what is social behavior essay

Social Psychology: Definition, Theories, Scope, & Examples

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Social psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, beliefs, intentions, and goals are constructed within a social context by the actual or imagined interactions with others.

It, therefore, looks at human behavior as influenced by other people and the conditions under which social behavior and feelings occur.

Baron, Byrne, and Suls (1989) define social psychology as “the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior in social situations” (p. 6).

Topics examined in social psychology include the self-concept , social cognition, attribution theory , social influence, group processes, prejudice and discrimination , interpersonal processes, aggression, attitudes , and stereotypes .

Social psychology operates on several foundational assumptions. These fundamental beliefs provide a framework for theories, research, and interpretations.

Individual and Society Interplay : Social psychologists assume an interplay exists between individual minds and the broader social context. An individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are continuously shaped by social interactions, and in turn, individuals influence the societies they are a part of.
Behavior is Contextual : One core assumption is that behavior can vary significantly based on the situation or context. While personal traits and dispositions matter, the circumstances or social environment often play a decisive role in determining behavior.
Objective Reality is Difficult to Attain : Our perceptions of reality are influenced by personal beliefs, societal norms, and past experiences. Therefore, our understanding of “reality” is subjective and can be biased or distorted.
Social Reality is Constructed : Social psychologists believe that individuals actively construct their social world . Through processes like social categorization, attribution, and cognitive biases, people create their understanding of others and societal norms.
People are Social Beings with a Need to Belong : A fundamental assumption is the inherent social nature of humans. People have an innate need to connect with others, form relationships, and belong to groups. This need influences a wide range of behaviors and emotions.
Attitudes Influence Behavior : While this might seem straightforward, it’s a foundational belief that our attitudes (combinations of beliefs and feelings) can and often do drive our actions. However, it’s also understood that this relationship can be complex and bidirectional.
People Desire Cognitive Consistency : This is the belief that people are motivated to maintain consistency in their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Cognitive dissonance theory , which posits that people feel discomfort when holding conflicting beliefs and are motivated to resolve this, is based on this assumption.
People are Motivated to See Themselves in a Positive Light : The self plays a central role in social psychology. It’s assumed that individuals are generally motivated to maintain and enhance a positive self-view.
Behavior Can be Predicted and Understood : An underlying assumption of any science, including social psychology, is that phenomena (in this case, human behavior in social contexts) can be studied, understood, predicted, and potentially influenced.
Cultural and Biological Factors are Integral : Though earlier social psychology might have been criticized for neglecting these factors, contemporary social psychology acknowledges the roles of both biology (genes, hormones, brain processes) and culture (norms, values, traditions) in shaping social behavior.

Early Influences

Aristotle believed that humans were naturally sociable, a necessity that allows us to live together (an individual-centered approach), whilst Plato felt that the state controlled the individual and encouraged social responsibility through social context (a socio-centered approach).

Hegel (1770–1831) introduced the concept that society has inevitable links with the development of the social mind. This led to the idea of a group mind, which is important in the study of social psychology.

Lazarus & Steinthal wrote about Anglo-European influences in 1860. “Volkerpsychologie” emerged, which focused on the idea of a collective mind.

It emphasized the notion that personality develops because of cultural and community influences, especially through language, which is both a social product of the community as well as a means of encouraging particular social thought in the individual. Therefore Wundt (1900–1920) encouraged the methodological study of language and its influence on the social being.

Early Texts

Texts focusing on social psychology first emerged in the 20th century. McDougall published the first notable book in English in 1908 (An Introduction to Social Psychology), which included chapters on emotion and sentiment, morality, character, and religion, quite different from those incorporated in the field today.

He believed social behavior was innate/instinctive and, therefore, individual, hence his choice of topics. This belief is not the principle upheld in modern social psychology, however.

Allport’s work (1924) underpins current thinking to a greater degree, as he acknowledged that social behavior results from interactions between people.

He also took a methodological approach, discussing actual research and emphasizing that the field was a “science … which studies the behavior of the individual in so far as his behavior stimulates other individuals, or is itself a reaction to this behavior” (1942: p. 12).

His book also dealt with topics still evident today, such as emotion, conformity, and the effects of an audience on others.

Murchison (1935) published The first handbook on social psychology was published by Murchison in 1935. Murphy & Murphy (1931/37) produced a book summarizing the findings of 1,000 studies in social psychology. A text by Klineberg (1940) looked at the interaction between social context and personality development. By the 1950s, several texts were available on the subject.

Journal Development

• 1950s – Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology

• 1963 – Journal of Personality, British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology

• 1965 – Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

• 1971 – Journal of Applied Social Psychology, European Journal of Social Psychology

• 1975 – Social Psychology Quarterly, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

• 1982 – Social Cognition

• 1984 – Journal of Social and Personal Relationships

Early Experiments

There is some disagreement about the first true experiment, but the following are certainly among some of the most important.

Triplett (1898) applied the experimental method to investigate the performance of cyclists and schoolchildren on how the presence of others influences overall performance – thus, how individuals are affected and behave in the social context.

By 1935, the study of social norms had developed, looking at how individuals behave according to the rules of society. This was conducted by Sherif (1935).

Lewin et al. then began experimental research into leadership and group processes by 1939, looking at effective work ethics under different leadership styles.

Later Developments

Much of the key research in social psychology developed following World War II, when people became interested in the behavior of individuals when grouped together and in social situations. Key studies were carried out in several areas.

Some studies focused on how attitudes are formed, changed by the social context, and measured to ascertain whether a change has occurred.

Amongst some of the most famous works in social psychology is that on obedience conducted by Milgram in his “electric shock” study, which looked at the role an authority figure plays in shaping behavior. Similarly, Zimbardo’s prison simulation notably demonstrated conformity to given roles in the social world.

Wider topics then began to emerge, such as social perception, aggression, relationships, decision-making, pro-social behavior, and attribution, many of which are central to today’s topics and will be discussed throughout this website.

Thus, the growth years of social psychology occurred during the decades following the 1940s.

The scope of social psychology is vast, reflecting the myriad ways social factors intertwine with individual cognition and behavior.

Its principles and findings resonate in virtually every area of human interaction, making it a vital field for understanding and improving the human experience.

Interpersonal Relationships : This covers attraction, love, jealousy, friendship, and group dynamics. Understanding how and why relationships form and the factors that contribute to their maintenance or dissolution is central to this domain.
Attitude Formation and Change : How do individuals form opinions and attitudes? What methods can effectively change them? This scope includes the study of persuasion, propaganda, and cognitive dissonance.
Social Cognition : This examines how people process, store, and apply information about others. Areas include social perception, heuristics, stereotypes, and attribution theories.
Social Influence : The study of conformity, compliance, obedience, and the myriad ways individuals influence one another falls within this domain.
Group Dynamics : This entails studying group behavior, intergroup relations, group decision-making processes, leadership, and more. Concepts like groupthink and group polarization emerge from this area.
Prejudice and Discrimination : Understanding the roots of bias, racism, sexism, and other forms of prejudice, as well as exploring interventions to reduce them, is a significant focus.
Self and Identity : Investigating self-concept, self-esteem, self-presentation, and the social construction of identity are all part of this realm.
Prosocial Behavior and Altruism : Why do individuals sometimes help others, even at a cost to themselves? This area delves into the motivations and conditions that foster cooperative and altruistic behavior.
Aggression : From understanding the underlying causes of aggressive behavior to studying societal factors that exacerbate or mitigate aggression, this topic seeks to dissect the nature of hostile actions.
Cultural and Cross-cultural Dimensions : As societies become more interconnected, understanding cultural influences on behavior, cognition, and emotion is crucial. This area compares and contrasts behaviors across different cultures and societal groups.
Environmental and Applied Settings : Social psychology principles find application in health psychology, environmental behavior, organizational behavior, consumer behavior, and more.
Social Issues : Social psychologists might study the impact of societal structures on individual behavior, exploring topics like poverty, urban stress, and crime.
Education : Principles of social psychology enhance teaching methods, address issues of classroom dynamics, and promote effective learning.
Media and Technology : In the digital age, understanding the effects of media consumption, the dynamics of online communication, and the formation of online communities is increasingly relevant.
Law : Insights from social psychology inform areas such as jury decision-making, eyewitness testimony, and legal procedures.
Health : Concepts from social psychology are employed to promote health behaviors, understand doctor-patient dynamics, and tackle issues like addiction.

Example Theories

Allport (1920) – social facilitation.

Allport introduced the notion that the presence of others (the social group) can facilitate certain behavior.

It was found that an audience would improve an actor’s performance in well-learned/easy tasks but leads to a decrease in performance on newly learned/difficult tasks due to social inhibition.

Bandura (1963) Social Learning Theory

Bandura introduced the notion that behavior in the social world could be modeled. Three groups of children watched a video where an adult was aggressive towards a ‘bobo doll,’ and the adult was either just seen to be doing this, was rewarded by another adult for their behavior, or was punished for it.

Children who had seen the adult rewarded were found to be more likely to copy such behavior.

Festinger (1950) – Cognitive Dissonance

Festinger, Schacter, and Black brought up the idea that when we hold beliefs, attitudes, or cognitions which are different, then we experience dissonance – this is an inconsistency that causes discomfort.

We are motivated to reduce this by either changing one of our thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes or selectively attending to information that supports one of our beliefs and ignores the other (selective exposure hypothesis).

Dissonance occurs when there are difficult choices or decisions or when people participate in behavior that is contrary to their attitude. Dissonance is thus brought about by effort justification (when aiming to reach a modest goal), induced compliance (when people are forced to comply contrary to their attitude), and free choice (when weighing up decisions).

Tajfel (1971) – Social Identity Theory

When divided into artificial (minimal) groups, prejudice results simply from the awareness that there is an “out-group” (the other group).

When the boys were asked to allocate points to others (which might be converted into rewards) who were either part of their own group or the out-group, they displayed a strong in-group preference. That is, they allocated more points on the set task to boys who they believed to be in the same group as themselves.

This can be accounted for by Tajfel & Turner’s social identity theory, which states that individuals need to maintain a positive sense of personal and social identity: this is partly achieved by emphasizing the desirability of one’s own group, focusing on distinctions between other “lesser” groups.

Weiner (1986) – Attribution Theory

Weiner was interested in the attributions made for experiences of success and failure and introduced the idea that we look for explanations of behavior in the social world.

He believed that these were made based on three areas: locus, which could be internal or external; stability, which is whether the cause is stable or changes over time: and controllability.

Milgram (1963) – Shock Experiment

Participants were told that they were taking part in a study on learning but always acted as the teacher when they were then responsible for going over paired associate learning tasks.

When the learner (a stooge) got the answer wrong, they were told by a scientist that they had to deliver an electric shock. This did not actually happen, although the participant was unaware of this as they had themselves a sample (real!) shock at the start of the experiment.

They were encouraged to increase the voltage given after each incorrect answer up to a maximum voltage, and it was found that all participants gave shocks up to 300v, with 65 percent reaching the highest level of 450v.

It seems that obedience is most likely to occur in an unfamiliar environment and in the presence of an authority figure, especially when covert pressure is put upon people to obey. It is also possible that it occurs because the participant felt that someone other than themselves was responsible for their actions.

Haney, Banks, Zimbardo (1973) – Stanford Prison Experiment

Volunteers took part in a simulation where they were randomly assigned the role of a prisoner or guard and taken to a converted university basement resembling a prison environment. There was some basic loss of rights for the prisoners, who were unexpectedly arrested, and given a uniform and an identification number (they were therefore deindividuated).

The study showed that conformity to social roles occurred as part of the social interaction, as both groups displayed more negative emotions, and hostility and dehumanization became apparent.

Prisoners became passive, whilst the guards assumed an active, brutal, and dominant role. Although normative and informational social influence played a role here, deindividuation/the loss of a sense of identity seemed most likely to lead to conformity.

Both this and Milgram’s study introduced the notion of social influence and the ways in which this could be observed/tested.

Provides Clear Predictions

As a scientific discipline, social psychology prioritizes formulating clear and testable hypotheses. This clarity facilitates empirical testing, ensuring the field’s findings are based on observable and quantifiable phenomena.

The Asch conformity experiments hypothesized that individuals would conform to a group’s incorrect judgment.

The clear prediction allowed for controlled experimentation to determine the extent and conditions of such conformity.

Emphasizes Objective Measurement

Social psychology leans heavily on empirical methods, emphasizing objectivity. This means that results are less influenced by biases or subjective interpretations.

Double-blind procedures , controlled settings, and standardized measures in many social psychology experiments ensure that results are replicable and less prone to experimenter bias.

Empirical Evidence

Over the years, a multitude of experiments in social psychology have bolstered the credibility of its theories. This experimental validation lends weight to its findings and claims.

The robust body of experimental evidence supporting cognitive dissonance theory, from Festinger’s initial studies to more recent replications, showcases the theory’s enduring strength and relevance.

Limitations

Underestimates individual differences.

While social psychology often looks at broad trends and general behaviors, it can sometimes gloss over individual differences.

Not everyone conforms, obeys, or reacts in the same way, and these nuanced differences can be critical.

While Milgram’s obedience experiments showcased a startling rate of compliance to authority, there were still participants who resisted, and their reasons and characteristics are equally important to understand.

Ignores Biology

While social psychology focuses on the social environment’s impact on behavior, early theories sometimes neglect the biological underpinnings that play a role.

Hormones, genetics, and neurological factors can influence behavior and might intersect with social factors in complex ways.

The role of testosterone in aggressive behavior is a clear instance where biology intersects with the social. Ignoring such biological components can lead to an incomplete understanding.

Superficial Snapshots of Social Processes

Social psychology sometimes offers a narrow view, capturing only a momentary slice of a broader, evolving process. This might mean that the field fails to capture the depth, evolution, or intricacies of social processes over time.

A study might capture attitudes towards a social issue at a single point in time, but not account for the historical evolution, future shifts, or deeper societal underpinnings of those attitudes.

Allport, F. H. (1920). The influence of the group upon association and thought. Journal of Experimental Psychology , 3(3), 159.

Allport, F. H. (1924). Response to social stimulation in the group. Social psychology , 260-291.

Allport, F. H. (1942). Methods in the study of collective action phenomena. The Journal of Social Psychology , 15(1), 165-185.

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Vicarious reinforcement and imitative learning. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 67(6), 601.

Baron, R. A., Byrne, D., & Suls, J. (1989). Attitudes: Evaluating the social world. Baron et al, Social Psychology . 3rd edn. MA: Allyn and Bacon, 79-101.

Festinger, L., Schachter, S., & Back, K. (1950). Social processes in informal groups .

Haney, C., Banks, W. C., & Zimbardo, P. G. (1973). Study of prisoners and guards in a simulated prison. Naval Research Reviews , 9(1-17).

Klineberg, O. (1940). The problem of personality .

Krewer, B., & Jahoda, G. (1860). On the scope of Lazarus and Steinthals “Völkerpsychologie” as reflected in the. Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft, 1890, 4-12.

Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created “social climates”. The Journal of Social Psychology , 10(2), 269-299.

Mcdougall, W. (1908). An introduction to social psychology . Londres: Methuen.

Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 67(4), 371.

Murchison, C. (1935). A handbook of social psychology .

Murphy, G., & Murphy, L. B. (1931). Experimental social psychology .

Sherif, M. (1935). A study of some social factors in perception. Archives of Psychology (Columbia University).

Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behavior. European journal of social psychology , 1(2), 149-178.

Triplett, N. (1898). The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition. American journal of Psychology , 9(4), 507-533.

Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion . New York: Springer-Verlag.

Essay on Social Behaviour

Students are often asked to write an essay on Social Behaviour in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Social Behaviour

What is social behavior.

Social behavior refers to actions and interactions between individuals in a group or society. It includes how people communicate, cooperate, and respond to each other in various social situations.

Importance of Social Behavior

Social behavior helps maintain order and stability in communities. It allows us to understand and predict the actions of others, which makes it easier to work together and avoid conflicts. It also contributes to our sense of belonging and well-being.

Factors Influencing Social Behavior

Social behavior is influenced by various factors such as cultural norms, beliefs, values, and expectations. It can also be affected by individual characteristics like personality, emotions, and experiences.

Social Norms

Social norms are unwritten rules and expectations that guide our behavior in society. They vary across cultures and groups and help maintain order and predictability.

Cooperation and Conflict

Communication.

Effective communication is crucial for successful social interactions. It involves expressing thoughts, ideas, and emotions clearly and understanding others’ messages accurately.

Social behavior is complex and influenced by numerous factors. It plays a vital role in maintaining order, cooperation, and communication within societies and groups.

250 Words Essay on Social Behaviour

Social behavior refers to how people interact with each other in their social groups, and it is a complex and multifaceted concept. People interact through verbal, physical, and nonverbal communication.

Types of Social Behavior

There are many different types of social behavior, including cooperation, competition, aggression, altruism, and conformity. Cooperation occurs when individuals work together to achieve a common goal. Competition, on the other hand, involves individuals competing against each other for resources or status. Aggression is the intentional infliction of harm on another individual, while altruism involves helping another individual without expecting anything in return. Conformity refers to the tendency for people to adopt the beliefs and behaviors of the group they belong to.

Social behavior is essential for the functioning of society. It allows individuals to cooperate, share resources, and work together to achieve common goals. It also helps to maintain social order and regulate behavior. Without social behavior, society would be chaotic and it would be difficult for people to survive.

Social behavior is a complex and fascinating phenomenon that has been studied by social scientists for centuries. It is essential for the functioning of society and allows individuals to interact with each other in a meaningful way. Social behavior is influenced by a variety of factors, including culture, personality, and social norms.

500 Words Essay on Social Behaviour

What is social behaviour.

Social behaviour refers to the way people act and interact with each other in different social situations. It encompasses how we communicate, cooperate, and resolve conflicts with others. Understanding social behaviour is crucial for building harmonious relationships and functioning effectively in society.

Types of Social Behaviour

Factors influencing social behaviour, importance of social behaviour.

Social behaviour is a complex and dynamic aspect of human life. Understanding social behaviour helps us navigate social situations, build meaningful relationships, and contribute positively to society. As individuals, we should strive to engage in positive social behaviours that promote cooperation, empathy, and understanding.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Social Psychology

Social psychology and influences on behavior, learning objectives.

Describe situational versus dispositional influences on behavior
Give examples of the fundamental attribution error and other common biases, including the actor-observer bias and the self-serving bias
Explain the just-world phenomenon

Social psychology examines how people affect one another, and it looks at the power of the situation. Social psychologists assert that an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are very much influenced by social situations. Essentially, people will change their behavior to align with the social situation at hand. If we are in a new situation or are unsure how to behave, we will take our cues from other individuals.

The field of social psychology studies topics at both the intra- and interpersonal levels. Intrapersonal topics (those that pertain to the individual) include emotions and attitudes, the self, and social cognition (the ways in which we think about ourselves and others). Interpersonal topics (those that pertain to dyads and groups) include helping behavior (Figure 1), aggression, prejudice and discrimination, attraction and close relationships, and group processes and intergroup relationships.

A photograph shows several people pushing a car up an incline.

Figure 1 . Social psychology deals with all kinds of interactions between people, spanning a wide range of how we connect: from moments of confrontation to moments of working together and helping others, as shown here. (credit: Sgt. Derec Pierson, U.S. Army)

Social psychologists focus on how people conceptualize and interpret situations and how these interpretations influence their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Ross & Nisbett, 1991). Thus, social psychology studies individuals in a social context and how situational variables interact to influence behavior. In this module, we discuss the intrapersonal processes of self-presentation, cognitive dissonance and attitude change, and the interpersonal processes of conformity and obedience, aggression and altruism, and, finally, love and attraction.

Situational and Dispositional Influences on Behavior

Behavior is a product of both the situation (e.g., cultural influences, social roles, and the presence of bystanders) and of the person (e.g., personality characteristics). Subfields of psychology tend to focus on one influence or behavior over others. Situationism is the view that our behavior and actions are determined by our immediate environment and surroundings. In contrast, dispositionism holds that our behavior is determined by internal factors (Heider, 1958). An internal factor is an attribute of a person and includes personality traits and temperament. Social psychologists have tended to take the situationist perspective, whereas personality psychologists have promoted the dispositionist perspective. Modern approaches to social psychology, however, take both the situation and the individual into account when studying human behavior (Fiske, Gilbert, & Lindzey, 2010). In fact, the field of social-personality psychology has emerged to study the complex interaction of internal and situational factors that affect human behavior (Mischel, 1977; Richard, Bond, & Stokes-Zoota, 2003).

Fundamental Attribution Error

In the United States, the predominant culture tends to favor a dispositional approach in explaining human behavior. Why do you think this is? We tend to think that people are in control of their own behaviors, and, therefore, any behavior change must be due to something internal, such as their personality, habits, or temperament. According to some social psychologists, people tend to overemphasize internal factors as explanations—or attributions—for the behavior of other people. They tend to assume that the behavior of another person is a trait of that person, and to underestimate the power of the situation on the behavior of others. They tend to fail to recognize when the behavior of another is due to situational variables, and thus to the person’s state . This erroneous assumption is called the fundamental attribution error (Ross, 1977; Riggio & Garcia, 2009). To better understand, imagine this scenario: Greg returns home from work, and upon opening the front door his wife happily greets him and inquires about his day. Instead of greeting his wife, Greg yells at her, “Leave me alone!” Why did Greg yell at his wife? How would someone committing the fundamental attribution error explain Greg’s behavior? The most common response is that Greg is a mean, angry, or unfriendly person (his traits). This is an internal or dispositional explanation. However, imagine that Greg was just laid off from his job due to company downsizing. Would your explanation for Greg’s behavior change? Your revised explanation might be that Greg was frustrated and disappointed for losing his job; therefore, he was in a bad mood (his state). This is now an external or situational explanation for Greg’s behavior.

The fundamental attribution error is so powerful that people often overlook obvious situational influences on behavior. A classic example was demonstrated in a series of experiments known as the quizmaster study (Ross, Amabile, & Steinmetz, 1977). Student participants were randomly assigned to play the role of a questioner (the quizmaster) or a contestant in a quiz game. Questioners developed difficult questions to which they knew the answers, and they presented these questions to the contestants. The contestants answered the questions correctly only 4 out of 10 times (Figure 2). After the task, the questioners and contestants were asked to rate their own general knowledge compared to the average student. Questioners did not rate their general knowledge higher than the contestants, but the contestants rated the questioners’ intelligence higher than their own. In a second study, observers of the interaction also rated the questioner as having more general knowledge than the contestant. The obvious influence on performance is the situation. The questioners wrote the questions, so of course they had an advantage. Both the contestants and observers made an internal attribution for the performance. They concluded that the questioners must be more intelligent than the contestants.

The halo effect refers to the tendency to let the overall impression of an individual color the way in which we feel about their character. For instance, we might assume that people who are physically attractive are more likely to be good people than less attractive individuals. Another example of how the halo effect might manifest would involve assuming that someone whom we perceive to be outgoing or friendly has a better moral character than someone who is not.

A photograph shows the game show Jeopardy.

Figure 2 . In the quizmaster study, people tended to disregard the influence of the situation and wrongly concluded that a questioner’s knowledge was greater than their own. (credit: Steve Jurvetson)

As demonstrated in the example above, the fundamental attribution error is considered a powerful influence in how we explain the behaviors of others. However, it should be noted that some researchers have suggested that the fundamental attribution error may not be as powerful as it is often portrayed. In fact, a recent review of more than 173 published studies suggests that several factors (e.g., high levels of idiosyncrasy of the character and how well hypothetical events are explained) play a role in determining just how influential the fundamental attribution error is (Malle, 2006).

Is the Fundamental Attribution Error a Universal Phenomenon?

You may be able to think of examples of the fundamental attribution error in your life. Do people in all cultures commit the fundamental attribution error? Research suggests that they do not. People from an individualistic culture , that is, a culture that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy, have the greatest tendency to commit the fundamental attribution error. Individualistic cultures, which tend to be found in western countries such as the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, promote a focus on the individual. Therefore, a person’s disposition is thought to be the primary explanation for her behavior. In contrast, people from a collectivistic culture, that is, a culture that focuses on communal relationships with others, such as family, friends, and community (Figure 3), are less likely to commit the fundamental attribution error (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 2001).

Three photographs show three groups of people: a family preparing a meal, a group of men sitting on a porch, and a group of women playing mahjong.

Figure 3 . People from collectivistic cultures, such as some Asian cultures, are more likely to emphasize relationships with others than to focus primarily on the individual. Activities such as (a) preparing a meal, (b) hanging out, and (c) playing a game engage people in a group. (credit a: modification of work by Arian Zwegers; credit b: modification of work by “conbon33″/Flickr; credit c: modification of work by Anja Disseldorp)

Why do you think this is the case? Collectivistic cultures, which tend to be found in east Asian countries and in Latin American and African countries, focus on the group more than on the individual (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001). This focus on others provides a broader perspective that takes into account both situational and cultural influences on behavior; thus, a more nuanced explanation of the causes of others’ behavior becomes more likely. Table 1 summarizes compares individualistic and collectivist cultures.

Table 1. Characteristics of Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures
Individualistic Culture	Collectivistic Culture
Achievement oriented	Relationship oriented
Focus on autonomy	Focus on group harmony
Dispositional perspective	Situational perspective
Independent	Interdependent
Analytic thinking style	Holistic thinking style

Masuda and Nisbett (2001) demonstrated that the kinds of information that people attend to when viewing visual stimuli (e.g., an aquarium scene) can differ significantly depending on whether the observer comes from a collectivistic versus an individualistic culture. Japanese participants were much more likely to recognize objects that were presented when they occurred in the same context in which they were originally viewed. Manipulating the context in which object recall occurred had no such impact on American participants. Other researchers have shown similar differences across cultures. For example, Zhang, Fung, Stanley, Isaacowitz, and Zhang (2014) demonstrated differences in the ways that holistic thinking might develop between Chinese and American participants, and Ramesh and Gelfand (2010) demonstrated that job turnover rates are more related to the fit between a person and the organization in which they work in an Indian sample, but the fit between the person and their specific job was more predictive of turnover in an American sample.

Actor-Observer Bias

Returning to our earlier example, Greg was laid off, but an observer would not know. So a naïve observer would tend to attribute Greg’s hostile behavior to his disposition rather than to the true, situational cause. Why do you think we underestimate the influence of the situation on the behaviors of others? One reason is that we often don’t have all the information we need to make a situational explanation for another person’s behavior. The only information we might have is what is observable. Due to this lack of information we have a tendency to assume the behavior is due to a dispositional, or internal, factor. When it comes to explaining our own behaviors, however, we have much more information available to us. If you came home from school or work angry and yelled at your dog or a loved one, what would your explanation be? You might say you were very tired or feeling unwell and needed quiet time—a situational explanation. The actor-observer bias is the phenomenon of attributing other people’s behavior to internal factors (fundamental attribution error) while attributing our own behavior to situational forces (Jones & Nisbett, 1971; Nisbett, Caputo, Legant, & Marecek, 1973; Choi & Nisbett, 1998). As actors of behavior, we have more information available to explain our own behavior. However as observers, we have less information available; therefore, we tend to default to a dispositionist perspective.

One study on the actor-observer bias investigated reasons male participants gave for why they liked their girlfriend (Nisbett et al., 1973). When asked why participants liked their own girlfriend, participants focused on internal, dispositional qualities of their girlfriends (for example, her pleasant personality). The participants’ explanations rarely included causes internal to themselves, such as dispositional traits (for example, “I need companionship.”). In contrast, when speculating why a male friend likes his girlfriend, participants were equally likely to give dispositional and external explanations. This supports the idea that actors tend to provide few internal explanations but many situational explanations for their own behavior. In contrast, observers tend to provide more dispositional explanations for a friend’s behavior (Figure 4).

A bar graph compares “own reasons for liking girlfriend” to “friend’s reasons for liking girlfriend.” In the former, situational traits are about twice as high as dispositional traits, while in the latter, situational and dispositional traits are nearly equal.

Figure 4 . Actor-observer bias is evident when subjects explain their own reasons for liking a girlfriend versus their impressions of others’ reasons for liking a girlfriend.

Self-Serving Bias

We can understand self-serving bias by digging more deeply into attribution , a belief about the cause of a result. One model of attribution proposes three main dimensions: locus of control (internal versus external), stability (stable versus unstable), and controllability (controllable versus uncontrollable). In this context, stability refers the extent to which the circumstances that result in a given outcome are changeable. The circumstances are considered stable if they are unlikely to change. Controllability refers to the extent to which the circumstances that are associated with a given outcome can be controlled. Obviously, those things that we have the power to control would be labeled controllable (Weiner, 1979).

Following an outcome, self-serving biases are those attributions that enable us to see ourselves in a favorable light (for example, making internal attributions for success and external attributions for failures). When you do well at a task, for example acing an exam, it is in your best interest to make a dispositional attribution for your behavior (“I’m smart,”) instead of a situational one (“The exam was easy,”). The tendency of an individual to take credit by making dispositional or internal attributions for positive outcomes (Miller & Ross, 1975). Self-serving bias is the tendency to explain our successes as due to dispositional (internal) characteristics, but to explain our failures as due to situational (external) factors. Again, this is culture dependent. This bias serves to protect self-esteem. You can imagine that if people always made situational attributions for their behavior, they would never be able to take credit and feel good about their accomplishments.

Consider the example of how we explain our favorite sports team’s wins. Research shows that we make internal, stable, and controllable attributions for our team’s victory (Figure 12.6) (Grove, Hanrahan, & McInman, 1991). For example, we might tell ourselves that our team is talented (internal), consistently works hard (stable), and uses effective strategies (controllable). In contrast, we are more likely to make external, unstable, and uncontrollable attributions when our favorite team loses. For example, we might tell ourselves that the other team has more experienced players or that the referees were unfair (external), the other team played at home (unstable), and the cold weather affected our team’s performance (uncontrollable).

Figure 5 . We tend to believe that our team wins because it’s better, but loses for reasons it cannot control (Roesch & Amirkham, 1997). (credit: “TheAHL”/Flickr)

Just-World Hypothesis

One consequence of westerners’ tendency to provide dispositional explanations for behavior is victim blame (Jost & Major, 2001). When people experience bad fortune, others tend to assume that they somehow are responsible for their own fate. A common ideology, or worldview, in the United States is the just-world hypothesis. The just-world hypothesis is the belief that people get the outcomes they deserve (Lerner & Miller, 1978). In order to maintain the belief that the world is a fair place, people tend to think that good people experience positive outcomes, and bad people experience negative outcomes (Jost, Banaji, & Nosek, 2004; Jost & Major, 2001). The ability to think of the world as a fair place, where people get what they deserve, allows us to feel that the world is predictable and that we have some control over our life outcomes (Jost et al., 2004; Jost & Major, 2001). For example, if you want to experience positive outcomes, you just need to work hard to get ahead in life.

A photograph shows a homeless person and a dog sitting on a sidewalk with a sign reading, “homeless, broke, and hungry.”

Figure 6 . People who hold just-world beliefs tend to blame the people in poverty for their circumstances, ignoring situational and cultural causes of poverty. (credit: Adrian Miles)

Can you think of a negative consequence of the just-world hypothesis? One negative consequence is people’s tendency to blame poor individuals for their plight. What common explanations are given for why people live in poverty? Have you heard statements such as, “The poor are lazy and just don’t want to work” or “Poor people just want to live off the government”? What types of explanations are these, dispositional or situational? These dispositional explanations are clear examples of the fundamental attribution error. Blaming poor people for their poverty ignores situational factors that impact them, such as high unemployment rates, recession, poor educational opportunities, and the familial cycle of poverty (Figure 6). Other research shows that people who hold just-world beliefs have negative attitudes toward people who are unemployed and people living with AIDS (Sutton & Douglas, 2005). In the United States and other countries, victims of sexual assault may find themselves blamed for their abuse. Victim advocacy groups, such as Domestic Violence Ended (DOVE), attend court in support of victims to ensure that blame is directed at the perpetrators of sexual violence, not the victims.

You can view the transcript for “Should you trust your first impression? – Peter Mende-Siedlecki” here (opens in new window) .

Think It Over

Provide a personal example of an experience in which your behavior was influenced by the power of the situation.
Think of an example in the media of a sports figure—player or coach—who gives a self-serving attribution for winning or losing. Examples might include accusing the referee of incorrect calls, in the case of losing, or citing their own hard work and talent, in the case of winning.
Modification and adaptation, addition of link to learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
What is Social Psychology?. Authored by : OpenStax College. Located at : https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/12-1-what-is-social-psychology . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction
Should you trust your first impression?. Authored by : Peter Mende-Siedlecki. Provided by : TED-Ed. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eK0NzsGRceg . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License

Social Psychology

Social Psychology and Influences on Behavior

Learning objectives.

Describe situational versus dispositional influences on behavior
Give examples of the fundamental attribution error and other common biases, including the actor-observer bias and the self-serving bias
Explain the just-world phenomenon

Social psychologists focus on how people construe or interpret situations and how these interpretations influence their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Ross & Nisbett, 1991). Thus, social psychology studies individuals in a social context and how situational variables interact to influence behavior. In this module, we discuss the intrapersonal processes of self-presentation, cognitive dissonance and attitude change, and the interpersonal processes of conformity and obedience, aggression and altruism, and, finally, love and attraction.

Situational and Dispositional Influences on Behavior

Fundamental Attribution Error

Is the Fundamental Attribution Error a Universal Phenomenon?

You may be able to think of examples of the fundamental attribution error in your life. Do people in all cultures commit the fundamental attribution error? Research suggests that they do not. People from an individualistic culture , that is, a culture that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy, have the greatest tendency to commit the fundamental attribution error. Individualistic cultures, which tend to be found in western countries such as the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, promote a focus on the individual. Therefore, a person’s disposition is thought to be the primary explanation for her behavior. In contrast, people from a collectivistic culture , that is, a culture that focuses on communal relationships with others, such as family, friends, and community (Figure 3), are less likely to commit the fundamental attribution error (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 2001).

Table 1. Characteristics of Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures
Individualistic Culture	Collectivistic Culture
Achievement oriented	Relationship oriented
Focus on autonomy	Focus on group autonomy
Dispositional perspective	Situational perspective
Independent	Interdependent
Analytic thinking style	Holistic thinking style

Actor-Observer Bias

Returning to our earlier example, Greg knew that he lost his job, but an observer would not know. So a naïve observer would tend to attribute Greg’s hostile behavior to Greg’s disposition rather than to the true, situational cause. Why do you think we underestimate the influence of the situation on the behaviors of others? One reason is that we often don’t have all the information we need to make a situational explanation for another person’s behavior. The only information we might have is what is observable. Due to this lack of information we have a tendency to assume the behavior is due to a dispositional, or internal, factor. When it comes to explaining our own behaviors, however, we have much more information available to us. If you came home from school or work angry and yelled at your dog or a loved one, what would your explanation be? You might say you were very tired or feeling unwell and needed quiet time—a situational explanation. The actor-observer bias is the phenomenon of attributing other people’s behavior to internal factors (fundamental attribution error) while attributing our own behavior to situational forces (Jones & Nisbett, 1971; Nisbett, Caputo, Legant, & Marecek, 1973; Choi & Nisbett, 1998). As actors of behavior, we have more information available to explain our own behavior. However as observers, we have less information available; therefore, we tend to default to a dispositionist perspective.

Self-Serving Bias

Following an outcome, self-serving bias are those attributions that enable us to see ourselves in favorable light (for example, making internal attributions for success and external attributions for failures). When you do well at a task, for example acing an exam, it is in your best interest to make a dispositional attribution for your behavior (“I’m smart,”) instead of a situational one (“The exam was easy,”). The tendency of an individual to take credit by making dispositional or internal attributions for positive outcomes but situational or external attributions for negative outcomes is known as the self-serving bias (or self-serving attribution) (Miller & Ross, 1975). This bias serves to protect self-esteem. You can imagine that if people always made situational attributions for their behavior, they would never be able to take credit and feel good about their accomplishments.

Consider the example of how we explain our favorite sports team’s wins. Research shows that we make internal, stable, and controllable attributions for our team’s victory (Figure 5) (Grove, Hanrahan, & McInman, 1991). For example, we might tell ourselves that our team is talented (internal), consistently works hard (stable), and uses effective strategies (controllable). In contrast, we are more likely to make external, unstable, and uncontrollable attributions when our favorite team loses. For example, we might tell ourselves that the other team has more experienced players or that the referees were unfair (external), the other team played at home (unstable), and the cold weather affected our team’s performance (uncontrollable).

Just-World Hypothesis

You can view the transcript for “Should you trust your first impression? – Peter Mende-Siedlecki” here (opens in new window) .

Think It Over

Provide a personal example of an experience in which your behavior was influenced by the power of the situation.
Think of an example in the media of a sports figure—player or coach—who gives a self-serving attribution for winning or losing. Examples might include accusing the referee of incorrect calls, in the case of losing, or citing their own hard work and talent, in the case of winning.

CC licensed content, Original

Modification and adaptation, addition of link to learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution

CC licensed content, Shared previously

What is Social Psychology?. Authored by : OpenStax College. Located at : https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/12-1-what-is-social-psychology . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

Should you trust your first impression?. Authored by : Peter Mende-Siedlecki. Provided by : TED-Ed. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eK0NzsGRceg . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License

field of psychology that examines how people impact or affect each other, with particular focus on the power of the situation

describes a perspective that behavior and actions are determined by the immediate environment and surroundings; a view promoted by social psychologists

describes a perspective common to personality psychologists, which asserts that our behavior is determined by internal factors, such as personality traits and temperament

tendency to overemphasize internal factors as attributions for behavior and underestimate the power of the situation

culture that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy

culture that focuses on communal relationships with others such as family, friends, and community

phenomenon of explaining other people’s behaviors are due to internal factors and our own behaviors are due to situational forces

tendency for individuals to take credit by making dispositional or internal attributions for positive outcomes and situational or external attributions for negative outcomes

our explanation for the source of our own or others' behaviors and outcomes

ideology common in the United States that people get the outcomes they deserve

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Home / Online Bachelor’s Degree Programs / Bachelor of Arts in Psychology Online / Bachelor’s in Psychology Resources / What Is Social Psychology? Theories, Examples, and Definition

What Is Social Psychology? Definition, Key Terms, and Examples What Is Social Psychology? Definition, Key Terms, and Examples What Is Social Psychology? Definition, Key Terms, and Examples

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Social psychologists explore the power of thought and perception to shape action and cement emotional connections. William Shakespeare provided one of the earliest known examples of an insight worthy of a social psychologist in his most psychologically complex play, “Hamlet.”

When the beleaguered prince of Denmark explains why he considers his native country a prison rather than a paradise, he reflects: “Why then … there is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so. To me it is a prison.” Whether presented as a trick of the mind (“thinking makes it so”) or as an exploration of everyday thought and action, social psychology is concerned with explaining some of the deepest mysteries of human relationships and behavior.

What is social psychology? It is a scientific exploration of who we are, who we think we are, and how those perceptions shape our experiences as individuals and as a society.

Social psychology is one of the broadest and most complex subcategories of psychology because it is concerned with self-perception and the behavioral interplay among the individuals who make up society. What follows is an overview of social psychology as a science, including its origins, its theories of human cognition and behavior, and the educational pathways to becoming a social psychologist, which can include earning a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology degree .

Social Psychology Definition

Today, researchers and academics examine nearly every aspect of human existence through a psychological lens. The American Psychological Association (APA) lists 15 subfields of psychology, including clinical psychology, brain and cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, and quantitative psychology.

Social psychology is the study of how individual or group behavior is influenced by the presence and behavior of others.

The APA defines social psychology as “the study of how an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected” by other people, whether “actual, imagined, or symbolically represented.” In essence, even just imagining another person watching you influences how you will process information, behave, and react — and this is something social psychologists strive to understand.

A social psychologist leads a group discussion.

What Questions Does Social Psychology Answer?

The major question social psychologists ponder is this: How and why are people’s perceptions and actions influenced by environmental factors, such as social interaction?

In seeking the answer to that basic question, researchers conduct empirical studies to answer specific questions such as:

How do individuals alter their thoughts and decisions based on social interactions?
Is human behavior an accurate indication of personality?
How goal oriented is social behavior?
How does social perception influence behavior?
How do potentially destructive social attitudes, such as prejudice, form?

For example, have you ever noticed you act and think differently among people you know than you do among strangers? Have you ever wondered why that is? Social psychologists spend their careers trying to determine the answers to questions like these and what they might mean.

The Origins of the Social Psychology Field

Psychology as a field of scientific exploration remains relatively new, yet its importance as a discipline is clear from the well-known names and concepts of early 20th-century research into human behavior: Pavlov and his salivating dog, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and Jung’s archetypes of the unconscious.

These and other researchers wanted to uncover how human perceptions — of oneself, of others, and of the world at large — influence behavior. As the field of psychology matured, researchers began to focus on specialized aspects of the mind and behavior. This gave rise to subcategories of psychology, including social psychology.

Social psychology has been a formal discipline since the turn of the 20th century. An early study in 1898 of “social facilitation” by Indiana University psychology researcher Norman Triplett sought to explain why bicycle racers seemed to exceed their solo performances when they competed directly against others.

Later experiments sought to explain how and why certain artists and performers seemed to shine in front of an audience, while others faltered. During World War II, researchers conducted studies into the effects of propaganda on the behavior of entire populations.

What Is a Social Psychologist?

Social psychology professionals, such as social psychologists, seek to understand the complex interplay between social factors and human behavior. Specific areas of study include:

Group dynamics and attitudes
Interpersonal relationships
Implicit bias and prejudice
Criminal activity

Social psychologists use a variety of research methods, including experiments, surveys, and observations, to study human behavior in social contexts. They apply their findings to a wide range of fields, including business, law, education, healthcare, and public policy, to help solve social problems and improve people’s lives.

Social Psychologist Salary

Social psychologists had a median annual salary of $81,040, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) in 2021. The BLS estimates that the number of people working as psychologists will grow 6% between 2021 and 2031, as fast as the average growth projected for all professions.

While becoming a social psychologist requires advanced education, starting off with a bachelor’s degree in psychology can be an important first step toward this career. Other professions that must consider social psychology principles include social worker, human resources specialist, and career counselor .

What Is Social Psychology vs. Sociology?

Those interested in what social psychology is should understand the difference between this field and other academic disciplines. For example, social psychology and sociology are sometimes confused. This is understandable, because both fields of study are broadly concerned with the way human behavior shapes and is shaped by society.

The primary difference between the two is this: Social psychologists study individuals within a group; sociologists study groups of people.

As early as 1924, when both fields of study were just beginning to reach academic maturity, University of Missouri researcher Charles A. Ellwood sought to simplify the difference between the two. According to Ellwood:

Sociology is “the science of the origin, development, structure, and functioning of groups.”
Social psychology is “the study of the [individual psychological] origins involved in the development, structure, and functioning of social groups.”

Different Ways of Looking at Similar Issues

Naturally, the work done by both types of social scientists occasionally overlaps. A sociologist focuses on how the interplay among different groups of people — those with religious beliefs or ethnicity in common — affects the course of civilization.

This information could be considered a starting point for research by a social psychologist, who might use it to formulate a hypothesis about how an individual is affected by the group dynamic over the course of a lifetime.

For example, a sociologist might focus on the potential far-reaching effects on society of a new law, whereas a social psychologist might focus on how the new law might affect a specific person in the short term and long term.

Another way to think about the differences between social psychology and sociology is to consider the perception of the group dynamic.

For instance, a sociologist might conduct research into how a group of people acts as a unit, while a social psychologist might want to investigate how and why groups of people influence individuals — and why individual behaviors can influence groups of people.

Examples of Social Psychology Topics of Today

Early social psychologists concerned themselves with internal and external influences on individual behavior. British-born psychologist William McDougall’s 1908 publication, “An Introduction to Social Psychology,” focused on human instinct as the driving force behind social interactions.

More topics crowded under the social psychology umbrella with the 1920s work of brothers Floyd Henry Allport and Gordon Willard Allport. The Allports are credited with applying rigorous scientific theory and experimentation techniques to social psychology research.

This dynamic duo also conducted important studies into the development of attitudes, religious beliefs, and many other topics.

Social Psychology Examples

What social psychology is focused on is studying changes over time. Social psychology research has touched on nearly every facet of human personality in an attempt to understand the psychological influence of perception and human interaction. Of the topics currently being researched in social psychology, examples include:

Leadership — What personality traits define a leader? What is the role of a leader within a group? How do leaders exercise influence on groups and individuals?
Aggression — How is aggressive behavior defined? What triggers habitual aggressive behavior? What role does aggression play in self-preservation?
Social perception — How does an individual develop self-perception? How is self-perception shaped by environmental factors? What is the difference between the existential self and the categorical self?
Group behavior — What characteristics do groups share? How many people constitute a group? What dictates the structure of a group? Why do individuals gravitate to a particular group?
Nonverbal behavior — What nonlinguistic actions communicate thought or meaning? How are nonverbal cues developed and interpreted? What emotions do facial expressions, hand gestures, and other nonverbal behaviors communicate?
Conformity — What prompts individuals to change their perceptions to match that of a group or another person? How does an individual decide to accept influence from another or a group? What is the difference between outward conformity and internal conformity?
Prejudice — What causes someone to harbor prejudice against a member of a different social group? What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination? How are stereotypes used to build perceptions?

Examples of Social Psychology Theories

What social psychology is today can also be described in terms of the theories that social psychology devises to explain human behavior. Consider the following mainstream social psychology theories that include theories of social cognition, group behavior, and identity.

Social Cognition

Social cognition is a subtopic of social psychology. Its focus is the study of how and why we perceive ourselves and others as we do. This is important because, without an understanding of our self-perception, it is impossible to fully grasp how our actions are interpreted by others. Similarly, to understand why others act as they do toward us, we must rely on our perceptions of their thoughts and motivations.

Social psychologists conduct research into how and why certain life experiences influence our perceptions of ourselves and others. This key example of social psychology research seeks to understand how memory is processed and how it influences social cognition.

Early Development of Cognitive Perception

Social cognition research often involves an analysis of environmental factors in the early development of cognitive perception. For example, young children’s perceptions are based on an egocentric view — their views of themselves and the world are shaped by limited experience. They do not yet understand how to interpret their own emotions and actions, let alone those of others.

By adulthood, the ability to perceive emotions and understand behavior has developed with experience. Perceptions are formed and decisions are made based on that experience. A functioning adult can call on experience to answer questions like:

Why do I think the way I do about a particular subject or person?
How do my actions affect others?
How should I respond to the actions of others?

The way individuals learn to answer these and other questions about their self-perception falls under the study of social cognition. Scientists explore the mental processes that affect the interplay among perception, memory, and thought in shaping personality and social interaction.

This information, in turn, helps researchers understand the dynamic between group behavior and the development of an individual’s social identity.

Group Behavior

Why are individuals drawn together to form groups? How does the group influence the behavior of an individual, and vice versa?

A study of group behavior attempts to answer these and other questions related to social cognition. It begins with the basic question: What is a group? There is no set definition of a group, but social psychologists generally agree that a group can be identified as a coherent entity made up of individuals who share certain beliefs or characteristics.

Examples of groups include religious affiliations, scientific societies, and political parties. This definition includes large groups, such as the population of a neighborhood or a city, and smaller groups, such as a nuclear family.

The observable actions of a group make up the definition of group behavior. Social psychologists who study group behavior want to know the underlying motivations of those actions, how they originated, how an individual functions within the group, and the role of leadership in the group dynamic.

For example, how and why do some groups act out of a collective sense of kindness and acceptance, while others seem motivated by prejudice and violence? How does the innate conflict between self-perception and external perception affect an individual’s influence within a group? Not only that, but how and why are individual interests, opinions, and abilities sometimes sublimated to the group’s collective purpose?

Group behavior can be studied through the lens of individual status within the group. The group’s patterns of individual relationships may predict the group’s cohesiveness, and they might help explain how and why one group is more productive than another.

An understanding of group behavior helps explain why individuals might make certain decisions under the influence of a group that they would not have made alone. This kind of personality change — a shift based on group membership — is covered under the topic of social identity theory.

Social Identity Theory

Psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner studied the effects of group membership on self-perception. They formulated social identity theory, which seeks to explain the relationship between group membership and the reinforcement of individual qualities such as pride and self-esteem.

According to Tajfel and Turner, individuals gravitate toward groups that are composed of people they admire or with whom they agree on important matters. Group members perceive themselves, at least in part, through the lens of their membership; they see themselves reflected by other members.

People who belong to groups are linked and governed by similarities. Group members’ self-identity is based on the shared attitudes, beliefs, and moral standards of the group. This explains why individuals in a group might act differently than they would act if they did not belong to the group. They behave as they believe a member of the group should behave, rather than acting out of personal motivation.

Another aspect of social identity theory is the tendency toward tribalism, or embracing “in-groups” while rejecting “out-groups.” The group socialization of an individual takes place in stages, according to Tajfel and Turner:

Categorization — Separating individuals based on characteristics such as ethnicity, occupation, or belief system
Social identification — Adopting the characteristics of a particular group
Social comparison — Seeking to draw favorable contrasts with other groups

Once individuals have thoroughly established their self-perception based on membership in an “in-group,” their mindset and behavior begin to reflect the expectations of the group.

In this way, individual social identity is sublimated to the group. Personal identity is exchanged for a sense of belonging, safety, and well-being.

Typical Social Psychology Curriculum

Social psychologists generally need to earn an advanced degree to work in clinical, counseling , or research contexts. Careers for psychology bachelor’s degree graduates are available in the fields of human resources, market analytics, and survey research. Graduates who go on to earn a master’s degree or higher, such as a PhD in psychology or a Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) degree, may become qualified to work as social psychologists.

The typical social psychology bachelor’s degree curriculum includes courses in psychological research methods, research design, and applied statistics as well as courses in psychological theory, such as in abnormal psychology and developmental psychology across the lifespan.

Some social psychology professionals work in academic settings, conducting research and teaching students, while others work in applied settings, such as in government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and private corporations. Social psychology professionals may also work as consultants, helping individuals and organizations understand and manage social dynamics in their environments.

Pursue a Career in Social Psychology

A career in social psychology feeds a passion for understanding what motivates human behavior, and it requires extensive training in empirical research methods. What social psychology is has everything to do with the expertise that researchers develop in human relationships, self-perception, group dynamics, leadership, and many other areas of psychology.

Social psychology research is vital across multiple disciplines, including business, healthcare, economics, political science, and education. Are you interested in becoming a social psychology professional and doing this important work? Become immersed in the study of human behavior and psychological research by earning a Maryville University online Bachelor of Arts in Psychology .

What Are Social Skills? (Definition, Examples & Importance)

You’ve probably read loads of articles about how important social skills are. It can be difficult to improve social skills when you don’t really understand exactly what they are and how to work on them.

Something that makes social skills difficult for people to learn is that there can be an expectation that we just “know.” Lots of our readers feel like there was a class they missed in high school where everyone else learned social skills and they were the only ones who didn’t.

Obviously, there wasn’t a class like that, and you’re not the only one who struggles with understanding social skills. In this article, we’re going to look at what social skills are, why they’re important (and difficult), and how to improve them.

What are social skills?

Why are social skills important, examples of good vs. bad social skills, how to improve your social skills, causes of low social skills, common questions.

Social skills are ways of interacting with others that make it easier to succeed socially. They allow you to communicate effectively and understand what others are trying to communicate to you, both verbally and non-verbally.

This definition is a bit vague, but that’s because social skills cover lots of different aspects. You might be surprised to realize that even psychology researchers struggle to agree on a definition of social skills. [ 1 ]

One approach breaks social skills down into 5 components; cooperation, assertion, self-control, responsibility, and empathy. [ 2 ]

Cooperation is how well you work with other people to achieve a task, including negotiation and persuasion.
Assertion is how well you are able to initiate social interactions, for example introducing yourself to others.
Self-control skills allow you to deal with your emotions constructively, for example not losing your temper.
Responsibility is about recognizing the impact of your actions on others and making prosocial decisions.
Empathy is being able to understand what others might be feeling and being able to put yourself in their shoes. It’s a measure of social perceptiveness.

One difficulty with social skills is that there aren’t many hard-and-fast rules. Unlike in math or physics, doing the same thing repeatedly won’t give you the same result. Social skills are often based on accurately understanding what someone else is thinking and feeling.

It might be helpful to think of social skills in three basic parts; understanding feelings (including your own), understanding the social environment, and being able to carry out the right social behavior.

For example, if you see someone crying, your empathy lets you realize that they might be upset and want to be comforted. Your understanding of the social environment lets you judge how well you know them and whether they might welcome comfort from you. Being able to carry out the right social action might be offering them a hug or handing them a tissue.

Important facts about social skills

When you’re thinking about social skills, here are some important facts to bear in mind.

1. Social skills can be learned

We call them social skills because they are just like any other skill. You can learn new social skills, and you need to keep practicing them. [ 3 ]

2. Social rules are flexible

When we talk about social rules, they’re mostly guidelines. The more socially skilled you are, the more you can break the rules.

This means that you can’t always use other people’s behavior as a guide. If they’re more socially skilled than you, they might be responding to social cues that you haven’t seen.

3. You can’t opt out of social skills

There are lots of skills that you can opt-out of learning. If you’re not musical, you might decide not to learn an instrument. Interpersonal skills are different. Even sending an email at work uses social skills. We all use social skills every day.

Social skills can impact every aspect of your life; finding a romantic partner, how much money you earn, and even how healthy you are. Here are some of the most important benefits of improving your social skills.

1. More and better relationships

Social skills are key to building good relationships. Our social skills let us understand how our friends, family, and co-workers are feeling and what they are looking for from us.

Improving your social skills will help you build close, trusting relationships with others.

2. Better communication

Social skills are all about communication. Socially skilled people can read someone else’s body language and understand more of what they are communicating. They are also able to create rapport, which makes it easier for others to be honest with them. [ 4 ]

3. Advancing career prospects

People with better social skills also have better career prospects. Studies show that socially skilled people have more successful careers. [ 5 ] They feel more satisfied with their lives and their careers and find it easier to stay motivated.

Social skills are especially important for entrepreneurs. Being socially skilled lets you convince others of your trustworthiness and judge how trustworthy other people are. [ 6 ]

4. Being happier

People with good social skills are generally happier than those with poor social skills. [ 7 ] This is mostly due to the number and depth of friendships that socially skilled people are able to build. [ 8 ] These friendships help fulfill your emotional needs and can offer support when things are difficult.‌

5. Better academic performance

Children with better social skills typically get better grades in school. [ 9 ] Teachers may expect socially skilled children to do better, which becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. [ 10 ] Socially skilled children also often have fewer disruptive behaviors, which gives them more time and energy for learning. [ 11 ]

6. Decreased loneliness

Having better social skills helps to protect you against loneliness. Great social skills don’t just help you form closer friendships. They also give you the confidence to reach out to people around you when you feel lonely. [ 12 ]

We also have a full guide on how to feel less lonely .

7. Better health

Having better social skills doesn’t just improve your emotional wellbeing. It can help your mental and physical health as well.

For example, studies show that patients with bulimia have lower social skills and weaker support networks. [ 13 ] It is suggested (though not yet confirmed) that strong social skills help people to build support networks, which can protect their mental health and social health .

Having strong social skills can also help you get better treatment from doctors. [ 14 ][ 15 ] This can include getting an urgent appointment when you need it, being able to communicate your symptoms, and having doctors trust your assessment of your needs.

People with poor social skills can find themselves in social situations that they don’t fully understand and don’t feel equipped to handle. If you’re not sure how good your social skills are, here are some signs of low social skills:


Feel confident in social situations	Often feel lost in social situations
Recognize other people’s emotions	Struggle to understand how others are feeling
Understand where they make social errors	Often say or do the wrong thing, but aren’t sure why
Can express their emotions in	Struggle to express negative emotions, such as frustration or anger, or you express them too strongly
Can identify social cues around humor, sarcasm, and irony	Can’t tell when someone is joking or being sarcastic
Balance honesty and tact	Can be tactless and struggle to understand the difference between social responses and deceit

When you realize how often you use social skills, it can make improving them more intimidating. Some people worry that improving their social skills means that they can’t be themselves anymore.

Building social skills is actually about making it easier to be yourself. Here are our top tips for improving your social skills

1. Get feedback

There are loads of different social skills. You might be great at some, even if you struggle with others. Your first task is to find out where you struggle.

This isn’t usually something you can work out alone. You need to be interacting with someone else to use social skills. In order to learn, you need to have a good idea of how you came across to the other person.

Try to find a friend (or several) who can help you to understand how good your different social skills are at the moment. Often, asking for feedback comes across as asking for reassurance, so explain why you’re asking for their help.

Try saying, “I’m trying to improve my social skills, but I don’t always know when I’m doing well or badly. Could you give me some honest feedback about how I come across, please?”

2. Identify areas for practice

Social skills are such a huge topic that you can’t work on all of them at the same time. Instead, try to find a couple that you want to work on first.

Where you focus your efforts will usually depend on where your weaknesses are and what will make the most impact on your life.

For example, you might find it difficult to read other people’s facial expressions. If you work in an office, that might cause problems for you, so you could prioritize improving your ability to read other people’s emotions. If you mostly work from home, however, struggling to read facial expressions might not be a problem. In that case, you might prioritize something else.

If you’re not sure where to start, consider focusing on active listening and learning to read other people’s emotions from their facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language, such as eye contact and gestures.

3. Make a plan

Improving your social skills can be difficult. Make it easier with a plan. Try setting yourself achievable goals to help you work on the priorities you’ve identified.

Your goals should be specific and focused on what you want to achieve, but here are some ideas:

Smile at 3 new people each day
Ask the cashier how their day is going when you shop
Read one new article or post on social skills each week – bonus points for discussing it with a friend
Spend at least 20 minutes at a social event you’re nervous about

Make sure to include reviewing progress and making new goals in your plan. Recognizing your progress is key to keeping you motivated, even when it feels awkward. [ 16 ]

4. Consider therapy

Lots of people struggle with social skills because of deep insecurities or having learned unhelpful coping strategies throughout their lives. Finding a great therapist can help you deal with underlying issues and practice your social skills in a safe and supportive environment.

We really like BetterHelp for a fast and affordable way to get in touch with the right therapist for you.

These are just a few of the ways that you can become more socially adept. For more ideas, check out our complete guide to improving your social skills .

Lots of people have difficulty learning social skills. Here are some factors that can lead to low social skills.

Autism spectrum disorders

Autism spectrum disorders and Asperger’s can lead to the development of poor social skills. People with autism spectrum disorders communicate in a slightly different way from those without. [ 17 ] This can make it difficult for them to form connections and learn social skills.

People with autism spectrum disorders can still learn social skills successfully, but they may respond better to different teaching methods. [ 18 ]

‌Social anxiety

Most of us learn social skills by practicing. Having social anxiety can lead you to avoid groups, making it harder for you to learn. You may also find making mistakes to be traumatic, meaning that you’re too upset to learn from your errors.

ADHD and hyperkinetic disorder

People with ADHD and related disorders can suffer from “social naivety” and have social skills that are less advanced than their peers. [ 19 ] Their impulsivity, in particular, can make it difficult for them to form close bonds with others.

Just like social anxiety, depression can make you avoid social events. It can also lead you to evaluate your social skills very harshly, which makes it difficult for you to see what you have learned or accept that you do some things well. Skills such as confidence and assertiveness can be particularly difficult if you are suffering from depression.

Antisocial behaviors

People, especially young people, who display antisocial behaviors typically have poor social skills, especially empathy. [ 20 ] They don’t think about the impact that their actions have on the people around them or their social network.

Social skills training can help improve social skills and decrease antisocial behavior. This helps create a virtuous cycle, where increased social skills allow for more social interaction, which further improves social skills. [ 21 ]

Alcohol misuse

People with a history of alcohol misuse or who have grown up with a parent with addiction issues often struggle to develop social skills. They may rely on drinking to reduce their anxiety around social situations, never having the opportunity to learn new, healthier coping strategies and skills. [ 22 ]

How can I tell if my child has problems with social skills?

Teachers will often alert you to problems with your child’s social skills. They’re well-placed to know whether your child is performing well for their age. If you’re unsure, consider whether your child can understand the emotions of others and communicate their own feelings appropriately.

Why are social skills important in early childhood?

Good social skills in preschoolers help children develop the self-confidence and positive experiences that they need to allow them to succeed throughout their lives. Teaching your child how to interact well with others allows them to learn, play and grow in a social world.

Are there any social skills disorders?

Many disorders have an impact on social skills, including autism spectrum disorders, depression, ADHD, anxiety, schizophrenia, social communication disorder, and more. Even when social skills aren’t part of diagnosis (for example, schizophrenia), social skills training can help alleviate symptoms. [ 23 ]

What are the most important social skills at work?

Which social skills are most important at work partly depends on the work you do. Good communication skills and the ability to cooperate well with others are helpful in most roles. Self-confidence can also be important for leaders or those who have to work independently.

This article on improving interpersonal skills at work might be helpful.

What type of therapy is recommended for social skill difficulties?

Different types of therapy can help develop your social skills. Which is right for you depends on your personality and specific challenges. Research shows that finding a therapist you trust is more important than the type of therapy they offer. [ 24 ] Social skills training can be offered with therapy.

What is social skills training?

Social skills training is a form of behavioral therapy and can be effective for children with behavioral problems. [ 25 ] It involves understanding which skills are lacking, teaching the theory behind them, and giving you the opportunity to practice them in a safe space. It is also used for adults.

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Eisler, R. M., & Frederiksen, L. W. (2012). Perfecting Social Skills: a Guide to Interpersonal Behavior Development. Springer US .
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Baron, R. A., & Markman, G. D. (2000). Beyond social capital: How social skills can enhance entrepreneurs’ success . Academy of Management Perspectives, 14 (1), 106–116.
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Malecki, C. K., & Elliot, S. N. (2002). Children’s social behaviors as predictors of academic achievement: A longitudinal analysis . School Psychology Quarterly, 17 (1), 1–23.
Tauber, R. T. (1997). Self-fulfilling prophecy: a practical guide to its use in education . Praeger .
Del Prette, Z. A. P., Prette, A. D., De Oliveira, L. A., Gresham, F. M., & Vance, M. J. (2012). Role of social performance in predicting learning problems: Prediction of risk using logistic regression analysis . School Psychology International, 33 (6), 615–630.
Sakız, H., Mert, A., & Sarıçam, H. (2020). Self-esteem and perceived social competence protect adolescent students against ostracism and loneliness . Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools, 31 (1), 1–16.
Grisset, N. I., & Norvell, N. K. (1992). Perceived social support, social skills, and quality of relationships in bulimic women . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60 (2), 293–299.
Carvel, J. (2003). Rich patients get better NHS care . The Guardian.
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Avrahami, D., Williams, K., Lee, M. L., Tokunaga, N., Tjahjadi, Y., & Marlow, J. (2020). Celebrating Everyday Success: Improving Engagement and Motivation using a System for Recording Daily Highlights . Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems.
DeRosier, M. E., Swick, D. C., Davis, N. O., McMillen, J. S., & Matthews, R. (2010). The Efficacy of a Social Skills Group Intervention for Improving Social Behaviors in Children with High Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorders . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41 (8), 1033–1043.
Parsons, S., & Mitchell, P. (2002). The potential of virtual reality in social skills training for people with autistic spectrum disorders . Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 46( 5), 430–443.
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Viktor is a Counselor specialized in interpersonal communication and relationships. He manages SocialSelf’s scientific review board. Follow on Twitter or read more .

How To Be More Outgoing (If You’re Not the Social Type)

17 tips to improve your people skills (with examples), how to be more social (if you’re not a party-person), how to never run out of things to say (if you blank out), how to be funny in a conversation (for non-funny people), how to make interesting conversation (for any situation), how to be more approachable (and look more friendly), how to stop being quiet (when you’re stuck in your head), how to not be boring, do people ignore you reasons why & what to do.

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Introduction

Psychoanalytic theories

Piaget’s theory
Learning theory
The newborn infant
Determinants of attention
Piaget’s observations
Vocalizations
Physical growth and development
Temperament
Symbolic ability and imitation
The makeup of intelligence
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human behaviour

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Table Of Contents

human behaviour , the potential and expressed capacity for physical, mental, and social activity during the phases of human life.

Humans, like other animal species, have a typical life course that consists of successive phases of growth, each of which is characterized by a distinct set of physical, physiological, and behavioral features. These phases are prenatal life, infancy , childhood , adolescence , and adulthood (including old age). Human development , or developmental psychology , is a field of study that attempts to describe and explain the changes in human cognitive , emotional, and behavioral capabilities and functioning over the entire life span , from the fetus to old age.

Most scientific research on human development has concentrated on the period from birth through early adolescence, owing to both the rapidity and magnitude of the psychological changes observed during those phases and to the fact that they culminate in the optimum mental functioning of early adulthood. A primary motivation of many investigators in the field has been to determine how the culminating mental abilities of adulthood were reached during the preceding phases. This essay will concentrate, therefore, on human development during the first 12 years of life.

This article discusses the development of human behaviour. For treatment of biological development, see human development . For further treatment of particular facets of behavioral development, see emotion ; learning theory ; motivation ; perception ; personality ; and sexual behaviour, human . Various disorders with significant behavioral manifestations are discussed in mental disorder .

Theories of development

The systematic study of children is less than 200 years old, and the vast majority of its research has been published since the mid-1940s. Basic philosophical differences over the fundamental nature of children and their growth occupied psychologists during much of the 20th century. The most important of such controversies concerned the relative importance of genetic endowment and environment , or “nature” and “nurture,” in determining development during infancy and childhood. Most researchers came to recognize, however, that it is the interaction of inborn biological factors with external factors, rather than the mutually exclusive action or predominance of one or the other force, that guides and influences human development . The advances in cognition , emotion , and behaviour that normally occur at certain points in the life span require both maturation (i.e., genetically driven biological changes in the central nervous system ) and events, experiences, and influences in the physical and social environment. Generally, maturation by itself cannot cause a psychological function to emerge; it does, however, permit such a function to occur and sets limits on its earliest time of appearance.

Three prominent theories of human development emerged in the 20th century, each addressing different aspects of psychological growth. In retrospect, these and other theories seem to have been neither logically rigorous nor able to account for both intellectual and emotional growth within the same framework. Research in the field has thus tended to be descriptive, since developmental psychology lacks a tight net of interlocking theoretical propositions that reliably permit satisfying explanations.

Early psychoanalytic theories of human behaviour were set forth most notably by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud . Freud’s ideas were influenced by Charles Darwin ’s theory of evolution and by the physical concept of energy as applied to the central nervous system . Freud’s most basic hypothesis was that each child is born with a source of basic psychological energy called libido . Further, each child’s libido becomes successively focused on various parts of the body (in addition to people and objects) in the course of his or her emotional development . During the first postnatal year, libido is initially focused on the mouth and its activities; nursing enables the infant to derive gratification through a pleasurable reduction of tension in the oral region. Freud called this the oral stage of development. During the second year, the source of excitation is said to shift to the anal area, and the start of toilet training leads the child to invest libido in the anal functions. Freud called this period of development the anal stage . During the period from three through six years, the child’s attention is attracted to sensations from the genitals, and Freud called this stage the phallic stage . The half dozen years before puberty are called the latency stage . During the final and so-called genital stage of development, mature gratification is sought in a heterosexual love relationship with another. Freud believed that adult emotional problems result from either deprivation or excessive gratification during the oral, anal, or phallic stages. A child with libido fixated at one of these stages would in adulthood show specific neurotic symptoms, such as anxiety .

(Read Sigmund Freud’s 1926 Britannica essay on psychoanalysis.)

Freud devised an influential theory of personality structure. According to him, a wholly unconscious mental structure called the id contains a person’s inborn, inherited drives and instinctual forces and is closely identified with his or her basic psychological energy (libido). During infancy and childhood, the ego , which is the reality-oriented portion of the personality, develops to balance and complement the id. The ego utilizes a variety of conscious and unconscious mental processes to try to satisfy id instincts while also trying to maintain the individual comfortably in relation to the environment. Although id impulses are constantly directed toward obtaining immediate gratification of one’s major instinctual drives (sex, affection, aggression, self-preservation), the ego functions to set limits on this process. In Freud’s language, as the child grows, the reality principle gradually begins to control the pleasure principle ; the child learns that the environment does not always permit immediate gratification. Child development , according to Freud, is thus primarily concerned with the emergence of the functions of the ego, which is responsible for channeling the discharge of fundamental drives and for controlling intellectual and perceptual functions in the process of negotiating realistically with the outside world.

Although Freud made great contributions to psychological theory—particularly in his concept of unconscious urges and motivations—his elegant concepts cannot be verified through scientific experimentation and empirical observation. But his concentration on emotional development in early childhood influenced even those schools of thought that rejected his theories. The belief that personality is affected by both biological and psychosocial forces operating principally within the family, with the major foundations being laid early in life, continues to prove fruitful in research on infant and child development.

Freud’s emphasis on biological and psychosexual motives in personality development was modified by German-born American psychoanalyst Erik Erikson to include psychosocial and social factors. Erikson viewed emotional development over the life span as a sequence of stages during which there occur important inner conflicts whose successful resolution depends on both the child and his or her environment. These conflicts can be thought of as interactions between instinctual drives and motives on the one hand and social and other external factors on the other. Erikson evolved eight stages of development, the first four of which are: (1) infancy, trust versus mistrust, (2) early childhood, autonomy versus shame and doubt, (3) preschool, initiative versus guilt, and (4) school age, industry versus inferiority. Conflicts at any one stage must be resolved if personality problems are to be avoided. (Erikson’s developmental stages during adulthood are discussed below in the section Development in adulthood and old age .)

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How Does Social Context Influence Our Brain and Behavior?

When we interact with others, the context in which our actions take place plays a major role in our behavior. This means that our understanding of objects, words, emotions, and social cues may differ depending on where we encounter them. Here, we explain how context affects daily mental processes, ranging from how people see things to how they behave with others. Then, we present the social context network model. This model explains how people process contextual cues when they interact, through the activity of the frontal, temporal, and insular brain regions. Next, we show that when those brain areas are affected by some diseases, patients find it hard to process contextual cues. Finally, we describe new ways to explore social behavior through brain recordings in daily situations.

Introduction

Everything you do is influenced by the situation in which you do it. The situation that surrounds an action is called its context. In fact, analyzing context is crucial for social interaction and even, in some cases, for survival. Imagine you see a man in fear: your reaction depends on his facial expression (e.g., raised eyebrows, wide-open eyes) and also on the context of the situation. The context can be external (is there something frightening around?) or internal (am I calm or am I also scared?). Such contextual cues are crucial to your understanding of any situation.

Context shapes all processes in your brain, from visual perception to social interactions [ 1 ]. Your mind is never isolated from the world around you. The specific meaning of an object, word, emotion, or social event depends on context ( Figure 1 ). Context may be evident or subtle, real or imagined, conscious or unconscious. Simple optical illusions demonstrate the importance of context ( Figures 1A,B ). In the Ebbinghaus illusion ( Figure 1A ), rings of circles surround two central circles. The central circles are the same size, but one appears to be smaller than the other. This is so because the surrounding circles provide a context. This context affects your perception of the size of the central circles. Quite interesting, right? Likewise, in the Cafe Wall Illusion ( Figure 1B ), context affects your perception of the lines’ orientation. The lines are parallel, but you see them as convergent or divergent. You can try focusing on the middle line of the figure and check it with a ruler. Contextual cues also help you recognize objects in a scene [ 2 ]. For instance, it can be easier to recognize letters when they are in the context of a word. Thus, you can see the same array of lines as either an H or an A ( Figure 1C ). Certainly, you did not read that phrase as “TAE CHT”, correct? Lastly, contextual cues are also important for social interaction. For instance, visual scenes, voices, bodies, other faces, and words shape how you perceive emotions in a face [ 3 ]. If you see Figure 1D in isolation, the woman may look furious. But look again, this time at Figure 1E . Here you see an ecstatic Serena Williams after she secured the top tennis ranking. This shows that recognizing emotions depends on additional information that is not present in the face itself.

Figure 1 - Contextual affects how you see things.

Figure 1 - Contextual affects how you see things.
A,B. The visual context affects how you see shapes. C. Context also plays an important role in object recognition. Context-related objects are easier to recognize. “THE CAT” is a good example of contextual effects in letter recognition (reproduced with permission from Chun [ 2 ]). D,E. Context also affects how you recognize an emotion [by Hanson K. Joseph (Own work), CC BY-SA 4.0 ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0 ), via Wikimedia Commons].

Contextual cues also help you make sense of other situations. What is appropriate in one place may not be appropriate in another. Making jokes is OK when studying with your friends, but not OK during the actual exam. Also, context affects how you feel when you see something happening to another person. Picture someone being beaten on the street. If the person being beaten is your best friend, would you react in the same way as if he were a stranger? The reason why you probably answered “no” is that your empathy may be influenced by context. Context will determine whether you jump in to help or run away in fear. In sum, social situations are shaped by contextual factors that affect how you feel and act.

Contextual cues are important for interpreting social situations. Yet, they have been largely ignored in the world of science. To fill this gap, our group proposed the social context network model [ 1 ]. This model describes a brain network that integrates contextual information during social processes. This brain network combines the activity of several different areas of the brain, namely frontal, temporal, and insular brain areas ( Figure 2 ). It is true that many other brain areas are involved in processing contextual information. For instance, the context of an object that you can see affects processes in the vision areas of your brain [ 4 ]. However, the network proposed by our model includes the main areas involved in social context processing. Even contextual visual recognition involves activity of temporal and frontal regions included in our model [ 5 ].

Figure 2 - The parts of the brain that work together, in the social context network model.

Figure 2 - The parts of the brain that work together, in the social context network model.
This model proposes that social contextual cues are processed by a network of specific brain regions. This network is made up of frontal (light blue), temporal (orange), and insular (green) brain regions and the connections between these regions.

How Does Your Brain Process Contextual Cues in Social Scenarios?

To interpret context in social settings, your brain relies on a network of brain regions, including the frontal, temporal, and insular regions. Figure 2 shows the frontal regions in light blue. These regions help you update contextual information when you focus on something (say, the traffic light as you are walking down the street). That information helps you anticipate what might happen next, based on your previous experiences. If there is a change in what you are seeing (as you keep walking down the street, a mean-looking Doberman appears), the frontal regions will activate and update predictions (“this may be dangerous!”). These predictions will be influenced by the context (“oh, the dog is on a leash”) and your previous experience (“yeah, but once I was attacked by a dog and it was very bad!”). If a person’s frontal regions are damaged, he/she will find it difficult to recognize the influence of context. Thus, the Doberman may not be perceived as a threat, even if this person has been attacked by other dogs before! The main role of the frontal regions is to predict the meaning of actions by analyzing the contextual events that surround the actions.

Figure 2 shows the insular regions, also called the insula, in green. The insula combines signals from within and outside your body. The insula receives signals about what is going on in your guts, heart, and lungs. It also supports your ability to experience emotions. Even the butterflies you sometimes feel in your stomach depend on brain activity! This information is combined with contextual cues from outside your body. So, when you see that the Doberman breaks loose from its owner, you can perceive that your heart begins to beat faster (an internal body signal). Then, your brain combines the external contextual cues (“the Doberman is loose!”) with your body signals, leading you to feel fear. Patients with damage to their insular regions are not so good at tracking their inner body signals and combining them with their emotions. The insula is critical for giving emotional value to an event.

Lastly, Figure 2 shows the temporal regions marked with orange. The temporal regions associate the object or person you are focusing on with the context. Memory plays a major role here. For instance, when the Doberman breaks loose, you look at his owner and realize that it is the kind man you met last week at the pet shop. Also, the temporal regions link contextual information with information from the frontal and insular regions. This system supports your knowledge that Dobermans can attack people, prompting you to seek protection.

To summarize, combining what you experience with the social context relies on a brain network that includes the frontal, insular, and temporal regions. Thanks to this network, we can interpret all sorts of social events. The frontal areas adjust and update what you think, feel, and do depending on present and past happenings. These areas also predict possible events in your surroundings. The insula combines signals from within and outside your body to produce a specific feeling. The temporal regions associate objects and persons with the current situation. So, all the parts of the social context network model work together to combine contextual information when you are in social settings.

When Context Cannot be Processed

Our model helps to explain findings from patients with brain damage. These patients have difficulties processing contextual cues. For instance, people with autism find it hard to make eye contact and interact with others. They may show repetitive behaviors (e.g., constantly lining up toy cars) or excessive interest in a topic. They may also behave inappropriately and have trouble adjusting to school, home, or work. People with autism may fail to recognize emotions in others’ faces. Their empathy may also be reduced. One of our studies [ 6 ] showed that these problems are linked to a decreased ability to process contextual information. Persons with autism and healthy subjects performed tasks involving different social skills. Autistic people did poorly in tasks that relied on contextual cues—for instance, detecting a person’s emotion based on his gestures or voice tone. But, autistic people did well in tasks that didn’t require analyzing context, for example tasks that could be completed by following very general rules (for example, “never touch a stranger on the street”). Thus, the social problems that we often see in autistic people might result from difficulty in processing contextual cues.

Another disease that may result from problems processing contextual information is called behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia . Patients with this disease exhibit changes in personality and in the way they interact with others, after about age 60. They may do improper things in public. Like people with autism, they may not show empathy or may not recognize emotions easily. Also, they find it hard to deal with the details of context needed to understand social events. All these changes may reflect general problems processing social context information. These problems may be caused by damage to the brain network described above.

Our model can also explain patients with damage to the frontal lobes or those who have conditions such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder [ 7 ]. Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by atypical social cognition and inability to distinguish between real and imagined world (as in the case of hallucinations). Similar but milder problems appear in patients with bipolar disorder, which is another psychiatric condition mainly characterized by oscillating periods of depression and periods of elevated mood (called hypomania or mania).

In sum, the problems with social behavior seen in many diseases are probably linked to poor context processing after damage to certain brain areas, as proposed by our model ( Figure 2 ). Future research should explore how correct this model is, adding more data about the processes and regions it describes.

New Techniques to Assess Social Behavior and Contextual Processing

The results mentioned above are important for scientists and doctors. However, they have a great limitation. They do not reflect how people behave in daily life! Most of the research findings came from tasks in a laboratory, in which a person responded to pictures or videos. These tasks do not really represent how we act every day in our lives. Social life is much more complicated than sitting at a desk and pressing buttons when you see images on a computer, right? Research based on such tasks doesn’t reflect real social situations. In daily life, people interact in contexts that constantly change.

Fortunately, new methods allow scientists to assess real-life interactions. Hyperscanning is one of these methods. Hyperscanning allows measurement of the brain activity of two or more people while they perform activities together. For example, each subject can lie inside a separate scanner (a large tube containing powerful magnets). This scanner can detect changes in blood flow in the brain while the two people interact. This approach is used, for example, to study the brains of a mother and her child while they are looking at each other’s faces ( Figure 3A ).

Figure 3 - New techniques to study processing of contextual cues.

Figure 3 - New techniques to study processing of contextual cues.
A. A mother and her infant look at each others’ facial expression while their brain activity is recorded (reproduced with permission from Masayuki et al. [ 8 ]). B. Hyperscanning of people interacting with each other during a game of Jenga (reproduced with permission from Liu et al. [ 9 ]). C. A new method of studying brain activity, called mobile brain/body imaging (MoBI) (reproduced with permission from Makeig et al. [ 10 ]). D. Virtual reality simulations of a virtual train at the station and a virtual train carriage (reproduced with permission from Freeman et al. [ 11 ]).

Hyperscanning can also be done using electroencephalogram equipment. Electroencephalography measures the electrical activity of the brain. Special sensors called electrodes are attached to the head. They are hooked by wires to a computer which records the brain’s electrical activity. Figure 3B shows an example of the use of electroencephalogram hyperscanning. This method has been used to measure the brain activity in two individuals while they are playing Jenga. Future research should apply this technique to study the processing of social contextual cues.

One limitation of hyperscanning is that it typically requires participants to remain still. However, real-life interactions involve many bodily actions. Fortunately, a new method called mobile brain/body imaging (MoBI, Figure 3C ) allows the measurement of brain activity and bodily actions while people interact in natural settings.

Another interesting approach is to use virtual reality . This technique involves fake situations. However, it puts people in different situations that require social interaction. This is closer to real life than the tasks used in most laboratories. As an example, consider Figure 3D . This shows a virtual reality experiment in which participants traveled through an underground tube station in London. Our understanding of the way context impacts social behavior could be expanded in future virtual reality studies.

In sum, future research should use new methods for measuring real-life interactions. This type of research could be very important for doctors to understand what happens to the processing of social context cues in various brain injuries or diseases. These realistic tasks are more sensitive than most of the laboratory tasks that are usually used for the assessment of patients with brain disorders.

Empathy : ↑ The ability to feel what another person is feeling, that is, to “place yourself in that person’s shoes.”

Autism : ↑ A general term for a group of complex disorders of brain development. These disorders are characterized by repetitive behaviors, as well as different levels of difficulty with social interaction and both verbal and non-verbal communications.

Behavioral Variant Frontotemporal Dementia : ↑ A brain disease characterized by progressive changes in personality and loss of empathy. Patients experience difficulty in regulating their behavior, and this often results in socially inappropriate actions. Patients typically start to show symptoms around age 60.

Hyperscanning : ↑ A novel technique to measure brain activity simultaneously from two people.

Virtual Reality : ↑ Computer technologies that use software to generate realistic images, sounds, and other sensations that replicate a real environment. This technique uses specialized display screens or projectors to simulate the user’s physical presence in this environment, enabling him or her to interact with the virtual space and any objects depicted there.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by grants from CONICYT/FONDECYT Regular (1170010), FONDAP 15150012, and the INECO Foundation.

[1] ↑ Ibanez, A., and Manes, F. 2012. Contextual social cognition and the behavioral variant of frontotemporal dementia. Neurology 78(17):1354–62. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182518375

[2] ↑ Chun, M. M. 2000. Contextual cueing of visual attention. Trends Cogn. Sci. 4(5):170–8. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01476-5

[3] ↑ Barrett, L. F., Mesquita, B., and Gendron, M. 2011. Context in emotion perception. Curr. Direct Psychol. Sci. 20(5):286–90. doi:10.1177/0963721411422522

[4] ↑ Beck, D. M., and Kastner, S. 2005. Stimulus context modulates competition in human extrastriate cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 8(8):1110–6. doi:10.1038/nn1501

[5] ↑ Bar, M. 2004. Visual objects in context. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 5(8):617–29. doi:10.1038/nrn1476

[6] ↑ Baez, S., and Ibanez, A. 2014. The effects of context processing on social cognition impairments in adults with Asperger’s syndrome. Front. Neurosci. 8:270. doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00270

[7] ↑ Baez, S, Garcia, A. M., and Ibanez, A. 2016. The Social Context Network Model in psychiatric and neurological diseases. Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci. 30:379–96. doi:10.1007/7854_2016_443

[8] ↑ Masayuki, H., Takashi, I., Mitsuru, K., Tomoya, K., Hirotoshi, H., Yuko, Y., and Minoru, A. 2014. Hyperscanning MEG for understanding mother-child cerebral interactions. Front Hum Neurosci 8:118. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00118

[9] ↑ Liu, N., Mok, C., Witt, E. E., Pradhan, A. H., Chen, J. E., and Reiss, A. L. 2016. NIRS-based hyperscanning reveals inter-brain neural synchronization during cooperative Jenga game with face-to-face communication. Front Hum Neurosci 10:82. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00082

[10] ↑ Makeig, S., Gramann, K., Jung, T.-P., Sejnowski, T. J., and Poizner, H. 2009. Linking brain, mind and behavior: The promise of mobile brain/body imaging (MoBI). Int J Psychophys 73:985–1000

[11] ↑ Evans, N., Lister, R., Antley, A., Dunn, G., and Slater, M. 2014. Height, social comparison, and paranoia: An immersive virtual reality experimental study. Psych Res 218(3):348–52. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.12.014

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Social Psychology Research Topics

Choosing topics for social psychology research papers or projects for class can be challenging. It is a broad and fascinating field, which can make it challenging to figure out what you want to investigate in your research.

Social psychology explores how individual thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are affected by social influences. It explores how each person's behavior is affected by their social environment.

This article explores a few different social psychology topics and research questions you might want to study in greater depth. It covers how to start your search for a topic as well as specific ideas you might choose to explore.

How to Find a Social Psychology Research Topic

As you begin your search, think about the questions that you have. What topics interest you? Following your own interests and curiosities can often inspire great research questions.

Choose a Sub-Topic

Social psychologists are interested in all aspects of social behavior. Some of the main areas of interest within the field include social cognition, social influence, and social relationships investigating subtopics such as conformity, groupthink, attitude formation, obedience, prejudice, and so on.

Social cognition : How do we process and use information about social experiences? What kinds of biases influence how we engage with other people?
Social influence: What are the key social factors that influence our attitudes and behavior? What are group dynamics and how do we understand patterns of behavior in groups?
Social relationships : What are the different types of social relationships? How do they develop and change over time?

To help ensure that you select a topic that is specific enough, it can be helpful to start by confining your search to one of these main areas.

Browse Through Past Research

After narrowing down your choices, consider what questions you might have. Are there questions that haven't been fully answered by previous studies? At this point, it can be helpful to spend some time browsing through journal articles or books to see some examples of past findings and identify gaps in the literature.

You can also find inspiration and learn more about a topic by searching for keywords related to your topic in psychological databases such as PsycINFO or browsing through some professional psychology journals.

Narrow Down Your Specific Topic

Once you have a general topic, you'll need to narrow down your research. The goal is to choose a research question that is specific, measurable, and testable. Let's say you want to study conformity; An example of a good research question might be, “Are people more likely to conform when they are in a small group or a large group?” In this case, the specific topic of your paper would be how group size influences social conformity .

Review the Literature on Your Chosen Topic

After choosing a specific social psychology topic to research, the next step is to do a literature review. A literature review involves reading through the existing research findings related to a specific topic.

You are likely to encounter a great deal of information on your topic, which can seem overwhelming at times. You may find it helpful to start by reading review articles or meta-analysis studies. These are summaries of previous research on your topic or studies that incorporate a large pool of past research on the topic.

Talk to Your Instructor

Even if you are really excited to dive right in and start working on your project, there are some important preliminary steps you need to take.

Before you decide to tackle a project for your social psychology class, you should always clear your idea with your instructor. This initial step can save you a lot of time and hassle later on.

Your instructor can offer clear feedback on things you should and should not do while conducting your research and might be able to offer some helpful tips. Also, if you plan to implement your own social experiment, your school might require you to present to and gain permission from an institutional review board.

Thinking about the questions you have about social psychology can be a great way to discover topics for your own research. Once you have a general idea, explore the literature and refine your research question to make sure it is specific enough.

Examples of Social Psychology Research Topics

The following are some specific examples of different subjects you might want to investigate further as part of a social psychology research paper, experiment, or project:

Implicit Attitudes

How do implicit attitudes influence how people respond to others? This can involve exploring how people's attitudes towards different groups of people (e.g., men, women, ethnic minorities) influence their interactions with those groups. For example, one study found that 75% of people perceive men to be more intelligent than women .

In your own project, you might explore how implicit attitudes impact perceptions of qualities such as kindness, intelligence, leadership skills, or attractiveness.

Prosocial Behavior

You might also choose to focus on prosocial behavior in your research. This can involve investigating the reasons why people help others. Some questions you could explore further include:

What motivates people to help others?
When are people most likely to help others?
How does helping others cause people to feel?
What are the benefits of helping other people?

How do people change their attitudes in response to persuasion? What are the different techniques that can be used to persuade someone? What factors make some people more susceptible to persuasion than others?

One way to investigate this could be through collecting a wide variety of print advertisements and analyzing how persuasion is used. What types of cognitive and affective techniques are utilized? Do certain types of advertisements tend to use specific kinds of persuasive techniques ?

Another area of social psychology that you might research is aggression and violence. This can involve exploring the factors that lead to aggression and violence and the consequences of these behaviors. Some questions you might explore further include:

When is violence most likely to occur?
What factors influence violent behavior?
Do traumatic experiences in childhood lead to more aggressive behavior in adulthood?
Does viewing violent media content contribute to increased aggressive behavior in real life?

Prejudice and discrimination are areas that present a range of research opportunities. This can involve studying the different forms that prejudice takes (e.g., sexism, racism, ageism ), as well as the psychological effects of prejudice and discrimination. You might also want to investigate topics related to how prejudices form or strategies that can be used to reduce such discrimination.

Nonverbal Behavior

How do people respond when nonverbal communication does not match up to verbal behavior (for example, saying you feel great when your facial expressions and tone of voice indicate otherwise). Which signal do people respond to most strongly?

How good are people at detecting lies ? Have participants tell a group of people about themselves, but make sure some of the things are true while others are not. Ask members of the group which statements they thought were true and which they thought were false.

Social Norms

How do people react when social norms are violated? This might involve acting in a way that is outside the norm in a particular situation or enlisting friends to act out the behaviors while you observe.

Some examples that you might try include wearing unusual clothing, applauding inappropriately at the end of a class lecture, cutting in line in front of other people, or some other mildly inappropriate behavior. Keep track of your own thoughts as you perform the experiment and observe how people around you respond.

Online Social Behavior

Does online social networking make people more or less likely to interact with people in face-to-face or other offline settings? To investigate this further, you could create a questionnaire to assess how often people participate in social networking versus how much time they spend interacting with their friends in real-world settings.

Social Perception

How does our appearance impact how people respond to us? Ask some friends to help you by having two people dress up in dramatically different ways, one in a professional manner and one in a less conventional manner. Have each person engage in a particular action, then observe how they are treated and how other people's responses differ.

Social psychologists have found that attractiveness can produce what is known as a halo effect . Essentially, we tend to assume that people who are physically attractive are also friendly, intelligent, pleasant, and likable.

To investigate this topic, you could set up an experiment where you have participants look at photographs of people of varying degrees of physical attractiveness, and then ask them to rate each person based on a variety of traits, including social competence, kindness, intellect, and overall likability.

Think about how this might affect a variety of social situations, including how employees are selected or how jurors in a criminal case might respond.

Social psychology is a broad field, so there are many different subtopics you might choose to explore in your research. Implicit attitudes, prosocial behavior, aggression, prejudice, and social perception are just a few areas you might want to consider.

A Word From Verywell

Social psychology topics can provide a great deal of inspiration for further research, whether you are writing a research paper or conducting your own experiment. In addition to some of the social psychology topics above, you can also draw inspiration from your own curiosity about social behavior or examine social issues that you see taking place in the world around you.

American Psychological Association. Frequently asked questions about institutional review boards .

Storage D, Charlesworth TES, Banaji M, Cimpian A. Adults and children implicitly associate brilliance with men more than women . J Exp Soc Psychol . 2012;90:104020. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104020

Talamas SN, Mavor KI, Perrett DI. Blinded by beauty: Attractiveness bias and accurate perceptions of academic performance . PLoS ONE . 2016;11(2):e0148284. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0148284

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Social Life

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

A person’s social life consists of the various bonds they form with others, such as family, friends, members of their community, and strangers. It can be measured by the duration and quality of the social interactions they have on a regular basis, both in person and online.

How Important Is Your Social Life?
How Can I Improve My Social Life?

Human beings are social animals, and the tenor of someone's social life is one of the most important influences on their mental and physical health. Without positive, durable relationships, both minds and bodies can fall apart.

Individuals begin life dependent for survival on the quality of their relationship with their primary caregiver , usually their mother. Humanity's survival as a species similarly hinges on the capacity for social living. Most of human history was spent in small groups in which each individual was dependent on others for survival; evidence suggests this is the condition to which humans are best adapted.

Technology has changed the ways people interact with others in their daily lives, but it hasn’t affected the basic need to form supportive bonds with other people.

Human beings are a social species, driven by a desire for community and belonging. Social interactions feed that need. They are also beneficial from an evolutionary standpoint—social interactions help people build communication skills and cooperate to achieve a common goal, as shown by this research on friendly foxes .

Social interaction occurs between groups of two (dyads) or more individuals. They may be more transactional, with one party trying to get the other to behave a certain way, or they may be more cooperative and intended to provide mutual pleasure. Studies suggest that the quantity of social interaction matters: Spending more time around other people can increase an individual’s happiness and satisfaction with life.

People tend to withdraw from social life for a variety of reasons: They may be shy , prone to avoidance, naturally unsocial, rejected by their peers, or they may simply enjoy spending time alone. While many people become loners out of fear and anxiety , not all motivations are harmful. Some people, such as hermits, can get great pleasure out of leading a solitary life.

In life, it’s important to be comfortable enough at interacting with people to get your basic needs met. But how deep do those relationships need to grow? While you might long for closer friendships, they simply aren’t necessary to your survival or even your happiness . What does matter is how comfortable and content you are with being alone.

There is no “right” number of friends that someone should have. What matters is the individual’s perception of the quality of their friendships and how much satisfaction they receive in the process.

Understanding how to establish and maintain supportive connections in any medium is an essential part of life. People who live alone especially benefit from cultivating a strong network of social connections.

People have the freedom today to build their particular social cohort both online and offline; their social circles may include family, friends, professional mentors, and other important individuals in their lives. Online social ties can be a powerful source of social support and joy, especially for people who are isolated for geographical or other reasons. There is, however, no substitute for face-to-face interaction, and those who spend time among friends and family report higher levels of well-being than individuals with fewer ties "in real life."

Making friends may seem like a mysterious process, but it’s actually rooted in some basic social truths. For example, it’s easiest to develop friendships with people who are in close proximity, share similar interests, and support your social identity . Maintaining a friendship requires you to be supportive, disclose personal information, interact regularly, and be more positive than negative on balance.

Many people find it difficult to make new friends as adults . As they age, most of their time and energy get consumed by career and family demands. They tend to socialize out of convenience with co-workers, bosses, the parents of their children’s friends, etc., but these relationships often don’t deepen into anything more lasting.

Unlike some childhood experiences, adult friendships don’t just magically happen due to luck. The secret to making friends as an adult is that you have to put yourself out there; show up at events (even when you don’t want to) and actively engage with other people who might share your interests. Being present and having a positive attitude can go a long way to opening up the possibility for a deeper friendship.

Political debates are a poor model for how to communicate with people who hold differing political views or values. Here’s some guidance on how to approach these conversations.

Loneliness is increasingly tackled as a serious public health crisis. But solutions that focus on reducing social isolation are missing the key point. It's all about feeling needed.

Serendipity entails a special feeling of randomness

When presented with an inexplicable chain of events, the brain will create its own explanation. And when those events are positive, we may experience serendipity.

A Personal Perspective: Inhabiting grown-up bodies but processing emotions childishly—easily afraid, ashamed, or enraged—immature adults may struggle to find and keep friends.

Personal Perspective: Should we always share our critical thinking or is it often prudent to keep it to ourselves?

Closure is not about tying up loose ends but about embracing the messiness of life, accepting the unknown, and finding the strength to move forward.

We are not characters in a play.

Will romance burn brightly or burn out? These traits can tell.

How do adequate sleep, a well-balanced diet, exercise, and an active social life help with anxiety?

The psychology of change and how to overcome it.

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Essays on Ethics, Social Behaviour, and Scientific Explanation

© 1976
John C. Harsanyi 0

School of Business Administration, University of California, Berkeley, USA

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The theory of social games: outline of a general theory for the social sciences

Game Theory

Game theory in economics, origins of.

game theory
interaction
methodology
organization
organizations

Table of contents (13 chapters)

Front matter, ethics and welfare economics, cardinal utility in welfare economics and in the theory of risk-taking.

John C. Harsanyi

Cardinal Welfare, Individualistic Ethics, and Interpersonal Comparisons of Utility

Ethics in terms of hypothetical imperatives, can the maximin principle serve as a basis for morality a critique of john rawls’s theory, nonlinear social welfare functions: do welfare economists have a special exemption from bayesian rationality, rational-choice and game theoretical models of social behavior, advances in understanding rational behavior, rational-choice models of political behavior vs. functionalist and conformist theories, game theory and the analysis of international conflicts, measurement of social power, opportunity costs, and the theory of two-person bargaining games, measurement of social power in n -person reciprocal power situations, a bargaining model for social status in informal groups and formal organizations, scientific explanation, explanation and comparative dynamics in social science, popper’s improbability criterion for the choice of scientific hypotheses, back matter, authors and affiliations, bibliographic information.

Book Title : Essays on Ethics, Social Behaviour, and Scientific Explanation

Authors : John C. Harsanyi

Series Title : Theory and Decision Library

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-9327-9

Publisher : Springer Dordrecht

eBook Packages : Springer Book Archive

Softcover ISBN : 978-90-277-1186-1 Published: 30 September 1980

eBook ISBN : 978-94-010-9327-9 Published: 06 December 2012

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : 278

Topics : Methodology of the Social Sciences

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Social Psychology: Definition, Theories, Scope, & Examples
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, beliefs, intentions, and goals are constructed within a social context by the actual or imagined interactions with others. It, therefore, looks at human behavior as influenced by other people and the conditions under which social behavior and feelings occur.
Essay on Social Behaviour
Social behavior is a complex and fascinating phenomenon that has been studied by social scientists for centuries. It is essential for the functioning of society and allows individuals to interact with each other in a meaningful way. Social behavior is influenced by a variety of factors, including culture, personality, and social norms.
An Overview of Social Psychology
According to psychologist Gordon Allport, social psychology uses scientific methods "to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied the presence of other human beings." Essentially, social psychology is about understanding how each person's individual behavior ...
Social Behavior Definition, Types & Examples
Social behavior is an interaction between an individual or group that includes verbal and non-verbal communication. It also includes concepts such as conformity , in which a person matches their ...
Social Psychology and Influences on Behavior
Social psychology examines how people affect one another, and it looks at the power of the situation. Social psychologists assert that an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are very much influenced by social situations. ... Behavior is a product of both the situation (e.g., cultural influences, social roles, and the presence of ...
Social Psychology and Influences on Behavior
Social psychology examines how people affect one another, and it looks at the power of the situation. Social psychologists assert that an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are very much influenced by social situations. ... Behavior is a product of both the situation (e.g., cultural influences, social roles, and the presence of ...
PDF Introduction to Social Psychology
o explain human social behavior.Social psychological theories have been influenced by intellectual developments rang-ing from the discovery of DNA to the eme. gence of artificial intelligence. Four major perspectives (or families of theories) have dominated the field: sociocultural, evolu-tionary, soci.
Social psychology
social psychology, the scientific study of the behaviour of individuals in their social and cultural setting. Although the term may be taken to include the social activity of laboratory animals or those in the wild, the emphasis here is on human social behaviour. Once a relatively speculative, intuitive enterprise, social psychology has become ...
5 Important Social Psychology Concepts
5 Important Social Psychology Concepts. Key social psychology concepts focus on different aspects of social behavior, including topics such as social cognition, social influence, prejudice, groupthink, and attitude formation. Social psychology is a branch of psychology concerned with how social influences affect how people think, feel, and act.
Social behavior
Social behavior. A colony of Northern gannet. An example of social behavior. Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms within the same species, and encompasses any behavior in which one member affects the other. This is due to an interaction among those members. [1][2] Social behavior can be seen as similar to an exchange of goods ...
Social Cognition in Psychology
Social cognition refers to the different psychological processes that influence how people process, interpret, and respond to social signals. These processes allow people to understand social behavior and respond in ways that are appropriate and beneficial. Social cognition is a sub-topic of social psychology that focuses on how people process ...
What Is Social Psychology? Theories, Examples, and Definition
Social psychology is the study of how individual or group behavior is influenced by the presence and behavior of others. The APA defines social psychology as "the study of how an individual's thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected" by other people, whether "actual, imagined, or symbolically represented.".
PDF Culture and social behavior
Comparative research from diverse societies shows that human social behavior varies immensely across a broad range of domains, including cooperation, fairness, trust, punishment, aggressiveness, morality and competitiveness. Efforts to explain this global variation have increasingly pointed to the importance of packages of social norms, or ...
PDF EXPLAINING SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
EXPLAINING SOCIAL BEHAVIOR MORENUTS ANDBOLTS FOR THE. SOCIALSCIENCES. This book is an expanded and revised edition of the author's critically acclaimed volume Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences. In twenty-six succinct chapters, Jon Elster provides an account of the nature of explanation in the social sciences; an analysis of the mental ...
What Are Social Skills? (Definition, Examples & Importance)
Social skills are key to building good relationships. Our social skills let us understand how our friends, family, and co-workers are feeling and what they are looking for from us. Improving your social skills will help you build close, trusting relationships with others. 2. Better communication.
Social Behavior
Abstract. Considered most broadly, a person's behavior is social when its causes or effects include the behavior of others. From the wide range of everyday actions that fit this definition, social scientists have focused on particular, consequential forms of social behavior for experimental study. One of the longest experimental traditions ...
Human behavior
Human behavior, the potential and expressed capacity for physical, mental, and social activity throughout human life. Humans, like other animal species, have a typical life course that consists of successive phases of growth, each characterized by a distinct set of physical, physiological, and behavioral features. ... This essay will ...
How Does Social Context Influence Our Brain and Behavior?
Here, we explain how context affects daily mental processes, ranging from how people see things to how they behave with others. Then, we present the social context network model. This model explains how people process contextual cues when they interact, through the activity of the frontal, temporal, and insular brain regions.
Social Psychology Research Topics
Choose a Sub-Topic. Social psychologists are interested in all aspects of social behavior. Some of the main areas of interest within the field include social cognition, social influence, and social relationships investigating subtopics such as conformity, groupthink, attitude formation, obedience, prejudice, and so on.
Social Life
A person's social life consists of the various bonds they form with others, such as family, friends, members of their community, and strangers. It can be measured by the duration and quality of ...
Essays on Ethics, Social Behaviour, and Scientific Explanation
The theory of games, properly understood, is a very broad approach to social interaction based on individually rational behavior, and it connects closely with fundamental methodological and substantive issues in social science and in ethics.
Social Behavior
Social behavior is most simply defined as that of groups of individuals of the same species that cooperate with one another. Simple aggregations of individuals may occur, for example, where some limiting resource is found, such as water or nesting sites. Evolutionarily important social behavior, however, involves some sort of cooperation among ...

Social Psychology: Definition, Theories, Scope, & Examples

Early Influences

Early Texts

Journal Development

Early Experiments

Later Developments

Example Theories

Bandura (1963) Social Learning Theory

Festinger (1950) – Cognitive Dissonance

Tajfel (1971) – Social Identity Theory

Weiner (1986) – Attribution Theory

Milgram (1963) – Shock Experiment

Haney, Banks, Zimbardo (1973) – Stanford Prison Experiment

Provides Clear Predictions

Emphasizes Objective Measurement

Empirical Evidence

Limitations

Ignores Biology

Superficial Snapshots of Social Processes

Essay on Social Behaviour

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Social Psychology

Situational and Dispositional Influences on Behavior

Fundamental Attribution Error

Is the Fundamental Attribution Error a Universal Phenomenon?

Actor-Observer Bias

Self-Serving Bias

Just-World Hypothesis

Think It Over

Social Psychology and Influences on Behavior

Situational and Dispositional Influences on Behavior

Fundamental Attribution Error

Is the Fundamental Attribution Error a Universal Phenomenon?

Actor-Observer Bias

Self-Serving Bias

Just-World Hypothesis

Think It Over

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Social Psychology Definition

What Questions Does Social Psychology Answer?

The Origins of the Social Psychology Field

What Is a Social Psychologist?

Social Psychologist Salary

What Is Social Psychology vs. Sociology?

Different Ways of Looking at Similar Issues

Examples of Social Psychology Topics of Today

Social Psychology Examples

Examples of Social Psychology Theories

Social Cognition

Early Development of Cognitive Perception

Group Behavior

Social Identity Theory

Typical Social Psychology Curriculum

Pursue a Career in Social Psychology

What Are Social Skills? (Definition, Examples & Importance)

What are social skills?

Important facts about social skills

1. Social skills can be learned

2. Social rules are flexible

3. You can’t opt out of social skills

1. More and better relationships

2. Better communication

3. Advancing career prospects

4. Being happier

5. Better academic performance

6. Decreased loneliness

7. Better health

1. Get feedback

2. Identify areas for practice

3. Make a plan