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Different Types of Research Articles in Journals

Before proceeding to write your research paper, it is important to have an idea about the types of research articles you can submit to a journal and which type of research article works best for your research work. Not all journals publish all types of research articles. And the different types of journal articles carry their own value. Thus, it is a good idea to select your target journal before you finalize your paper, or if you have a target journal in mind, you should check whether it publishes the type of journal article you are intending to submit.

The different types of research articles published by academic journals may be categorized as below.

• Original research article: An original research article offers a detailed report of the techniques and methods used to conduct original research and their results. The results obtained are often through analytical and experimental studies with defined research questions and hypotheses. The findings of the study are mentioned in the discussion section with implications whether the findings have proved or disproved the hypothesis. These types of articles in journals may also contain survey/interview responses or detailed observations in place of wet-lab experiments.This type of journal article will have the basic IMRAD structure – Introduction, Methods, and Results and Discussion. Original research articles undergo a peer-reviewed process to ensure their quality before it is published. Usually, authors are asked to follow a dedicated format by the journals and are often asked to make revisions in response to the reviewer’s comments and suggestions. The article is expected to have scholarly excellence and communicate research with clarity. Original research articles are the most common and highly desirable type of research articles. These are considered as the primary literature. If a researcher aims to publish their key findings from their thesis work, an original research article will be the best choice 1,2 .

• Review article : Unlike original research articles, review articles are taken into consideration as secondary literature as they don’t present new statistics from the author’s work. This type of research article offers an important evaluation of published literature through comparison, analysis, pointing issues, or offering tips for future studies.  Review articles  are a vital part of academic writing as it identifies gaps in research, thereby providing explanation for new possible studies 2 .

There are 3 principal kinds of review articles:

• Literature review – It provides detailed information about a published work that includes the methodology, research questions, and results of the published works on a specific topic.
• Systematic review – It Identifies and analyses criteria that answer specific research questions, thereby synthesizing findings qualitatively or quantitatively.
• Meta-analysis – This type of article in research combines and reports multiple scientific studies to compare their results and addresses some common research questions.
• Book review : This type of manuscript discusses recent publications and provides the readers a summary of the content and evaluation of the data from published scholarly books. The length and format of book reviews depend on the journals’ preferences 2,3 .
• A clinical study report details the procedures and outcomes of a clinical trial and is usually of the same length and structure as an original research article. When submitting a clinical study report, the author needs to include their clinical trial numbers and registration dates in the report.
• A medical case report , also known as a  clinical case study , is a short report that details a single patient case. This type of scientific literature provides many new data in medicine by reporting detailed information on an individual patient’s symptoms, signs, diagnosis, and treatment.
• Commentaries and letters to editors: Letters to editors are anecdotal information, frequently short remarks on current public and political concerns connected to the journal’s research domain, or the readers’ replies and reactions to the literature published in the journal 2 . Commentaries are similar to letters to editors, though slightly different as they might target a definite type of journal article published by the journal with detailed responses 2 .
• Data notes  are short notes that briefly explain research data in a repository. Data notes encourage the reuse of research data by providing information about why and how the data were created. These data can be linked to a research publication that includes an analysis of the provided dataset.
• Datasets  are research data published in data repositories. It can be numerical datasets, data files or spreadsheets, images, and videos. Datasets allow people to cite the collected data and give credit to the author(s).
• Short communications  also known as  rapid communication s are brief reports from an original study. This type of research article has a strict length/word count limit and some experimental data may not be included. This manuscript provides a quick and brief explanation of original research work and encourages further studies on a topic.
• Methodologies or Methods:  These types of articles in research discuss new experimental methods or procedures and prove to be of special value to the domain of study. The aim of this type of research article is to minimize experimental errors and offer new ways to find results 3 .

Table of Contents

Bibliography

• Types of journal articles, Author & reviewer tutorials, Springer. Available from:  https://www.springer.com/gp/authors-editors/authorandreviewertutorials/writing-a-journal-manuscript/types-of-journal-articles/10285504
• Different types of research articles: A guide for early career researchers, Taylor & Francis, Author Services, Supporting Taylor & Francis authors. Available from:  https://authorservices.taylorandfrancis.com/publishing-your-research/writing-your-paper/different-types-of-research-articles/
• Rene Tetzner, What Types of Articles Are Published in Academic and Scientific Journals?, Advice & Discussions on Preparing & Submitting Journal Articles for Publication, Proof-Reading-Services.com. Available from:  https://www.proof-reading-service.com/en/blog/types-articles-published-academic-scientific-journals/

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Types of journal articles

It is helpful to familiarise yourself with the different types of articles published by journals. Although it may appear there are a large number of types of articles published due to the wide variety of names they are published under, most articles published are one of the following types; Original Research, Review Articles, Short reports or Letters, Case Studies, Methodologies.

Original Research:

This is the most common type of journal manuscript used to publish full reports of data from research. It may be called an  Original Article, Research Article, Research, or just  Article, depending on the journal. The Original Research format is suitable for many different fields and different types of studies. It includes full Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections.

Short reports or Letters:

These papers communicate brief reports of data from original research that editors believe will be interesting to many researchers, and that will likely stimulate further research in the field. As they are relatively short the format is useful for scientists with results that are time sensitive (for example, those in highly competitive or quickly-changing disciplines). This format often has strict length limits, so some experimental details may not be published until the authors write a full Original Research manuscript. These papers are also sometimes called Brief communications .

Review Articles:

Review Articles provide a comprehensive summary of research on a certain topic, and a perspective on the state of the field and where it is heading. They are often written by leaders in a particular discipline after invitation from the editors of a journal. Reviews are often widely read (for example, by researchers looking for a full introduction to a field) and highly cited. Reviews commonly cite approximately 100 primary research articles.

TIP: If you would like to write a Review but have not been invited by a journal, be sure to check the journal website as some journals to not consider unsolicited Reviews. If the website does not mention whether Reviews are commissioned it is wise to send a pre-submission enquiry letter to the journal editor to propose your Review manuscript before you spend time writing it.  

Case Studies:

These articles report specific instances of interesting phenomena. A goal of Case Studies is to make other researchers aware of the possibility that a specific phenomenon might occur. This type of study is often used in medicine to report the occurrence of previously unknown or emerging pathologies.

Methodologies or Methods

These articles present a new experimental method, test or procedure. The method described may either be completely new, or may offer a better version of an existing method. The article should describe a demonstrable advance on what is currently available.

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Different types of research articles

A guide for early career researchers.

In scholarly literature, there are many different kinds of articles published every year. Original research articles are often the first thing you think of when you hear the words ‘journal article’. In reality, research work often results in a whole mixture of different outputs and it’s not just the final research article that can be published.

Finding a home to publish supporting work in different formats can help you start publishing sooner, allowing you to build your publication record and research profile.

But before you do, it’s very important that you check the  instructions for authors  and the  aims and scope  of the journal(s) you’d like to submit to. These will tell you whether they accept the type of article you’re thinking of writing and what requirements they have around it.

Understanding the different kind of articles

There’s a huge variety of different types of articles – some unique to individual journals – so it’s important to explore your options carefully. While it would be impossible to cover every single article type here, below you’ll find a guide to the most common research articles and outputs you could consider submitting for publication.

Book review

Many academic journals publish book reviews, which aim to provide insight and opinion on recently published scholarly books. Writing book reviews is often a good way to begin academic writing. It can help you get your name known in your field and give you valuable experience of publishing before you write a full-length article.

If you’re keen to write a book review, a good place to start is looking for journals that publish or advertise the books they have available for review. Then it’s just a matter of putting yourself forward for one of them.

You can check whether a journal publishes book reviews by browsing previous issues or by seeing if a book review editor is listed on the editorial board. In addition, some journals publish other types of reviews, such as film, product, or exhibition reviews, so it’s worth bearing those in mind as options as well.

Get familiar with instructions for authors

Be prepared, speed up your submission, and make sure nothing is forgotten by understanding a journal’s individual requirements.

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Case report

A medical case report – also sometimes called a clinical case study – is an original short report that provides details of a single patient case.

Case reports include detailed information on the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. They remain one of the cornerstones of medical progress and provide many new ideas in medicine.

Depending on the journal, a case report doesn’t necessarily need to describe an especially novel or unusual case as there is benefit from collecting details of many standard cases.

Take a look at  F1000Research’s guidance on case reports , to understand more about what’s required in them. And don’t forget that for all studies involving human participants, informed written consent to take part in the research must be obtained from the participants –  find out more about consent to publish.

Clinical study

In medicine, a clinical study report is a type of article that provides in-depth detail on the methods and results of a clinical trial. They’re typically similar in length and format to original research articles.

Most journals now require that you register protocols for clinical trials you’re involved with in a publicly accessible registry. A list of eligible registries can be found on the  WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) . Trials can also be registered at  clinicaltrials.gov  or the  EU Clinical Trials Register . Once registered, your trial will be assigned a clinical trial number (CTN).

Before you submit a clinical study, you’ll need to include clinical trial numbers and registration dates in the manuscript, usually in the abstract and methods sections.

Commentaries and letters to editors

Letters to editors, as well as ‘replies’ and ‘discussions’, are usually brief comments on topical issues of public and political interest (related to the research field of the journal), anecdotal material, or readers’ reactions to material published in the journal.

Commentaries are similar, though they may be slightly more in-depth, responding to articles recently published in the journal. There may be a ‘target article’ which various commentators are invited to respond to.

You’ll need to look through previous issues of any journal you’re interested in writing for and review the instructions for authors to see which types of these articles (if any) they accept.

Conference materials

Many of our medical journals  accept conference material supplements. These are open access peer-reviewed, permanent, and citable publications within the journal. Conference material supplements record research around a common thread, as presented at a workshop, congress, or conference, for the scientific record. They can include the following types of articles:

Poster extracts

Conference abstracts

Presentation extracts

Find out more about submitting conference materials.

Data notes  are a short peer-reviewed article type that concisely describe research data stored in a repository. Publishing a data note can help you to maximize the impact of your data and gain appropriate credit for your research.

Data notes promote the potential reuse of research data and include details of why and how the data were created. They do not include any analysis but they can be linked to a research article incorporating analysis of the published dataset, as well as the results and conclusions.

F1000Research  enables you to publish your data note rapidly and openly via an author-centric platform. There is also a growing range of options for publishing data notes in Taylor & Francis journals, including in  All Life  and  Big Earth Data .

Read our guide to data notes to find out more.

Letters or short reports

Letters or short reports (sometimes known as brief communications or rapid communications) are brief reports of data from original research.

Editors publish these reports where they believe the data will be interesting to many researchers and could stimulate further research in the field. There are even entire journals dedicated to publishing letters.

As they’re relatively short, the format is useful for researchers with results that are time sensitive (for example, those in highly competitive or quickly-changing disciplines). This format often has strict length limits, so some experimental details may not be published until the authors write a full original research article.

Brief reports  (previously called Research Notes) are a type of short report published by  F1000Research  – part of the Taylor & Francis Group. To find out more about the requirements for a brief report, take a look at  F1000Research’s guidance .

Method article

A method article is a medium length peer-reviewed, research-focused article type that aims to answer a specific question. It also describes an advancement or development of current methodological approaches and research procedures (akin to a research article), following the standard layout for research articles. This includes new study methods, substantive modifications to existing methods, or innovative applications of existing methods to new models or scientific questions. These should include adequate and appropriate validation to be considered, and any datasets associated with the paper must publish all experimental controls and make full datasets available.  

Posters and slides

With F1000Research, you can publish scholarly posters and slides covering basic scientific, translational, and clinical research within the life sciences and medicine. You can find out more about how to publish posters and slides  on the F1000Research website .

Registered report

A  Registered Report  consists of two different kinds of articles: a study protocol and an original research article.

This is because the review process for Registered Reports is divided into two stages. In Stage 1, reviewers assess study protocols before data is collected. In Stage 2, reviewers consider the full published study as an original research article, including results and interpretation.

Taking this approach, you can get an in-principle acceptance of your research article before you start collecting data. We’ve got  further guidance on Registered Reports here , and you can also  read F1000Research’s guidance on preparing a Registered Report .

Research article

Original research articles are the most common type of journal article. They’re detailed studies reporting new work and are classified as primary literature.

You may find them referred to as original articles, research articles, research, or even just articles, depending on the journal.

Typically, especially in STEM subjects, these articles will include Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion sections. However, you should always check the instructions for authors of your chosen journal to see whether it specifies how your article should be structured. If you’re planning to write an original research article, take a look at our guidance on  writing a journal article .

Review article

Review articles provide critical and constructive analysis of existing published literature in a field. They’re usually structured to provide a summary of existing literature, analysis, and comparison. Often, they identify specific gaps or problems and provide recommendations for future research.

Unlike original research articles, review articles are considered as secondary literature. This means that they generally don’t present new data from the author’s experimental work, but instead provide analysis or interpretation of a body of primary research on a specific topic. Secondary literature is an important part of the academic ecosystem because it can help explain new or different positions and ideas about primary research, identify gaps in research around a topic, or spot important trends that one individual research article may not.

There are 3 main types of review article

Literature review

Presents the current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic.

Systematic review

Identifies, appraises and synthesizes all the empirical evidence that meets pre-specified eligibility criteria to answer a specific research question. Researchers conducting systematic reviews use explicit, systematic methods that are selected with a view aimed at minimizing bias, to produce more reliable findings to inform decision making.

Meta-analysis

A quantitative, formal, epidemiological study design used to systematically assess the results of previous research to derive conclusions about that body of research. Typically, but not necessarily, a meta-analysis study is based on randomized, controlled clinical trials.

Take a look at our guide to  writing a review article  for more guidance on what’s required.

Software tool articles

A  software tool article  – published by  F1000Research  – describes the rationale for the development of a new software tool and details of the code used for its construction.

The article should provide examples of suitable input data sets and include an example of the output that can be expected from the tool and how this output should be interpreted. Software tool articles submitted to F1000Research should be written in open access programming languages. Take a look at  their guidance  for more details on what’s required of a software tool article.

Further resources

Ready to write your article, but not sure where to start?

For more guidance on how to prepare and write an article for a journal you can download the  Writing your paper eBook .

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The 7 Types of Academic Papers and Journal Articles

In the vast universe of journal articles, writers are tasked with creating many different kinds of papers, all with specific purposes and audiences in mind. If you're just stepping into this fascinating world, take a minute or two to familiarize yourself with the types of papers you might need to write – understanding all of these different types can turbocharge your writing journey. While academic papers could fit into an endless list of categories, it's helpful to get started with a few common types you're likely to encounter (and write!) in the academic community.

1. Original research

You know a text is original research if the report is written by the researchers who ran the study. Written by experts for other experts, original research articles usually undergo the peer review process before submission to an academic journal.

In an original article, the authors outline their research by first presenting their hypothesis and research questions . Here they describe the purpose of their study. They detail the research methods they applied, lay out the results of their research, and present the results. Original research also includes implications and interpretations of the study to give other experts in the field new information on all of the subjects. What's really interesting about original research is that, upon reading a study, future researchers will generate ideas to build on articles with their own original research and keep the advancement of knowledge acquisition going. The possibilities are endless!

Within the category of original research, you will encounter some specific kinds of research articles. Some studies can include elements of more than one type:

• Exploratory research Exploratory studies involve a kind of thought experiment and don't often include actual testing of a theory. Without the funding (and the time, technology, and commitment) to actually travel to other planets, a physicist might propose a new method to find other planets that could support life beyond Earth.
• Constructive research A person undergoing constructive research builds something that will lead to new information and knowledge and solve a real-life problem. If a computer scientist creates a new algorithm and tests it out to see what it can show us, they are demonstrating constructive research.
• Controlled experiments This type of research is usually conducted in a lab under controlled conditions. The benefit of isolating one aspect of a study is that it provides a clear result of an experiment without the need to discount your findings in the presence of other factors that could skew the outcome. For example, a medical researcher might use this type of study to determine how a virus responds to an antiviral drug in development.
• Field research An experiment in which some, but not all, aspects can be controlled is an example of field research. For example, a study on the effects of a pesticide on outdoor flowering plants involves a few outside forces that researchers might not be able to successfully manage. A researcher could compare the plants exposed to the pesticide with a plant without pesticide exposure, but they would have little control over the seed quality, sun exposure, rain amounts, or other natural factors.
• Natural study Under a natural experiment, a researcher takes a purely observational role and has little to no control over the factors involved. For example, a natural experiment could measure the effects of a free lunch program piloted in multiple schools over a period of time.
• Cohort study A cohort study offers an observational study design in which researchers follow a group of individuals over time and observe common characteristics or exposure to a specific element. The researchers then examine within that cohort of people the outcomes related to a particular factor, compared to people in a similar group without that factor. For example, a study might examine the long-term health effects of smoking and identify a group of individuals who smoke. The study would look at the development of lung cancer or other diseases within that group of smokers and compare the prevalence of disease compared to a group of non-smokers.

2. Retrospective study

A retrospective study looks back through time to observe the relationship between a characteristic or level of exposure and a health outcome that arises in individuals. This type of study uses existing records and data sources for its observations. An example of a retroactive study is one that examines the connection between the use of a medication and the prevalence of a specific side effect.

3. Case study

A research case study involves an in-depth investigation of a particular individual, group, or situation with a goal to understand the effect of complex factors. A researcher performing a case study collects a variety of data on a case, including interviews, observations, and documents, and analyzes them to identify patterns, themes, and insights that can help to understand the case in greater depth.

Research case studies are often used in fields such as psychology, sociology, and education to explore complex human behaviors and experiences. Researchers in various fields can apply this type of study to investigate the effects of a particular intervention on a specific individua or group or the factors that contribute to successful outcomes in a particular setting. For example, a case study could examine a successful company known for its innovative management practices. The researcher could conduct interviews with employees and managers, review company documents and reports, and observe the company's operations to uncover the factors that contribute to its success.

Research case studies provide a rich and detailed understanding of a particular situation, which supplies the researcher with powerful tools and insights for future research.

4. Methodology study

A methodology study focuses on evaluating and improving research methods and techniques for application to a research question or field of study. This type of study can examine the validity and reliability of a particular research instrument, such as a survey or questionnaire. In such an analysis, researchers can collect data from a sample of participants using a specific research instrument and then examine the data to assess the validity and reliability of the instrument. They could also compare the results obtained with the instrument to the results obtained using other research methods.

Methodology studies advance the research field by developing more effective methodologies and improving the quality of research conducted.

5. Opinion article

An opinion article expresses the author's personal viewpoint on a topic. Unlike a research article, an opinion article is not based on objective reporting or research but offers the author's subjective analysis without the need for evidence or peer review. Opinion articles can be found in newspapers, magazines, and online publications, often written by journalists or experts in a field who want to share their views.

An example of an opinion article is an op-ed piece in a newspaper or online publication. Op-eds are typically published on the editorial page of a newspaper or magazine and are written by individuals who are not affiliated with the publication. An op-ed article might argue in favor of or against a particular policy, offer a personal reflection on a current event, or provide commentary on a controversial issue. The author would use persuasive language and evidence to support the argument and try to convince readers to adopt the same viewpoint.

Opinion articles provide individuals with a way to share their ideas with a broader audience and to contribute to public debate and discourse.

6. Review article

A review article summarizes and synthesizes existing research. The goal is to provide a comprehensive overview and identify gaps in the current knowledge to see what further research should be done. Review articles are typically published in academic journals by researchers or experts in a field. They can take the form of narrative reviews, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses.

An example of a review article is a narrative review of the literature on the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for the treatment of anxiety disorders. The author might summarize and analyze randomized controlled trials and observational studies on the use of CBT, providing an overall assessment of the effectiveness of CBT for anxiety disorders and pointing out any yet unanswered questions about its application.

7. Short report

A short report presents the findings of a particular study or investigation. Named for its brevity, it is typically shorter in length than a full research paper or report and is intended to serve as a summary of the study's main findings.

Short reports include an introduction that provides background information on the study, a summary of the research methodology, a presentation of the key findings, and a conclusion that summarizes the main implications of the study. Short reports help researchers communicate their findings in a clear and concise manner and provide a summary of key information for different audiences.

If you're dipping your toes into academic writing or scholarly publishing, you'll find a world of different paper types, each with its own style, aim, and intended readers. It might seem like a lot to take in at first, but understanding these formats can seriously boost your ability to share your research and ideas. Plus, knowing the ins and outs of these various types means you can sift through published works more effectively, picking out the best sources for your own work. At the end of the day, this rich variety of academic papers and journal articles is what keeps the conversation lively in the scientific community, helping us all to keep learning and growing.

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Introduction to Scholarly Articles: Types of Scholarly Articles

• Types of Scholarly Articles
• Parts of a Scholarly Article
• How to Read a Scholarly Article

Original Research/Empirical Article

An article that reports on original research, such as an experiment, or analysis of data, a creative work, phenomena, or historical event. 

Review Article

An article summarizing the results of many original articles investigating similar topics. May use analytic techniques such meta-analysis to statistically compare data from multiple studies. 

Theoretical Article

An article intended to contribute to the theoretical foundations of a field, providing explanations for phenomena and frameworks that can be used to guide the analysis of evidence. 

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Articles, Books and . . . ? Understanding the Many Types of Information Found in Libraries

• Reference Sources

Academic Journals

Magazines and trade journals, conference papers, technical reports, anthologies.

• Documents and Reports
• Non-Text Content
• Archival Materials

Because of their short length, articles often exclude background info and explanations, so they're usually the last stop in your research process, after you've narrowed down your topic and need to find very specific information.

The main thing to remember about articles is that they're almost always published in some larger work , like a journal, a newspaper, or an anthology. It's those "article containers" that define the types of articles, how you use them, and how you find them.

Articles are also the main reason we have so many databases . The Library Catalog lists everything we own, but only at the level of whole books and journals. It will tell you we have the New York Times, and for what dates, but it doesn't know what articles are in it. Search in UC Library Search using the "Articles, books, and more" scope will search all the databases we subscribe to and some we don't. If you find something we do not own, you can request it on Interlibrary Loan.

Physical Media

While newer journals and magazines are usually online, many older issues are still only available in paper. In addition, many of our online subscriptions explicitly don't include the latest material, specifically to encourage sales of print subscriptions. Older newspapers are usually transferred to microfilm.

Scholarly Sources

The terms academic or scholarly journal are usually synonymous with peer-reviewed , but check the journal's publishing policies to be sure. Trade journals, magazines, and newspapers are rarely peer-reviewed.

Primary or Secondary Sources

In the social sciences and humanities, articles are usually secondary sources; the exceptions are articles reporting original research findings from field studies. Primary source articles are more common in the physical and life sciences, where many articles are reporting primary research results from experiments, case studies, and clinical trials.

Clues that you're reading an academic article

• Footnotes or endnotes
• Bilbliography or list of references

Articles in academic (peer-reviewed) journals are the primary forum for scholarly communication, where scholars introduce and debate new ideas and research. They're usually not written for laymen, and assume familiarity with other recent work in the field. Journal articles also tend to be narrowly focused, concentrating on analysis of one or two creative works or studies, though they may also contain review articles or literature reviews which summarize recent published work in a field.

In addition to regular articles, academic journals often include book reviews (of scholarly books ) and letters from readers commenting on recent articles.

Clues that you're reading a non -academic article

• Decorative photos
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Unlike scholarly journals, magazines are written for a mainstream audience and are not peer-reviewed. A handful of academic journals (like Science and Nature ) blur the line between these two categories; they publish peer-reviewed articles, but combine them with news, opinions, and full-color photos in a magazine-style presentation.

Trade journals are targeted toward a specific profession or industry. Despite the name, they are usually not peer-reviewed. However, they sometimes represent a gray area between popular magazines and scholarly journals. When in doubt, ask your professor or TA whether a specific source is acceptable.

Newspapers as Primary Sources

Though usually written by journalists who were not direct witnesses to events, newspapers and news broadcasts may include quotes or interviews from people who were. In the absence of first-person accounts, contemporary news reports may be the closest thing to a primary source available.

Of all the content types listed here, newspapers are the fastest to publish. Use newspaper articles to find information about recent events and contemporary reports of/reactions to historic events.

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Reviews are a type of article that can appear in any of the categories above. The type of publication will usually determine the type of review. Newspapers and magazines review movies, plays, general interest books, and consumer products. Academic journals review scholarly books.

Note that a review is not the same as scholarly analysis and criticism! Book reviews, even in scholarly journals, are usually not peer-reviewed.

Conference papers aren't always published and can be tricky to find . Recent conference papers are often online, along with the PowerPoint files or other materials used in the actual presentation. However, access may be limited to conference participants and/or members of the academic organization which sponsored the conference.

In paper formats, all of the papers from a certain conference may be re-printed in the conference proceedings . Search for Proceedings of the [name of conference] to find what's available, or ask for help from a librarian. But be aware that published proceedings may only include abstracts or even just the name of the presenter and the title of the presentation. This is especially true of poster presentations , which really are large graphic posters (which don't translate well to either printed books or computer monitors).

As the name implies, most technical reports are about research in the physical sciences or engineering. However, there are also technical reports produced in the life and social sciences,

Like conference papers , some technical reports are eventually transformed into academic journal articles , but they may also be released after a journal article to provide supplementary data that didn't fit within the article. Also like conference papers, technical reports can be hard to find , especially older reports which may only be available in microfiche . Ask for help from a librarian!

Anthologies are a cross-over example. They're books that contain articles (chapters). Anthologies may be collections of articles by a single author, or collections of articles on a theme from different authors chosen by an editor. Many anthologies reprint articles already published elsewhere, but some contain original works.

Anthologies are rarely peer-reviewed, but they still may be considered scholarly works, depending on the reputation of the authors and editors. Use the same criteria listed for scholarly books .

Of course, reprints of articles originally published in peer-reviewed journals retain their "scholarly" status. (Note that most style manuals have special rules for citing reprinted works.)

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An Overview: The Research Process Tutorial

• What's in the Tutorial
• Research is a Circular Process (Iterative)
• Fine Tuning your Topic
• Categorizing Topic Information
• Developing your Research Question
• Picking Search Terms
• Searching and Refining Results
• Applying Evaluation Criteria
• Fact Check with SIFT
• Comparison of Article Types
• What is Plagiarism?
• Self-plagiarism
• Citing Sources
• Style Guides
• A Look at Copyright
• In Conclusion

Article Comparison Table

Using articles to support or refute a thesis statement or hypothesis is common practice for research projects. The difference between the types of articles is significant and your topic and research focus determines the suitability of which type of source you should use. Scholarly journals, trade publications, and general interest magazines are important sources of information. The chart below highlights the difference between types of articles.

• Types of Articles Comparison Table Compare differences between scholarly, trade, popular, and news articles.
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Article Types: What's the Difference Between Newspapers, Magazines, and Journals?

• Journal Articles
• Definitions
• Choosing What's Best

Journal Article Characteristics

• Magazine Articles
• Trade Magazine/Journal Articles
• Newspaper Articles
• Newsletter Articles

PMLA -- Publications of the Modern Language Association (an example of an academic journal)

Analyzing a Journal Article

Authors : Authors of journal articles are usually affiliated with universities, research institutions, or professional associations. Author degrees are usually specified with the author names, as are the affiliations.

Abstract : The article text is usually preceded with an abstract. The abstract will provide an overview of what the article discusses or reveals and frequently is useful in identifying articles that report the results of scientific studies. Use of Professional Terminology and Language: The language used in journal articles is specific to the subject matter being covered by the journal. For example, an article written for a psychological journal is written in an academic rather than popular style and will make heavy use of psychological terms.

In Text References : Journal articles normally will be profusely documented with sources that have provided information to the article authors and/or that provide further related information. Documentation of sources can be handled by in-text parenthetical references (MLA, APA, Chicago sciences styles), by the use of footnotes (Chicago humanities style), or by the use of endnotes (Turabian style). Individual journals will specify their own requirements for documentation.

Bibliography : Because journal articles use numerous sources as documentation, these sources are often referenced in an alphabetically or numerically arranged bibliography located at the end of the article. Format of the bibliography will vary depending on the documentation style used in the article.

Charts, Graphs, Tables, Statistical Data : Articles that result from research studies will often include statistical data gathered during the course of the studies. These data are often presented in charts and tables.

Length of Article : Journal articles, in general, tend to be fairly lengthy, often consisting of a dozen or more pages. Some journals also publish book reviews. These are typically brief and should not be confused with the full-length research articles that the journal focuses on.

Use of volume and issue numbering : Journals normally make use of volume and issue numbering to help identify individual issues in their series. Normally a volume will encompass an entire year's worth of a journal's issues. For example, a journal that is published four times yearly (quarterly) will have four issues in its yearly volume. Issues may be identified solely with numbers or with both numbers and date designations. For example, a quarterly journal will typically number its issues 1 through 4, but it might also assign season designations to the individual numbers, such as Spring, Summer, Fall, and Winter. A monthly journal will have twelve issues in a yearly volume and might use the month names along with the issue numbers (issue 1, January; issue 2, February; and so on). Some magazines, trade publications, and newspapers might also make use of volume and issue numbering, so this isn't always the best indicator.

Subject Focus : Journals typically gather and publish research that focuses on a very specific field of inquiry, like criminology, or southern history, or statistics.

Overall Appearance : Journals are typically heavy on text and light on illustration. Journal covers tend toward the plain with an emphasis on highlighting key research articles that appear within a particular issue.

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Identifying and Locating Empirical Articles

Types of scholarly articles.

• Empirical Articles vs Review Articles
• Locating Empirical Articles

The two main types of scholarly articles are empirical (also called original research) articles, and review articles. Understanding how and why these two types of articles are created will help you decide which ones might be the most important for your research.

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Types of Research – Explained with Examples

• By DiscoverPhDs
• October 2, 2020

Types of Research

Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail with the aim of generating new knowledge about it.

It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters, environments and assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to knowledge as it allows research to be verified and replicated.

Knowing the types of research and what each of them focuses on will allow you to better plan your project, utilises the most appropriate methodologies and techniques and better communicate your findings to other researchers and supervisors.

Classification of Types of Research

There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several.

According to its Purpose

Theoretical research.

Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge , regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.

Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers.

Applied Research

Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and medicine.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

• Technological applied research : looks towards improving efficiency in a particular productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive processes.
• Scientific applied research : has predictive purposes. Through this type of research design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of commercial projects.

According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory research.

Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be generated.

Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain these phenomena.

Descriptive Research

The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.

In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in the observed object or phenomenon, as its behaviour may change if an external factor is involved.

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it provides additional information about the observed object and its interactions with the environment.

Correlational Research

The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of the observed system change.

According to the Type of Data Used

Qualitative research.

Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.

In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an event or phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’).

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them . This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time.

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Experimental research.

It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific method.

Non-Experimental Research

Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research.

Quasi-Experimental Research

It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations . This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.

According to the Type of Inference

Deductive investigation.

In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly.

Inductive Research

In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories.

Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation

It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience.

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal study (also referred to as diachronic research).

It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas .

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a given time.

According to The Sources of Information

Primary research.

This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information.

Secondary research

Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher.

According to How the Data is Obtained

Documentary (cabinet).

Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a case study.

Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed phenomenon occurs.

From Laboratory

Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its relationship with other variables through scientific methods.

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and primary sources through field or laboratory research.

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A science investigatory project is a science-based research project or study that is performed by school children in a classroom, exhibition or science fair.

The term research instrument refers to any tool that you may use to collect, measure and analyse research data.

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Finding Types of Research

• Evidence-Based Practice

On This Guide

About this guide, understand evidence-based practice, understand research study types.

• Quantitative and Qualitative
• Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis
• Randomized Controlled Trials
• Observational Studies
• Literature Reviews
• Finding Research Tools This link opens in a new window

Throughout your schooling, you may need to find different types of evidence and research to support your topic of interest. This guide provides a high-level overview of research types, study designs, and types of data you may encounter when searching for information on your topic.

What is Evidence-Based Practice?

One of the requirements for your coursework is to find articles that support evidence-based practice. But what exactly is evidence-based practice? Evidence-based practice is a method that uses relevant and current evidence to plan, implement, and evaluate patient care. This definition is included in the video below, which explains all the steps of evidence-based practice in greater detail.

• Video - Evidence-based practice: What it is and what it is not. Medcom (Producer), & Cobb, D. (Director). (2017). Evidence-based practice: What it is and what it is not [Streaming Video]. United States of America: Producer. Retrieved from Alexander Street Press Nursing Education Collection

Primary/Original Research/Empirical Study Designs

Primary research, or what is also known as original or empirical research, is where researchers conduct the study and report on their findings. These type of studies include:

• Case-Control Studies
• Cohort Studies
• Cross-Sectional Studies

Studies that Synthesize Other Studies

Sometimes, a research study will look at the results of many studies, look for trends and draw conclusions. These types of studies include:

• Meta Analyses
• Systematic Reviews

Tip!  How do you determine the research article’s level of evidence or study design? First, look at the methodology section of the article. It should provide clues about what type of study design they are using and all the details of how they conducted the study.

The books below will help you understand the literature you find during your searches, including study design and evidence-based practice concepts.

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Contact me for research assistance

Distinguishing between different types of journal articles

When writing a paper or conducting academic research, you’ll come across many different types of sources, including periodical articles. Periodical articles can be comprised of news accounts, opinion, commentary, scholarly analysis, and/or reports of research findings. There are three main types of periodicals that you will encounter: scholarly/academic, trade, and popular.  The chart below will help you identify which type of periodical your article comes from.

Text and chart adapted from the WSU University Libraries' How to Distinguish Between Types of Periodicals  and Types of Periodicals guides

What makes information peer-reviewed vs. scholarly vs. non-scholarly? Which type of source should I use?

• What makes information peer-reviewed vs. scholarly vs. non-scholarly?
• Which type of source should I use?

There is a nuanced distinction between peer-review and scholarship, which typically doesn't matter when evaluating sources for possible citation in your own work.  Peer-review is a process through which editors of a journal have other experts in the field evaluate articles submitted to the journal for possible publication.  Different journals have different ways of defining an expert in the field.  Scholarly works, by contrast have an editorial process, but this process does not involve expert peer-reviewers.  Rather, one or more editors, who are themselves often highly decorated scholars in a field, evaluate submissions for possible publication.  This editorial process can be more economically driven than a peer-review process, with a greater emphasis on marketing and selling the published material, but as a general rule this distinction is trivial with regard to evaluating information for possible citation in your own work.

What is perhaps a more salient way of thinking about the peer-review / scholarship distinction is to recognize that while peer-reviewed information is typically highly authoritative, and is generally considered "good" information, the absence of a peer-review process doesn't automatically make information "bad."  More specifically, the only thing the absence of a peer-review process means is that information published in this manner is not peer-reviewed.  Nothing more.  Information that falls into this category is sometimes referred to as "non-scholarly" information -- but again, that doesn't mean this information is somehow necessarily problematic.

Where does that leave you in terms of deciding what type of information to use in producing your own work?  That is a highly individual decision that you must make.  The Which type of source should I use?  tab in this box offers further guidance on answering this question, though it is important to be aware that many WSU instructors will only consider peer-reviewed sources to be acceptable in the coursework you turn in .  You can ask your instructor for his or her thoughts on the types of sources s/he will accept in student work.

Image:  Martin Grater. (2017, Nov. 1). Deep Thought. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/152721954@N05/24304490568/. Used under the Creative Commons License.

Your topic and research question or thesis statement will guide you on which resources are best.  Sources can be defined as primary, secondary and tertiary levels away from an event or original idea. Researchers may want to start with tertiary or secondary source for background information. Learning more about a topic will help most researchers make better use of primary sources.

While articles from scholarly journals are often the most prominent of the sources you will consider incorporating into your coursework, they are not the only sources available to you.  Which sources are most appropriate to your research is a direct consequence of they type of research question you decide to address.  In other words, while most university-level papers will require you to reference scholarly sources, not all will.  A student in an English course writing a paper analyzing Bob Dylan's lyrics, for example, may find an interview with Dylan published in Rolling Stone magazine a useful source to cite alongside other scholarly works of literary criticism.

The WSU University Libraries' What Sources Should I Use? handout, as well as the other sub-tabs under the  Evaluating information  section of this guide (which is indeed the section you are currently viewing) offer further guidance on understanding and identifying scholarly resources, and comparing them against different criteria to evaluate if they will be of value to your research.  How many non-scholarly works (if any) you are at liberty to cite alongside scholarly ones is often a question to ask of your professor.  Some may not want you to cite any, whereas others may be ok with some non-scholarly works cited alongside scholarly ones.

Image:  Brett Woods. (2006, Jan. 6). Deep Thoughts. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/brettanicus/87653641/. Used under the Creative Commons License.

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• Next: Components of a scholarly article, and things to consider when reading one >>
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Scholarly Articles: How can I tell?

• Journal Information
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Methodology

• Research sponsors
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The methodology section or methods section tells you how the author(s) went about doing their research. It should let you know a) what method they used to gather data (survey, interviews, experiments, etc.), why they chose this method, and what the limitations are to this method.

The methodology section should be detailed enough that another researcher could replicate the study described. When you read the methodology or methods section:

• What kind of research method did the authors use? Is it an appropriate method for the type of study they are conducting?
• How did the authors get their tests subjects? What criteria did they use?
• What are the contexts of the study that may have affected the results (e.g. environmental conditions, lab conditions, timing questions, etc.)
• Is the sample size representative of the larger population (i.e., was it big enough?)
• Are the data collection instruments and procedures likely to have measured all the important characteristics with reasonable accuracy?
• Does the data analysis appear to have been done with care, and were appropriate analytical techniques used? 

A good researcher will always let you know about the limitations of his or her research.

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What is Research?: Parts of a Research Article

• The Truth about Research
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• Evaluating Sources
• Parts of a Research Article

While each article is different, here are some common pieces you'll see in many of them...

• The title of the article should give you some clues as to the topic it addresses.
• The abstract allows readers to quickly review the overall content of the article. It should give you an idea of the topic of the article, while also providing any key details--such as the questions address in the article and the general results of the studies conducted.
• The introduction introduces the general topic and provides some background information, eventually narrowing it down to the specific issues addressed in the article.
• The literature review describes past research on the topic and relates it to the specific topic covered by the article.  Not all articles will have a literature review.
• The methods section addresses the research design and methodology used by the author to come to the conclusions they have in this article.  This gives others the ability to replicate the study.  Not all articles will have this, since there will be many articles that don't involve an actual study.
• The results section presents the results of any studies or analysis that has been conducted.  Not all articles will have this, either.
• The discussion/conclusion addresses the implications or future of the field.  It may also address where future research is needed.
• The list references or bibliography is the alphabetized list of resources used for the article.  The format of the citations is often determined by what that field's preferred format is.  Common citations formats include APA, Chicago, and MLA.  This is a necessity in an article--and it helps you identify more possible resources for your own paper.
• Components of a Research Paper Useful site that goes more in depth on these sections.
• Parts of a Citation A really wonderful site by the Nash Community College Library.
• << Previous: Evaluating Sources
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The Library Research Process, Step-by-Step

• Finding Articles
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• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Scholarly Articles
• Understanding & Using a Citation Style

Peer Reviewed and Scholarly Articles

What are they? Peer-reviewed articles, also known as scholarly or refereed articles are papers that describe a research study. 

Why are peer-reviewed articles useful? They report on original research that have been reviewed by other experts before they are accepted for publication, so you can reasonably be assured that they contain valid information. 

How do you find them?  Many of the library's databases contain scholarly articles! You'll find more about searching databases below.

Watch: Peer Review in 3 Minutes

Why watch this video?

We are often told that scholarly and peer-reviewed sources are the most credible, but, it's sometimes hard to understand why they are credible and why we should trust these sources more than others. This video takes an in depth approach at explaining the peer review process. 

Hot Tip: Check out the Reading Scholarly Articles page for guidance on how to read and understand a scholarly article.

Using Library Databases

What Are Library Databases? 

Databases are similar to search engines but primarily search scholarly journals, magazines, newspapers and other sources. Some databases are subject specific while others are multi-disciplinary (searching across multiple fields and content types). 

You can view our most popularly used databases on the Library's Home Page , or view a list of all of our databases organized by subject or alphabetically at  U-M Library Databases .

Popular Multidisciplinary Databases

Many students use ProQuest , JSTOR , and Google Scholar for their initial search needs. These are multi-disciplinary and not subject-specific, and they can supply a very large number of  search results.

Subject-Specific Databases

Some popular subject-specific databases include PsycINFO for psychology and psychiatry related topics and  PubMed for health sciences topics. 

Why Should You Use Library Databases?

Unlike a Google search, the Library Databases will grant you access to high quality credible sources. 

The sources you'll find in library databases include:

• Scholarly journal articles
• Newspaper articles
• Theses & dissertations
• Empirical evidence

Database Filters & Limits Most databases have Filters/Limits. You can use these to narrow down your search to the specific dates, article type, or population that you are researching.

Here is an example of limits in a database, all databases look slightly different but most have these options:

Keywords and Starting a Search

What are Keywords?

• Natural language words that describe your topic 
• Allows for a more flexible search - looks for anywhere the words appear in the record
• Can lead to a broader search, but may yield irrelevant results

Keyword searching  is how we normally start a search. Pull out important words or phrases from your topic to find your keywords.

Tips for Searching with Keywords:

• Example: "climate change"
• Example:  "climate change" AND policy
• Example: comput* will return all words starting with four letters; computing, computer, compute, etc.  
• Example: wom?n will find both woman and women.

What are Subject Headings?

• Pre-defined "controlled vocabulary" that describe what an item is  about 
• Makes for a less flexible search - only the subject fields will be searched
• Targeted search; results are usually more relevant to the topic, but may miss some variations

Subject Terms and/or Headings are pre-defined terms that are used to describe the content of an item. These terms are a controlled vocabulary and function similarly to hashtags on social media. Look carefully at the results from your search. If you find an article that is relevant to the topic you want to write about, take a look at the subject headings. 

Hot Tip: Make a copy of this Google Doc to help you find and develop your topic's keywords.

More Database Recommendations

Need articles for your library research project, but not sure where to start? We recommend these top ten article databases for kicking off your research. If you can't find what you need searching in one of these top ten databases, browse the list of all library databases by subject (academic discipline) or title .

• U-M Library Articles Search This link opens in a new window Use Articles Search to locate scholarly and popular articles, as well as reference works and materials from open access archives.
• ABI/INFORM Global This link opens in a new window Indexes 3,000+ business-related periodicals (with full text for 2,000+), including Wall Street Journal.
• Academic OneFile This link opens in a new window Provides indexing for over 8,000 scholarly journals, industry periodicals, general interest magazines and newspapers.
• Access World News [NewsBank] This link opens in a new window Full text of 600+ U.S. newspapers and 260+ English-language newspapers from other countries worldwide.
• CQ Researcher This link opens in a new window Noted for its in-depth, unbiased coverage of health, social trends, criminal justice, international affairs, education, the environment, technology, and the economy.
• Gale Health and Wellness This link opens in a new window
• Humanities Abstracts (with Full Text) This link opens in a new window Covers 700 periodicals in art, film, journalism, linguistics, music, performing arts, philosophy, religion, history, literature, etc.
• JSTOR This link opens in a new window Full-text access to the archives of 2,600+ journals and 35,000+ books in the arts, humanities, social sciences and sciences.
• ProQuest Research Library This link opens in a new window Indexes over 5,000 journals and magazines, academic and popular, with full text included for over 3,600.
• PsycInfo (APA) This link opens in a new window Premier resource for surveying the literature of psychology and adjunct fields. Covers 1887-present. Produced by the APA.

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Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

• Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
• Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
• Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

• For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
• For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Table of contents

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.

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Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

• From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
• Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

• During an experiment .
• Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square test of independence
• Statistical power
• Descriptive statistics
• Degrees of freedom
• Pearson correlation
• Null hypothesis
• Double-blind study
• Case-control study
• Research ethics
• Data collection
• Hypothesis testing
• Structured interviews

Research bias

• Hawthorne effect
• Unconscious bias
• Recall bias
• Halo effect
• Self-serving bias
• Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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Ultimate Guide to the 7 Types of Research: Definitions, Examples, Advantages and Limitations!

About the article : different types of research.

Research is a fundamental aspect of any field of study, providing a systematic approach to gather and analyze information. It plays a crucial role in expanding knowledge, solving problems, and making informed decisions. Understanding the different types of research is essential for researchers to choose the most appropriate method for their study.

In this article, we will explore the various types of research methods commonly used in academic and professional settings. Each type of research has its own unique characteristics, strengths, and limitations. By gaining a comprehensive understanding of these research types, researchers can effectively design and conduct their studies to achieve their objectives.

Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is a type of research that is used to investigate a problem that is not clearly defined and gain a better understanding of the existing problem. It is often conducted when a researcher has just begun an investigation and wishes to understand the topic generally.

There are two main methods of conducting exploratory research: primary research and secondary research. Primary research involves collecting new data directly from the source, while secondary research involves analyzing existing data that has already been collected by others.

Under these two broad types, various methods can be employed to gather information. These methods include surveys, interviews , focus groups, observations, and case studies. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of method depends on the nature of the research question and the available resources.

Exploratory research is valuable because it helps researchers gain insights and generate hypotheses for further investigation. It allows them to explore new areas of study and discover potential relationships between variables. However, it is important to note that exploratory research does not provide definitive answers or conclusive results. Instead, it lays the foundation for more in-depth research and helps researchers refine their research questions and methodologies.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is a methodological approach that seeks to depict the characteristics of a phenomenon or subject under investigation. It involves observing and measuring without manipulating variables, allowing researchers to identify characteristics, trends, and correlations. The main goal of descriptive research is to provide a detailed description of the population or phenomenon being studied. This type of research focuses on answering questions such as how, what, when, and where.

There are three basic approaches for gathering data in descriptive research: observational, case study, and survey. Observational research involves observing and recording behavior in its natural setting. Case study research involves in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or situation. Survey research involves collecting data from a sample of individuals through questionnaires or interviews.

Descriptive research is particularly useful when researchers want to describe specific behaviors, characteristics, or trends as they occur in the environment. It provides a foundation for further research and can help generate hypotheses for future studies.

However, one limitation of descriptive research is that it does not establish causal relationships between variables. It can only provide a snapshot of the current state of the population or phenomenon being studied. Despite this limitation, descriptive research plays a crucial role in understanding and describing various aspects of the world around us.

Experimental Research

Experimental research is a quantitative research method with a scientific approach. It is the most familiar type of research design for individuals in the physical sciences and a host of other fields. This type of research design is popular in scientific experiments, social sciences, medical science, etc. Experimental research involves manipulating one or more variables to observe the effect on another variable. It aims to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables. The researcher carefully controls and manipulates the independent variable(s) while measuring the dependent variable(s).

There are two broad categories of experimental research designs: true experimental designs and quasi-experimental designs. True experimental designs involve random assignment of participants to different groups and manipulation of the independent variable. Quasi-experimental designs lack random assignment but still involve manipulation of the independent variable.

One advantage of experimental research is its ability to establish causal relationships. By manipulating variables and controlling extraneous factors, researchers can determine whether changes in the independent variable(s) cause changes in the dependent variable(s). This allows for a more confident understanding of cause and effect.

Another advantage of experimental research is its versatility. It can be used in various fields and disciplines, allowing researchers to investigate a wide range of phenomena. Whether it’s testing the effectiveness of a new drug, studying the impact of different teaching methods, or exploring the relationship between variables, experimental research provides a powerful tool for scientific inquiry.

However, experimental research also has some limitations. One limitation is the potential for artificiality. In a controlled laboratory setting, variables may be manipulated in a way that does not fully reflect real-world conditions. This can limit the generalizability of the findings to real-life situations. Additionally, experimental research may face ethical considerations. Manipulating variables and potentially exposing participants to certain conditions can raise ethical concerns. Researchers must ensure that the benefits of the study outweigh any potential risks or harm to participants.

Correlational Research

Correlational research is a type of non-experimental research that focuses on observing and measuring the relationship between two or more variables. Unlike experimental research, the researcher does not control or manipulate the variables in correlational research. The main purpose of correlational research is to determine if there is a statistical relationship between the variables being studied. It involves comparing two variables and data sources, assessing the relationship between them, and identifying any trends or patterns.

There are several types of correlational studies that can be conducted. One type is positive correlation, which occurs when an increase in one variable is associated with an increase in another variable. For example, there may be a positive correlation between income and education level, meaning that as income increases, education level also tends to increase.

On the other hand, negative correlation refers to a relationship where an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in another variable. An example of negative correlation could be the relationship between hours spent studying and test scores. As the number of hours spent studying increases, test scores tend to decrease. Lastly, zero correlation indicates that there is no relationship between the variables being studied. This means that changes in one variable do not affect the other variable. For instance, there may be zero correlation between shoe size and intelligence.

Correlational research is commonly used in various fields, including psychology, sociology, and marketing. It provides valuable insights into the relationships between variables and helps researchers understand the patterns and trends in data. However, correlational research has its limitations. Since it does not involve manipulation of variables, it cannot establish causation. It can only identify associations between variables. Additionally, correlational research relies on the accuracy and reliability of the data collected, which can be influenced by various factors.

Causal-Comparative Research

Causal-comparative research is a methodology used to identify cause-effect relationships between independent and dependent variables. It is a type of research method where the researcher tries to find out if there is a causal effect relationship between two or more groups or variables.

The main objective of causal-comparative research is to determine the cause or reason for pre-existing differences in groups of individuals. This research design involves comparing groups that have already been formed based on a specific characteristic or condition. The researcher then analyzes the differences between these groups to identify any causal relationships.

There are two types of causal-comparative research designs: retrospective and prospective. Retrospective causal-comparative research looks at past events or conditions to determine the cause-effect relationship. On the other hand, prospective causal-comparative research looks at current or future events or conditions to identify the causal relationship.

One example of causal-comparative research is a study comparing the critical thinking skills of students who were taught using the inquiry method versus those who were taught using the lecture method. The researcher would compare the two groups of students and analyze the differences in their critical thinking abilities to determine if the teaching method had a causal effect on their skills.

Causal-comparative research has its advantages and disadvantages. One advantage is that it allows researchers to study cause-effect relationships in situations where it is not possible or ethical to manipulate variables. It also provides valuable insights into the factors that contribute to differences between groups.

However, a limitation of causal-comparative research is that it cannot establish a cause-effect relationship with certainty, as there may be other variables or factors that influence the observed differences between groups.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems. Instead of collecting numerical data, qualitative research deals with data types such as text, audio, images, and video, focusing on the variety of human experiences and perspectives.

There are different types of qualitative research methods that researchers can use depending on their study requirements. Some common qualitative research methods include in-depth interviews, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, and case study. In-depth interviews involve conducting one-on-one interviews with participants to gather detailed information about their experiences, opinions, and perspectives. This method allows researchers to delve deep into the thoughts and feelings of individuals and gain a comprehensive understanding of their experiences.

Focus groups involve bringing together a small group of participants to discuss a specific topic or issue. The group dynamic allows for the exploration of different perspectives and the generation of rich and diverse insights. Focus groups are particularly useful for understanding social interactions and group dynamics. Ethnographic research involves immersing the researcher in the natural environment of the participants to observe and understand their behaviors, beliefs, and cultural practices. This method allows for a holistic understanding of the social and cultural context in which individuals operate.

Content analysis involves systematically analyzing textual, audio, or visual data to identify patterns, themes, and meanings. This method is often used to analyze documents, media content, or online discussions to gain insights into societal trends, attitudes, or representations. Case study research involves in-depth investigation of a specific individual, group, or organization. Researchers collect and analyze multiple sources of data to gain a comprehensive understanding of the case under study. Case studies are particularly useful for exploring complex phenomena or unique situations.

Qualitative research provides several advantages. It allows researchers to explore complex and nuanced phenomena in depth, providing rich and detailed insights. It also allows for flexibility and adaptability in the research process, as researchers can adjust their approach based on emerging findings. Additionally, qualitative research is often used to generate hypotheses or theories that can be further tested using quantitative research methods.

However, qualitative research also has some limitations. The findings are often context-specific and may not be generalizable to a larger population. The subjective nature of qualitative data collection and analysis can introduce bias and interpretation challenges. Qualitative research also requires significant time and resources, as data collection and analysis can be time-consuming and labor-intensive.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a type of research that involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe characteristics, find correlations, or test hypotheses. It is characterized by structured tools like surveys, substantial sample sizes, closed-ended questions, and reliance on prior studies.

There are two main types of quantitative research: primary and secondary. Primary quantitative research involves collecting data directly from the source, such as through surveys or experiments. Secondary quantitative research, on the other hand, involves analyzing existing data that has been collected by someone else.

Quantitative research methods can be used to quantify opinions, behaviors, attitudes, and other definitive variables related to the market, customers, competitors, and more. It provides a systematic and objective approach to studying phenomena and allows for statistical analysis to draw conclusions.

There are several types of quantitative research designs that can be used, depending on the research objectives . These include descriptive research, correlational research, causal-comparative research, and experimental research as per explained above.

In conclusion, understanding the different types of research is essential for conducting effective and meaningful studies. Each type of research has its own strengths and limitations, and researchers must carefully consider which approach is the most appropriate for their specific research question and objectives. It is important to recognize that research is an iterative process, and different types of research may be used at different stages of a study.

In summary, the various types of research offer different perspectives and methodologies for investigating and understanding the world around us. By utilizing a combination of these approaches, researchers can gain a comprehensive understanding of complex phenomena and make meaningful contributions to their fields of study.

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• Indian J Anaesth
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Types of studies and research design

Mukul chandra kapoor.

Department of Anesthesiology, Max Smart Super Specialty Hospital, New Delhi, India

Medical research has evolved, from individual expert described opinions and techniques, to scientifically designed methodology-based studies. Evidence-based medicine (EBM) was established to re-evaluate medical facts and remove various myths in clinical practice. Research methodology is now protocol based with predefined steps. Studies were classified based on the method of collection and evaluation of data. Clinical study methodology now needs to comply to strict ethical, moral, truth, and transparency standards, ensuring that no conflict of interest is involved. A medical research pyramid has been designed to grade the quality of evidence and help physicians determine the value of the research. Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) have become gold standards for quality research. EBM now scales systemic reviews and meta-analyses at a level higher than RCTs to overcome deficiencies in the randomised trials due to errors in methodology and analyses.

INTRODUCTION

Expert opinion, experience, and authoritarian judgement were the norm in clinical medical practice. At scientific meetings, one often heard senior professionals emphatically expressing ‘In my experience,…… what I have said is correct!’ In 1981, articles published by Sackett et al . introduced ‘critical appraisal’ as they felt a need to teach methods of understanding scientific literature and its application at the bedside.[ 1 ] To improve clinical outcomes, clinical expertise must be complemented by the best external evidence.[ 2 ] Conversely, without clinical expertise, good external evidence may be used inappropriately [ Figure 1 ]. Practice gets outdated, if not updated with current evidence, depriving the clientele of the best available therapy.

Triad of evidence-based medicine

EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE

In 1971, in his book ‘Effectiveness and Efficiency’, Archibald Cochrane highlighted the lack of reliable evidence behind many accepted health-care interventions.[ 3 ] This triggered re-evaluation of many established ‘supposed’ scientific facts and awakened physicians to the need for evidence in medicine. Evidence-based medicine (EBM) thus evolved, which was defined as ‘the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of the current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients.’[ 2 ]

The goal of EBM was scientific endowment to achieve consistency, efficiency, effectiveness, quality, safety, reduction in dilemma and limitation of idiosyncrasies in clinical practice.[ 4 ] EBM required the physician to diligently assess the therapy, make clinical adjustments using the best available external evidence, ensure awareness of current research and discover clinical pathways to ensure best patient outcomes.[ 5 ]

With widespread internet use, phenomenally large number of publications, training and media resources are available but determining the quality of this literature is difficult for a busy physician. Abstracts are available freely on the internet, but full-text articles require a subscription. To complicate issues, contradictory studies are published making decision-making difficult.[ 6 ] Publication bias, especially against negative studies, makes matters worse.

In 1993, the Cochrane Collaboration was founded by Ian Chalmers and others to create and disseminate up-to-date review of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) to help health-care professionals make informed decisions.[ 7 ] In 1995, the American College of Physicians and the British Medical Journal Publishing Group collaborated to publish the journal ‘Evidence-based medicine’, leading to the evolution of EBM in all spheres of medicine.

MEDICAL RESEARCH

Medical research needs to be conducted to increase knowledge about the human species, its social/natural environment and to combat disease/infirmity in humans. Research should be conducted in a manner conducive to and consistent with dignity and well-being of the participant; in a professional and transparent manner; and ensuring minimal risk.[ 8 ] Research thus must be subjected to careful evaluation at all stages, i.e., research design/experimentation; results and their implications; the objective of the research sought; anticipated benefits/dangers; potential uses/abuses of the experiment and its results; and on ensuring the safety of human life. Table 1 lists the principles any research should follow.[ 8 ]

General principles of medical research

Types of study design

Medical research is classified into primary and secondary research. Clinical/experimental studies are performed in primary research, whereas secondary research consolidates available studies as reviews, systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Three main areas in primary research are basic medical research, clinical research and epidemiological research [ Figure 2 ]. Basic research includes fundamental research in fields shown in Figure 2 . In almost all studies, at least one independent variable is varied, whereas the effects on the dependent variables are investigated. Clinical studies include observational studies and interventional studies and are subclassified as in Figure 2 .

Classification of types of medical research

Interventional clinical study is performed with the purpose of studying or demonstrating clinical or pharmacological properties of drugs/devices, their side effects and to establish their efficacy or safety. They also include studies in which surgical, physical or psychotherapeutic procedures are examined.[ 9 ] Studies on drugs/devices are subject to legal and ethical requirements including the Drug Controller General India (DCGI) directives. They require the approval of DCGI recognized Ethics Committee and must be performed in accordance with the rules of ‘Good Clinical Practice’.[ 10 ] Further details are available under ‘Methodology for research II’ section in this issue of IJA. In 2004, the World Health Organization advised registration of all clinical trials in a public registry. In India, the Clinical Trials Registry of India was launched in 2007 ( www.ctri.nic.in ). The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) mandates its member journals to publish only registered trials.[ 11 ]

Observational clinical study is a study in which knowledge from treatment of persons with drugs is analysed using epidemiological methods. In these studies, the diagnosis, treatment and monitoring are performed exclusively according to medical practice and not according to a specified study protocol.[ 9 ] They are subclassified as per Figure 2 .

Epidemiological studies have two basic approaches, the interventional and observational. Clinicians are more familiar with interventional research, whereas epidemiologists usually perform observational research.

Interventional studies are experimental in character and are subdivided into field and group studies, for example, iodine supplementation of cooking salt to prevent hypothyroidism. Many interventions are unsuitable for RCTs, as the exposure may be harmful to the subjects.

Observational studies can be subdivided into cohort, case–control, cross-sectional and ecological studies.

• Cohort studies are suited to detect connections between exposure and development of disease. They are normally prospective studies of two healthy groups of subjects observed over time, in which one group is exposed to a specific substance, whereas the other is not. The occurrence of the disease can be determined in the two groups. Cohort studies can also be retrospective
• Case–control studies are retrospective analyses performed to establish the prevalence of a disease in two groups exposed to a factor or disease. The incidence rate cannot be calculated, and there is also a risk of selection bias and faulty recall.

Secondary research

Narrative review.

An expert senior author writes about a particular field, condition or treatment, including an overview, and this information is fortified by his experience. The article is in a narrative format. Its limitation is that one cannot tell whether recommendations are based on author's clinical experience, available literature and why some studies were given more emphasis. It can be biased, with selective citation of reports that reinforce the authors' views of a topic.[ 12 ]

Systematic review

Systematic reviews methodically and comprehensively identify studies focused on a specified topic, appraise their methodology, summate the results, identify key findings and reasons for differences across studies, and cite limitations of current knowledge.[ 13 ] They adhere to reproducible methods and recommended guidelines.[ 14 ] The methods used to compile data are explicit and transparent, allowing the reader to gauge the quality of the review and the potential for bias.[ 15 ]

A systematic review can be presented in text or graphic form. In graphic form, data of different trials can be plotted with the point estimate and 95% confidence interval for each study, presented on an individual line. A properly conducted systematic review presents the best available research evidence for a focused clinical question. The review team may obtain information, not available in the original reports, from the primary authors. This ensures that findings are consistent and generalisable across populations, environment, therapies and groups.[ 12 ] A systematic review attempts to reduce bias identification and studies selection for review, using a comprehensive search strategy and specifying inclusion criteria. The strength of a systematic review lies in the transparency of each phase and highlighting the merits of each decision made, while compiling information.

Meta-analysis

A review team compiles aggregate-level data in each primary study, and in some cases, data are solicited from each of the primary studies.[ 16 , 17 ] Although difficult to perform, individual patient meta-analyses offer advantages over aggregate-level analyses.[ 18 ] These mathematically pooled results are referred to as meta-analysis. Combining data from well-conducted primary studies provide a precise estimate of the “true effect.”[ 19 ] Pooling the samples of individual studies increases overall sample size, enhances statistical analysis power, reduces confidence interval and thereby improves statistical value.

The structured process of Cochrane Collaboration systematic reviews has contributed to the improvement of their quality. For the meta-analysis to be definitive, the primary RCTs should have been conducted methodically. When the existing studies have important scientific and methodological limitations, such as smaller sized samples, the systematic review may identify where gaps exist in the available literature.[ 20 ] RCTs and systematic review of several randomised trials are less likely to mislead us, and thereby help judge whether an intervention is better.[ 2 ] Practice guidelines supported by large RCTs and meta-analyses are considered as ‘gold standard’ in EBM. This issue of IJA is accompanied by an editorial on Importance of EBM on research and practice (Guyat and Sriganesh 471_16).[ 21 ] The EBM pyramid grading the value of different types of research studies is shown in Figure 3 .

The evidence-based medicine pyramid

In the last decade, a number of studies and guidelines brought about path-breaking changes in anaesthesiology and critical care. Some guidelines such as the ‘Surviving Sepsis Guidelines-2004’[ 22 ] were later found to be flawed and biased. A number of large RCTs were rejected as their findings were erroneous. Another classic example is that of ENIGMA-I (Evaluation of Nitrous oxide In the Gas Mixture for Anaesthesia)[ 23 ] which implicated nitrous oxide for poor outcomes, but ENIGMA-II[ 24 , 25 ] conducted later, by the same investigators, declared it as safe. The rise and fall of the ‘tight glucose control’ regimen was similar.[ 26 ]

Although RCTs are considered ‘gold standard’ in research, their status is at crossroads today. RCTs have conflicting interests and thus must be evaluated with careful scrutiny. EBM can promote evidence reflected in RCTs and meta-analyses. However, it cannot promulgate evidence not reflected in RCTs. Flawed RCTs and meta-analyses may bring forth erroneous recommendations. EBM thus should not be restricted to RCTs and meta-analyses but must involve tracking down the best external evidence to answer our clinical questions.

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Plasma Biomarkers of Brain Injury and Their Association With Brain MRI and Cognition in Type 1 Diabetes

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Amy B. Karger , Ilya M. Nasrallah , Barbara H. Braffett , José A. Luchsinger , Christopher M. Ryan , Ionut Bebu , Valerie Arends , Mohamad Habes , Rose A. Gubitosi-Klug , Naomi Chaytor , Geert J. Biessels , Alan M. Jacobson , DCCT/EDIC Research Group; Plasma Biomarkers of Brain Injury and Their Association With Brain MRI and Cognition in Type 1 Diabetes. Diabetes Care 27 August 2024; 47 (9): 1530–1538. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc24-0229

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To evaluate associations between plasma biomarkers of brain injury and MRI and cognitive measures in participants with type 1 diabetes (T1D) from the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (DCCT/EDIC) study.

Plasma amyloid-β-40, amyloid-β-42, neurofilament light chain (NfL), phosphorylated Tau-181 (pTau-181), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) were measured in 373 adults who participated in the DCCT/EDIC study. MRI assessments included total brain and white matter hyperintensity volumes, white matter mean fractional anisotropy, and indices of Alzheimer disease (AD)–like atrophy and predicted brain age. Cognitive measures included memory and psychomotor and mental efficiency tests and assessments of cognitive impairment.

Participants were 60 (range 44–74) years old with 38 (30–51) years’ T1D duration. Higher NfL was associated with an increase in predicted brain age (0.51 years per 20% increase in NfL; P < 0.001) and a 19.5% increase in the odds of impaired cognition ( P < 0.01). Higher NfL and pTau-181 were associated with lower psychomotor and mental efficiency ( P < 0.001) but not poorer memory. Amyloid-β measures were not associated with study measures. A 1% increase in mean HbA 1c was associated with a 14.6% higher NfL and 12.8% higher pTau-181 ( P < 0.0001).

In this aging T1D cohort, biomarkers of brain injury did not demonstrate an AD-like profile. NfL emerged as a biomarker of interest in T1D because of its association with higher HbA 1c , accelerated brain aging on MRI, and cognitive dysfunction. Our study suggests that early neurodegeneration in adults with T1D is likely due to non-AD/nonamyloid mechanisms.

Graphical Abstract

Clinical trial reg. nos. NCT00360815 and NCT00360893 , clinicaltrials.gov

This article contains supplementary material online at https://doi.org/10.2337/figshare.25810831 .

A.B.K. and I.M.N. are co-first authors.

A complete list of the members of the DCCT/EDIC Research Group can be found in the supplementary material online.

This article is part of a special article collection available at diabetesjournals.org/collection/2296/DCCT-EDIC-40th-Anniversary-Collection .

This article is featured in a podcast available at diabetesjournals.org/care/pages/diabetes_care_on_air .

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Brief report: the role of mind-wandering (spontaneous vs. deliberate) in directing job boredom towards job satisfaction and counterproductive work behavior

• Published: 02 September 2024

Cite this article

• Garam Kim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4237-1929 1 ,
• Jeanette Min 1 &
• Eunsoo Choi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1502-4788 1  

This study aimed to investigate the impact of job boredom on job outcomes, namely, job satisfaction and counterproductive work behavior, focusing on the role of different types of mind-wandering – spontaneous and deliberate mind-wandering. The results showed that deliberate mind-wandering mediates the link between job boredom and job satisfaction, while spontaneous mind-wandering mediates the connection between job boredom and counterproductive work behavior. In essence, when employees experience boredom at work, their spontaneous mind-wandering can lead to harmful behaviors, affecting their colleagues and organizations. On the other hand, deliberate mind-wandering can improve job satisfaction. This study provides valuable insights for managing job boredom and suggests future research directions.

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The data that support the findings of this study are openly available at https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/EK7XD .

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Kim, G., Min, J. & Choi, E. Brief report: the role of mind-wandering (spontaneous vs. deliberate) in directing job boredom towards job satisfaction and counterproductive work behavior. Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06629-7

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• Published: 02 September 2024

An orally administered glucose-responsive polymeric complex for high-efficiency and safe delivery of insulin in mice and pigs

• Kangfan Ji 1 , 2 ,
• Xiangqian Wei 1 , 2 ,
• Anna R. Kahkoska 3 ,
• Juan Zhang 1 , 2 ,
• Yang Zhang 1 , 2 ,
• Jianchang Xu 1 , 2 ,
• Xinwei Wei 1 , 2 ,
• Wei Liu 1 , 2 ,
• Yanfang Wang 1 , 2 ,
• Yuejun Yao 1 , 2 ,
• Xuehui Huang 1 , 2 ,
• Shaoqian Mei 1 , 2 ,
• Yun Liu 1 , 2 ,
• Shiqi Wang 1 , 2 ,
• Zhengjie Zhao 1 , 2 ,
• Ziyi Lu 1 , 2 ,
• Jiahuan You 1 , 2 ,
• Guangzheng Xu 1 , 2 ,
• Youqing Shen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1837-7976 4 ,
• John. B. Buse   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9723-3876 5 ,
• Jinqiang Wang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0048-838X 1 , 2 , 6 , 7 &
• Zhen Gu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2947-4456 1 , 2 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11  

Nature Nanotechnology ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Nanoscience and technology

Contrary to current insulin formulations, endogenous insulin has direct access to the portal vein, regulating glucose metabolism in the liver with minimal hypoglycaemia. Here we report the synthesis of an amphiphilic diblock copolymer comprising a glucose-responsive positively charged segment and polycarboxybetaine. The mixing of this polymer with insulin facilitates the formation of worm-like micelles, achieving highly efficient absorption by the gastrointestinal tract and the creation of a glucose-responsive reservoir in the liver. Under hyperglycaemic conditions, the polymer triggers a rapid release of insulin, establishing a portal-to-peripheral insulin gradient—similarly to endogenous insulin—for the safe regulation of blood glucose. This insulin formulation exhibits a dose-dependent blood-glucose-regulating effect in a streptozotocin-induced mouse model of type 1 diabetes and controls the blood glucose at normoglycaemia for one day in non-obese diabetic mice. In addition, the formulation demonstrates a blood-glucose-lowering effect for one day in a pig model of type 1 diabetes without observable hypoglycaemia, showing promise for the safe and effective management of type 1 diabetes.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by grants from the National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFE0202200, J.W.), JDRF (2-SRA-2021-1064-M-B, Z.G.; 2-SRA-2022-1159-M-B, J.W.), the Key Project of Science and Technology Commission of Zhejiang Province (2024C03083, Z.G.; 2024C03085, J.W.), Zhejiang University’s start-up packages and the Starry Night Science Fund at Shanghai institute for Advanced Study of Zhejiang University (SN-ZJU-SIAS-009, J.W.). A.R.K. is supported by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health (KL2TR002490, J.W.). The project was supported by the Clinical and Translational Science Award program of the National Center for Advancing Translational Science, National Institutes of Health (UL1TR002489, J.W.). We appreciate the help from J. Pan and D. Wu of the Research and Service Center (College of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhejiang University) for technical support, G. Z. and Y. Zhang (Cryo-EM centre, Zhejiang University) for processing the samples for electron microscopy and D. Xu, M. Zhang, S. Xiong and D. Chen (Disease Simulation and Animal Model Platform of Liangzhu Laboratory) for taking care of the minipigs.

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State Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery and Release Systems, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

Kangfan Ji, Xiangqian Wei, Juan Zhang, Yang Zhang, Jianchang Xu, Xinwei Wei, Wei Liu, Yanfang Wang, Yuejun Yao, Xuehui Huang, Shaoqian Mei, Yun Liu, Shiqi Wang, Zhengjie Zhao, Ziyi Lu, Jiahuan You, Guangzheng Xu, Jinqiang Wang & Zhen Gu

Jinhua Institute of Zhejiang University, Jinhua, China

Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Anna R. Kahkoska

Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Smart Biomaterials, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

Youqing Shen

Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

John. B. Buse

Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery Systems of Zhejiang Province, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

Jinqiang Wang & Zhen Gu

Department of Pharmacy, Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

Jinqiang Wang

Department of General Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

Liangzhu Laboratory, Hangzhou, China

Institute of Fundamental and Transdisciplinary Research, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

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Contributions

Z.G., J.W., Y.S. and J.B.B. conceived and designed the study. K.J., Xiangqian Wei, J.Z., J.X., Xinwei Wei, Y.Z., W.L., Y.W., Y.Y., S.M. and Y.L. conducted experiments and obtained related data. X.H., S.W., Z.Z., J.Y., G.X. and Z.L. gave experimental operation and theoretical guidance of mice experiments. K.J., Xiangqian Wei, J.Z. and J.X. conducted minipigs experiments and provided theoretical support. Z.G., J.W., Y.S., K.J., J.Z., Xiangqian Wei, A.R.K., J.B.B. and J.X. analysed the data and wrote the paper.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Jinqiang Wang or Zhen Gu .

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Z.G. is the co-founder of Zenomics Inc., Zcapsule Inc. and μ Zen Inc. The other authors declare no competing interests.

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Nature Nanotechnology thanks Kåre Birkeland and Nicholas Hunt for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

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Extended data

Extended data fig. 1 bg-regulating effects in diabetic minipigs..

BG of diabetic minipigs treated with the insulin capsules (oral), the PPF-ins capsules (oral) or Lantus (s.c.). The insulin dose of oral formulations was set to 4.2 U/kg. The Lantus dose was set to 0.3 U/kg.

Source data

Supplementary information, supplementary information.

Supplementary Figs. 1–24.

Reporting Summary

Supplementary data 1.

Supplementary statistical source data.

Source Data Fig. 1

Statistical source data for Fig. 1.

Source Data Fig. 2

Statistical source data for Fig. 2.

Source Data Fig. 4

Statistical source data for Fig. 4.

Source Data Fig. 5

Statistical source data for Fig. 5.

Source Data Fig. 6

Statistical source data for Fig. 6.

Source Data Extended Data Fig. 1

Statistical source data for Extended Data Fig. 1.

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Ji, K., Wei, X., Kahkoska, A.R. et al. An orally administered glucose-responsive polymeric complex for high-efficiency and safe delivery of insulin in mice and pigs. Nat. Nanotechnol. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-024-01764-5

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Received : 12 August 2023

Accepted : 19 July 2024

Published : 02 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-024-01764-5

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