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Temporary Compromise

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What did the Missouri Compromise of 1820 accomplish?

it allowed Missouri to enter the union as a free state

it allowed Maine to enter the union as a slave state

it created a dividing line between free and slave states

it created the Fugitive Slave Law

The Wilmot Proviso called for

new states to allow slavery in the Southeast

a ban on slavery in territories gained from Mexico

new setters to vote on slavery in the Southwest

an extension of the Missouri Compromise dividing line

Which of the following BEST describes Zachary Taylor's position on slavery in new territories during his presidential campaign?

pro-slavery

anti-slavery

pro-compromise

What political party was formed in 1848 to oppose the spread of slavery?

the Whig Party

the Free-Soil Party

the Democratic Party

the Republican Party

What challenge did Congress face in 1850?

whether to acquire new Western territories

whether to sell territory from the Mexican Cession

whether to allow slavery in new territories

whether to allow new territories to become states

How did Congress attempt to maintain a balance of power between Northern and Southern states in the mid-1800s?

by keeping the number of free and slave states equal

by creating more free states than slave states

by creating more slave than free states

by forming new political parties to address slavery

Which of the following events occurred first?

the discovery of gold in California

the Compromise of 1850

the application for statehood by California

the Missouri Compromise

When California applied for statehood, Southern states feared

they would lose equality in the Senate

enslaved workers would escape

they would have to pass new laws to maintain slavery

the gold-mining industry would overtake agriculture

Why did Southern states feel betrayed by President Zachary Taylor?

He wanted popular sovereignty for new states, and Southerners did not trust their votes

He was from the South, and Southerners thought he should support their cause

He was from the South, and Southerners thought he favored California over his home state

He was a slaveholder, but did not want to bring his enslaved workers to California

A result of the sectional crisis over California in 1850 was that

Northern states considered leaving the Union

President Taylor tried to compromise

Northern politicians banned slavery

Southern states considered leaving the Union

Along with Henry Clay, who contributed to the Compromise of 1850?

William Seward

Stephen Douglas

John C. Calhoun

The Compromise of 1850 resolved the issue of slavery in Utah and New Mexico through

popular sovereignty

allowing it

What did the Compromise of 1850 postpone?

a new fugitive slave law

civil war between the states

the spread of abolitionism

Which of the following was a provision of the Fugitive Slave Act?

enslaved people were denied trial by jury

northerners were allowed to protect fugitives

citizens did not have to turn in fugitives

fugitives were given their freedom after a year

An important consequence of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was

improved relations between the North and South

a gain in support for the abolitionist movement

fewer runaway enslaved people being captured and returned

more enslaved people escaping to the North

How did the Compromise of 1850 increase tensions between the North and the South?

enslaved people rebelled in the South

the North refused to enforce the Fugitive Slave Act

the South began to arrest abolitionists

New political parties in the North called for civil war

California finally joined the Union following the death of

President Millard Fillmore

President Zachary Taylor

Senator William Seward

Senator John C. Calhoun

Which of the following increased sectional tensions in the 1850s?

the Mexican American War

the Mexican Cession

the Fugitive Slave Act

the California Gold Rush

The policy that allowed settlers in new territories to decide whether or not to allow slavery was called

westward expansion

Manifest Destiny

territorial election

Many people moved to California in 1848 following

the establishment of Bear Flag Republic

the outlawing of slavery

the discovery of gold

the completion of the Pacific Railroad

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Booker T. Washington and the Atlanta Compromise

July 29, 2011

Posted by: Stephen Wesson

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This post comes to us from Danna Bell of the Library of Congress.

As the United States entered the 20 th century, African Americans faced a new and challenging landscape. A mere thirty-five years after the abolition of slavery, the majority of African Americans had learned to read and hundreds were heading to colleges and universities to continue their studies. The 1900 Paris Exposition created by W.E.B. DuBois showcased the gains that African Americans had made since emancipation.

However, many of the freedoms gained during the era of reconstruction were beginning to disappear. It became more and more difficult for African Americans to vote; the Plessy v. Ferguson ruling made segregation the law of the land; and groups such as the Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the White Camelia tried to reverse the successes of African Americans, sometimes using violence and lynching to strike fear in the African American community.

Many contributed to the debates on how best to secure and advance the rights of African Americans, but one of the major contributors was the educator Booker T. Washington. Washington, the leader of Tuskegee Institute, stated his views in a speech at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia, in September 1895.

This speech, which is often called the “Atlanta Compromise,” was the first speech given by an African American man in front of a racially mixed audience in the South. In it, Washington suggested that African Americans should not agitate for social and political equality in return for the opportunity to acquire vocational training and participate in the economic development of the New South. He believed that through hard work and hard-earned respect, African Americans would gain the esteem of white society and eventually full citizenship.

After giving this speech Washington became an extremely popular speaker and gave speeches around the United States. He also helped found the National Negro Business League to support African American entrepreneurs, and was invited to the White House for dinner with President Theodore Roosevelt. Washington continued to give speeches and provide support to the African American community until his death in 1915.

Teaching Ideas

Have students read Washington’s speech. Who do you think was the audience for this speech?

Ask students to investigate what was happening at the time the speech was delivered. Would the content of the speech be different if it had been delivered 10 years later? If it were delivered now?

• Visit the Chronicling America website and locate responses to Washington’s speech in one of African-American newspapers published at the time. Students can select one or more of the responses to defend or refute.
• Have students study the placement of articles about Washington’s speech in other newspapers within Chronicling America during the months of September and October 1895. Where were articles about the speech placed? Was the placement different in papers with majority white readers than in papers with majority African American readership?

Look more specifically at the actual articles on the Cotton Exposition. What was said about Washington’s speech? Does it receive extensive coverage or is it a minor footnote within the larger article on the exposition?

One of the people who spoke out against Washington’s view was W.E.B DuBois. Students can compare Washington’s speech and chapter three of the book The Souls of Black Folk , and identify points at which DuBois agree or disagree with each other. Have students consider if their debate is still relevant today.

• Review the drafts of the poem “Ballad of Booker T. “ by Langston Hughes. What is Hughes’ opinion of Booker T. Washington? How did Hughes’ life experiences shape his writing? What do you think Washington would have thought of the poem?

Additional Resources

You’ll find more primary sources from this era in the Library of Congress online exhibition NAACP: A Century in the Fight for Freedom .

How do you think historic speeches like the Atlanta Compromise could be incorporated into classroom teaching? If you have successful examples from your own teaching, please let us know in the comments.

Many contributed to the debates on how best to secure and advance the rights of African Americans, but one of the major contributors was the educator Booker T. Washington. Washington, the founder of Tuskegee Institute, stated his views in a speech at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia, in September 1895. This speech, which is often called the “Atlanta Compromise,” was the first speech given by an African American in front of a racially mixed audience in the South. In it, Washington suggested that African Americans should not agitate for social and political equality in return for the opportunity to acquire vocational training and participate in the economic development of the New South. He believed that through hard work and hard-earned respect, African Americans would gain the esteem of white society and eventually full citizenship.

Visit the Chronicling America website and locate responses to Washington’s speech in the Washington Bee, one of African-American newspapers published at the time. [c1] Students can select one or more of the responses to defend or refute.

Have students study the placement of articles about Washington’s speech in other newspapers within Chronicling America during the months of September and October 1895. Where were articles about the speech placed? Was the placement different in papers with majority white [c2] readers than in papers with majority African American readership?

Review the drafts of the poem “Ballad of Booker T.” by Langston Hughes. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mcc:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28mcc/024%29%29 What is Hughes’ opinion of Booker T. Washington? How did Hughes’ life experiences shape his writing? What do you think Washington would have thought of the poem?

[c1] If we’re naming a specific paper, it might be useful to indicate why that one is important. If the specific doesn’t matter, it’ll save the teacher time and frustration to point more generally to the Booker T. topics page: http://www.loc.gov/rr/news/topics/bookertwashington.html

Comments (14)

Great resources here on Booker T. Washington.

One thing that I couldn’t find–you recommended using the Washington Bee, an African American newspaper, but when I clicked through to the newspapers, I found only other Washington papers, and one called The Bee but out of Earlington, Kentucky. Which is the correct DC-area African American newspaper?

Additionally, the next step you suggest is to compare coverage of the speech in white v. black majority readership newspapers, but none of the newspapers are labelled as to their readership. Which are majority white, and which majority black?

Thank you for the questions.

First, we’ve added a link to the Washington Bee in the post itself.

Second, the Chronicling America site makes it easy to search newspapers by ethnicity. Just go to chroniclingamerica.loc.gov, select “All Digitized Newspapers”, and use the drop-down menu “Ethnicity”.

I hope this helps.

I really enjoyed the teaching ideas included with the post — I teach in a very rural area in which students aren’t exposed to much diversity, and this would be a great way to incorporate worldviews that they may have not known existed before. I also like the fact that they could practice writing skills and provide evidence to back up their ideas.

Thanks for this!

Hi, I hope you may can help me I puchased an antique photo and frame stored it and finally got it out opened the back and the back of the photo has Atlanta expo Davis galleries on it. Could this be an advertisement for the gallaries the man on front looks to be ajudge and of wealth. Thanks so much!

The Library of Congress can’t appraise items or determine if those items are real or not. You will need to find an appraiser in your community for assistance. Information can be found at the FAQ from the Rare Books and Manuscripts Section of the American Library Association. Our Prints and Photographs Division also supplies links to other resources. Good luck on your research.

I want to point out that the person who dubbed this speech the “Atlanta Compromise” was W. E. B. Du Bois; its proper name is the Atlanta Address.

“…one of the major contributors was the educator Booker T. Washington. Washington, the founder of Tuskegee Institute…”

I also want to point out that Mr. Washington was not the “founder” of the Tuskegee Institute. http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/history_and_mission.aspx

Thanks for your comment. We’ve updated the post.

it doesnt explain the economics of booker t. washington and dubois and doesnt use evidence from the speech and critique

What’s the limit of opportunity

From reading the Atlantic Exposition; What were the three points of contention between Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Dubois?

How was Washington a different leader from past leaders of the African Americans community, based off of the book.

This was a great post

great story…

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Missouri Compromise

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 27, 2023 | Original: October 29, 2009

The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a law that tried to address growing sectional tensions over the issue of slavery. By passing the law, which President James Monroe signed, the U.S. Congress admitted Missouri to the Union as a state that allowed slavery, and Maine as a free state. It also banned slavery from the remaining Louisiana Purchase lands located north of the 36º 30’ parallel (the southern border of Missouri). The Missouri Compromise would remain in force for just over 30 years before it was repealed by the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. In 1857, the Supreme Court ruled in the Dred Scott decision that the compromise was unconstitutional, setting the stage for the Civil War .

Pro- and Anti-Slavery Factions in Congress

When the Missouri Territory first applied for statehood in 1818, it was clear that many in the territory wanted to allow slavery in the new state. Part of the more than 800,000 square miles bought from France in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, Missouri was known as the Louisiana Territory until 1812, when it was renamed to avoid confusion with the newly admitted state of Louisiana.

Missouri’s bid to become the first state west of the Mississippi River, and to allow slavery within its borders, set off a bitter debate in a Congress that was—like the nation itself—already divided into pro- and anti-slavery factions.

In the North, where abolitionist sentiment was growing, many people opposed the extension of the institution of slavery into new territory, and worried that adding Missouri as a slave state would upset the balance that currently existed between slave and free states in the Union. Pro-slavery Southerners, meanwhile, argued that new states, like the original 13, should be given the freedom to choose whether to permit slavery or not.

During the debate, Rep. James Tallmadge of New York proposed an amendment to the statehood bill that would have eventually ended slavery in Missouri and set free the existing enslaved workers living there. The amended bill passed narrowly in the House of Representatives , where Northerners held a slight edge. But in the Senate , where free and slave states had exactly the same number of senators, the pro-slavery faction managed to strike out Tallmadge’s amendment, and the House refused to pass the bill without it.

Maine and Missouri: A Two-Part Compromise

After this stalemate, Missouri renewed its application for statehood in late 1819. This time, Speaker of the House Henry Clay proposed that Congress admit Missouri to the Union as a state that allowed slavery, but at the same time admit Maine (which at the time was part of Massachusetts) as a free state.

In February 1820, the Senate added a second part to the joint statehood bill: With the exception of Missouri, slavery would be banned in all of the former Louisiana Purchase lands north of the 36º 30’ latitude, which ran along Missouri’s southern border.

On March 3, 1820, the House passed the Senate version of the bill, and President James Monroe signed it into law four days later. The following month, the former President Thomas Jefferson wrote to a friend that the “Missouri question...like a fire bell in the night, awakened and filled me with terror. I considered it at once as the knell of the Union. It is hushed indeed for the moment. But this is a reprieve only, not a final sentence.”

Shortcomings of the Missouri Compromise

Though the Missouri Compromise managed to keep the peace—for the moment—it failed to resolve the pressing question of slavery and its place in the nation’s future. Southerners who opposed the Missouri Compromise did so because it set a precedent for Congress to make laws concerning slavery, while Northerners disliked the law because it meant slavery was expanding into new territory.

In the decades after 1820, as westward expansion continued, and more of the Louisiana Purchase lands were organized as territories, the question of slavery’s extension continued to divide the nation. The Compromise of 1850 , which admitted California to the Union as a free state, required California to send one pro-slavery senator to maintain the balance of power in the Senate.

In 1854, during the organization of Kansas and Nebraska Territories, Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois spearheaded the Kansas-Nebraska Act , which mandated that the settlers of each territory should decide the issue of slavery for themselves, a principle known as popular sovereignty.

The controversial law effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise by allowing slavery north of the 36º 30’ parallel. Passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act sparked violence between pro- and anti-slavery settlers in “ Bleeding Kansas ,” delaying Kansas’ admission to the Union. Opposition to the act led to the formation of the Republican Party , and the emergence to national prominence of Douglas’s Illinois rival, a formerly obscure lawyer named Abraham Lincoln .

Bitter controversy also surrounded the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford , which ruled that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional. According to Chief Justice Roger B. Taney and six other justices, Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories, as the Fifth Amendment guaranteed owners of the enslaved could not be deprived of their property without due process of law. The 14th Amendment , passed in 1865 after the conclusion of the Civil War, would later overturn major parts of the Dred Scott decision. 

The 1860 Compromise That Would Have Preserved Slavery in the US Constitution

The author of Crittenden Compromise argued his six amendments presented a good deal. But then‑President‑elect Lincoln drew a firm line.

How Slavery Became the Economic Engine of the South

Slavery was so profitable, it sprouted more millionaires per capita in the Mississippi River valley than anywhere in the nation.

5 Historic Supreme Court Rulings Based on the 14th Amendment

The 14th Amendment's guarantee to "due process" provided a basis for these five Supreme Court rulings that have impacted Americans' lives.

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2.3 The Development of the Constitution

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify the conflicts present and the compromises reached in drafting the Constitution
• Summarize the core features of the structure of U.S. government under the Constitution

In 1786, Virginia and Maryland invited delegates from the other eleven states to meet in Annapolis, Maryland, for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation . However, only five states sent representatives. Because all thirteen states had to agree to any alteration of the Articles, the convention in Annapolis could not accomplish its goal. Two of the delegates, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison , requested that all states send delegates to a convention in Philadelphia the following year to attempt once again to revise the Articles of Confederation. All the states except Rhode Island chose delegates to send to the meeting, a total of seventy men in all, but many did not attend. Among those not in attendance were John Adams and Thomas Jefferson , both of whom were overseas representing the country as diplomats. Because the shortcomings of the Articles of Confederation proved impossible to overcome, the convention that met in Philadelphia in 1787 decided to create an entirely new government.

POINTS OF CONTENTION

Fifty-five delegates arrived in Philadelphia in May 1787 for the meeting that became known as the Constitutional Convention . Many wanted to strengthen the role and authority of the national government but feared creating a central government that was too powerful. They wished to preserve state autonomy, although not to a degree that prevented the states from working together collectively or made them entirely independent of the will of the national government. While seeking to protect the rights of individuals from government abuse, they nevertheless wished to create a society in which concerns for law and order did not give way in the face of demands for individual liberty. They wished to give political rights to all free men but also feared mob rule, which many felt would have been the result of Shays’ Rebellion had it succeeded. Delegates from small states did not want their interests pushed aside by delegations from more populous states like Virginia. And everyone was concerned about slavery. Representatives from southern states worried that delegates from states where it had been or was being abolished might try to outlaw the institution. Those who favored a nation free of the influence of slavery feared that southerners might attempt to make it a permanent part of American society. The only decision that all could agree on was the election of George Washington , the former commander of the Continental Army and hero of the American Revolution, as the president of the convention.

The Question of Representation: Small States vs. Large States

One of the first differences among the delegates to become clear was between those from large states, such as New York and Virginia, and those who represented small states, like Delaware. When discussing the structure of the government under the new constitution, the delegates from Virginia called for a bicameral legislature consisting of two houses. The number of a state’s representatives in each house was to be based on the state’s population. In each state, representatives in the lower house would be elected by popular vote. These representatives would then select their state’s representatives in the upper house from among candidates proposed by the state’s legislature. Once a representative’s term in the legislature had ended, the representative could not be reelected until an unspecified amount of time had passed.

Delegates from small states objected to this Virginia Plan . Another proposal, the New Jersey Plan , called for a unicameral legislature with one house, in which each state would have one vote. Thus, smaller states would have the same power in the national legislature as larger states. However, the larger states argued that because they had more residents, they should be allotted more legislators to represent their interests ( Figure 2.7 ).

Slavery and Freedom

Another fundamental division separated the states. Following the Revolution, some of the northern states had either abolished slavery or instituted plans by which enslaved men and women would gradually be emancipated. Pennsylvania, for example, had passed the Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery in 1780. All people born in the state to enslaved mothers after the law’s passage would become indentured servants to be set free at age twenty-eight. In 1783, Massachusetts had freed all enslaved people within the state. Many Americans believed slavery was opposed to the ideals stated in the Declaration of Independence. Others felt it was inconsistent with the teachings of Christianity. Some White people feared for their safety if the enslaved population or Americans' reliance on slavery were to increase. Although some southerners shared similar sentiments, none of the southern states had abolished slavery and none wanted the Constitution to interfere with the institution. In addition to supporting the agriculture of the South, enslaved people could be taxed as property and counted as population for purposes of a state’s representation in the government.

Federal Supremacy vs. State Sovereignty

Perhaps the greatest division among the states split those who favored a strong national government and those who favored limiting its powers and allowing states to govern themselves in most matters. Supporters of a strong central government argued that it was necessary for the survival and efficient functioning of the new nation. Without the authority to maintain and command an army and navy, the nation could not defend itself at a time when European powers still maintained formidable empires in North America. Without the power to tax and regulate trade, the government would not have enough money to maintain the nation’s defense, protect American farmers and manufacturers from foreign competition, create the infrastructure necessary for interstate commerce and communications, maintain foreign embassies, or pay federal judges and other government officials. Furthermore, other countries would be reluctant to loan money to the United States if the federal government lacked the ability to impose taxes in order to repay its debts. Besides giving more power to populous states, the Virginia Plan also favored a strong national government that would legislate for the states in many areas and would have the power to veto laws passed by state legislatures.

Others, however, feared that a strong national government might become too powerful and use its authority to oppress citizens and deprive them of their rights. They advocated a central government with sufficient authority to defend the nation but insisted that other powers be left to the states, which were believed to be better able to understand and protect the needs and interests of their residents. Such delegates approved the approach of the New Jersey Plan, which retained the unicameral Congress that had existed under the Articles of Confederation. It gave additional power to the national government, such as the power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce and to compel states to comply with laws passed by Congress. However, states still retained a lot of power, including power over the national government. Congress, for example, could not impose taxes without the consent of the states. Furthermore, the nation’s chief executive, appointed by the Congress, could be removed by Congress if state governors demanded it.

Individual Liberty vs. Social Stability

The belief that the king and Parliament had deprived colonists of their liberties had led to the Revolution, and many feared the government of the United States might one day attempt to do the same. They wanted and expected their new government to guarantee the rights of life, liberty, and property. Others believed it was more important for the national government to maintain order, and this might require it to limit personal liberty at times. All Americans, however, desired that the government not intrude upon people’s rights to life, liberty, and property without reason.

COMPROMISE AND THE CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

Beginning in May 1787 and throughout the long, hot Philadelphia summer, the delegations from twelve states discussed, debated, and finally—after compromising many times—by September had worked out a new blueprint for the nation. The document they created, the U.S. Constitution, was an ingenious instrument that allayed fears of a too-powerful central government and solved the problems that had beleaguered the national government under the Articles of Confederation. For the most part, it also resolved the conflicts between small and large states, northern and southern states, and those who favored a strong federal government and those who argued for state sovereignty.

Link to Learning

The closest thing to minutes of the Constitutional Convention is the collection of James Madison’s letters and notes about the proceedings in Philadelphia. Several such letters and notes may be found at the Library of Congress’s American Memory project.

The Great Compromise

The Constitution consists of a preamble and seven articles. The first three articles divide the national government into three branches—Congress, the executive branch, and the federal judiciary—and describe the powers and responsibilities of each. In Article I, ten sections describe the structure of Congress , the basis for representation and the requirements for serving in Congress, the length of Congressional terms, and the powers of Congress. The national legislature created by the article reflects the compromises reached by the delegates regarding such issues as representation, slavery, and national power.

After debating at length over whether the Virginia Plan or the New Jersey Plan provided the best model for the nation’s legislature, the framers of the Constitution had ultimately arrived at what is called the Great Compromise , suggested by Roger Sherman of Connecticut. Congress, it was decided, would consist of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state, regardless of size, would have two senators, making for equal representation as in the New Jersey Plan. Representation in the House would be based on population. Senators were to be appointed by state legislatures, a variation on the Virginia Plan. Members of the House of Representatives would be popularly elected by the voters in each state. Elected members of the House would be limited to two years in office before having to seek reelection, and those appointed to the Senate by each state’s political elite would serve a term of six years.

Congress was given great power, including the power to tax, maintain an army and a navy, and regulate trade and commerce. Congress had authority that the national government lacked under the Articles of Confederation. It could also coin and borrow money, grant patents and copyrights, declare war, and establish laws regulating naturalization and bankruptcy. While legislation could be proposed by either chamber of Congress, it had to pass both chambers by a majority vote before being sent to the president to be signed into law, and all bills to raise revenue had to begin in the House of Representatives. Only those men elected by the voters to represent them could impose taxes upon them. There would be no more taxation without representation.

The Three-Fifths Compromise and the Debates over Slavery

The Great Compromise that determined the structure of Congress soon led to another debate, however. When states took a census of their population for the purpose of allotting House representatives, should enslaved people be counted? Southern states were adamant that they should be, while delegates from northern states were vehemently opposed, arguing that representatives from southern states could not represent the interests of those enslaved. If enslaved people were not counted, however, southern states would have far fewer representatives in the House than northern states did. For example, if South Carolina were allotted representatives based solely on its free population, it would receive only half the number it would have received if enslaved people, who made up approximately 43 percent of the population, were included. 7

The Three-Fifths Compromise , illustrated in Figure 2.8 , resolved the impasse, although not in a manner that truly satisfied anyone. For purposes of Congressional apportionment, slaveholding states were allowed to count all their free population, including free African Americans and 60 percent (three-fifths) of their enslaved population. To mollify the north, the compromise also allowed counting 60 percent of a state’s enslaved population for federal taxation, although no such taxes were ever collected. Another compromise regarding the institution of slavery granted Congress the right to impose taxes on imports in exchange for a twenty-year prohibition on laws attempting to ban the importation of enslaved people to the United States, which would hurt the economy of southern states more than that of northern states. Because the southern states, especially South Carolina, had made it clear they would leave the convention if abolition were attempted, no serious effort was made by the framers to abolish slavery in the new nation, even though many delegates disapproved of the institution.

Indeed, the Constitution contained two protections for slavery. Article I postponed the abolition of the foreign slave trade until 1808, and in the interim, those in slaveholding states were allowed to import as many enslaved people as they wished. 8 Furthermore, the Constitution placed no restrictions on the domestic slave trade, so residents of one state could still sell enslaved people to other states. Article IV of the Constitution—which, among other things, required states to return freedom seekers to the states where they had been charged with crimes—also prevented the enslaved from gaining their freedom by escaping to states where slavery had been abolished. Clause 3 of Article IV (known as the fugitive slave clause) allowed enslavers to reclaim the enslaved in the states where they had fled. 9

Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances

Although debates over slavery and representation in Congress occupied many at the convention, the chief concern was the challenge of increasing the authority of the national government while ensuring that it did not become too powerful. The framers resolved this problem through a separation of powers , dividing the national government into three separate branches and assigning different responsibilities to each one, as shown in Figure 2.9 . They also created a system of checks and balances by giving each of three branches of government the power to restrict the actions of the others, thus requiring them to work together.

Congress was given the power to make laws, but the executive branch, consisting of the president and the vice president, and the federal judiciary, notably the Supreme Court, were created to, respectively, enforce laws and try cases arising under federal law. Neither of these branches had existed under the Articles of Confederation. Thus, Congress can pass laws, but its power to do so can be checked by the president, who can veto potential legislation so that it cannot become a law. Later, in the 1803 case of Marbury v. Madison , the U.S. Supreme Court established its own authority to rule on the constitutionality of laws, a process called judicial review.

Other examples of checks and balances include the ability of Congress to limit the president’s veto. Should the president veto a bill passed by both houses of Congress, the bill is returned to Congress to be voted on again. If the bill passes both the House of Representatives and the Senate with a two-thirds vote in its favor, it becomes law even though the president has refused to sign it.

Congress is also able to limit the president’s power as commander-in-chief of the armed forces by refusing to declare war or provide funds for the military. To date, the Congress has never refused a president’s request for a declaration of war. The president must also seek the advice and consent of the Senate before appointing members of the Supreme Court and ambassadors, and the Senate must approve the ratification of all treaties signed by the president. Congress may even remove the president from office. To do this, both chambers of Congress must work together. The House of Representatives impeaches the president by bringing formal charges against the president, and the Senate tries the case in a proceeding overseen by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. The president is removed from office if found guilty.

According to political scientist Richard Neustadt, the system of separation of powers and checks and balances does not so much allow one part of government to control another as it encourages the branches to cooperate. Instead of a true separation of powers, the Constitutional Convention “created a government of separated institutions sharing powers.” 10 For example, knowing the president can veto a law the president disapproves, Congress will attempt to draft a bill that addresses the president’s concerns before sending it to the White House for signing. Similarly, knowing that Congress can override a veto, the president will use this power sparingly.

Federal Power vs. State Power

The strongest guarantee that the power of the national government would be restricted and the states would retain a degree of sovereignty was the framers’ creation of a federal system of government. In a federal system , power is divided between the federal (or national) government and the state governments. Great or explicit powers, called enumerated powers , were granted to the federal government to declare war, impose taxes, coin and regulate currency, regulate foreign and interstate commerce, raise and maintain an army and a navy, maintain a post office, make treaties with foreign nations and with Native American tribes, and make laws regulating the naturalization of immigrants.

All powers not expressly given to the national government, however, were intended to be exercised by the states. These powers are known as reserved powers ( Figure 2.10 ). Thus, states remained free to pass laws regarding such things as intrastate commerce (commerce within the borders of a state) and marriage. Some powers, such as the right to levy taxes, were given to both the state and federal governments. Both the states and the federal government have a chief executive to enforce the laws (a governor and the president, respectively) and a system of courts.

Although the states retained a considerable degree of sovereignty, the supremacy clause in Article VI of the Constitution proclaimed that the Constitution, laws passed by Congress, and treaties made by the federal government were “the supreme Law of the Land.” In the event of a conflict between the states and the national government, the national government would triumph. Furthermore, although the federal government was to be limited to those powers enumerated in the Constitution, Article I provided for the expansion of Congressional powers if needed. The “necessary and proper” clause of Article I provides that Congress may “make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing [enumerated] Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.”

The Constitution also gave the federal government control over all “Territory or other Property belonging to the United States.” This would prove problematic when, as the United States expanded westward and population growth led to an increase in the power of the northern states in Congress, the federal government sought to restrict the expansion of slavery into newly acquired territories.

A growing number of institutes and study centers focus on the Constitution and the founding of the republic. Examples such as the Institute for the American Constitutional Heritage and the Bill of Rights Institute have informative public websites with documents and videos. Another example is the National Constitution Center that also holds programs related to aspects of the enduring U.S. Constitution.

This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission.

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/american-government-3e/pages/1-introduction

• Authors: Glen Krutz, Sylvie Waskiewicz, PhD
• Publisher/website: OpenStax
• Book title: American Government 3e
• Publication date: Jul 28, 2021
• Location: Houston, Texas
• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/american-government-3e/pages/1-introduction
• Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/american-government-3e/pages/2-3-the-development-of-the-constitution

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The first amendment, module 4: constitutional convention and ratification.

In the summer of 1787, delegates gathered for a convention in Philadelphia, with the goal of revising the Articles of Confederation—the nation’s existing governing document. However, rather than simply revising the Articles of Confederation, they wrote an entirely new framework of government: the U.S. Constitution. This new government was more powerful than the national government established by the Articles of Confederation, but the Constitution also limited the powers of this new government. In this module, you will explore the debates and compromises that occurred at the Constitutional Convention and explore the key arguments during the battle over ratification.

Download all materials for this module as a PDF

Learning Objectives

• Meet the framers of the Constitution and their influence on the new constitution.
• Describe the main debates and compromises reached by the delegates at the Constitutional Convention.
• Explore the key arguments advanced by the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists during the battle over ratification.

4.1 Activity: Constitutional Convention: Did they know the assignment?

• Student Instruction
• Teacher Notes

Purpose By early May 1787, delegates from the states began to gather in Philadelphia to discuss the current framework of government—the Articles of Confederation. In this activity, you will begin to meet the framers of the Constitution and explore the task before them. The purpose of the activity is to discover who these delegates were and why they came to Philadelphia. You will also learn more about the delegates themselves.

Process Read the following statement from the Confederation Congress calling for a convention. Then summarize, in your own words, the purpose of the Constitutional Convention. Be prepared to share your summary with the class.

“That it be recommended to the States composing the Union that a convention of representatives from the said States respectively be held at ------ on ------ for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the United States of America and reporting to the United States in Congress assembled and to the States respectively such alterations and amendments of the said Articles of Confederation as the representatives met in such convention shall judge proper and necessary to render them adequate to the preservation and support of the Union.”

Next, look closely at the iconic image below that depicts the Constitutional Convention and discuss the following questions with a partner: 

• Where do you think this room is located?
• Do you know what happened in this room? 
• Who do you recognize in the picture?
• Who did you expect to be there, but is not?
• How would you describe the backgrounds of the people present? 

Then review the information about the delegates in attendance on the Meet the Framers of the Constitution webpage  for more information on who was in attendance during the Constitutional Convention. 

Finally, complete the Activity Guide: Convention Facts worksheet.

Launch Information Give students time to read the quote, review the image, and consider the questions. Ask students to share their summaries and prior knowledge about the Constitutional Convention.

Activity Synthesis Ask the students to predict how the background and experiences of the delegates might affect the government they form at the Constitutional Convention.

Activity Extension (optional) For more information, invite students to read The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Revolution in Government essay on the National Constitution Center website.

4.1 Visual Info Brief: Painting of the Constitutional Convention

4.1 activity guide: convention facts, 4.2 activity: constitutional convention: meet the framers.

Purpose In this activity, you will continue to explore the delegates who attended the Constitutional Convention. The purpose of this assignment is for you to get to know one influential delegate well and then determine his influence in comparison to other key delegates at the Convention. 

Process Now that you have a general idea of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention, let’s get personal. Review the Info Brief: List of Delegates document to learn more. You will be assigned a delegate to research. Use the Activity Guide: Constitutional Convention - Meet the Framers activity guide to summarize significant information about that person. 

You can find additional Information in the The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Revolution in Government essay by Richard R. Beeman.

After you complete the worksheet, you will present your assigned delegate to the class and advocate for them to be a top influencer at the Convention. Only five will make it to the top influencers list so do your best to make the case of why your delegate should be among them. 

Launch Information This assignment is to help the students learn more about who was in the room when the Constitution was written.

Here are some resources that may be useful to supplement research:

• Founding Fathers page on the National Constitution Center website
• Meet the Framers of the Constitution page on the National Archives website

Activity Synthesis As students present their delegate, you may have them complete a rubric, or some kind of score card and then have students vote, or use a “March Madness” bracket game, to select the top winners for the class.

Activity Extension (optional) Now that students have a better understanding of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention, invite students to investigate one of the delegates they heard about during the presentations and are interested in but did not research. Focus on their life before and after the Constitutional Convention.

4.2 Info Brief: List of Delegates

4.2 activity guide: constitutional convention - meet the framers, 4.3 video activity: constitutional convention.

Purpose In this activity, you will explore the compromises of the Constitutional Convention. You will also learn more about the people who wrote the Constitution. 

Process Watch the following video about the Constitutional Convention.

Then, complete the Video Reflection: Constitutional Convention worksheet.

Identify any areas that are unclear to you or where you would like further explanation. Be prepared to discuss your answers in a group and to ask your teacher any remaining questions.

Launch Give students time to watch the video and complete the worksheet. 

Activity Synthesis Have students review their worksheet responses and discuss as necessary. 

Activity Extension (optional) Now that students have a better understanding of the Constitutional Convention, ask the following questions:

• Do you think the compromises that were made at the Constitutional Convention were fair? Why or why not?

4.3 Video Reflection: Constitutional Convention

4.4 activity: compromise workshop.

Purpose There were many disputes between the states during the convention. Disputes between small states and large states spurred intense debates over how the states were to be represented in the new government. In this activity, you will explore the key compromises that were made at the Constitutional Convention.

Process Review the Info Brief: Compromises of the Convention document to learn more about the many compromises made during the Convention.

In your small groups, complete the Activity Guide: Compromise Analysis worksheet to identify elements that make each compromise strong and weak.

Be prepared to discuss your analysis with the rest of the class.

Launch Introduce the significant issues that delegates deliberated about at the Constitutional Convention leading to compromise.

Help students pull in content from the Meet the Framers activity to add to their understanding of the compromises and the key authors and opponents. The activity will allow students to explore the debates between the delegates and why the compromise was important.

Activity Synthesis Have students review their analyses and discuss as necessary. 

Activity Extension (optional) Now that students have a better understanding of compromises at the Constitutional Convention, ask students to select which compromise listed they believe was most significant to the forming of the United States and explain why. 

4.4 Info Brief: Compromises of the Convention

4.4 activity guide: compromise analysis, 4.5 primary source reading: ratifying the constitution.

Purpose Now that the delegates have drafted the Constitution, what happens next? 

“A republic, if you can keep it.” - Ben Franklin

First, the American people had to ratify the new constitution. In this activity, you will examine the process it took to ratify the Constitution and the key arguments for and against the ratification. This will support understanding and build perspective on who was for and against the Constitution, their arguments, and what became the key compromise to win ratification.

Process In your groups, review the Info Brief: Ratification Timeline document.

You will be assigned to one of the two sides:

• Federalists (Jay/Hamilton/Madison)
• Anti-Federalists (Mercy Otis Warren/George Mason/Brutus)

Review the Primary Source: Who were the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists? readings from key authors from the Founders’ Library and begin to build a case for why the Constitution should be ratified or rejected.

Determine a pro/con list for ratification and whether you wish to argue for or against ratifying the Constitution (saying yes or no to adoption). Identify quotes to support your side’s argument. 

After group research is complete, you will engage in a classroom debate about ratification. Groups need to prepare information for each of the three debate rounds:

• Opening statements
• Main arguments
• Closing statements

Each group will be given three minutes to present their case. Then, they will have a one-minute rebuttal to address points made by the other side.

After the debate is finished, identify compromises that could be reached to achieve agreement between the two sides and lead to ratification.

Launch Review with the class the Ratification Timeline then supply students with group copies of the timeline for ratification.

During the debate, only arguments that have rebuttals and key questions will drive arguments.

Activity Synthesis Have students identify compromises that could be reached to achieve agreement between the two sides and lead to ratification. Consensus among the students does not need to be unanimous. Emphasize the Massachusetts Compromise as part of the ratification debates and how it eventually led to the Bill of Rights.

Activity Extension (optional) Now that students have a better understanding of the debates over the ratification of the Constitution, ask the following questions:

• Which compromises were the easiest to debate? 
• Which were the most challenging? Why?

Additional reading could include the essay: Perspectives on the Constitution: A Republic, if you can keep it.

4.5 Info Brief: Ratification Timeline

4.5 primary source: who were the federalists and the anti-federalists, 4.6 activity: necessity of compromise.

Purpose In this activity, you will discuss when compromise is necessary to move forward with an idea, and when it is not. When have you made compromises to move things forward? When is compromise not an option?

Process In your group, read Ben Franklin’s speech. 

“I confess that I do not entirely approve of this Constitution at present, but Sir, I am not sure I shall never approve it: For having lived long, I have experienced many Instances of being oblig’d, by better Information or fuller Consideration, to change Opinions even on important Subjects, which I once thought right, but found to be otherwise. It is therefore that the older I grow the more apt I am to doubt my own Judgment and to pay more Respect to the Judgment of others.”

“On the whole, Sir, I cannot help expressing a Wish, that every Member of the Convention, who may still have Objections to it, would with me on this Occasion doubt a little of his own Infallibility, and to make manifest our Unanimity, put his Name to this Instrument.”

In your group, discuss Ben Franklin’s speech. 

• What are some of his key arguments? Would you have signed the Constitution at the end of the Convention?
• Discuss as small groups a time in your life when you have compromised. Was it successful? 
• What did you gain? What did you let go of? 

After your discussion, individually write a short reflection on the purpose and need for compromise. 

The Constitutional Convention ended on September 17, 1787. As the Convention was reaching its close, Ben Franklin rose with a speech in his hand. Franklin was the oldest Convention delegate and one of America’s most beloved leaders. Franklin handed his speech to his friend and fellow Pennsylvania delegate, James Wilson, who read it aloud to the Convention. Franklin himself admitted that the new Constitution was not perfect, but he asked his colleagues to approach the document with humility. Franklin praised the work of his fellow delegates and urged them to sign the new Constitution—asking anyone “who may still have Objections” to “on this Occasion doubt a little of his own Infallibility.” Later that day, 39 delegates signed the new Constitution. But even following Franklin’s powerful speech, George Mason, Elbridge Gerry, and Edmund Randolph refused. Together, these three dissenters were concerned that their fellow delegates had refused to write a Bill of Rights into the new Constitution and had crafted a powerful national government that was destined to seize political power, swallow up the states, and abuse the rights of the American people. The Convention’s closing days were a sneak peek of the looming battle over the ratification of the Constitution.

Launch Give students time to read the speech and have a discussion in small groups. Prompt them to describe a time when they have questioned compromise. 

Activity Synthesis Discuss other areas of life when compromise is necessary. Have students brainstorm ideas of when they might have to compromise in the future.

Activity Extension (optional) Now that students have a better understanding of the compromises at the Convention, ask the following question:

• Would you have joined or dissented and why? 

4.7 Test Your Knowledge

• Student Instructions

Congratulations for completing the activities in this module! Now it’s time to apply what you have learned about the basic ideas and concepts covered.

Complete the questions in the following quiz to test your knowledge.

This activity will help students determine their overall understanding of module concepts. It is recommended that questions are completed electronically so immediate feedback is provided, but a downloadable copy of the questions (with answer key) is also available.

4.7 Interactive Knowledge Check: Constitutional Convention and Ratification

4.7 printable knowledge check: constitutional convention and ratification, previous module, module 3: road to the convention, next module, module 5: the bill of rights.

Shortly after the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, the Founding generation added the Bill of Rights—the Constitution’s first 10 amendments. These amendments guarantee many of our most cherished liberties, including the freedom of religion, the freedom of speech, the right to keep and bear arms, and the right to a jury trial. After the Constitutional Convention, the absence of a bill of rights emerged as a key part of the debates over ratification. Anti-Federalists—those who opposed the Constitution —pointed to the missing bill of rights as a fatal flaw...

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Congressional Committees and the Legislative Process

U.S. Capitol dome.

Library of Congress

This lesson plan introduces students to the pivotal role that Congressional committees play in the legislative process, focusing on how their own Congressional representatives influence legislation through their committee appointments. Students begin by reviewing the stages of the legislative process, then learn how committees and subcommittees help determine the outcome of this process by deciding which bills the full Congress will consider and by shaping the legislation upon which votes are finally cast. With this background, students research the committee and subcommittee assignments of their Congressional representatives, then divide into small groups to prepare class reports on the jurisdictions of these different committees and their representatives' special responsibilities on each one. Finally, students consider why representation on these specific committees might be important to the people of their state or community, and examine how the committee system reflects some of the basic principles of American federalism.

Guiding Questions

What role do Committees play during the legislative process?

How is Committee membership determined?

What role do Committees play with regard to oversight and checks and balances?

Learning Objectives

Analyze the legislative process of the United States Congress by focusing on the role of Committees. 

Evaluate how Congressional representatives can influence legislation through their specific committee assignments.

Evaluate how Committees uphold the Constitutional responsibilities of the Legislative Branch. 

Lesson Plan Details

NCSS.D2.His.1.9-12. Evaluate how historical events and developments were shaped by unique circumstances of time and place as well as broader historical contexts.

NCSS.D2.His.2.9-12. Analyze change and continuity in historical eras.

NCSS.D2.His.3.9-12. Use questions generated about individuals and groups to assess how the significance of their actions changes over time and is shaped by the historical context.

NCSS.D2.His.12.9-12. Use questions generated about multiple historical sources to pursue further inquiry and investigate additional sources.

NCSS.D2.His.14.9-12. Analyze multiple and complex causes and effects of events in the past.

NCSS.D2.His.15.9-12. Distinguish between long-term causes and triggering events in developing a historical argument.

NCSS.D2.His.16.9-12. Integrate evidence from multiple relevant historical sources and interpretations into a reasoned argument about the past.

Begin this lesson by guiding students through the basic process by which a bill becomes law in the United States Congress. The Schoolhouse Rock cartoon "I'm Just a Bill" below provides a look at the process and can be accompanied by a flow-chart diagram of this process.

A detailed explanation of the legislative process is available through EDSITEment at the CongressLink website. At the website homepage, click "Table of Contents" in the lefthand menu, then look under the heading, "Know Your Congress" for the link to How Our Laws Are Made , which describes lawmaking from the House of Representatives' point of view.

For a corresponding description from the Senate's perspective, look under the "Know Your Congress" heading for the link to "Information about Congress," then select "... The Legislative Process," and click " ... Enactment of a Law ." CongressLink also provides access to a more succinct account of the legislative process: on the "Table of Contents" page, scroll down and click "Related Web Sites," then scroll down again and click THOMAS , a congressional information website maintained by the Library of Congress. Click "About the U.S. Congress" and select "About the U.S. Congress" from the list that follows for a chapter from the U.S. Government Manual that includes this outline of the process:

• When a bill ... is introduced in the House, [it is assigned] to the House committee having jurisdiction.
• If favorably considered, it is reported to the House either in its original form or with recommended amendments.
• If ... passed by the House, it is messaged to the Senate and referred to the committee having jurisdiction.
• In the Senate committee the bill, if favorably considered, may be reported in the form it is received from the House, or with recommended amendments.
• The approved bill ... is reported to the Senate and, if passed by that body, returned to the House.
• If one body does not accept the amendments to a bill by the other body, a conference committee comprised of Members of both bodies is usually appointed to effect a compromise.
• When the bill ... is finally approved by both Houses, it is signed by the Speaker ... and the Vice President ... and is presented to the President.
• Once the President's signature is affixed, the measure becomes a law. If the President vetoes the bill, it cannot become law unless it is re-passed by a two-thirds vote of both Houses.

Point out to students the important role that Congressional committees play in this process. Public attention usually focuses on the debate over legislation that occurs on the floor of the House and Senate, but in order for a bill to reach the floor on either side, it must first be approved by a committee, which can also amend the bill to reflect its views on the underlying issue. Congressional committees, in other words, largely control the legislative process by deciding which bills come to a vote and by framing the language of each bill before it is debated.

Provide students with background on the organization and operation of Congressional committees, using resources available through the U.S. Congress  website. A schedule of Congressional committee hearings can be used to identify topics currently under consideration. 

• Although committees are not mentioned in the Constitution, Congress has used committees to manage its business since its first meetings in 1789.
• Committees enable Congress to divide responsibility for its many tasks, including legislation, oversight, and internal administration, and thereby cope effectively with the great number and complexity of the issues placed before it.
• There are today approximately 200 Congressional committees and subcommittees in the House and Senate, each of which is responsible for considering all matters that fall within its jurisdiction.
• Congress has three types of committees: (1) Standing Committees are permanent panels with jurisdiction over broad policy areas (e.g., Agriculture, Foreign Relations) or areas of continuing legislative concern (e.g., Appropriations, Rules); (2) Select Committees are temporary or permanent panels created to consider a specific issue that lies outside the jurisdiction of other committees or that demands special attention (e.g., campaign contributions); (3) Joint Committees are panels formed by the House and Senate together, usually to investigate some common concern rather than to consider legislation, although joint committees known as Conference Committees are formed to resolve differences between House and Senate versions of a specific measure.
• Many committees divide their work among subcommittees, upon which a limited number of the committee members serve. Subcommittees are responsible for specific areas within the committee's jurisdiction and report their work on a bill to the full committee, which must approve it before reporting the bill to its branch of Congress.
• Party leaders determine the size of each committee, which average about 40 members in the House and about 18 members in the Senate, and determine the proportion of majority and minority committee members. The majority party always has more seats on a committee and one of its members chairs the committee. Each party also determines committee assignments for its members, observing rules that have been adopted to limit the number and type of committees and subcommittees upon which one member can serve.
• Each committee's chairperson has authority over its operation. He or she usually sets the committee's agenda, decides when to take or delay action, presides at most committee meetings, and controls the committee's operating budget. Subcommittee chairpersons exercise similar authority over their smaller panels, subject to approval by the committee chair.
• The work of Congressional committees begins when a bill that has been introduced to the House or Senate is referred to the committee for consideration. Most committees take up only a small percentage of the bills referred to them; those upon which the committee takes no action are said to "die in committee." The committee's first step in considering a bill is usually to ask for written comment by the executive agency that will be responsible for administering it should it become law. Next, the committee will usually hold hearings to gather opinions from outside experts and concerned citizens. If the committee decides to move forward with the bill, it will meet to frame and amend the measure through a process called markup. Finally, when the committee has voted to approve the bill, it will report the measure to its branch of Congress, usually with a written report explaining why the measure should be passed.
• Once a bill comes to the floor of the House or Senate, the committee that reported it is usually responsible for guiding it through debate and securing its passage. This can involve working out parliamentary strategies, responding to questions raised by colleagues, and building coalitions of support. Likewise, if the House and Senate pass different versions of a bill, the committees that reported each version will take the lead in working out a compromise through a conference committee.

Activity 1. Research the committees and subcommittees

Begin by viewing the Library of Congress video on Congressional Committees . Have students research the committees and subcommittees upon which their Congressional representatives serve, using library resources or the resources available through the U.S. Congress  website.

• To help students find out who your Congressional representatives are, use the U.S. Congress  website to search by state.
• Click on the name of each representative for a profile, including a photograph, which lists the representative's committee assignments.
• The U.S. Congress  website page provides information pertaining to sponsored and cosponsored legislation, member websites, and allows users to track legislation.
• To find out which committees and subcommittees a representative serves on, use the U.S. Congress Committee Reports page .
• For an overview of Congressional committees and their jurisdictions, use the  U.S. Congress Committee Reports page .

Congressional Committee Activity:

Divide the class into small groups and have each group prepare a report on one of the committees (or subcommittees) upon which one of your Congressional representatives serves, including the size of the committee, its jurisdiction, and whether your representative has a leadership post on the committee. Encourage students to include as well information about legislation currently before the committee. They can find this information using library resources or through the  U.S. Congress Committee Reports page . 

After students present their reports, discuss how committee assignments can affect a Congressional representative's ability to effectively represent his or her constituents.

• Do your representatives have seats on committees with jurisdiction over issues that have special importance for your state or community? If so, how might their presence on these committees help assure that Congress takes action on questions of local interest?
• Do your representatives have seats on committees with jurisdiction over important legislative activities, such as budget-making or appropriations? If so, how might their presence on these powerful committees help assure that your community's views receive careful Congressional consideration?

After exploring these questions, have students debate the extent to which a Congressional representative's committee vote may be more influential than his or her vote on the floor of the House or Senate. Which vote has more impact on legislation? In this regard, have students consider President Woodrow Wilson's observation that "Congress in session is Congress on public exhibition, whilst Congress in its committee-rooms is Congress at work."

Activity 2. How do Congressional committees reflects some of the fundamental principles of federalism?

Conclude by having students consider how the structure and function of Congressional committees reflects some of the fundamental principles of federalism. For a broad discussion of federalism, have students read The Federalist No. 39 , in which James Madison highlights the Constitution's provisions for a federal, as distinguished from a national, form of government.

Have students imagine, for example, that they are members of a Congressional committee that is considering a bill with special importance for the people of your community.

• How would they balance their responsibilities to their constituents with their responsibilities to the nation as a whole?
• To what extent is this a question each Congressional representative must answer individually?
• To what extent is it a question that the mechanisms of our government answer through the legislative process?

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Bell Ringer: Three-Fifths Compromise and the Constitutional Convention

Three-fifths compromise and the constitutional convention.

Jeffrey Rosen talks about the Three-Fifths Compromise and the Constitutional Convention. ** This clip is part of C-SPAN Classroom's FREE resources for teachers and students. Visit www.c-spanclassroom.org for more info. **

Description

Jeffrey Rosen talks about the Three-Fifths Compromise and the Constitutional Convention.

Bell Ringer Assignment

• What were some of the concerns among the Founders regarding the issue of slavery?
• Explain the Three-Fifths Compromise that is found in Article 1 Section 2 in the Constitution. What effect did it have on the Constitutional Convention?
• AP Gov Questions to Consider: How does this compromise reflect the concept of federalism and of pluralism? How does this align with the Declaration of Independence's discussion of inalienable rights? How is it consistent or inconsistent with the Articles of Confederation?

Additional Resource

• Lesson Plan: The Constitutional Convention

Participants

• 13th Amendment
• Apportionment
• Charles Pickney
• James Wilson
• Legislature
• Popular Sovereignty
• Three-fifths Compromise

6c. The Importance of Committees

Bills begin and end their lives in committees , whether they are passed into law or not. Hearings from interest groups and agency bureaucrats are held at the committee and subcommittee level, and committee members play key roles in floor debate about the bills that they foster.

Committees help to organize the most important work of Congress — considering, shaping, and passing laws to govern the nation. 8,000 or so bills go to committee annually. Fewer than 10% of those bills make it out for consideration on the floor.

Types of Committees

There are four types of congressional committees:

Committee Assignments

After each congressional election , political parties assign newly elected Representatives and Senators to standing committees. They consider a member's own wishes in making the assignments, but they also assess the needs of the committees, in terms of region of the country, personalities, and party connections.

Since the House has 435 members, most Representatives only serve on one or two committees. On the other hand, Senators often serve on several committees and subcommittees . Committee assignment is one of the most important decisions for a new member's future work in Congress. Usually, members seek appointment on committees that will allow them to serve their districts or state the most directly. However, a members from a "safe" district — where his or her reelection is not in jeopardy — and who wants to be a leader in Congress, may want to be named to a powerful committee, such as Foreign Relations, Judiciary, or the House Ways and Means . There they are more likely to come into contact with current leaders and perhaps even gain some media attention.

Standing Committees of Congress (as of 2021)

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What Is A Temporary Assignment?

Temporary assignment.

A temporary assignment is a short-term work arrangement where an employee is assigned to a different role, department, or location within their organization for a specified period. This arrangement is typically intended to fulfill a specific need or project and is expected to end after a predetermined time.

Temporary assignments serve multiple purposes for both the organization and the employee:

1. Fill short-term staffing needs

2. Provide cross-training opportunities

3. Cover absences or leaves

4. Support special projects or initiatives

5. Facilitate knowledge transfer between departments

6. Assess an employee's potential for permanent role changes

Key Characteristics

Temporary assignments can last anywhere from a few days to several months, depending on the organization's needs and the nature of the assignment.

The scope of work in a temporary assignment may differ significantly from the employee's regular duties, often involving new responsibilities or a different level of authority.

Some temporary assignments may require the employee to work in a different office, branch, or even country.

Compensation

Depending on the nature of the assignment, there may be adjustments to the employee's compensation, such as temporary pay increases or additional benefits.

Return Arrangements

Typically, there is an understanding that the employee will return to their original position or a similar role once the temporary assignment concludes.

Benefits of Temporary Assignments

For Employees:

1. Skill development and diversification

2. Exposure to different aspects of the organization

3. Networking opportunities

4. Potential for career advancement

5. Break from routine work

For Employers:

1. Flexibility in resource allocation

2. Cost-effective solution for short-term needs

3. Improved cross-departmental understanding

4. Identification and development of talent

5. Enhanced employee engagement and retention

Challenges of Temporary Assignments

Adjustment Period

Employees may need time to adapt to new roles, teams, or work environments

Workload Management

Balancing responsibilities from the temporary assignment with ongoing duties from the regular position can be challenging.

Knowledge Transfer

Ensuring smooth transitions at the beginning and end of the assignment requires effective knowledge transfer.

Team Dynamics

Temporary changes in team composition can affect group dynamics and productivity.

Career Impact

There may be concerns about how the temporary move affects long-term career prospects.

Legal and Policy Considerations

Contract Amendments

Temporary assignments may require formal amendments to employment contracts.

Organizations must ensure compliance with labor laws regarding job descriptions, compensation, and working hours.

Union Agreements

In unionized environments, temporary assignments must adhere to collective bargaining agreements.

Tax Implications

For assignments involving relocation, there may be tax considerations for both the employer and employee.

Best Practices for Managing Temporary Assignments

1. Clearly define the assignment's objectives, duration, and expectations

2. Provide thorough onboarding and training for the temporary role

3. Maintain open communication with the employee throughout the assignment

4. Ensure proper handover procedures at the beginning and end of the assignment

5. Recognize and reward employees for successful completion of temporary assignments

6. Use feedback and performance data from temporary assignments in career development discussions

Improve Employee Retention

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