aquaculture business plan in zambia

Sustainable fish farming for Zambia’s women groups: opportunities and challenges

The triumphs and trials of a Zambian cooperative's efforts to foster sustainable fish farming and empower women groups in the industry.

Siavonga Breams Multi-Purpose Co-operative Limited (SBCL) is a group of small-scale fish farmers domiciled around Lake Kariba in the Siavonga district of Zambia’s southern province. The vision of the cooperative is to improve the livelihoods of people living in poverty by lifting small-scale fish communities out of poverty through the provision of income-generating opportunities along the aquaculture sub-sector value chain.

Since its inception in 2013, the cooperative has evolved from fish trading and sourcing to aqua garden out-grower schemes. In 2021, SBCL became a recipient of Innovations Against Poverty (IAP)’s financial and non-financial support, to implement a plan based on inclusive innovation on Lake Kariba. The business plan aimed at developing eight floating fish cages on Lake Kariba for practicing sustainable fish farming and engaging women's participation in the fish value chain as distributors.

An inclusive business model

Over time, the implementation of the business plan has been dynamic, adapting to the changing economic and social climate in the country. In the initial business plan, eight women groups, comprising 45 members each, were to be enlisted. Each group was to contribute towards their participation through cost sharing in procuring feed and fingerlings, among other costs. As of 2022, eight women groups were enlisted, five from Siavonga and three from Lusaka. The primary activity was to be small-scale fish farming (360 persons), followed by distribution activities (70 persons). The women groups were eventually registered as legal bodies in the form of cooperatives. Due to increasing fish feed prices as well as predatory competition from other players, none of the women groups could raise sufficient funds to participate in growing tilapia fish at the aqua gardens. Subsequently, SBCL assisted the women cooperatives to apply for grants from the Zambian Government’s schemes for women empowerment. However, upon receipt of the grants, the women groups opted to venture into what they considered to be less risky endeavours that seemed to provide quicker and better returns, such as poultry farming and community-based banking.

Commercial challenges

By the end of 2022, the cooperative had enlisted over 170 distributors in Siavonga, Lusaka and Kasumbalesa but could not meet their high demand because of inadequate production and lack of continuity or sustained monthly harvests from the Aqua Garden. The low fish production volumes and harvest were compromising the commercial viability of the business. Even by this time, no women groups had participated in small-scale fish farming due to perceived high risks like theft, high costs of production, and price fluctuations for fish feed and fish selling prices. Only six cages were operational at the Aqua Garden instead of eight because of the increase in prices of fish cage manufacture against the budget. In turn, cages seven and eight would be hired based on the production circle and the availability of operating capital. The same situation extended to fingerlings and fish feed procurement.

The implementation phase of the project was also hampered by a rise in inflation between 2021 and 2023. The Cooperative had to account for the price volatility of inputs and remaining capital assets from its own resources where possible, otherwise, the deliverables had to be adjusted according to the planned budget.

Reflections as to why the cooperative did not meet all its outcomes point to both internal and external factors. Internally, most of the members, especially from the women groups, did not take ownership and avoided taking business risks to invest resources to run the cooperative. Another learning is that different responsibilities were not optimally shared. For instance, the managing director of SBCL would be actively involved in day-to-day operations, whilst other members would not, mainly showing interest during the fish harvest period. One other challenge that the cooperative faced was not having a fully integrated and dedicated team available on a daily basis to tackle the different operational issues of running the Aqua Garden. Although the company received support from IAP to integrate different systems and policies, adoption was still slow and there was a need for continuous coaching.

To resolve this, IAP provided the cooperative and women groups with training in business skills and Safety, Health, and Environmental Quality, equipping them with the necessary skills to ensure success.

Struggling with theft and competition

During the last quarter of 2022, Siavonga Breams experienced pilferage of fish from the Aqua Garden for the first time, and the cooperative suffered a loss in production and ultimately, sales. The risk was addressed through a holistic approach, implementing various security measures that prevent pilferage. These included hiring a pontoon to be stationed at the Aqua Garden during the harvest period, installing additional solar-powered CCTV, installing mesh wires on top of the cages, and working closely with the police to patrol the lake in the period leading up to harvest.

The introduction of other players such as the Chinese fish farms to the Siavonga district’s aquaculture value chain has brought both positive and negative experiences. The theft of fish from small-scale fish farms has declined due to the excess of fish supply in the Chinese fish farms, where the criminals have presumably drifted to. The fish pilfered from these farms has flooded the black market and the informal sector, thereby reducing the incentive for thieves to continue taking the risk.

The Chinese investors entered the fish market with “predatory” pricing to kill off the competition. Their farms were churning out tons of fish into the market daily at reduced prices, putting several small-scale fish farms out of business, as it proved to be cheaper for the commercial fish farms to buy fish from the Chinese compared to producing their own.

However, with time, the Chinese fish farm model backfired on them because the massive production levels could not be absorbed by the market, resulting in their fish overstaying in cages and growing to sizes not preferred by the local market. With time, they could not sustain the reduced prices and started offering their products at a commercial rate like all other farms. The category of small to medium-sized fish was also not over-produced by Chinese the Chinese fish farms, thereby opening a window for small-scale fish farmers to compete favourably by supplying that category.

Overcoming hurdles

The cooperative’s business plan was focused on stocking fingerlings and fish in a staggered fashion to allow for continuous and sustained harvesting and supplying of fish to the market. However, to meet production levels within the budget and agreed milestones, whilst considering the off-stocking season, stocking in the initial project cycles was lumped with a corresponding pattern to harvests. This created a challenge when it came to selling the fish – especially with the absence of cold chain facilities, and the fish had to ultimately be sold cheaply to clear the stock before it went bad. By the end of December 2022, the cooperative was able to hit a sales margin of € 42,316, against a total project cost of € 136,304. IAP’s contribution amounted to € 57,955, and € 78,349 were co-investment by the cooperative.

More distributors were since enlisted, but not all could be served because some were seasonal marketeers whilst others would already have stock on the days SBCL was offloading its stock. In other instances, the distributors lacked the money or had ventured into other business undertakings that offered quick daily or weekly returns.

In terms of capital investment, before IAP, SBCL had four floating fish cages on site that have increased to six, and investments were also made into CCTV security systems, digital scales, and holding containers. SBCL also made strides in the marketing and operational activities with the opening of a wholesale fish depot in Lusaka, complete with a cold room and deep freezers.

SBCL’s social and commercial impact in the community of Siavonga was non-existent, but through IAP, the project helped church women groups get registered as cooperatives and apply for government-sponsored women empowerment grants with 100% awards. Before IAP, SBCL was supplying its fish to the open market, but by the end of 2022, the cooperative was marketing and selling its own fish brand, ‘LITAPI’, through small chain stores, community markets, and other sales leads.

Learn more about the IAP project

National Aquaculture Trade Development Strategy and Action Plan 2020 - 2024.

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From Pond to Profit: How Zambia’s Aquaculture Industry can Drive the Blue Economy Growth

Bernadette Deka-Zulu (PhD Researcher-Public Enterprise)

Last week, we explored potential of the ‘Blue Economy’ in Zambia. Today, we delve into Zambia’s aquaculture industry particularly the fisheries sector. Having been growing steadily in recent years, the fisheries industry is expected to continue as the country seeks to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on copper mining. The industry offers a range of investment opportunities for entrepreneurs and investors, particularly for Micro, Small and Medium (MSMEs) fish farmers, who can benefit from government incentives and private funding options.

The potential of the aquaculture sector to boost food security and create employment in Zambia cannot be overstated. With a population of over 17 million people and a growing demand for fish, the current gap in fish production, which stands at over 60%, presents a significant challenge. This gap has resulted in an increased reliance on imported fish, which is often more expensive and of lower quality.

However, this gap also presents a unique opportunity for entrepreneurs and investors to tap into the potential of the aquaculture sector and contribute to the country’s economic growth. By investing in fish farming, innovative businesses can help to close the gap in fish production and improve food security.

Furthermore, the aquaculture industry has the potential to create employment as well as drive exports-as Zambia’s fish can be exported to other countries in the region, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola. This can bring in much-needed foreign exchange and help to reduce Zambia’s trade deficit.

Current Gap in Fish Production in Zambia

Zambia is facing a significant gap in fish production, with over 60% of the country’s demand for fish being met through imports. The current annual demand for fish and potential capacity in the country is estimated to be over 160,000 metric tons, while the local production is only around 65,000 to 80,000 metric tons per annum. This shortfall presents a significant challenge to the country’s economy and food security.

The demand for fish is driven by several factors, including population growth, urbanization, and changing dietary habits. Fish is a significant source of protein for many Zambians, and as the population grows, the demand for fish is expected to increase. Additionally, as more people move to urban areas, the demand for fish is likely to rise, as urban dwellers tend to consume more fish than rural populations.

The current gap in fish production has several negative impacts on the country’s economy. Firstly, the reliance on imported fish means that Zambia is spending a significant amount of foreign exchange to meet the demand for fish. This can lead to a trade deficit, as the country’s exports may not be enough to cover the cost of imported fish.

Secondly, the high cost of imported fish makes it difficult for many Zambians to afford this important source of protein particularly among low-income households.

Finally, the current gap in fish production represents a missed economic opportunity for Zambia. By increasing local fish production, the country can create employment opportunities and generate revenue from exports. This can help to reduce poverty and improve the livelihoods of millions of people in the country.

Fisheries Production in Zambia

Zambia has a variety of fish species that can be produced through aquaculture, but the two most common species are tilapia and catfish. Tilapia is a popular species in Zambia due to its hardiness, fast growth rate, and excellent taste. Catfish is also a popular species due to its unique flavor and texture.

Tilapia is the most widely farmed fish in Zambia, with over 80% of local production being tilapia. This is due tothe high demand for tilapia in the market, as it is a popular and affordable source of protein. Tilapia is also preferred because it can be farmed in a variety of environments, including ponds, tanks, and cages.

Catfish, on the other hand, is less commonly farmed than tilapia, but it has a growing market demand in Zambia. Catfish is known for its unique taste and texture, which makes it popular among consumers. Additionally, catfish is hardy and can be farmed in a variety of environments, making it a good option for small-scale farmers.

Both tilapia and catfish have good market demand in Zambia, and the demand is expected to increase as the population grows and dietary habits change. The market for fish in Zambia is driven by factors such as population growth, urbanization, and an increasing awareness of the health benefits of fish consumption.

In addition to tilapia and catfish, Kapenta, is a type of small, freshwater sardine, which forms part of staple foods in the Zambian diet, is commonly consumed dried or smoked. However, kapenta is expensive on the Zambian market due to its high demand and limited supply.

Despite its high cost, kapenta remains a popular and important food source for many Zambians, especially those living in rural areas.

Sectoral Investment Opportunities

Investing in the production of a variety of fish species in Zambia can be a profitable venture, especially for small-scale farmers.

This presents an opportunity venture capitals to invest in the production of kapenta and help to increase the local supply, thereby reducing the cost and making it more accessible to consumers. Kapenta is currently on high demand across the country.

Investors and entrepreneurs can also tap into the potential of the tilapia and catfish markets.

By improving the efficiency and productivity of fish farms, businesses can increase local fish production and help to close the gap in fish production. This can also help to create employment opportunities and boost the country’s economic growth.

As it we have established, the aquaculture industry is an important part of Zambia’s blue economy, and its growth has the potential to drive economic development and improve the livelihoods of millions of people. By investing in the sector, entrepreneurs and investors can help to close the gap in fish production, boost food security, and create employment opportunities in the country.

Current Suppliers and Successful Aquaculture Businesses

Currently, fish in Zambia is supplied by both large and small-scale farmers, as well as through imports. Large-scale farmers tend to produce the majority of fish in the country, while small-scale farmers contribute a smaller portion of the total production. However, small-scale farmers have an essential role in providing employment opportunities and contributing to local food security.

Investment opportunities in the aquaculture industry in Zambia are numerous and diverse, ranging from small-scale family farms to medium and subsequently large commercial enterprises. The government of Zambia has implemented several incentives to attract investment in the sector, including tax breaks and subsidies for inputs such as feed and fingerlings. More can be done by private sector investment funding companies.

Successful fishery businesses in Zambia provide examples of the potential for investors and entrepreneurs in the sector. One such business is Yalelo, a tilapia farming enterprise that has rapidly expanded since its inception in 2011. Yalelo currently operates several large-scale tilapia farms in Zambia and has become one of the largest producers of tilapia in the country.

Another example is Kasaka River Lodge, which is a small-scale catfish farming operation that has successfully integrated aquaculture into their ecotourism business model. Kasaka River Lodge produces catfish for their restaurant and for sale in the local market, providing a sustainable source of income for the local community.

These success stories highlight the potential for investment and growth not only in the fishery sector, but also extending opportunities to the whole aquaculture industry in Zambia.

Funding Opportunities and Effectiveness

Funding opportunities are available to support small-scale fish farmers in Zambia. The government and various non-governmental organizations (NGOs) provide funding options that can help small-scale farmers overcome some of the financial challenges they face in starting or expanding their aquaculture businesses.

One funding opportunity available to small-scale farmers is the Citizens Economic Empowerment Commission (CEEC) loans, which are intended to provide affordable financing to Zambians who wish to start or expand their businesses. These loans are specifically targeted at small and medium-sized enterprises, including those in the aquaculture sector.

In addition to the CEEC loans, the government of Zambia has implemented various agricultural programs to support small-scale farmers, including those in the aquaculture sector. For example, the Farmer Input Support Programme (FISP) provides support to farmers in the form of subsidized inputs such as fertilizers and seedlings.

The effectiveness of these funding opportunities is largely dependent on how well they are implemented and managed. In some cases, small-scale farmers have reported difficulties in accessing these funding opportunities due to a lack of information or cumbersome application processes.

However, there are also success stories of small-scale fish farmers who have been able to access and utilize funding opportunities to their advantage. For example, some farmers have used CEEC loans to purchase equipment and inputs needed to expand their operations, while others have used FISP support to increase their production and improve their livelihoods.

Funding opportunities can play a critical role in supporting the growth of small-scale fish farming in Zambia. However, it is important that these opportunities are well-designed, well-implemented, and accessible to all those who need them.

Utilizing Opportunities for Micro, Small and Medium Farmers

Small-scale fish farmers in Zambia can take advantage of the investment and funding opportunities available to them by seeking out information on government programs and private funding options. They can also consider forming partnerships or cooperatives with other farmers to access funding and resources that may not be available to them individually.

To improve the profitability and sustainability of their businesses, small-scale fish farmers can focus on improving their production techniques, including proper feed management, water quality management, and disease control. Farmers can also explore value-addition opportunities such as processing, packaging, and marketing their products to increase their profitability.

Another way for small-scale farmers to improve their business is through the adoption of new technologies and innovative practices. For example, the use of solar-powered water pumps and aerators can help to reduce costs and improve production efficiency. Farmers can also explore the use of aquaponics, a system that combines fish farming with hydroponics, to maximize production and reduce waste.

In addition to these strategies, small-scale farmers can also benefit from participating in training and capacity-building programs offered by both government agencies and and private venture  capital organizations. These programs can provide farmers with the skills and knowledge they need to improve their businesses and take advantage of the opportunities available to them in the aquaculture industry. By utilizing these strategies and taking advantage of the opportunities available to them, small-scale fish farmers in Zambia can contribute to the growth of the aquaculture industry and help to meet the growing demand for fish in the country.

Challenges and Recommendations

Despite the potential for growth in the aquaculture industry in Zambia, there are still several challenges that must be addressed to ensure its success. Some significant challenges facing small-scale farmers are:

• The lack of access to funding and resources ; Many farmers lack the capital needed to invest in the necessary equipment, technology, and infrastructure required to start or expand their businesses. Additionally, the high cost of inputs such as fish feed, fertilizer, and chemicals can make it difficult for farmers to achieve profitability.
• The lack of technical expertise and knowledge among farmers . Many farmers lack the necessary training and education to implement best practices in fish farming, leading to low yields and poor-quality fish. The lack of access to markets and infrastructure also makes it difficult for farmers to sell their products and transport them to buyers.

To address these challenges, there is a need for increased investment in the aquaculture industry and targeted support for small-scale farmers. This includes providing access to funding and resources, such as equipment, technology, and inputs, at affordable rates. It is also essential to provide training and education to farmers on best practices in fish farming, including feed management, water quality management, and disease prevention.

Moreover, there is a need to develop market linkages and infrastructure to help farmers connect with buyers and transport their products to markets. This includes the establishment of processing facilities and cold storage facilities to help preserve the quality of produce and increase its shelf life.

Finally, impact and sustainable investment poured in to medium to small-scale fish farmers will not only contribute to wealth creation amongst our people, it will also add significantly to the whole aquatic and fisheries eco-systems and nutritional value chains that promote food security across board. It is possible to create a thriving industry that contributes to the economic growth and human development.

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Integrated agriculture-aquaculture as an alternative to improving small-scale fish production in zambia.

• 1 Department of Fisheries, National Aquaculture Research and Development Centre, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Kitwe, Zambia
• 2 Department of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Faculty of Natural Resources, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Lilongwe, Malawi
• 3 Centre for Innovative Approach Zambia (CIAZ), Lusaka, Zambia
• 4 Faculty of Science and Engineering, School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, United Kingdom
• 5 Department of Agriculture and Aquatic Sciences, Copperbelt University, Chinsali, Zambia
• 6 Department of Fisheries, Aquaculture Seed Fund Project, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Chinsali, Zambia
• 7 Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Ndola, Copperbelt Province, Zambia
• 8 Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom
• 9 Graduate School of Business, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
• 10 Department of Zoology and Aquatic Sciences, School of Natural Resources, Copperbelt University, Kitwe, Zambia
• 11 Copperbelt University Africa Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Mining (CBU ACESM), Kitwe, Zambia

Aquaculture is a significant industry in food production, and its contribution to food and nutrition security is well acknowledged. Zambia’s aquaculture production has continued to increase significantly, thus playing a key role in supplying animal protein sources for human consumption. However, recent estimates show that 75% of the national aquaculture production comes from large-scale commercial producers despite being by far the minority while the majority of small-scale producers contribute the remaining 25% of the total annual production. This low production by small-scale producers is attributed to insufficient financial resources, poor management and utilization of farm resources, lack of access to competitive markets, and more recently a changing climate. In this research, we examine the viability of integrated agriculture-aquaculture (IAA) as a means for small-scale producers in Zambia to boost their aquaculture output despite the numerous obstacles they face. In addition, the obstacles that could prevent small-scale farmers from adopting IAA have been emphasized. We conclude that IAA has the potential to dramatically boost small-scale aquaculture production in Zambia, but information and understanding must be improved to make it a more feasible alternative.

Introduction

Currently, fish and its products are the most widely traded food item on a global scale. Aquaculture has been the fastest-growing food production system during the past two decades ( FAO, 2018 ; Muhala et al., 2021a ; Maulu et al., 2021b ; Ragasa et al., 2022 ). Diverse forms of aquaculture are essential to the development of the agricultural and farming sector. Aquaculture firms assist in alleviating poverty, mitigating production risks, and reducing food insecurity and malnutrition by providing food products with high nutritional content, generating revenue and employment, and enhancing farm sustainability ( Little and Edwards, 2003 ; Finegold, 2009 ; Allison, 2011 ; Little et al., 2016 ). With the predicted growth of the world population, particularly in emerging nations, it is vital to promote technology that boosts the efficiency of food production systems. Integrated farming systems offer small-scale farmers a one-of-a-kind opportunity to improve resource use efficiency, production, and household income for the sake of food and nutritional security. Several integrated agricultural systems, such as agri-aquaculture, crop-livestock, crop-livestock-fish, and crop-poultry, have been observed among small-scale farmers in some regions, primarily in Asia ( Edwards et al., 1988 ; Waktola et al., 2016 ).

The agric-aquaculture systems entail the assembly of components characterized by interactions and interdependence, thereby serving human needs in a manner that is compatible with the resource base and the environment ( Little and Edwards, 2003 ). The technology can be implemented in a variety of ways: fish cultured together with livestock, crop, or a combination of the three in the same production system; or fish, livestock, and crop produced independently on the same farm, with wastes from each being utilized by the other, thereby providing a portion of low-cost, high-quality food, employment, and household incomes ( Singh et al., 2021 ). Regardless of the form, synergy exists in an agro-aqua integrated farming system since the sum of the integrated impacts is higher than the sum of the individual effects. The output from one subsystem that would have otherwise been wasted becomes an input to the other subsystem, resulting in better efficiency and optimal usage of outputs of the desired goods from farm resources such as land, farm wastes, and water area under the farmer’s control ( Edwards et al., 1988 ; Nagoli et al., 2013 ; Maulu et al., 2019 ). Moreover, integration affords farmers the possibility to generate steady revenue from the various components of the farm system ( Adugna and Goshu, 2010 ).

About 80 percent of Zambia’s food supply is produced by small-scale farmers. These farmers play a crucial role in household food and nutrition security since a significant portion of their output ends up on the table. Nevertheless, small-scale producers are frequently the most susceptible to several obstacles, such as low financial capacity, lack of relevant technology, absence of market links, and unclear input supply. In addition, climate change continues to destabilize global sectors, with small-scale manufacturers predicted to be the most susceptible to its effects, which threaten their productivity, profitability, and sustainability ( Maulu et al., 2021b ; Muhala et al., 2021b ; FAO, 2022 ). Small-scale farmers in Zambia primarily cultivate crops, while livestock farming is also prevalent in the majority of regions. The country’s immense natural resources, including water ( Nsonga and Simbotwe, 2014 ), land, and people, present a tremendous opportunity for food production to meet local and regional demand. Despite the vast potential of agri-aquaculture output in the country, little attention is paid to it. In Zambia, combinations of integrated fish farming systems to be examined for development include fish and crops, fish and livestock animals, fish mixed with poultry (mostly tilapia), terrestrial crops, ducks, pigs, and goats, to name a few ( Maulu et al., 2019 ). The second system is the integration of crops, fish, and other animals, including, among others, tilapia, carp, pig, goat, sheep, chicken, duck, and fruits. Small-scale farmers and the nation as a whole are unaware of the overall benefits of these systems, and there are few studies on the potential and fundamental obstacles that these farmers face. The objectives of this investigation are therefore:

(a) Reviewing existing studies on the status of the integrated system of Agric-aquaculture practiced by small-scale farmers; (b) Elaborating on its relevance to satisfy nutritional, economic, and food security in the country; and (c) Analyzing some opportunities and challenges faced by smallholder farmers in Zambia.

Integrated aquaculture agriculture production systems

Integration of aquaculture and agriculture is one of the most effective strategies for enhancing the productivity of small-scale farming in rural areas with limited resources, and it should be encouraged ( Yuan et al., 2019 ). When a farmer diversifies production by combining livestock, fish, tree crops, and vegetables, farm production is steady and efficient in terms of resource consumption and environmental conservation ( Lightfoot and Gonzalves, 2001 ). Integrated farming has been practiced for centuries, primarily in Asia, with rice-fish culture being the earliest approach employed ( Halwart and Gupta, 2004 ). In addition, various countries around the world have recognized the IAA systems’ numerous advantages. Despite the numerous favorable results recorded, the prevalence of the technique in Africa has remained relatively low ( Table 1 ).

Table 1 . A summary of findings from studies that have investigated the benefits of integrated agriculture-aquaculture systems (IAA)

Over time, the technology utilized in integrated systems around the world has progressed, but the underlying concepts of the systems have remained constant. According to Anschell and Salamanca (2021) , typical semi-intensive IAA systems for freshwater include rice-fish farming, integrated fish and animal farming, and integrated garden, pond, and livestock farming. This section examines the three common IAA systems, from which numerous other systems in use around the world are derived.

Aquaculture-crop farming

This system thrives due to the mutual benefit and symbiotic relationship between the crop and fish. Rice and fish farming is the most prevalent aquaculture-crop integration system worldwide, and its benefits have been the subject of numerous research ( Table 1 ). Nile tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus ) has been the predominant aquaculture species in these systems, with a few reports of African catfish ( Clarias gariepinus ; Miller et al., 2006 ; Ugwumba, 2010 ; Lemma et al., 2014 ; Mohammed et al., 2015 ; Trinh et al., 2021 ). Integration of rice and fish farming has been found to greatly increase the productivity of both fish and rice farming systems. In this system, rice typically functions as a filter for potentially hazardous compounds such as nitrates and phosphates, which are necessary for the growth of rice plants ( Lemma et al., 2014 ). In this way, rice fields provide a favorable environment and habitat for fish and other aquatic animals to flourish, while fish contribute to nutrient cycling by feeding on invertebrates and other organic particles created in these flooded rice fields. Rice-fish farming frequently decreases the need for pesticides, hence preserving biodiversity, and it also allows the adoption of native fish species (Soto, 2009). The use of native or indigenous species of fish is encouraged in this system to avoid problems associated with the introduction of invasive exotic species. Different rice field designs are created and adjusted to allow deeper regions for fish to develop without flooding the rice plants and to restrict rice field escape and access ( Halwart and Gupta, 2004 ).

Aquaculture-livestock farming

Integrated fish farming with animal livestock is a key player in enhancing higher fish production ( Gebru, 2021 ; Mulokozi et al., 2021 ). This technique incorporates both animal husbandry and fish culture ( Shrestha and Pant, 2012 ; Mulokozi et al., 2021 ). The integrated animal/fish culture system seeks to recycle all unconsumed organic leftovers and natural organic manure to boost crop, animal, and fish output ( Colin, 2018 ; Kinkela et al., 2019 ; Gebru, 2021 ; Mulokozi et al., 2021 ). Biological and chemical processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, nitrogen fixation, ammonification, denitrification, and decomposition recycle nutrients and minerals in the pond ecosystem ( Mukherjee et al., 1992 ). In turn, these interactions boost the pond’s primary productivity, which enhances the availability of natural, nutrient-rich, living food. This system can accommodate a variety of species, including ducks, chickens, pigs, and ruminants such as sheep, goats, and cattle ( Table 1 ). Animal wastes like cow manure, chicken and pig droppings, and goat and sheep pellets are utilized to increase the production of food organisms for fish, hence reducing the cost of expensive feeds and fertilizers ( Kapur, 1984 ; Shrestha and Pant, 2012 ; Kinkela et al., 2019 ; Mulokozi et al., 2021 ; Ibrahim et al., 2023 ). These systems are predominantly utilized in many Asian nations, including China, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, but have also been documented in several African nations, including South Africa, Malawi, Ethiopia, and Kenya ( Table 1 ).

Aquaculture-vegetable farming

This is the integration of the residential property, the garden, the animals, and the fishpond. Almost the bulk of the labor is often performed by family members ( Luu, 2021 ). In this approach, fish pond water is utilized to water vegetables such as onions, tomatoes, and cabbage, hence reducing the farmer’s need to buy chemical fertilizers ( Luu, 2021 ). In exchange, vegetable wastes can be utilized as fish food, reducing the need for small-scale farmers to purchase pricey, specially-formulated diets ( Maulu et al., 2019 ). Annually or at the end of each fish growth cycle, pond muck is scraped and used to fertilize vegetable fields and fruit trees; animal excrement is utilized to fertilize plants. This agricultural method is common in Vietnam and is practiced in both uplands and lowlands. The integration of fish and vegetable farming is designed for small-scale deployment, allowing farmers to recycle the majority of agricultural and home wastes inside the system using materials and equipment already on the farm ( Anschell and Salamanca, 2021 ). Such an integrated system allows a farmer to use the pond for fish culture and the pond dykes for growing vegetables ( Luu, 2021 ).

Traditionally, the water gathered in the de facto pond is used for domestic reasons and to cultivate aquatic vegetation for animal consumption. The majority of fertilizers are applied to field crops, particularly rice, but as the importance of fish production rises, more is redirected there. The pond is built close to the house so that domestic and cooking wastes can be drained into it. Due to the requirement to fertilize the pond water with organic manure, this method is typically employed in conjunction with other farming systems, such as poultry ( Prinsloo and Schoonbee, 1987 ; Prinsloo et al., 1999 ; Tugie et al., 2017 ).

Integrated aquaculture-agriculture systems practiced in Zambia

The IAA system is most prevalent among a small number of smallholder farmers in Zambia, even though it is underdeveloped and poorly utilized. Fish-and-duck, fish-and-crops (mostly vegetables), and fish-and-swine are the most prevalent IAA systems in the nation ( Mudenda, 2009 ). In 2005, the Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO, 2005 ) claimed that Zambia has more than 6,000 small-scale fish farmers with a total of more than 13,000 ponds, in addition to 15 commercial fish farmers. More than 50% of these small-scale farmers do not entirely depend on fish culture but rather, combine it with either one or more other agricultural activities. In certain households, farmers combine different sub-systems for instance fish together with crops, pigs, birds, goats, and cattle among others. Nsonga and Imelda (2016) in a reference manual for enhancing fish output in the Northern Province of Zambia reported that the small-scale farmers following their training in IAA are practicing the integration of fish with either vegetable (gardening) or poultry (village/local chicken). In certain parts of the country, fish is also integrated with goats, pigs or cattle. Among the Zambian small-scale farmers, the choice of the sub-system to integrate with fish depends on their economic status, social and religious beliefs, technical know-how and environmental factors.

A farmer may combine multiple farming systems based on various reasons and comparative advantages he or she thinks will derive. It could also be due to individual situations or available resources but ultimately the farmer wants to enhance the productivity of the farm in both or among participating systems in order to grow their profits ( Nsonga and Imelda, 2016 ; Maulu et al., 2019 ). The practice of IAA has more positive benefits to the farmer than negative ones and these include reducing the wastage of resources as they are recycled ( Diver and Rinehart, 2010 ). For instance, the nutrient-rich fish pond water and silt, and other agricultural residues would be considered as wastes. This is more productive per labor and/or land unit ( Dey et al., 2006 ; Mulokozi et al., 2021 ). In the IAA system, crops will provide food for consumption by humans, fish and livestock; manure and nutrients for the crops and fish ponds are supplied by livestock nutrient-rich water and silt from ponds can be utilized as fertilizer for crops ( Prein, 2002 ; Ndagi et al., 2020 ; Anschell and Salamanca, 2021 ). Using the wastes like pig manure and vegetable wastes at the farm, small-scale farmers can have an opportunity of producing quality protein food such as insect fly larvae (e.g., black soldier fly) to feed their fish stock ( Nuov et al., 1995 ; Mafwila et al., 2017 ; Maulu et al., 2022 ).

As aquaculture production costs continue to rise due to the rising cost of fishmeal, insects are seen as a more sustainable alternative protein source to replace conventional feedstuffs due to sustainability issues ( Maulu et al., 2022 ). Insects have a high nutritional value and studies show that they have 42–63.3% crude protein on a dry basis ( Freccia et al., 2020 ; Gasco et al., 2020 ; Alfiko et al., 2022 ). Furthermore, insects contain a well-balanced essential amino-acids profile like that of fishmeal, and as considerable amounts of lipids between 10% and 30%, vitamins, such as vitamin B12, and some bio-available minerals like iron and zinc ( Alegbeleye et al., 2012 ; Gasco et al., 2020 ; Maulu et al., 2022 ). This eventually brings about diversification and a reduction in the cost of production. When the IAA system is well-practiced, it can produce more products and the farmer is likely to rely on fewer external resources for output. Given that the yield is bad from one subsystem (e.g., crops) in a particular year or season, another subsystem will take its place which could be livestock or fish stock subsystems ( Nsonga and Imelda, 2016 ). Therefore, Dey et al. (2010) , Béné et al. (2015) , and Corner et al. (2020) concluded that there is an optimal exploitation of resources on the farm, including water, agricultural residues, and land, which can promote food security and the production of nourishing food throughout the year.

In addition, Mwaijande and Lugendo (2015) observed that the combination of agriculture and aquaculture offers small-scale farmers in rural locations with limited access to input and output markets an opportunity to increase farm production. Other favorable interactions between farm components in the IAA system include increased land utilization and decreased labor needs, which improve farm management and create an appealing pension plan for the farmer ( Nsonga and Imelda, 2016 ). Furthermore, Dey et al. (2006) and Diver and Rinehart (2010) concur that the practice of IAA results in increased household income and consumption, which will lead to food security and healthier households among farmers. The main objective of practicing IAA is to have an economic waste-free production ( Ahmed et al., 2014 ; Corner et al., 2020 ). In the setting of IAA systems, the amount of waste is reduced and pollution is controlled because of less accumulation of animal manure and less utilization of chemical fertilizers and pesticides thus the soil, water and air are less polluted.

Just like any other enterprise, IAA has its strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT; Figure 1 ) which needs to be taken into consideration.

Figure 1 . SWOT analysis for IAA.

Enabling environment and policies for aquaculture development

As envisioned in Vision 2030 and the 7th and 8th National Development Plans, Zambia’s aquaculture industry may act as a driver of economic growth and poverty reduction. However, the biggest challenge is that the country has not been able to fully leverage its potential over the years. Zambia has the potential to develop aquaculture because of its abundant water resources and several potential indigenous fish species suitable for culture. For example, the country boasts of having 40% of Southern Africa’s water resources and good agroecological zones that are good for fish farming ( Simuunza, 2022 ). It also has strong business ties with fish markets in its neighbors, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Botswana, Angola, Namibia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Malawi, as these markets allow back-and-forth trade relationships. Despite these opportunities, the country still lags due to many challenges, some of which are listed below:

Zambia national fisheries and aquaculture growth strategy

Zambia lacks a national fisheries and aquaculture development policy to steer the trajectory of this value chain’s development in the country. The sector is governed by many broad policies, such as the Fisheries and Livestock National Policies and Implementation Plan, which have a big impact on both how the policies are put into action and the financial resources allocated for the fish and livestock producers. Before the livestock and fisheries policy was put in place, the sector relied on the Second National Agricultural Policy ( SNAP, 2016 ) whose program puts more emphasis on crop production and cattle. In addition, the fisheries and aquaculture industries do not have a complete regulatory framework. Rather, they are managed by a legislative framework comprised of various regulations that regulate various aspects of cattle-based development. This makes it difficult for the government to regulate and coordinate the nation’s fisheries and aquaculture industries. A proposed policy will aid in elucidating how the fisheries and aquaculture sector may develop sustainably through the adoption of suitable technology.

Additionally, this measure will equalize the aquaculture segment weight in terms of national budget allocation and implementation, which is currently being overshadowed by other politically motivated and supported departments like the Department of Veterinary Services (DVS). Therefore, Zambia’s aquaculture could benefit from better coordination and organization through a clear national policy, thanks to a proposed Fisheries and Aquaculture National Development Policy that will be linked to a plan for implementation that will include full-fledged activities like marketing and developing entrepreneurs. This is anticipated to promote the expansion and growth of aquaculture integration in Zambia.

Private partnerships and support

Given the numerous problems facing the aquaculture business in Zambia, government and private sector activities must be coordinated. Stakeholder partnerships are used to solve industry-based challenges that a standalone partner may not be willing to invest in. Partnership platforms engage in dialogue to address industry challenges. They mobilize resources to supplement government efforts. Table 2 shows the private partners working in the aquaculture market space. It also shows the partnerships with government institutions and the disclosed and undisclosed funds allocated to each commercial relationship. The African Development Bank Group (AfDB) provided the most funding for aquaculture through the Ministry of Fisheries and livestock on the Zambia Enterprise Development Project (ZAEDP) worth $50.89 million, followed by the Lake Tanganyika Development Project (LTDP): fisheries management, fish stock assessment, and piloting cage culture projects worth $29.62 million, for a total of $77.51 million.

It is against this background that the government should continue working on strengthening private-public partnership instruments to foster dialogue, which is a prerequisite to the growth of the aquaculture market among smallholder farmers. We are aware that the government, through the Ministry of Finance and National Planning, has launched this plan. On the other hand, a localized private-public partnership forum for fisheries and aquaculture would focus on specific sector goals rather than a broad one ( Table 2 ).

Table 2 . Summary of aquaculture-related projects implemented in Zambia by cooperating partners.

NAIP II (2022) reports that to improve aquaculture production there are more than 23 privately owned and managed fish hatcheries and eight fish feed companies producing and supplying feeds to fish farmers mainly commercial fish farmers along the line of rail. The number of feed-producing companies is still small causing a rise in fish feed costs which the government needs to step up to offer business incentives that will promote high production of cheaper and accessible year-round feed by all the farmers.

According to Mario et al. (2018) and Otoo et al. (2016) , policies, plans, and regulations; trade agreements; institutional setups and strength; access to finance and subsidies; technology; matching partners and land availability; and local infrastructure all have an impact on businesses and can aid or hinder their sustainability and scalability, which is beneficial for all stakeholders in the aquaculture and fisheries value chains. Most significantly, knowledge sharing would allow everyone in the sector to collaborate more and utilize new technologies.

Climate-smart policy

Several investigations have been carried out to show that aquaculture and fisheries are vulnerable to the impact of climate change ( Musumali et al., 2009 ; Maulu et al., 2021b ; Muhala et al., 2021b ). The factor that the sector relies on water for its main input is enough to deduce that water quality and quantities get affected by drought and rise in temperatures. In recent times, studies have shown that water quality compromises the quality of fish produced and bred in terms of diseases and other mineral deposits ( Hasimuna et al., 2020b ; Nong et al., 2021 ; Hasimuna et al., 2021b ; Khalil et al., 2022 ). Management of water resources for present and future use should be a call for every fish farmer, and this calls for climate-smart management strategies that need to be adhered to. Climate-smart aquaculture calls for using fish species that are environmentally, socially, and economically friendly while attaining sustainability for future and present benefits ( Zougmoré et al., 2016 ). Working with the Ministry of Green Economy and Environment, Land and Natural Resources, the Department of Fisheries which is in charge of aquaculture should aim to train fish farmers on how to preserve the natural resources that are responsible for the rain cycle and reduce water and air pollution which could be detrimental to the growth of the sector ( Maulu et al., 2021b ). Béné et al. (2016) , Genschick et al. (2018) , and Maulu et al. (2021c) found that irresponsible management of water resources and fish genetics leads to poor production and productivity. Therefore, technologies that attempt to reuse water resources within a circular economy and also utilize clean energy have been shown to be climate-smart technologies that mitigate climate change and improve people’s livelihoods ( Shikuku et al., 2019 ; Balasubramanian et al., 2021 ; Siankwilimba et al., 2021 , 2022 ).

Challenges faced by farmers using integrated aquaculture-agriculture systems

Although IAA could be a profitable and sustainable approach to fish production, there are critical challenges that could affect the majority of the farmers if not well practiced. When preparing to improve or double the production of the farm, the farmer must also be equipped to double the responsibility. It is essential to thoroughly understand what the farmer is about to venture into and acquire appropriate technical know-how of every subsystem. In IAA, it is cardinal not to combine the subsystems that contradict each other, for instance, the type of plants (crops) to be grown should not be harmful or poisonous to birds or animals (fish and livestock). Lack of proper management and care could also bring more harm than good which could be a downfall of the farm. Below are some challenges that farmers can encounter when practicing IAA:

Inadequate technical ability to manage both fish and crops/livestock

A large number of small-scale farmers practicing IAA lack the technical capabilities to handle both the fish and livestock or crops in terms of proper nutrition, disease control and general husbandry and this greatly affects their productivity ( Respikius et al., 2020 ). This can be attributed to ineffective extension services ( Maulu et al., 2021a ), as well as a lack of access to knowledge and the required technologies.

Lack of access to information

Integrating aquaculture and agriculture aims to maximize the favorable interactions or synergies between the constituents. This occurs when a subsystem’s output becomes an input to another subsystem in an integrated farming system ( Edwards, 1998 ). This, in turn, increases the efficiency with which desired products are manufactured. Most farmers do not seem to understand the working principles of IAA systems and end up designing systems that are not very efficient. This can be linked to a lack of information about IAA systems partly because of ineffective extension services both by government and private institutions ( Edwards, 1998 ; Maulu et al., 2021a ).

Lack of security of land tenure

Most of the farmers practicing IAA do not formally own the land on which they do this type of fish farming. Aquaculture has proven to be unprofitable for rural poor people who lack secure access to land, either because they are landless or because they possess land under insecure tenancies. The lack of land tenure security discourages long-term investment ( FAO, 2014 ). This is one of the reasons that deter small-scale fish farmers from investing significantly in their businesses.

Input provisions and market development

Market and input provision and market development.

Farmers will only engage in IAA if it is economically viable. This may depend on the availability of inputs (seed, fertilizer, and feed) and local and regional market conditions, which dictate the price of fish and the incentive to produce. In turn, market circumstances are connected to physical access in the form of infrastructure and economic access in the form of consumers’ purchasing power. Due to the limited and dispersed availability of inputs such as feed and seed, costs are high, which may hinder the development of aquaculture, particularly in rural areas. The markets in rural areas are not uniform. Numerous consumer groups exist, each with its own purchasing power and consumption habits. This hinders the adoption of cutting-edge technology and ideas intended to improve rural residents’ standard of living.

Aquaculture species cultured in Zambia

The majority of Zambia’s populace has adopted five tilapia species, one foreign and four indigenous ( Maulu et al., 2019 ; Hasimuna et al., 2020a ; Siavwapa et al., 2022 ). These are the Nile tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus ), three-spotted Tilapia ( Oreochromis andersonii ), Green-headed Tilapia ( Oreochromis macrochir ), Red-breasted Tilapia ( Coptodon rendalli ), and Tanganyika tilapia ( Oreochromis Tanganicae ) species ( Maulu et al., 2019 ; Hasimuna et al., 2020a , 2021a ). However, O. niloticus farming is only permitted in some sections of the country, such as south of the Itezhi-Tezhi dam on the Kafue River; in other areas, a licence from the Director of Fisheries is required as prescribed in the Fisheries Act number 12 of 2011 ( Hasimuna et al., 2020b ). This exotic fish is mostly cultivated in Southern Zambia’s Lake Kariba in cages controlled by large-scale firms such as Yalelo and Lake Harvest ( Hasimuna et al., 2019 ), as well as a significant number of cooperatives financed by the Zambia Aquaculture Enterprise Development Project (ZAEDP). Furthermore, O. tanganicae is cultivated mostly in the Northern Province, especially areas with streams leading to Lake Tanganyika where it is an endemic species. O. macrochir is cultured in Luapula provinces, Copperbelt, Central, Lusaka, Southern, Western and Muchinga Provinces as this species is found in most rivers and lakes except in Lake Tanganyika. C. rendalli is farmed in every province due to its wide distribution across the country while O. andersonii is grown throughout the southern half of the country, particularly in the Eastern, Lusaka, Central, Copperbelt, Southern, Northwestern, and Western Provinces. But it must be stressed that O. andersonii is the species which is adopted by the Department of Fisheries as a species of culture in the country except for the northern part where it is not endemic ( Bbole et al., 2018 ).

Aquaculture–agriculture

Small-scale farmers in Zambia frequently combine fish and ducks, fish and pigs, and fish and crops (vegetables), with fish and pig being the most prevalent combination. It has been determined that integrating O. andersonii , O. niloticus , and O. macrochir with pigs is technically and economically feasible ( L’Heureux, 1985 ; Gopalakrishnan, 1988 ). However, among the three native fish species, only O. andersonii has successfully proved the technical and economic viability to be cultivated ( Gopalakrishnan, 1988 ).

Potential species of culture

Apart from the species mentioned above being the main ones cultured in the country, there are a number of potential species for aquaculture that may be used in aquaculture–agriculture integration. Notable indigenous species which are potential candidates for aquaculture include Oreochromis mortimeri (Trewavas, 1966), Labeo altivelis (Peters, 1852), Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822), Heterobranchus longifilis (Valenciennes, 1840), but surprisingly the viability of these species in the aquaculture industry have not been investigated fully ( Mudenda, 2009 ). In addition, Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758), Procambarus clarkii (Girard, 1852) and Auchenoglanis occidentalis (Valenciennes, 1840) have demonstrated remarkable promise for aquaculture in the country.

Cyprinus carpio

Several researchers have investigated the food and feeding behaviors of the common carp in its native habitat in order to comprehend its feeding behavior ( Hana and Manal, 1988 ; Magalhaes, 1993 ; Adámek et al., 2003 ; Ali et al., 2010 ; Rahman et al., 2010 ). This fish has exhibited a great deal of variety in its eating behavior, which has been related to changes in its position during specific times and for specific feeding goals ( Ali et al., 2010 ). The presence of benthic invertebrates, detritus, and mud throughout the year in its digestive tract demonstrates that the species eats at the bottom of the body of water ( Magalhaes, 1993 ; Ali et al., 2010 ; Dadebo et al., 2015 ). C. carpio is an omnivore fish in terms of its diet. Detritus, insects, and macrophytes are the primary food sources, whereas phytoplankton, ostracods, zooplankton, and gastropods are of lesser importance.

Clarias gariepinus and Heterobranchus longifilis

The African catfish ( Clarias gariepinus ) and the Vundu ( Heterobranchus longifilis ) graze on a variety of foods based on their environment, and in Zambia, these are widely spread at the confluence of the Zambezi and Kafue Rivers ( Hecht and Lublinkhof, 1985 ). These species are opportunistic and omnivorous feeders, consuming a wide variety of foods, including algae, macrophytes, zooplankton, zooplankton, insects, fish prey, detritus, amphibians, and sand grains ( Dadebo, 2000 ; Abera and Guteta, 2007 ; Dadebo, 2009 ; Admasu and Debessa, 2015 ). In addition, their dietary composition may vary based on the season and geographical circumstances of their surroundings, as well as the fish’s size, maturity, and habitat differences ( Houlihan et al., 2001 ; Kamal et al., 2010 ). During the dry season, insects, zooplankton, and fish prey are the favored dietary sources. During the rainy season, detritus, zooplankton, insects, and macrophytes are primarily devoured, whereas the tiniest fish consume more insects than their larger counterparts, who primarily consume zooplankton and smaller prey fish.

Oreochromis mortimeri

Kariba Tilapia or Oreochromis mortimeri (Trewavas, 1966) is an indigenous species found in Zambia whose natural habitat ranges from Cahora Bassa Gorge to Victoria Falls ( Marshall, 2011 ; Zengeya et al., 2015 ). The feeding behavior of this fish species is omnivorous feeding on diets such as algae, especially diatoms, detritus, plant material, insects, and zooplankton ( Skelton, 2012 ). This feeding behavior is similar to that of O. niloticus a commercially farmed species. Comparative research on the two species indicated that the types of food consumed were comparable and that there was no significant variation in eating behavior ( Chifamba, 2019 ). Furthermore, it was reported that this species of fish breeds throughout the year and its breeding is triggered by temperature and rainfall. The ability of O. mortimeri to breed throughout the year is one feature which makes it a good candidate for aquaculture species as it can lead to a continuous supply of fingerling throughout the year ( Chifamba, 2019 ). This species has great potential for commercial aquaculture in Zambia and there is an urgent need to utilize the various biological factors that favor its commercial farming as well as a conservation strategy.

Labeo altivelis

This fish species is also known as the Rednose labeo, and similar to other Labeo species, it is herbivorous. This species feeds on the substratum’s algal development, grazing on algae and aufwuchs from rocks ( Skelton, 2012 ). Besides diatoms and plant fibers, they consume Bdelloid-type rotifers and cladocerans. In addition, this type of fish possesses a unique feeding adaptation consisting of a sucker-like mouth with folded lips and a sharpened edge ( Skelton, 2012 ). In addition, their intestines are exceedingly lengthy and tightly coiled, and they do not have a separate foregut or stomach ( Reid, 1985 ).

Auchenoglanis occidentalis

The Giraffe catfish ( Auchenoglanis occidentalis ) locally known as Mbowa is an omnivorous fish which is common in large rivers and lakes in the lakes northern Zambia (e.g., Chambeshi and Luapula Rivers and Lake Bangweulu, Mweru and Tanganyika). This species and its lineage are reported to be widely distributed in most African Lake such as Lake Turkana, and Lake Chad and it is also found in rivers including the Chambeshi in Zambia, Anambra River in Nigeria, White Nile and Niger Rivers among others ( Okwiri et al., 2018 ). According to Chukwuemeka et al. (2019) , Ikongbeh et al. (2014) , and Abobi et al. (2019) , A. occidentalis primarily feeds on insects, insect larvae, protozoans, phytoplankton, sand particles, crustaceans, and fish scales in the wild, and it tends to prey on insects and smaller fish species within its reach. This species prefers shallow waters with muddy bottoms from an ecological standpoint. The male is the only guardian of the eggs and the nesting, and it spends a great deal of time fanning its pectoral fins and swaying its posterior body to prevent oxygen deprivation ( Ochi et al., 2001 ).

Recommendations

It is evident that the practice of IAA could have numerous benefits and potentially improve the efficiency of food production systems. Therefore, we recommend that further studies should focus on the urgent need to investigate the viability of culturing most of the potential local species. There is also a need to study the breeding and nutrition of A. occidentalis under aquaculture conditions. It is necessary to encourage the integration of agriculture and aquaculture, particularly among small-scale fish farmers to capitalize on the existing synergies. However, achieving this will require improved extension services to provide knowledge to the producers. Researchers must investigate the optimization of production from IAA systems (i.e., determining the right ratios and size of animals and fish per unit area); there is a need to promote the use of aquaponics as they are perfect IAA systems that can easily be practiced by people living in urban areas where land is scarce; we also recommend studies on various components of the aquaponics system, e.g., use of indigenous vegetables, and fish species as well as the use of baked clay instead of lava rock as a growing medium. More research on the technical efficiency and economic viability of integrated fish farming systems is required if farmers are to reap some benefit. Furthermore, we recommend that a study must be done to document the various types of IAA that are being employed in the country.

Integrated aquaculture is founded on the notion that “there is no waste” and that waste is a misdirected resource that may be repurposed as a valuable component of another product. The fundamental concepts of integrated agriculture are the utilization of the synergistic effects of interdependent farm activities and conservation, which includes the complete utilization of farm wastes to fulfil the tenets of the circular economy. It is assumed that all system components would benefit from such a combination. However, the primary beneficiaries are fish, which utilize livestock and agricultural wastes as direct or indirect food sources.

Author contributions

SM came up with the concept, outlined the objectives, and conducted a thorough analysis of the paper. OH aided in the definition of the objectives, coordinated the production of the text, and contributed to the composition of the book. MC and ES evaluated the manuscript critically and contributed significantly to it. The manuscript was written by KN, BL, JM, CP, EK, and SS. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This research was funded by the Copperbelt University Africa Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Mining (CBU ACESM Project No. 5803-ZM).

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all the institutions they represent for collaborating toward a common aim.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: aquaculture, agriculture, integrated agriculture–aquaculture systems, fish farming, small-scale farmers, developing countries, Zambia

Citation: Hasimuna OJ, Maulu S, Nawanzi K, Lundu B, Mphande J, Phiri CJ, Kikamba E, Siankwilimba E, Siavwapa S and Chibesa M (2023) Integrated agriculture-aquaculture as an alternative to improving small-scale fish production in Zambia. Front. Sustain. Food Syst . 7:1161121. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2023.1161121

Received: 07 February 2023; Accepted: 07 April 2023; Published: 10 May 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Hasimuna, Maulu, Nawanzi, Lundu, Mphande, Phiri, Kikamba, Siankwilimba, Siavwapa and Chibesa. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Oliver J. Hasimuna, [email protected] ; Moses Chibesa, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Opportunities and challenges for small-scale aquaculture in Zambia

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Mwenya said the country continues to face unilateral and unconventional fishing activities, contributing to fish depletion and the consequential shortage of fish. He disclosed that his country suffers from the proverbial 81,000 metric ton fish deficit every year against a growing demand almost thrice the figure!

The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations World Fish Survey of recent times echoed the decrease in fish stock in Zambia partly due to overfishing and unconventional fishing methods.

“ Before establishing ZAEDP and crafting the national policy on fisheries and aquaculture, the two sub-sectors suffered from inadequate fisheries, infrastructure, technology, illegal fishing, and unregulated and unreported fishing activities.”

Due to these factors, the deficit of fish has led to low fish consumption at 5.9 kilograms per person per year instead of the 12.1 kg required internationally. Further to the survey findings, the low level of fish consumption in Zambia has also culminated in low fishing catches from the country’s lakes, rivers, and other water bodies. At the same time, the few people actively engaged in fishing have also contributed to the shortfall.

 For example, from the estimated one million people engaged in fishing, only 72,000 are involved in active fishing. This number cannot satisfy and sustain the local demand for fish, accounting for the major component of animal proteins consumed in the country against chicken, beef, and pork.

For this reason, the government decided to come up with various measures to increase fish production in the country to meet both domestic and external markets. This resulted in the Zambia Aquaculture Enterprise Development (ZAEDP) establishment to provide soft loans, logistical support, skills, and extension services to upcoming commercial fish farmers throughout the country.

“As a result, so far, many fish projects have sprung up in various parts of the country; this came up with a special seed fund responsible for dishing out loans to fish farmers to acquire such things as fish cages, nets, feed, and other inputs.”

 Since the formation of ZAEDP in 2019, Zambia has seen a rapid increase in fish and aquacultural-related products. As a result, the country is expected to be self-sufficient in fish stocks to meet local demand and some for export in the next five years from now.

The government thinks both the implementation of the policy on fish and aquaculture and the formation of ZAEPD will help the two sub-sectors to contribute to the Gross National Product (GDP). However, the success of the national policy and ZAEDP will depend on the political will of the future government with the participation of both the public and private sectors.

The National Aquaculture Research Development Centre (NARDC) and the setting up of a facility for the genetic improvement of local fish breeds will also help in an increase in fish stocks. This step followed an outcry from local fish farmers that foreign fish breeds were doing much better than local varieties, hence establishing the Genetic Improvement Program.

Although Zambia is landlocked and dependent on mining, it is endowed with abundant fisheries resources from water bodies located in the Zambezi, Luapula, and Congo basins. The country is said to possess almost one-third of freshwater found in the Southern African region.

“Before establishing ZAEDP and crafting the national policy on fisheries and aquaculture, the two sub-sectors suffered from inadequate fisheries, infrastructure, technology, illegal fishing, and unregulated and unreported fishing activities. Now fish farmers will easily access quality and affordable support under the government Citizen Economic Empowerment Commission (CEEC).”

Finally, the government was able to mobilize more than US$50 million from some cooperating partners such as the Africa Development Bank, the Irish government, and the German Development Cooperation. Funds from these agencies have helped in capacity building of the fisheries and aquaculture development and a marked increase in fish production.

Latest statistics from the ministry of fisheries and livestock have put the fish output in Zambia at 100-107 tones per year against a total domestic demand of 185,000 tones. The deficit has resulted in significant pressure on capture fisheries due to overfishing leading the two sectors unable to meet the growing demand for consumers.

* Alfred Sayila is a journalist/analyst in Southern Africa.

Correspondence email: [email protected]

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