homework research nz

• International Evidence Toolkit

High impact for very low cost based on very limited evidence.

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What is it, key findings, how effective is the approach, behind the average, applications and approaches, how could you implement in your setting, what does it cost, how secure is the evidence.

Homework refers to tasks given to students by their teachers to be completed outside of usual lessons.

Homework activities vary significantly, particularly between younger and older students, including but not limited to home reading activities, longer projects or essays and more directed and focused work such as revision for tests. 

Our definition also includes activities such as ‘homework clubs’ where students have the opportunity to complete homework in school but outside normal school hours, and ‘flipped learning’ models, where students prepare at home for classroom discussion and application tasks. 

1. Homework has a positive impact on average (+ 5 months), particularly with students in secondary schools.

2. Some students may not have a quiet space for home learning – it is important for schools to consider how home learning can be supported (e.g. through providing homework clubs for students).

3. Homework that is linked to classroom work tends to be more effective. In particular, studies that included feedback on homework had higher impacts on learning.

4. It is important to make the purpose of homework clear to students (e.g. to increase a specific area of knowledge, or to develop fluency in a particular area).

The average impact of homework is positive across both primary and secondary school. There is, however variation behind this average with homework set in primary school having a smaller impact on average (see below).

The quality of the task set appears to be more important than the quantity of work required from the student. There is some evidence that the impact of homework diminishes as the amount of time students spend on it increases. The studies reviewed with the highest impacts set homework twice a week in a particular subject.

Evidence also suggests that how homework relates to learning during normal school time is important. In the most effective examples homework was an integral part of learning, rather than an add-on. To maximise impact, it also appears to be important that students are provided with high quality feedback on their work (see Feedback).

Studies from Aotearoa New Zealand have linked useful homework tasks with positive parental involvement in student learning, and emphasised the importance of teacher capability in providing homework tasks that are tailored and appropriate for diverse students.

Studies in secondary schools show greater impact (+5 months) than in primary schools (+3 months).

Similar positive effects are found for reading, mathematics and science.

Most homework set is individual, studies involving collaboration with peers have higher effects (+6 months), though the number of studies is small.

Studies involving digital technology typically have greater impact (+ 6 months).

Homework in primary schools

Common homework activities noted in primary school s studies tend to be reading or practising spelling and number facts, but may also include more extended activities to develop inquiry skills or more directed and focused work such as revision for tests.

Setting homework in primary schools has a lower impact on average and has been studied far less than setting homework in secondary schools. Many of the same principles are likely to apply in a primary setting, such as carefully linking homework to classwork and considering the optimal amount of homework – which is likely to be less with younger students.

Homework in secondary schools

Common homework activities noted in secondary school studies include completing tasks assigned in lessons, preparing for tasks in future lessons, routine coursework, and revision for tests and examinations.

Setting homework in secondary schools has been studied much more than in primary school and has a positive impact on average.

Homework has an impact by enabling students to undertake independent learning to practice and consolidate skills, conduct in-depth inquiry, prepare for lessons or revise for exams. When implementing homework, the evidence suggests a wide variation in impact. Therefore, schools should consider the ‘active’ ingredients to the approach, which may include:

• Considering the quality of homework over the quantity.
• Using well-designed tasks that are linked to classroom learning.
• Clearly setting out the aims of homework to student
• Understanding and addressing any barriers to completion, such as access to a learning device or resources.
• Explicitly teaching independent learning strategies.
• Providing high-quality feedback to improve student
• Monitoring the impact homework on student engagement, progress and achievement.

Teachers should seek to understand any barriers to completing homework - for example, a lack of access to a quiet space or learning materials - and aim to avoid approaches that use homework as a penalty for poor performance.

The average cost of homework is expected to be very low with the cost to schools largely based on teacher training and resources. Implementing homework will also require a small amount of staff time for planning and feedback.

Alongside time and cost, school leaders should consider how to maximise the effectiveness of homework through teacher professional development to promote the use of well-designed tasks to complement learning in the classroom and high-quality feedback to improve student learning. Schools should monitor the impact of different approaches to homework – such as the frequency, purpose and variety of tasks - on student engagement and achievement.

The security of the evidence around homework is rated as low. 43 studies were identified that meet the inclusion criteria of the Toolkit. The topic lost additional padlocks because:

• A large percentage of the studies are not randomised controlled trials. While other study designs still give important information about effectiveness of approaches, there is a risk that results are influenced by unknown factors that are not part of the intervention.
• A large percentage of the studies were not independently evaluated. Evaluations conducted by organisations connected with the approach – for example, commercial providers, typically have larger impacts, which may influence the overall impact of the strand.

As with any evidence review, the Toolkit summarises the average impact of approaches when researched in academic studies. It is important to consider your context and apply your professional judgement when implementing an approach in your setting.

August 2021

Local research:

Alton-Lee, A. (2003) Quality teaching for diverse students in schooling: Best evidence synthesis iteration (BES).

Iglis, S. (2005). A two-way street: Homework in a social context.

Gledhill, A. (2015). Homework and continued learning at home: How should parents be involved? Journal of Initial Teacher Inquiry (1) 65-67.

Anthony, G., & Knight, G. (1999). Teaching for understanding and memory in Year 4 and 5 mathematics . A report prepared for the Ministry of Education . Massey University: Institute of Fundamental Sciences.

EDUCATION.govt.nz For parents and whānau Practical information about education for parents and carers

Primary school 5–12 years old

Many children come home with some type of homework, like reading, learning how to spell new words, practising basic mathematics facts, or even projects to be completed over a longer period of time. It is useful to know how to support your child to do their homework, but not do it for them.

Will my child get homework?

Why do schools and kura have different homework policies, how can i help my child with homework, what if they get stuck, what if i don’t understand their homework.

Maybe. Different schools and kura have different homework policies. Some set homework for older students but not younger ones, some set homework for all students, while others set none at all.

Talk to your child's teacher to find out their approach to homework. If your child’s school doesn't get homework at this stage in their learning, that’s ok – they will still be learning what they need to at school. 

There's a lot of debate about the value of homework, especially for primary school-aged children. Some studies suggest that homework is not very useful for this age group, or has only a small benefit. But it's generally agreed that reading at home is very beneficial and it's likely that your child will bring home books to read to you.

Some schools and kura may also encourage you to work with your child on basic maths facts or spelling tasks. 

If homework is part of the school or kura's policy, research suggests this should be short and frequent and closely monitored by the teacher for the most impact. Your child's teacher should be providing feedback to your child for it to be beneficial.

Studies have also found interactive homework set by teachers and involving parents has a very positive effect, for example, using maths fractions when preparing food.

Teachers set homework for different reasons so it can be helpful to know why. So that you can support that at home. You may want to ask them is it to:

• practise skills like maths and spelling
• fix new learning in your child's memory
• check how successful the classroom teaching has been and where your child needs some help
• to help students apply what they have learned to new situations or contexts
• to encourage you to get involved in your child's learning.

If your child does bring work home, here are some tips to help them:

• let them have a bit of time to unwind after school or kura – they will have been working all day
• give them a snack and drink – their brains work better with fuel
• make sure they have a suitable environment to work in. Let them choose a comfortable space, clear away any distractions and keep siblings away from them
• decide together how long their homework will take
• make sure they have everything they need before they start – a set of fun stationery just for homework can be a great motivator.

Help your child problem-solve by explaining or showing them the steps to complete a task. Let them do the steps though.

• make up a similar question or task as an example. Show them how to work through it and then get them to have a go at their homework task
• try giving clues rather than the answer, but be aware of frustration levels (both theirs and yours)
• keep the clues simple – remind them of all the other times they have been able to work things out
• ideally homework will be connected to something they’ve already learned, so encourage them to think back and start from what they can do.

Don't help them too much. Explain where and how to find information rather than giving it to them.

If you’re confused by your child’s homework, talk to their teacher – you won’t be the first parent to do this. Or it may be that your child is happy to ask for help and then they can explain things to you. They may also be able to find answers by using the internet or the local library, or by asking an older sister or brother.

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More information

There are some parent great ideas for helping with reading, writing and maths on TKI website. 

How parents and whānau can help at home – TKI website (external link)

Last reviewed: 14 February 2024 Has this been useful? Tell us what you think.

Is Homework Good for Kids?

Research suggests that homework may be most beneficial when it is minimal..

Updated October 3, 2023 | Reviewed by Devon Frye

• Why Education Is Important
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• Research finds that homework can academically benefit middle and high schoolers, but not elementary students.
• There are non-academic benefits to homework, but too much work may interfere with other areas of development.
• Research suggests students should be given about 10 minutes of homework per grade level.
• Parents can help with homework by encouraging a growth mindset and supporting their child's autonomy.

In recent years, homework has become a very hot topic. Many parents and educators have raised concerns about homework and questioned how effective it is in enhancing students’ learning. There are also concerns that students may simply be getting too much homework, which ultimately interferes with quality family time and opportunities for physical activity and play.

Research suggests that these concerns may be valid. For example, one study reported that elementary school students, on average, are assigned three times the recommended amount of homework.

What does the research say? What are the potential risks and benefits of homework, and how much is “too much”?

Academic vs. Non-Academic Benefits

First, research finds that homework is associated with higher scores on academic standardized tests for middle and high school students, but not elementary school students . A recent experimental study in Romania found some benefits for a small amount of writing homework in elementary students but not math homework. Yet, interestingly, this positive impact only occurred when students were given a moderate amount of homework (about 20 minutes on average).

Yet the goal of homework is not simply to improve academic skills. Research finds that homework may have some non-academic benefits, such as building responsibility , time management skills, and task persistence . Homework may also increase parents’ involvement in their children’s schooling.

Yet too much homework may also have some negative impacts on non-academic skills by reducing opportunities for free play , which is essential for the development of language, cognitive, self-regulation , and social-emotional skills. Homework may also interfere with physical activity ; indeed, too much homework is associated with an increased risk of being overweight . As with the research on academic benefits, this research also suggests that homework may be beneficial when it is minimal.

What is the “Right” Amount of Homework?

Research suggests that homework should not exceed 1.5 to 2.5 hours per night for high school students and no more than 1 hour per night for middle school students. Homework for elementary school students should be minimal and assigned with the aim of building self-regulation and independent work skills. Any more than this and homework may no longer have a positive impact.

The National Education Association recommends 10 minutes of homework per grade and there is also some experimental evidence that backs this up.

What Can Parents Do?

Research finds that parental help with homework is beneficial but that it matters more how the parent is helping rather than how often the parent is helping.

So how should parents help with homework (according to the research)?

• Focus on providing general monitoring, guidance, and encouragement, but allow children to complete their homework as independently as possible. Research shows that allowing children more autonomy in completing homework may benefit their academic skills.
• Only provide help when your child asks for it and step away whenever possible. Research finds that too much parental involvement or intrusive and controlling involvement with homework is associated with worse academic performance .
• Help your children to create structure and develop some routines that help your child to independently complete their homework. Research finds that providing this type of structure and responsiveness is related to improved academic skills.
• Set specific rules around homework. Research finds an association between parents setting rules around homework and academic performance.
• Help your child to view homework as an opportunity to learn and improve skills. Parents who view homework as a learning opportunity (that is, a “mastery orientation”) rather than something that they must get “right” or complete successfully to obtain a higher grade (that is, a “performance orientation”) are more likely to have children with the same attitudes.
• Encourage your child to persist in challenging assignments and emphasize difficult assignments as opportunities to grow. Research finds that this attitude is associated with student success. Research also indicates that more challenging homework is associated with enhanced academic performance.
• Stay calm and positive during homework. Research shows that mothers’ showing positive emotions while helping with homework may improve children’s motivation in homework.
• Praise your child’s hard work and effort during homework. This type of praise is likely to increase motivation. In addition, research finds that putting more effort into homework may be associated with enhanced development of conscientiousness in children.
• Communicate with your child and the teacher about any problems your child has with homework and the teacher’s learning goals. Research finds that open communication about homework is associated with increased academic performance.

Cara Goodwin, Ph.D., is a licensed clinical psychologist who specializes in translating scientific research into information that is useful, accurate, and relevant for parents.

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You are here, week 15: making homework rewarding.

Homework is a tradition that has survived waves of enthusiasm and of disenchantment. Brian Burnham’s report “Homework: A decade of research” ( set 1988: no. 1) examines the case for homework in light of research and expert testimony published in the late 1980's. The article concludes with recommendations for principals and teachers who want to make the most of homework's potential.

You can read this short, practical article here (PDF file).

Photo "Focus" courtesy of John Morgan under CC BY 2.0 .

Navigation for News Categories

Homework: useless or useful.

An Australian primary school's decision to do away with homework is sparking debate about its value on this side of the Tasman.

The New Zealand Principals' Federation says there isn't enough research on the benefits of homework. Photo: 123RF

Allambie Heights Public School has abolished homework and replaced it with optional school projects for students in Year 3 to Year 6.

The school said the new policy had been hugely successful, with 100 percent of students doing the projects, in contrast to its previous low rates of daily homework completion.

Parents and teachers across New Zealand are divided about the value of homework, and there is no national policy - it is up to individual schools to choose what they assign to students.

Some of the parents spoken to by RNZ labelled the homework their children were given as "useless", but others said doing it taught skills that would be needed during tertiary education.

More research on benefits of homework needed

New Zealand Principals' Federation president Whetu Cormack said the education sector could not reach a consensus either.

There was not enough research on the benefits of homework, Mr Cormack said.

"It is quite varied and schools across the country would have different policies and procedures in place for homework."

He said schools were well aware that a lot of parents thought homework was pointless.

"There's an increasing move in New Zealand schools to scrapping homework and encouraging families to enable their children to participate in extra-curricular activities such as sports, music tuition, and actually just being at home and being with family and talking," he said.

It was really important to have lots of conversation at home to enrich children's vocabulary, he said.

Education consultant and parenting commentator Joseph Driessen, meanwhile, said parents and teachers often fought over ideal homework loads - and they needed to reach a compromise.

"What the school needs to do is to actually walk a middle ground and say homework is a precursor to independent study, and it should be appropriate, it should be interesting and it shouldn't be too much or too little," Mr Driessen said.

'Parents are the first educators of children'

A senior lecturer in education at Massey University, Jenny Poskitt, said some of what was provided by homework was needed - especially for the first years of primary school, helping with basic spelling, reading and numeracy - but life experience was also vital.

"Parents are the first educators of children. They're the ones who can impart best cultural values, moral principles, sporting and performing arts, [those] sorts of experiences."

There needed to be a balance between homework and everyday skills, Dr Poskitt said.

"If schools require too much homework and children [are] sitting and fretting about expectations that are not relevant, then everyone suffers. But where people have communicated well and there's interest and building on the expertise at home, then everyone wins."

Copyright © 2017 , Radio New Zealand

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Questions on value of homework

Julie Denby sees little benefit in her 9-year-old son Matthew's after-school study. Photo / Natalie Slade

Primary school students spend nearly an hour each night doing homework, a national survey says, but some parents and teachers question the value of after-school study.

The CensusAtSchool survey found that 77 per cent of students aged 6 to 12 had done some homework on the night before the survey.

The average time spent on the homework was 53 minutes.

Seven per cent said they spent two or more hours on their homework.

Mother Julie Denby spent the past week helping her 9-year-old son Matthew with his after-school project.

"It's like getting blood out of a stone, to be honest," she said.

"I'm not convinced that it is of any benefit."

Matthew, who attends Hillsborough Primary School, spends about 20 minutes a day on his homework.

"I think an hour or so a week is absolutely ample for a primary school child," said Mrs Denby.

Balmoral School associate principal Mary Rea said she saw little value in homework but was pressured by parents to set it.

"We know it's a wasted exercise. But a number of our children will do an hour of learning a night," she said.

Ms Rea said homework should be about learning through participation rather than worksheets.

"We don't call it homework, we call it home learning. What we are wanting is authentic learning situations ... when they help Mum cook dinner they're learning and participating in the process of cooking."

Philip Harding, national president of the Principals' Federation, said there were no national guidelines on homework and many schools were changing their approach.

"Some schools have turned the homework dilemma into child-centred stuff which might involve cooking and a whole range of activities managed by parents, and yet still clearly provide learning opportunities."

Mr Harding said parents should move their focus away from requesting homework and towards encouraging their children to read.

The CensusAtSchool survey found that 69 per cent of teenage students who did homework spent an average of one hour and 13 minutes on it.

Of the teenagers surveyed, 74 per cent of the girls did their homework in contrast to 61 per cent of boys.

Mt Roskill Intermediate principal Mike O'Reilly said homework was a valuable tool to support students' class work.

"Students learn best when they practise what they learn in school and it helps to develop good study habits."

Homework time

Students who did homework the night before

77% aged 6 to 12

69% aged 13-18

Average time on homework

53min: aged 6 to 12

1hr 13min: aged 13 to 18

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Is Homework Good for Kids? Here’s What the Research Says

A s kids return to school, debate is heating up once again over how they should spend their time after they leave the classroom for the day.

The no-homework policy of a second-grade teacher in Texas went viral last week , earning praise from parents across the country who lament the heavy workload often assigned to young students. Brandy Young told parents she would not formally assign any homework this year, asking students instead to eat dinner with their families, play outside and go to bed early.

But the question of how much work children should be doing outside of school remains controversial, and plenty of parents take issue with no-homework policies, worried their kids are losing a potential academic advantage. Here’s what you need to know:

For decades, the homework standard has been a “10-minute rule,” which recommends a daily maximum of 10 minutes of homework per grade level. Second graders, for example, should do about 20 minutes of homework each night. High school seniors should complete about two hours of homework each night. The National PTA and the National Education Association both support that guideline.

But some schools have begun to give their youngest students a break. A Massachusetts elementary school has announced a no-homework pilot program for the coming school year, lengthening the school day by two hours to provide more in-class instruction. “We really want kids to go home at 4 o’clock, tired. We want their brain to be tired,” Kelly Elementary School Principal Jackie Glasheen said in an interview with a local TV station . “We want them to enjoy their families. We want them to go to soccer practice or football practice, and we want them to go to bed. And that’s it.”

A New York City public elementary school implemented a similar policy last year, eliminating traditional homework assignments in favor of family time. The change was quickly met with outrage from some parents, though it earned support from other education leaders.

New solutions and approaches to homework differ by community, and these local debates are complicated by the fact that even education experts disagree about what’s best for kids.

The research

The most comprehensive research on homework to date comes from a 2006 meta-analysis by Duke University psychology professor Harris Cooper, who found evidence of a positive correlation between homework and student achievement, meaning students who did homework performed better in school. The correlation was stronger for older students—in seventh through 12th grade—than for those in younger grades, for whom there was a weak relationship between homework and performance.

Cooper’s analysis focused on how homework impacts academic achievement—test scores, for example. His report noted that homework is also thought to improve study habits, attitudes toward school, self-discipline, inquisitiveness and independent problem solving skills. On the other hand, some studies he examined showed that homework can cause physical and emotional fatigue, fuel negative attitudes about learning and limit leisure time for children. At the end of his analysis, Cooper recommended further study of such potential effects of homework.

Despite the weak correlation between homework and performance for young children, Cooper argues that a small amount of homework is useful for all students. Second-graders should not be doing two hours of homework each night, he said, but they also shouldn’t be doing no homework.

Not all education experts agree entirely with Cooper’s assessment.

Cathy Vatterott, an education professor at the University of Missouri-St. Louis, supports the “10-minute rule” as a maximum, but she thinks there is not sufficient proof that homework is helpful for students in elementary school.

“Correlation is not causation,” she said. “Does homework cause achievement, or do high achievers do more homework?”

Vatterott, the author of Rethinking Homework: Best Practices That Support Diverse Needs , thinks there should be more emphasis on improving the quality of homework tasks, and she supports efforts to eliminate homework for younger kids.

“I have no concerns about students not starting homework until fourth grade or fifth grade,” she said, noting that while the debate over homework will undoubtedly continue, she has noticed a trend toward limiting, if not eliminating, homework in elementary school.

The issue has been debated for decades. A TIME cover in 1999 read: “Too much homework! How it’s hurting our kids, and what parents should do about it.” The accompanying story noted that the launch of Sputnik in 1957 led to a push for better math and science education in the U.S. The ensuing pressure to be competitive on a global scale, plus the increasingly demanding college admissions process, fueled the practice of assigning homework.

“The complaints are cyclical, and we’re in the part of the cycle now where the concern is for too much,” Cooper said. “You can go back to the 1970s, when you’ll find there were concerns that there was too little, when we were concerned about our global competitiveness.”

Cooper acknowledged that some students really are bringing home too much homework, and their parents are right to be concerned.

“A good way to think about homework is the way you think about medications or dietary supplements,” he said. “If you take too little, they’ll have no effect. If you take too much, they can kill you. If you take the right amount, you’ll get better.”

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Education Counts

Site search, search the education counts website, find pages with, narrow results by:, working while studying: young new zealand domestic students publications, publication details.

This analytical report examines the work intensity of young New Zealand domestic students who were working while studying. It looks at the association between their work intensity and their course completion rates in 2019. The analysis is based on data for the 2019 calendar year, so the findings do not include any impact that COVID-19 will have had on education, employment, and income.

Author(s): Loan Pham, Tertiary Sector Performance Analysis, Ministry of Education.

Date Published: October 2021

There were 157,149 young New Zealand domestic students (under 25 years of age) enrolled in a formal qualification at a tertiary provider in 2019. Most students (more than 80%) studied in March–June and August–October. For every month in these two periods, around 50% of all students, 48% of full-time students and 57% of part-time students worked.

The monthly work intensity distribution of young students in 2019 shows:

• Part-time students were more likely to work and more likely to work at higher intensity than full-time students.
• Students who studied at degree and postgraduate levels were more likely to work but more likely to work at lower intensity than those who studied at levels below degree level.
• Female students at degree and postgraduate levels were more likely to work than male students.
• European students were the most likely to combine work with their studies, particularly at levels below degree level.
• At degree and postgraduate levels, Asian students were the least likely to combine work with their studies.
• At below degree level, Māori and Pacific peoples were the least likely to combine work with their studies.

The course completion rate of students shows:

• For full-time students, higher work intensity was initially associated with higher course completion rates, but when the work intensity reached the high level (approximately just over 20 hours per week on the minimum wage in 2019), the course completion rate declined. This pattern appeared to be the same for different levels of study, gender, and ethnic group.
• For part-time students, higher work intensity was generally associated with higher course completion rates.
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• Full Report (PDF, 1.8 MB)
• Data-Tables.xlsx (XLS, 153.7 KB)

For more information about the content on this webpage, please email the:   Tertiary Mailbox

Have your say: Should homework be banned in New Zealand

• William Hewett

With Kiwi school kids set to return to the classroom this week or next, it'll see the return of homework for students, but one world leader believes it should be banned. 

To the potential delight of many students around New Zealand, Michael D Higgins, the President of Ireland, has called for homework to be banned in Ireland.

"I think myself, really that the time at home, and the time in the school is an educational experience and it should get finished at the school and people should be able to use their time for other creative things," Higgins said when speaking to RTE's news2day.

Higgins argues by banning homework, it would allow young people to engage in more creative pursuits outside school hours.

"I think an important thing is friendship and to make sure that there's no one left without friendship and that people belong. And we will all do individual things... but I think friendships that you make will in fact always be great memories and that is so important," Higgins, a former Arts Minister, told children. 

"And also have the courage to stand your own ground and let other children be allowed the space of standing their ground too because none of us are the same. We're all unique but at the same time we have a lot going for us." 

So what do you think, should homework be banned in Aotearoa?

Disclaimer: This straw poll is not scientific and closes after 24 hours. Our poll provider Opinion Stage automatically shuts off polls if it detects bot voting.

Healthier, happier, fairer: new research shows major life benefits from decarbonising transport

Associate Professor in Public Health, University of Otago

Disclosure statement

Caroline Shaw received funding from the Health Research Council of New Zealand for this work, which was also supported by the University of Otago.

University of Otago provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU.

University of Otago provides funding as a member of The Conversation NZ.

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With walking and cycling funding halved in the government’s recently released National Land Transport Programme , and a weaker transport emissions reduction plan, the potential health benefits of a low-carbon transport system have hit a real speed bump.

This is a pity, because one of the great promises of low-carbon transport is the health improvements that can accompany certain policy choices. Health is tangible, while decarbonisation policy is often complex and highly technical. People care deeply about health, both physical and mental.

However, we are now faced with climate and transport policy options that will have radically different implications for health.

To explore this, we looked at two distinct future transport pathways described by the Climate Change Commission. We found the choices New Zealand makes now will be crucial to improving people’s lives in the near future.

Transport and health

We already know transport systems cause a lot of disease and harm from air and noise pollution, physical inactivity and injury. Cancer, asthma, heart disease, premature birth, depression and dementia have all been linked to the effects of transport emissions.

It is hard to precisely quantify the health impacts of New Zealand’s current transport system. But we know it has a greater effect than tobacco , causes thousands of premature deaths each year and adds avoidable burdens to strained health services.

These impacts do not fall equally on different parts of the population. People with low incomes, for example, are more likely to die from road traffic injury. We also know those who drive the most (and have the most environmental impact) tend to experience the least adverse transport-related health outcomes.

Reducing transport emissions involves a series of choices about how we decarbonise. For example, we can emphasise vehicle electrification, change urban design, or pursue combinations of both.

To explore the health implications of this, our new research quantifies two possible transport pathways outlined in the Climate Change Commission’s 2021 advice to the government, Ināia tonu nei: a low emissions future for Aotearoa .

Behaviour and technology

Focusing on population health, health system costs, health inequity and transport greenhouse gas emissions, we modelled household travel under the two most distinct pathways out to 2050. We then compared these to the current transport system (as of 2018).

The two pathways – “further behaviour change” and “further technology change” – both rely on increasing public transport and reducing vehicle travel per person by 2050. The behaviour pathway achieves the most in those areas and includes a large increase in cycling.

Both pathways require a transition to electric cars, but the technology pathway gets to a 100% electric light fleet by 2050 compared to 89% in the behaviour pathway.

Compared to the 2018 transport system, we found both pathways would save lives, reduce health system costs and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, the health gains were around two-and-half times greater in the behaviour pathway than the technology pathway (health savings were three times larger).

This was primarily because of the increased physical activity in this pathway. Lifecycle emissions reductions (for example, from the manufacture and destruction of a car, as well as driving it) were quite similar between the two pathways.

Similar impacts to tobacco reduction

We also modelled how the pathways would affect existing health inequities. We found the behaviour pathway could contribute to reducing healthy life expectancy differences between Māori and non-Māori.

This depended on how policies are implemented: the fairer the transport system, the better it is for health equity.

The potential health benefits of the behaviour pathway are of the same magnitude as those seen from tobacco market interventions such as a 10% tax increase and creation of a smoke-free generation.

These results are quite conservative, too. The Climate Change Commission assumed only minimal changes in walking. But the policies needed to deliver this pathway are all likely to increase walking substantially. And even the policies needed to achieve the technology pathway would increase walking.

Moreover, our health model itself is conservative. For example, we know the positive impacts of the behaviour pathway on mental health would be considerably larger than we were able to model.

Health and fairness

These findings also relate to the government’s emissions reduction plans, which were published after the Climate Change Commission delivered its advice.

The behaviour change pathway is similar to the approach taken in the first emissions reduction plan from 2022, so we can assume there would be comparable health impacts. In contrast, the approach in the draft second emissions reduction plan , published this year, is radically different.

This newer plan focuses on the emissions trading scheme (a pricing tool), increasing electric car charging infrastructure, and a few public transport projects (mainly in Auckland).

These policies are unlikely to have much impact on land transport emissions. Nor will they achieve the health benefits of even the technology pathway. Other transport policies – speed limit increases, expanded road building and weaker vehicle emissions standards – will likely counteract any potential benefits from the second emissions reduction plan, as well as make health worse.

This research illustrates how the way we choose to decarbonise transport is important. It adds to other local research showing that moving to a “planet-friendly” diet would result in large health, health equity and climate benefits.

Collectively these studies demonstrate how we can decarbonise in ways that meaningfully improve lives. And we can build support for climate policy by focusing on the things people truly value, such as health and fairness.

The author gratefully acknowledges her fellow researchers and co-authors on this project: Anja Mizdrak, Ryan Gage and Melissa McLeod, University of Otago; Rhys Jones and Alistair Woodward, University of Auckland; and Linda Cobiac, Griffith University.

• New Zealand
• Public transport
• Health equity
• Transport emissions
• Health costs
• Road transport
• transport injuries
• NZ Climate Change Commission
• NZ Emissions Reduction Plan
• New research, Australia New Zealand

Service Centre Senior Consultant

Director of STEM

Community member - Training Delivery and Development Committee (Volunteer part-time)

Chief Executive Officer

Head of Evidence to Action

New species of pāua found

03 September 2024

A new species of pāua, called Haliotis pirimoana, has been discovered at Manawatāwhi Three Kings Islands.

The naming of a new species of pāua further highlights the importance of biodiversity research in Aotearoa.

Described in a study led by the University of Otago – Ōtākou Whakaihu Waka and the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa , the species, Haliotis pirimoana, is only found at Manawatāwhi Three Kings Islands, off the northern North Island.

Lead author Kerry Walton, an invertebrate curator at Te Papa who is undertaking his PhD in the Department of Zoology, says this is one of many species that are only found on Manawatāwhi .

“We are facing a biodiversity crisis. Species around the world are going extinct faster than we can discover and describe them,” he says.

“The Manawatāwh i pāua may not be facing any short-term threats to its survival but it is another indicator of how unique and important that region of Aotearoa is.”

Haliotis pirimoana resembles other small pāua from the North Island but the shell has finer sculpture across its back and a subtly different shape.

Published in the international peer-reviewed journal Molluscan Research , the study aimed to understand how many species of small pāua there are in the country.

To do this, the research team, including the Otago Department of Zoology’s Associate Professor Nic Rawlence and Professor Hamish Spencer, and Dr Bruce Marshall from Te Papa, applied new “ancient DNA” methods to shells from the collections at Te Papa and NIWA.

“These new methods allow short and damaged fragments of DNA to be extracted and sequenced with far greater efficiency than previous methods, unlocking the genetic secrets trapped in these precious specimens,” Associate Professor Rawlence says.

People can now more confidently discuss and interpret relationships between the different forms and populations of small pāua in Aotearoa , he says.

Professor Spencer says that biodiversity is critical, and effective resource and conservation management relies on having a robust underlying understanding of it.

"We need to know what species are restricted to a region and how they might respond to change. This allows decision-makers to identify vulnerabilities and best manage resourcing,” he says.

Mr Walton says while most species will not yield commercial applications, such as the next big pharmaceutical, people depend on biodiversity for new materials and medicines.

“Research in these areas is underpinned by biodiversity research, and it is our responsibility to protect biodiversity for future generations.”

While there is a decent level of understanding of biodiversity in Aotearoa , new species are still being discovered and more than a third of our known marine mollusc species are yet to be named.

“With pāua being the cultural icon that they are, we hope this work will raise a few eyebrows and encourage people to look more closely the next time they are at the coast.”