Scientometrics (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-024-05086-0

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