how to conduct a thematic literature review

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How to Write a Thematic Literature Review: A Beginner’s Guide

Literature reviews provide a comprehensive understanding of existing knowledge in a particular field, offer insights into gaps and trends, and ultimately lay the foundation for innovative research. However, when tackling complex topics spanning multiple issues, the conventional approach of a standard literature review might not suffice. Many researchers present a literature review without giving any thought to its organization or structure, but this is where a thematic literature review comes into play. In this article, we will explore the significance of thematic reviews, delve into how and when to undertake them, and offer invaluable guidance on structuring and crafting a compelling thematic literature review.

Table of Contents

What is a thematic literature review?

A thematic literature review, also known as a thematic review, involves organizing and synthesizing the existing literature based on recurring themes or topics rather than a chronological or methodological sequence. Typically, when a student or researcher works intensively on their research there are many sub-domains or associated spheres of knowledge that one encounters. While these may not have a direct bearing on the main idea being explored, they provide a much-needed background or context to the discussion. This is where a thematic literature review is useful when dealing with complex research questions that involve multiple facets, as it allows for a more in-depth exploration of specific themes within the broader context.

When to opt for thematic literature review?

It is common practice for early career researchers and students to collate all the literature reviews they have undertaken under one single broad umbrella. However, when working on a literature review that involves multiple themes, lack of organization and structure can slow you down and create confusion. Deciding to embark on a thematic literature review is a strategic choice that should align with your research objectives. Here are some scenarios where opting for a thematic review is advantageous:

• Broad Research Questions: When your research question spans across various dimensions and cannot be adequately addressed through a traditional literature review.
• Interdisciplinary Research: In cases where your research draws from multiple disciplines, a thematic review helps in synthesizing diverse literature cohesively.
• Emerging Research Areas: When exploring emerging fields or topics with limited existing literature, a thematic review can provide valuable insights by focusing on available themes.
• Complex Issues: Thematic reviews are ideal for dissecting complex issues with multiple contributing factors or dimensions.

Advantages of a Thematic Literature Review

With better comprehension and broad insights, thematic literature reviews can help in identifying possible research gaps across themes. A thematic literature review has several advantages over a general or broad-based approach, especially for those working on multiple related themes.

• It provides a comprehensive understanding of specific themes within a broader context, allowing for a deep exploration of relevant literature.
• Thematic reviews offer a structured approach to organizing and synthesizing diverse sources, making it easier to identify trends, patterns, and gaps.
• Researchers can focus on key themes, enabling a more detailed analysis of specific aspects of the research question.
• Thematic reviews facilitate the integration of literature from various disciplines, offering a holistic view of the topic.
• Researchers can provide targeted recommendations or insights related to specific themes, aiding in the formulation of research hypotheses.

Now that we know the benefits of a thematic literature review, what is the best way to arrange reviewed literature in a thematic format?

How to write a thematic literature review

To effectively structure and write a thematic literature review, follow these key steps:

• Define Your Research Question: Clearly define the overarching research question or topic you aim to explore thematically. When writing a thematic literature review, go through different literature review sections of published research work and understand the subtle nuances associated with this approach.
• Identify Themes: Analyze the literature to identify recurring themes or topics relevant to your research question. Categorize the bibliography by dividing them into relevant clusters or units, each dealing with a specific issue. For example, you can divide a topic based on a theoretical approach, methodology, discipline or by epistemology. A theoretical review of related literature for example, may also look to break down geography or issues pertaining to a single country into its different parts or along rural and urban divides.
• Organize the Literature: Group the literature into thematic clusters based on the identified themes. Each cluster represents a different aspect of your research question. It is up to you to define the different narratives of thematic literature reviews depending on the project being undertaken; there is no one formal way of doing this. You can weigh how specific areas stack up against others in terms of existing literature or studies and how many more aspects may need to be added or further looked into.
• Review and Synthesize: Within each thematic cluster, review and synthesize the relevant literature, highlighting key findings and insights. It is recommended to identify any theme-related strengths or weaknesses using an analytical lens.
• Integrate Themes: Analyze how the themes interact with each other, draw linkages between earlier studies and see how they contribute to your own research. A thematic literature review presents readers with a comprehensive overview of the literature available on and around the research topic.
• Provide a Framework: Develop a framework or conceptual model that illustrates the relationships between the themes. Present the most relevant part of the thematic review toward the end and study it in greater detail as it reflects the literature most relevant and directly related to the main research topic.
• Conclusion: Conclude your thematic literature review by summarizing the key findings and their implications for your research question. Be sure to highlight any gaps or areas requiring further investigation in this section.
• Cite and Reference: It is important to remember that a thematic review of literature for a PhD thesis or research paper lends greater credibility to the student or researcher. So ensure that you properly cite and reference all sources according to your chosen citation style.
• Edit and Proofread: Take some time to review your work, ensure proper structure and flow and eliminate any language, grammar, or spelling errors that could deviate reader attention. This will help you deliver a well-structured and elegantly written thematic literature review.

Thematic literature review example

In essence, a thematic literature review allows researchers to dissect complex topics into smaller manageable themes, providing a more focused and structured approach to literature synthesis. This method empowers researchers to gain deeper insights, identify gaps, and generate new knowledge within the context of their research.

To illustrate the process mentioned above, let’s consider an example of a thematic literature review in the context of sustainable development. Imagine the overarching research question is: “What are the key factors influencing sustainable urban planning?” Potential themes could include environmental sustainability, social equity, economic viability, and governance. Each theme would have a dedicated section in the review, summarizing relevant literature and discussing how these factors intersect and impact sustainable urban planning. Close with a strong conclusion that highlights research gaps or areas of investigation. Finally, review and refine the thematic literature review, adding citations and references as required.

In conclusion, when tackling multifaceted research questions, a thematic literature review proves to be an indispensable tool for researchers and students alike. By adopting this approach, scholars can navigate the intricate web of existing literature, unearth meaningful patterns, and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields. We hope the information in this article helps you create thematic reviews that illuminate your path to new discoveries and innovative insights.

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The Guide to Thematic Analysis

• What is Thematic Analysis?
• Advantages of Thematic Analysis
• Disadvantages of Thematic Analysis
• Thematic Analysis Examples
• How to Do Thematic Analysis
• Thematic Coding
• Collaborative Thematic Analysis
• Thematic Analysis Software
• Thematic Analysis in Mixed Methods Approach
• Abductive Thematic Analysis
• Deductive Thematic Analysis
• Inductive Thematic Analysis
• Reflexive Thematic Analysis
• Thematic Analysis in Observations
• Thematic Analysis in Surveys
• Thematic Analysis for Interviews
• Thematic Analysis for Focus Groups
• Thematic Analysis for Case Studies
• Thematic Analysis of Secondary Data
• Introduction

What is a thematic literature review?

Advantages of a thematic literature review, structuring and writing a thematic literature review.

• Thematic Analysis vs. Phenomenology
• Thematic vs. Content Analysis
• Thematic Analysis vs. Grounded Theory
• Thematic Analysis vs. Narrative Analysis
• Thematic Analysis vs. Discourse Analysis
• Thematic Analysis vs. Framework Analysis
• Thematic Analysis in Social Work
• Thematic Analysis in Psychology
• Thematic Analysis in Educational Research
• Thematic Analysis in UX Research
• How to Present Thematic Analysis Results
• Increasing Rigor in Thematic Analysis
• Peer Review in Thematic Analysis

Thematic Analysis Literature Review

A thematic literature review serves as a critical tool for synthesizing research findings within a specific subject area. By categorizing existing literature into themes, this method offers a structured approach to identify and analyze patterns and trends across studies. The primary goal is to provide a clear and concise overview that aids scholars and practitioners in understanding the key discussions and developments within a field. Unlike traditional literature reviews , which may adopt a chronological approach or focus on individual studies, a thematic literature review emphasizes the aggregation of findings through key themes and thematic connections. This introduction sets the stage for a detailed examination of what constitutes a thematic literature review, its benefits, and guidance on effectively structuring and writing one.

A thematic literature review methodically organizes and examines a body of literature by identifying, analyzing, and reporting themes found within texts such as journal articles, conference proceedings, dissertations, and other forms of academic writing. While a particular journal article may offer some specific insight, a synthesis of knowledge through a literature review can provide a comprehensive overview of theories across relevant sources in a particular field.

Unlike other review types that might organize literature chronologically or by methodology , a thematic review focuses on recurring themes or patterns across a collection of works. This approach enables researchers to draw together previous research to synthesize findings from different research contexts and methodologies, highlighting the overarching trends and insights within a field.

At its core, a thematic approach to a literature review research project involves several key steps. Initially, it requires the comprehensive collection of relevant literature that aligns with the review's research question or objectives. Following this, the process entails a meticulous analysis of the texts to identify common themes that emerge across the studies. These themes are not pre-defined but are discovered through a careful reading and synthesis of the literature.

The thematic analysis process is iterative, often involving the refinement of themes as the review progresses. It allows for the integration of a broad range of literature, facilitating a multidimensional understanding of the research topic. By organizing literature thematically, the review illuminates how various studies contribute to each theme, providing insights into the depth and breadth of research in the area.

A thematic literature review thus serves as a foundational element in research, offering a nuanced and comprehensive perspective on a topic. It not only aids in identifying gaps in the existing literature but also guides future research directions by underscoring areas that warrant further investigation. Ultimately, a thematic literature review empowers researchers to construct a coherent narrative that weaves together disparate studies into a unified analysis.

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Conducting a literature review thematically provides a comprehensive and nuanced synthesis of research findings, distinguishing it from other types of literature reviews. Its structured approach not only facilitates a deeper understanding of the subject area but also enhances the clarity and relevance of the review. Here are three significant advantages of employing a thematic analysis in literature reviews.

Enhanced understanding of the research field

Thematic literature reviews allow for a detailed exploration of the research landscape, presenting themes that capture the essence of the subject area. By identifying and analyzing these themes, reviewers can construct a narrative that reflects the complexity and multifaceted nature of the field.

This process aids in uncovering underlying patterns and relationships, offering a more profound and insightful examination of the literature. As a result, readers gain an enriched understanding of the key concepts, debates, and evolutionary trajectories within the research area.

Identification of research gaps and trends

One of the pivotal benefits of a thematic literature review is its ability to highlight gaps in the existing body of research. By systematically organizing the literature into themes, reviewers can pinpoint areas that are under-explored or warrant further investigation.

Additionally, this method can reveal emerging trends and shifts in research focus, guiding scholars toward promising areas for future study. The thematic structure thus serves as a roadmap, directing researchers toward uncharted territories and new research questions .

Facilitates comparative analysis and integration of findings

A thematic literature review excels in synthesizing findings from diverse studies, enabling a coherent and integrated overview. By concentrating on themes rather than individual studies, the review can draw comparisons and contrasts across different research contexts and methodologies . This comparative analysis enriches the review, offering a panoramic view of the field that acknowledges both consensus and divergence among researchers.

Moreover, the thematic framework supports the integration of findings, presenting a unified and comprehensive portrayal of the research area. Such integration is invaluable for scholars seeking to navigate the extensive body of literature and extract pertinent insights relevant to their own research questions or objectives.

The process of structuring and writing a thematic literature review is pivotal in presenting research in a clear, coherent, and impactful manner. This review type necessitates a methodical approach to not only unearth and categorize key themes but also to articulate them in a manner that is both accessible and informative to the reader. The following sections outline essential stages in the thematic analysis process for literature reviews , offering a structured pathway from initial planning to the final presentation of findings.

Identifying and categorizing themes

The initial phase in a thematic literature review is the identification of themes within the collected body of literature. This involves a detailed examination of texts to discern patterns, concepts, and ideas that recur across the research landscape. Effective identification hinges on a thorough and nuanced reading of the literature, where the reviewer actively engages with the content to extract and note significant thematic elements. Once identified, these themes must be meticulously categorized, often requiring the reviewer to discern between overarching themes and more nuanced sub-themes, ensuring a logical and hierarchical organization of the review content.

Analyzing and synthesizing themes

After categorizing the themes, the next step involves a deeper analysis and synthesis of the identified themes. This stage is critical for understanding the relationships between themes and for interpreting the broader implications of the thematic findings. Analysis may reveal how themes evolve over time, differ across methodologies or contexts, or converge to highlight predominant trends in the research area. Synthesis involves integrating insights from various studies to construct a comprehensive narrative that encapsulates the thematic essence of the literature, offering new interpretations or revealing gaps in existing research.

Presenting and discussing findings

The final stage of the thematic literature review is the discussion of the thematic findings in a research paper or presentation. This entails not only a descriptive account of identified themes but also a critical examination of their significance within the research field. Each theme should be discussed in detail, elucidating its relevance, the extent of research support, and its implications for future studies. The review should culminate in a coherent and compelling narrative that not only summarizes the key thematic findings but also situates them within the broader research context, offering valuable insights and directions for future inquiry.

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How to structure and write a Thematic Literature Review

By charlesworth author services.

• Charlesworth Author Services
• 02 July, 2022

In the previous article , you looked at how the literature review, wherever it is found, whether in the introduction or in a separate section, might be organised chronologically. Perhaps a more common way to organise the literature review is to group the literature as you see it – that is, to organise and discuss the literature by theme.

Advantages of doing a thematic literature review 

• Taking a thematic approach from an early point in your research allows you to see how much literature you have identified for each issue . You can then assess how much more you might need to read. 
• Identify which areas may suffer from a significant lack of existing literature/studies .
• Highlight outstanding gaps in the current body of work.
• Demonstrate the need or opportunities for extending previous research. 
• Taking this evaluative approach allows you more space to assert your own voice and authority , and to engage more intimately with the literature from the beginning. You’ll get to take a more active role in identifying the connections between existing studies and research on your topic.
• By building connections between themes to your research project, you’ll help your reader gain a better, broader overview of the relevant literature.

Deciding on a thematic literature review

One way to do decide going thematic with your literature review is to categorise your bibliography at an early stage into groups , each of which deals with a particular issue in a similar way.

• So, you might look at a topic by discipline, by epistemology, by theoretical approach or argument or by methodology.
• Alternatively, you might look at the topic by issue or by level (e.g. selecting literature that focuses on individuals at a local / institutional level, rather than national or international). 

Note : There are innumerable ways of viewing the literature from a thematic standpoint and there is no one correct method to write or structure a thematic literature review. It is more important to consider what approaches would be more useful to your research project and what would help you to best address your research questions / hypotheses .

Structuring and writing a thematic literature review

Here are some points to keep in mind when organising and writing your literature review thematically.

A. Beginning the review

Reviewing the literature thematically by groups offers you a flexible starting point. Where you begin can impact how you present the rest of the literature. 

B. Being evaluative

The thematic approach allows you to identify the strengths and weaknesses of a theme within your specific research. This means that it may be less descriptive than taking a more chronological approach, and would likely be more evaluative or analytical . 

C. Establishing your credentials

This review is an important element in establishing your academic credentials, especially at the PhD level. In journal articles , though, you need to keep it as concise as possible, and be selective in choosing the most relevant and appropriate literature to contextualise your specific research.

D. Ending the review

You will probably want to end with the literature closest to your research . The last part may need to go into greater detail if it covers the literature that is the most relevant to your own topic.

Thematic literature review: Example

Below is the first section to an article which clearly breaks up the first part of the literature review into three broad themes (structure, social construction and historical evolution), providing the most prominent names associated with each one. (Note the highlighted text.)

Over the last 20 years, a large number of studies on academic writing have been devoted to the research article, in particular, its structure, social construction and historical evolution. A number of these studies have concerned themselves with the overall organization of various parts of the research article , such as the introduction (e.g. Swales, 1981, Swales, 1990, Swales and Najjar, 1987), the results sections (Brett, 1994, Thompson, 1993), discussions (Hopkins & Dudley-Evans, 1988) and even the abstracts that accompany the research articles (Salager-Meyer, 1990, Salager-Meyer, 1992). Various lexico-grammatical features of the research article (RA) have also been explored, ranging from tense choice to citation practices. Beyond the textual structure of this genre, research has also focused on the historical development of the research article (Bazerman, 1988, Atkinson, 1993, Salager-Meyer, 1999, Vande Kopple, 1998) and the social construction of this genre (Myers, 1990).

Read previous (second) in series: How to structure and write a Chronological Literature Review

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How To Structure and Write a Thematic Literature Review: A Beginner’s Guide

Introduction to Thematic Literature Review

First of all, what is a Thematic literature review? A thematic literature review is like sorting and studying different stories about the same topic. It helps researchers understand the big ideas in a field by grouping similar information. This way of reviewing literature is neat because it lets you see patterns and gaps in research. It’s like putting puzzle pieces together to get a clear picture of what’s known and what questions still need answers. So, it’s a way to organise and understand lots of information about a particular theme in a simple and smart manner.

Table of Contents

In this blog, we will guide you through the process of structuring a perfect thematic literature review. Starting with tips on topic selection and conducting a thorough literature search, we delve into techniques for organising and presenting findings cohesively. Emphasising the importance of a well-structured review, the blog aims to enhance the credibility of academic research by providing clear insights into crafting a comprehensive and impactful thematic literature review.

Understanding Thematic Literature Reviews

A thematic literature review is like a superhero, who’s out there, helping researchers and writers make sense of a bunch of information in an organised way. It’s a special way of looking at what other smart people have written about a specific topic. Imagine gathering puzzle pieces together, the review helps put them together to see the whole picture. So, its first job is to find common themes or ideas in all the studies, sort of like finding similar colours in the puzzle pieces.

Now, why is this superhero review so important? Well, it helps researchers know what’s already known in a certain area, finding the cool stuff and the missing bits. This is super handy because it guides them in figuring out what new questions to ask or what’s still a mystery. It’s like a treasure map for researchers, helping them see where the unexplored territories are.

In writing, this review helps make academic work more believable and strong. It shows that the writer really knows what’s going on in the subject and can connect all the ideas in a clear way. So, this superhero review is like a map, guide, and puzzle solver all in one, making research and writing way cooler and smarter.

Importance of a Well-Structured Review

A well-structured thematic literature review is super important because it’s like building a strong and smart foundation for research. Just like a good house needs a solid base, a clear and organised review makes research trustworthy. It helps people see the patterns and gaps in what’s already known, guiding researchers to ask the right questions. When it’s well-organised, like putting puzzle pieces together neatly, it makes the whole study look polished and sharp. So, the importance is like having a superhero sidekick – it supports and boosts the quality of research, making it reliable and impressive.

Preparing for Your Thematic Literature Review

Preparing a thematic literature review is like getting ready for a long journey, not the boring ones. First, pick a topic you’re interested in – your theme. Then, go on a hunt for information using keywords and checking out different sources. Organise what you find by grouping similar ideas together, like sorting treasures. Write short summaries for each group to remember the cool stuff. It’s like making a map. Finally, put it all together in a clear order. Imagine you’re telling a friend the coolest parts of your adventure. That’s it! You’ve prepared a thematic literature review, turning a bunch of information into a smart and organised story.

Selecting Your Topic

Choosing a topic is like picking your favourite game to play. First, think about what really interests you- something that makes you curious. It could be whatever is best for you. Then, check if there’s enough information about it. If there is, great! If not, maybe choose something related. Make sure it’s not too big or too small, just like picking the right-sized puzzle, as mentioned above. And most importantly, pick something you enjoy because researching a topic you like is like playing your favourite game- it’s fun and exciting! So, go for a topic that sparks your curiosity and joy.

Conducting a Comprehensive Literature Search

To conduct a comprehensive literature search, begin by defining specific keywords related to your topic. Use various platforms such as online databases and libraries to explore relevant sources. Focus on gathering pertinent and up-to-date information, paying attention to publication dates. Check reference lists for additional sources. Keep your search broad initially, then narrow down to the most relevant and valuable pieces of literature- it works. Stay organised by using tools like citation management software. This systematic approach ensures a thorough exploration of existing knowledge on your chosen theme, laying a solid foundation for a well-informed thematic literature review.

Reviewing and Organizing Literature

Reviewing and organising literature involves systematically examining and categorising information. Begin by thoroughly reading each piece to grasp its main ideas. Group similar concepts together, creating distinct categories or sections. Consider using tools like spreadsheets or note-taking methods for efficient organisation. Ensure easy retrieval of information when needed.

This process facilitates a clear understanding of patterns and connections within the literature, streamlining the writing process for each identified theme or category. The emphasis is on a structured and methodical approach to handling the gathered information, fostering clarity and coherence in your thematic literature review.

Crafting the Structure

Crafting the structure is like building a strong house for your ideas. Begin with an introduction, introducing your main themes or topics. Imagine it as the front door welcoming readers. Then, organise your themes logically, like arranging rooms so everything makes sense. Each theme gets its section, creating a clear flow. Write summaries for each theme, acting like labels on different rooms. Connect themes smoothly, so it feels like moving through the house effortlessly. Finally, conclude by summarising the main points, like a closing statement. Crafting the structure is about creating a well-organised home for your ideas, making it easy for others to navigate.

Introduction to Thematic Categories

Introducing thematic categories involves defining and presenting the main topics or themes that will be explored in your literature review. It’s like providing a roadmap for readers. Begin by clearly identifying each theme, offering a concise overview of what each section will cover. This introduction sets the stage for the reader, helping them understand the structure and focus of your thematic literature review. It’s akin to creating signposts that guide readers through the distinct categories, ensuring a clear and organised presentation of information. In essence, this section serves as a preview, laying the foundation for a cohesive exploration of each thematic category.

Organising Themes

Organising themes is about systematically arranging and structuring the identified topics or concepts within your literature review. Start by grouping similar themes together, creating a logical and coherent structure. It’s like sorting items into distinct categories for better clarity. Each theme should have its own section, allowing for a focused exploration. Consider the flow between themes, ensuring a smooth transition from one to the next. This organisation is essential for readers to follow and understand the progression of ideas. By effectively organising themes, you provide a structured framework that enhances the overall coherence and impact of your thematic literature review.

Writing the Literature Review

Writing the literature review is like telling a story about your themes. Begin by summarising key points for each theme, keeping it short and clear. It’s like giving a snapshot of each chapter in your story. Connect themes smoothly, creating a natural flow, similar to linking chapters in a book. Use simple language to explain complex ideas, ensuring your story is easy to follow. Be sure to highlight important findings and gaps in research, adding depth to your narrative. Writing the literature review is about crafting a compelling and straightforward tale of what’s known and what questions remain in your chosen thematic landscape.

Common Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoiding common pitfalls in a thematic literature review is crucial for a successful and credible exploration. First, steer clear of bias by maintaining objectivity and fairness. Ensure the inclusion of recent sources to stay updated and relevant. Diversify your sources to prevent over-reliance on a specific type, promoting a comprehensive view. Critically evaluate each source for reliability and relevance. Organise your themes systematically to enhance clarity and understanding. Resist the temptation to overload your review with excessive information, prioritising relevance and conciseness. By addressing these pitfalls, your thematic literature review will stand out for its reliability, coherence, and focused exploration of the chosen theme.

Editing and Refining Your Review

Editing and refining your thematic literature review is a crucial step to enhance its quality. Begin by checking for and correcting any spelling and grammar errors to ensure clarity. Review the overall structure of your review to confirm that themes are logically organized, creating a coherent flow. Trim unnecessary details to maintain focus and relevance. Evaluate the clarity and conciseness of your sentences, avoiding unnecessary complexity. Seek feedback from others to gain different perspectives and identify areas for improvement. This process is essential for fine-tuning your literature review, making it a polished and effective piece of scholarly work.

In wrapping up this journey through crafting a perfect thematic literature review, think of it like putting the finishing touches on a well-prepared meal. We’ve explored selecting engaging topics, navigating the treasure hunt of literature searches, and meticulously organizing themes. Crafting a structured and clear narrative, while avoiding common pitfalls, was our recipe. Editing and refining became the final seasoning, ensuring our literary dish is not just informative but also delightful to consume. Remember, a thematic literature review isn’t just a collection of facts; it’s your story within the broader academic conversation. So, as you venture into your own review, think of it as telling your unique tale, contributing a piece to the grand mosaic of knowledge. Happy writing!

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What is a thematic literature review?

A thematic literature review is an organized summary of existing research that focuses on identifying and analyzing common themes or topics across various studies within a specific field.

How do I select a topic for my thematic literature review?

Choose a topic that genuinely interests you, ensuring there’s enough relevant literature available. Keep it manageable- not too broad or too narrow- and align it with your research goals.

Why is organizing themes important in a literature review?

Organizing themes systematically enhances the clarity and coherence of your review. It helps readers follow the logical progression of ideas and makes your review more accessible and impactful.

What common pitfalls should I avoid in a thematic literature review?

Steer clear of bias, include recent sources, diversify your references, critically evaluate each source, maintain a clear structure, and avoid information overload. These practices contribute to a more reliable and effective literature review.

What is thematic analysis in literature?

Thematic analysis in literature involves identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns or themes within data. It’s a method for organizing and interpreting various aspects of a text or a collection of texts, helping to understand overarching ideas or themes within the literature.

What are the steps for conducting a thematic literature review?

The steps include selecting a topic, conducting a comprehensive literature search, reading and evaluating sources, identifying and categorizing themes, synthesizing findings, and writing the review while maintaining a coherent structure that reflects the identified themes.

What are the best practices in thematic literature analysis?

Best practices involve systematically organizing and categorizing your data, maintaining an unbiased approach, using a mix of deductive and inductive reasoning, staying open to emerging themes, and backing your analysis with evidence from the literature.

How does thematic literature review differ from a systematic literature review?

A thematic literature review focuses on identifying themes and patterns across a range of literature and is more interpretive. In contrast, a systematic literature review follows a strict methodology to find and analyze all relevant studies on a specific question, aiming for comprehensiveness and minimizing bias.

How can I identify themes in a literature review?

Identify themes by closely reading your sources and noting recurring ideas, concepts, or patterns. Group similar findings together and label each group with a theme that represents the underlying concept. Refine these themes as you delve deeper into your reading.

What is the methodology of a thematic literature review?

The methodology includes defining the scope and objectives of the review, developing a search strategy, selecting relevant literature, analyzing and categorizing the literature into themes, and synthesizing the findings in a structured narrative.

Can you give tips for effective thematic literature research?

Sure! Focus on a well-defined research question, use diverse sources, maintain a systematic approach in searching and analyzing literature, remain adaptable to emerging themes, and critically evaluate and synthesize your findings.

What role does thematic literature review play in qualitative research?

In qualitative research, a thematic literature review helps to understand the broader context of a topic, identify trends and patterns in qualitative studies, and inform the development of research questions and methodologies.

Where can I find examples of thematic literature reviews?

Examples of thematic literature reviews can be found in academic journals, particularly those focused on qualitative research methodologies. University libraries, online databases like JSTOR , Google Scholar , and specific academic websites also provide access to such reviews.

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• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• How to Do Thematic Analysis | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

How to Do Thematic Analysis | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Published on September 6, 2019 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Thematic analysis is a method of analyzing qualitative data . It is usually applied to a set of texts, such as an interview or transcripts . The researcher closely examines the data to identify common themes – topics, ideas and patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly.

There are various approaches to conducting thematic analysis, but the most common form follows a six-step process: familiarization, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and writing up. Following this process can also help you avoid confirmation bias when formulating your analysis.

This process was originally developed for psychology research by Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke . However, thematic analysis is a flexible method that can be adapted to many different kinds of research.

Table of contents

When to use thematic analysis, different approaches to thematic analysis, step 1: familiarization, step 2: coding, step 3: generating themes, step 4: reviewing themes, step 5: defining and naming themes, step 6: writing up, other interesting articles.

Thematic analysis is a good approach to research where you’re trying to find out something about people’s views, opinions, knowledge, experiences or values from a set of qualitative data – for example, interview transcripts , social media profiles, or survey responses .

Some types of research questions you might use thematic analysis to answer:

• How do patients perceive doctors in a hospital setting?
• What are young women’s experiences on dating sites?
• What are non-experts’ ideas and opinions about climate change?
• How is gender constructed in high school history teaching?

To answer any of these questions, you would collect data from a group of relevant participants and then analyze it. Thematic analysis allows you a lot of flexibility in interpreting the data, and allows you to approach large data sets more easily by sorting them into broad themes.

However, it also involves the risk of missing nuances in the data. Thematic analysis is often quite subjective and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your own choices and interpretations.

Pay close attention to the data to ensure that you’re not picking up on things that are not there – or obscuring things that are.

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Once you’ve decided to use thematic analysis, there are different approaches to consider.

There’s the distinction between inductive and deductive approaches:

• An inductive approach involves allowing the data to determine your themes.
• A deductive approach involves coming to the data with some preconceived themes you expect to find reflected there, based on theory or existing knowledge.

Ask yourself: Does my theoretical framework give me a strong idea of what kind of themes I expect to find in the data (deductive), or am I planning to develop my own framework based on what I find (inductive)?

There’s also the distinction between a semantic and a latent approach:

• A semantic approach involves analyzing the explicit content of the data.
• A latent approach involves reading into the subtext and assumptions underlying the data.

Ask yourself: Am I interested in people’s stated opinions (semantic) or in what their statements reveal about their assumptions and social context (latent)?

After you’ve decided thematic analysis is the right method for analyzing your data, and you’ve thought about the approach you’re going to take, you can follow the six steps developed by Braun and Clarke .

The first step is to get to know our data. It’s important to get a thorough overview of all the data we collected before we start analyzing individual items.

This might involve transcribing audio , reading through the text and taking initial notes, and generally looking through the data to get familiar with it.

Next up, we need to code the data. Coding means highlighting sections of our text – usually phrases or sentences – and coming up with shorthand labels or “codes” to describe their content.

Let’s take a short example text. Say we’re researching perceptions of climate change among conservative voters aged 50 and up, and we have collected data through a series of interviews. An extract from one interview looks like this:

In this extract, we’ve highlighted various phrases in different colors corresponding to different codes. Each code describes the idea or feeling expressed in that part of the text.

At this stage, we want to be thorough: we go through the transcript of every interview and highlight everything that jumps out as relevant or potentially interesting. As well as highlighting all the phrases and sentences that match these codes, we can keep adding new codes as we go through the text.

After we’ve been through the text, we collate together all the data into groups identified by code. These codes allow us to gain a a condensed overview of the main points and common meanings that recur throughout the data.

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Next, we look over the codes we’ve created, identify patterns among them, and start coming up with themes.

Themes are generally broader than codes. Most of the time, you’ll combine several codes into a single theme. In our example, we might start combining codes into themes like this:

At this stage, we might decide that some of our codes are too vague or not relevant enough (for example, because they don’t appear very often in the data), so they can be discarded.

Other codes might become themes in their own right. In our example, we decided that the code “uncertainty” made sense as a theme, with some other codes incorporated into it.

Again, what we decide will vary according to what we’re trying to find out. We want to create potential themes that tell us something helpful about the data for our purposes.

Now we have to make sure that our themes are useful and accurate representations of the data. Here, we return to the data set and compare our themes against it. Are we missing anything? Are these themes really present in the data? What can we change to make our themes work better?

If we encounter problems with our themes, we might split them up, combine them, discard them or create new ones: whatever makes them more useful and accurate.

For example, we might decide upon looking through the data that “changing terminology” fits better under the “uncertainty” theme than under “distrust of experts,” since the data labelled with this code involves confusion, not necessarily distrust.

Now that you have a final list of themes, it’s time to name and define each of them.

Defining themes involves formulating exactly what we mean by each theme and figuring out how it helps us understand the data.

Naming themes involves coming up with a succinct and easily understandable name for each theme.

For example, we might look at “distrust of experts” and determine exactly who we mean by “experts” in this theme. We might decide that a better name for the theme is “distrust of authority” or “conspiracy thinking”.

Finally, we’ll write up our analysis of the data. Like all academic texts, writing up a thematic analysis requires an introduction to establish our research question, aims and approach.

We should also include a methodology section, describing how we collected the data (e.g. through semi-structured interviews or open-ended survey questions ) and explaining how we conducted the thematic analysis itself.

The results or findings section usually addresses each theme in turn. We describe how often the themes come up and what they mean, including examples from the data as evidence. Finally, our conclusion explains the main takeaways and shows how the analysis has answered our research question.

In our example, we might argue that conspiracy thinking about climate change is widespread among older conservative voters, point out the uncertainty with which many voters view the issue, and discuss the role of misinformation in respondents’ perceptions.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Measures of central tendency
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Discourse analysis
• Cohort study
• Peer review
• Ethnography

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Conformity bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Availability heuristic
• Attrition bias
• Social desirability bias

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How To Structure Your Literature Review

3 options to help structure your chapter.

By: Amy Rommelspacher (PhD) | Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | November 2020 (Updated May 2023)

Writing the literature review chapter can seem pretty daunting when you’re piecing together your dissertation or thesis. As  we’ve discussed before , a good literature review needs to achieve a few very important objectives – it should:

• Demonstrate your knowledge of the research topic
• Identify the gaps in the literature and show how your research links to these
• Provide the foundation for your conceptual framework (if you have one)
• Inform your own  methodology and research design

To achieve this, your literature review needs a well-thought-out structure . Get the structure of your literature review chapter wrong and you’ll struggle to achieve these objectives. Don’t worry though – in this post, we’ll look at how to structure your literature review for maximum impact (and marks!).

But wait – is this the right time?

Deciding on the structure of your literature review should come towards the end of the literature review process – after you have collected and digested the literature, but before you start writing the chapter. 

In other words, you need to first develop a rich understanding of the literature before you even attempt to map out a structure. There’s no use trying to develop a structure before you’ve fully wrapped your head around the existing research.

Equally importantly, you need to have a structure in place before you start writing , or your literature review will most likely end up a rambling, disjointed mess. 

Importantly, don’t feel that once you’ve defined a structure you can’t iterate on it. It’s perfectly natural to adjust as you engage in the writing process. As we’ve discussed before , writing is a way of developing your thinking, so it’s quite common for your thinking to change – and therefore, for your chapter structure to change – as you write. 

Need a helping hand?

Like any other chapter in your thesis or dissertation, your literature review needs to have a clear, logical structure. At a minimum, it should have three essential components – an  introduction , a  body   and a  conclusion . 

Let’s take a closer look at each of these.

1: The Introduction Section

Just like any good introduction, the introduction section of your literature review should introduce the purpose and layout (organisation) of the chapter. In other words, your introduction needs to give the reader a taste of what’s to come, and how you’re going to lay that out. Essentially, you should provide the reader with a high-level roadmap of your chapter to give them a taste of the journey that lies ahead.

Here’s an example of the layout visualised in a literature review introduction:

Your introduction should also outline your topic (including any tricky terminology or jargon) and provide an explanation of the scope of your literature review – in other words, what you  will   and  won’t   be covering (the delimitations ). This helps ringfence your review and achieve a clear focus . The clearer and narrower your focus, the deeper you can dive into the topic (which is typically where the magic lies). 

Depending on the nature of your project, you could also present your stance or point of view at this stage. In other words, after grappling with the literature you’ll have an opinion about what the trends and concerns are in the field as well as what’s lacking. The introduction section can then present these ideas so that it is clear to examiners that you’re aware of how your research connects with existing knowledge .

2: The Body Section

The body of your literature review is the centre of your work. This is where you’ll present, analyse, evaluate and synthesise the existing research. In other words, this is where you’re going to earn (or lose) the most marks. Therefore, it’s important to carefully think about how you will organise your discussion to present it in a clear way. 

The body of your literature review should do just as the description of this chapter suggests. It should “review” the literature – in other words, identify, analyse, and synthesise it. So, when thinking about structuring your literature review, you need to think about which structural approach will provide the best “review” for your specific type of research and objectives (we’ll get to this shortly).

There are (broadly speaking)  three options  for organising your literature review.

Option 1: Chronological (according to date)

Organising the literature chronologically is one of the simplest ways to structure your literature review. You start with what was published first and work your way through the literature until you reach the work published most recently. Pretty straightforward.

The benefit of this option is that it makes it easy to discuss the developments and debates in the field as they emerged over time. Organising your literature chronologically also allows you to highlight how specific articles or pieces of work might have changed the course of the field – in other words, which research has had the most impact . Therefore, this approach is very useful when your research is aimed at understanding how the topic has unfolded over time and is often used by scholars in the field of history. That said, this approach can be utilised by anyone that wants to explore change over time .

For example , if a student of politics is investigating how the understanding of democracy has evolved over time, they could use the chronological approach to provide a narrative that demonstrates how this understanding has changed through the ages.

Here are some questions you can ask yourself to help you structure your literature review chronologically.

• What is the earliest literature published relating to this topic?
• How has the field changed over time? Why?
• What are the most recent discoveries/theories?

In some ways, chronology plays a part whichever way you decide to structure your literature review, because you will always, to a certain extent, be analysing how the literature has developed. However, with the chronological approach, the emphasis is very firmly on how the discussion has evolved over time , as opposed to how all the literature links together (which we’ll discuss next ).

Option 2: Thematic (grouped by theme)

The thematic approach to structuring a literature review means organising your literature by theme or category – for example, by independent variables (i.e. factors that have an impact on a specific outcome).

As you’ve been collecting and synthesising literature , you’ll likely have started seeing some themes or patterns emerging. You can then use these themes or patterns as a structure for your body discussion. The thematic approach is the most common approach and is useful for structuring literature reviews in most fields.

For example, if you were researching which factors contributed towards people trusting an organisation, you might find themes such as consumers’ perceptions of an organisation’s competence, benevolence and integrity. Structuring your literature review thematically would mean structuring your literature review’s body section to discuss each of these themes, one section at a time.

Here are some questions to ask yourself when structuring your literature review by themes:

• Are there any patterns that have come to light in the literature?
• What are the central themes and categories used by the researchers?
• Do I have enough evidence of these themes?

PS – you can see an example of a thematically structured literature review in our literature review sample walkthrough video here.

Option 3: Methodological

The methodological option is a way of structuring your literature review by the research methodologies used . In other words, organising your discussion based on the angle from which each piece of research was approached – for example, qualitative , quantitative or mixed  methodologies.

Structuring your literature review by methodology can be useful if you are drawing research from a variety of disciplines and are critiquing different methodologies. The point of this approach is to question  how  existing research has been conducted, as opposed to  what  the conclusions and/or findings the research were.

For example, a sociologist might centre their research around critiquing specific fieldwork practices. Their literature review will then be a summary of the fieldwork methodologies used by different studies.

Here are some questions you can ask yourself when structuring your literature review according to methodology:

• Which methodologies have been utilised in this field?
• Which methodology is the most popular (and why)?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the various methodologies?
• How can the existing methodologies inform my own methodology?

3: The Conclusion Section

Once you’ve completed the body section of your literature review using one of the structural approaches we discussed above, you’ll need to “wrap up” your literature review and pull all the pieces together to set the direction for the rest of your dissertation or thesis.

The conclusion is where you’ll present the key findings of your literature review. In this section, you should emphasise the research that is especially important to your research questions and highlight the gaps that exist in the literature. Based on this, you need to make it clear what you will add to the literature – in other words, justify your own research by showing how it will help fill one or more of the gaps you just identified.

Last but not least, if it’s your intention to develop a conceptual framework for your dissertation or thesis, the conclusion section is a good place to present this.

Example: Thematically Structured Review

In the video below, we unpack a literature review chapter so that you can see an example of a thematically structure review in practice.

Let’s Recap

In this article, we’ve  discussed how to structure your literature review for maximum impact. Here’s a quick recap of what  you need to keep in mind when deciding on your literature review structure:

• Just like other chapters, your literature review needs a clear introduction , body and conclusion .
• The introduction section should provide an overview of what you will discuss in your literature review.
• The body section of your literature review can be organised by chronology , theme or methodology . The right structural approach depends on what you’re trying to achieve with your research.
• The conclusion section should draw together the key findings of your literature review and link them to your research questions.

If you’re ready to get started, be sure to download our free literature review template to fast-track your chapter outline.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Literature Review Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

28 Comments

Great work. This is exactly what I was looking for and helps a lot together with your previous post on literature review. One last thing is missing: a link to a great literature chapter of an journal article (maybe with comments of the different sections in this review chapter). Do you know any great literature review chapters?

I agree with you Marin… A great piece

I agree with Marin. This would be quite helpful if you annotate a nicely structured literature from previously published research articles.

Awesome article for my research.

I thank you immensely for this wonderful guide

It is indeed thought and supportive work for the futurist researcher and students

Very educative and good time to get guide. Thank you

Great work, very insightful. Thank you.

Thanks for this wonderful presentation. My question is that do I put all the variables into a single conceptual framework or each hypothesis will have it own conceptual framework?

Thank you very much, very helpful

This is very educative and precise . Thank you very much for dropping this kind of write up .

Pheeww, so damn helpful, thank you for this informative piece.

I’m doing a research project topic ; stool analysis for parasitic worm (enteric) worm, how do I structure it, thanks.

comprehensive explanation. Help us by pasting the URL of some good “literature review” for better understanding.

great piece. thanks for the awesome explanation. it is really worth sharing. I have a little question, if anyone can help me out, which of the options in the body of literature can be best fit if you are writing an architectural thesis that deals with design?

I am doing a research on nanofluids how can l structure it?

Beautifully clear.nThank you!

Lucid! Thankyou!

Brilliant work, well understood, many thanks

I like how this was so clear with simple language 😊😊 thank you so much 😊 for these information 😊

Insightful. I was struggling to come up with a sensible literature review but this has been really helpful. Thank you!

You have given thought-provoking information about the review of the literature.

Thank you. It has made my own research better and to impart your work to students I teach

I learnt a lot from this teaching. It’s a great piece.

I am doing research on EFL teacher motivation for his/her job. How Can I structure it? Is there any detailed template, additional to this?

You are so cool! I do not think I’ve read through something like this before. So nice to find somebody with some genuine thoughts on this issue. Seriously.. thank you for starting this up. This site is one thing that is required on the internet, someone with a little originality!

I’m asked to do conceptual, theoretical and empirical literature, and i just don’t know how to structure it

Asking questions are actually fastidious thing if you are not understanding anything fully, but this article presents good understanding yet.

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Organizing and Creating Information

• Citation and Attribution

What Is a Literature Review?

Review the literature, write the literature review, further reading, learning objectives, attribution.

This guide is designed to:

• Identify the sections and purpose of a literature review in academic writing
• Review practical strategies and organizational methods for preparing a literature review

A literature review is a summary and synthesis of scholarly research on a specific topic. It should answer questions such as:

• What research has been done on the topic?
• Who are the key researchers and experts in the field?
• What are the common theories and methodologies?
• Are there challenges, controversies, and contradictions?
• Are there gaps in the research that your approach addresses?

The process of reviewing existing research allows you to fine-tune your research question and contextualize your own work. Preparing a literature review is a cyclical process. You may find that the research question you begin with evolves as you learn more about the topic.

Once you have defined your research question , focus on learning what other scholars have written on the topic.

In order to  do a thorough search of the literature  on the topic, define the basic criteria:

• Databases and journals: Look at the  subject guide  related to your topic for recommended databases. Review the  tutorial on finding articles  for tips. 
• Books: Search BruKnow, the Library's catalog. Steps to searching ebooks are covered in the  Finding Ebooks tutorial .
• What time period should it cover? Is currency important?
• Do I know of primary and secondary sources that I can use as a way to find other information?
• What should I be aware of when looking at popular, trade, and scholarly resources ? 

One strategy is to review bibliographies for sources that relate to your interest. For more on this technique, look at the tutorial on finding articles when you have a citation .

Tip: Use a Synthesis Matrix

As you read sources, themes will emerge that will help you to organize the review. You can use a simple Synthesis Matrix to track your notes as you read. From this work, a concept map emerges that provides an overview of the literature and ways in which it connects. Working with Zotero to capture the citations, you build the structure for writing your literature review.

How do I know when I am done?

A key indicator for knowing when you are done is running into the same articles and materials. With no new information being uncovered, you are likely exhausting your current search and should modify search terms or search different catalogs or databases. It is also possible that you have reached a point when you can start writing the literature review.

Tip: Manage Your Citations

These citation management tools also create citations, footnotes, and bibliographies with just a few clicks:

Zotero Tutorial

Endnote Tutorial

Your literature review should be focused on the topic defined in your research question. It should be written in a logical, structured way and maintain an objective perspective and use a formal voice.

Review the Summary Table you created for themes and connecting ideas. Use the following guidelines to prepare an outline of the main points you want to make. 

• Synthesize previous research on the topic.
• Aim to include both summary and synthesis.
• Include literature that supports your research question as well as that which offers a different perspective.
• Avoid relying on one author or publication too heavily.
• Select an organizational structure, such as chronological, methodological, and thematic.

The three elements of a literature review are introduction, body, and conclusion.

Introduction

• Define the topic of the literature review, including any terminology.
• Introduce the central theme and organization of the literature review.
• Summarize the state of research on the topic.
• Frame the literature review with your research question.
• Focus on ways to have the body of literature tell its own story. Do not add your own interpretations at this point.
• Look for patterns and find ways to tie the pieces together.
• Summarize instead of quote.
• Weave the points together rather than list summaries of each source.
• Include the most important sources, not everything you have read.
• Summarize the review of the literature.
• Identify areas of further research on the topic.
• Connect the review with your research.
• DeCarlo, M. (2018). 4.1 What is a literature review? In Scientific Inquiry in Social Work. Open Social Work Education. https://scientificinquiryinsocialwork.pressbooks.com/chapter/4-1-what-is-a-literature-review/
• Literature Reviews (n.d.) https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/literature-reviews/ Accessed Nov. 10, 2021

This guide was designed to: 

• Identify the sections and purpose of a literature review in academic writing 
• Review practical strategies and organizational methods for preparing a literature review​

Content on this page adapted from: 

Frederiksen, L. and Phelps, S. (2017).   Literature Reviews for Education and Nursing Graduate Students.  Licensed CC BY 4.0

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What is a literature review?

A literature review is an integrated analysis -- not just a summary-- of scholarly writings and other relevant evidence related directly to your research question.  That is, it represents a synthesis of the evidence that provides background information on your topic and shows a association between the evidence and your research question.

A literature review may be a stand alone work or the introduction to a larger research paper, depending on the assignment.  Rely heavily on the guidelines your instructor has given you.

Why is it important?

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Identifies critical gaps and points of disagreement.
• Discusses further research questions that logically come out of the previous studies.

APA7 Style resources

APA Style Blog - for those harder to find answers

1. Choose a topic. Define your research question.

Your literature review should be guided by your central research question.  The literature represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way.

• Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.  Is it manageable?
• Begin writing down terms that are related to your question. These will be useful for searches later.
• If you have the opportunity, discuss your topic with your professor and your class mates.

2. Decide on the scope of your review

How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover? 

• This may depend on your assignment.  How many sources does the assignment require?

3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches.

Make a list of the databases you will search. 

Where to find databases:

• use the tabs on this guide
• Find other databases in the Nursing Information Resources web page
• More on the Medical Library web page
• ... and more on the Yale University Library web page

4. Conduct your searches to find the evidence. Keep track of your searches.

• Use the key words in your question, as well as synonyms for those words, as terms in your search. Use the database tutorials for help.
• Save the searches in the databases. This saves time when you want to redo, or modify, the searches. It is also helpful to use as a guide is the searches are not finding any useful results.
• Review the abstracts of research studies carefully. This will save you time.
• Use the bibliographies and references of research studies you find to locate others.
• Check with your professor, or a subject expert in the field, if you are missing any key works in the field.
• Ask your librarian for help at any time.
• Use a citation manager, such as EndNote as the repository for your citations. See the EndNote tutorials for help.

Review the literature

Some questions to help you analyze the research:

• What was the research question of the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying to discover?
• Was the research funded by a source that could influence the findings?
• What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the samples and variables used, the results, and the conclusions.
• Does the research seem to be complete? Could it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise?
• If there are conflicting studies, why do you think that is?
• How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited? If so, how has it been analyzed?

Tips: 

• Review the abstracts carefully.  
• Keep careful notes so that you may track your thought processes during the research process.
• Create a matrix of the studies for easy analysis, and synthesis, across all of the studies.
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Literature Review Guide: How to organise the review

• What is a Literature Review?
• How to start?
• Picking your research question and searching
• Search strategies and Databases
• How to organise the review
• Examples of Literature Reviews
• Library summary

How to structure your literature review (ignore the monotone voice as advice is good)

How to structure and write your literature review

• Chronological, ie. by date of publication or trend
• Methodological
• Use Cooper's taxonomy to explore and determine what elements and categories to incorporate into your review
• Revise and proofread your review to ensure your arguments, supporting evidence and writing is clear and precise

Cronin, P., Ryan, F. & Coughlan, M. (2008). Undertaking a literature review: A step-by-step approach . British Journal of Nursing, 17 (1), pp.38-43.

Different ways to organise a Literature Review

CHRONOLOGICAL (by date): This is one of the most common ways, especially for topics that have been talked about for a long time and have changed over their history. Organise it in stages of how the topic has changed: the first definitions of it, then major time periods of change as researchers talked about it, then how it is thought about today.

BROAD-TO-SPECIFIC : Another approach is to start with a section on the general type of issue you're reviewing, then narrow down to increasingly specific issues in the literature until you reach the articles that are most specifically similar to your research question, thesis statement, hypothesis, or proposal. This can be a good way to introduce a lot of background and related facets of your topic when there is not much directly on your topic but you are tying together many related, broader articles.

MAJOR MODELS or MAJOR THEORIES : When there are multiple models or prominent theories, it is a good idea to outline the theories or models that are applied the most in your articles. That way you can group the articles you read by the theoretical framework that each prefers, to get a good overview of the prominent approaches to your concept.

PROMINENT AUTHORS : If a certain researcher started a field, and there are several famous people who developed it more, a good approach can be grouping the famous author/researchers and what each is known to have said about the topic. You can then organise other authors into groups by which famous authors' ideas they are following. With this organisation it can help to look at the citations your articles list in them, to see if there is one author that appears over and over.

CONTRASTING SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT : If you find a dominant argument comes up in your research, with researchers taking two sides and talking about how the other is wrong, you may want to group your literature review by those schools of thought and contrast the differences in their approaches and ideas.

Ways to structure your Literature Review

Different ways to organise your literature review include:

• Topical order (by main topics or issues, showing relationship to the main problem or topic)
• Chronological order (simplest of all, organise by dates of published literature)
• Problem-cause-solution order
• General to specific order
• Known to unknown order
• Comparison and contrast order
• Specific to general order
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How to Conduct a Literature Review: Organizing/Writing

• What is a Literature Review?
• Types of Literature Reviews
• Finding "The Literature"
• Organizing/Writing
• Citation Help

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Synthesis Matrix

Another helpful idea to manage the process of reviewing the literature is a Synthesis Matrix. Virginia Commonwealth Univeristy explains that a Synthesis Matrix can help in the organization and relatability of each source.

• Using a Synthesis Matrix from Virginia Commonwealth University
• Matrix Templete from Virginia Commonwealth University

Ways to Organize Your Literature Review

Chronologically by Events   If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials according to when they were published. This approach should only be followed if a clear path of research building on previous research can be identified and that these trends follow a clear chronological order of development. For example, a literature review that focuses on continuing research about the emergence of German economic power after the fall of the Soviet Union. By Publication Date Order your sources by publication date if the order demonstrates an important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on environmental studies of brown fields if the progression revealed, for example, a change in the soil collection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies. Thematically (“conceptual categories”) Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time. However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a thematic review. For example, a review of the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics could focus on the development of online political satire. While the study focuses on one topic, the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics, it will still be organized chronologically reflecting technological developments in media. The only difference here between a "chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: the role of the Internet in presidential politics. Note however that more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. A review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according to the point made. Methodologically A methodological approach focuses on the methods utilized by the researcher. For the Internet in American presidential politics project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the portrayal of American presidents on American, British, and French websites. Or the review might focus on the fundraising impact of the Internet on a particular political party. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.

(adapted from  "The Literature Review"  from Organizing Your Social Research Paper, University of Southern California )

Tips for Writing Your Literature Review

If your assignment is not very specific about what form your literature review should take, seek clarification from your professor by asking these questions: 1.  Roughly how many sources should I include? 2.  What types of sources should I review (books, journal articles, websites)? 3.  Should I summarize, synthesize, or critique your sources by discussing a common theme or issue? 4.  Should I evaluate the sources? 5.  Should I provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions and/or a history? Find Models Use the exercise of reviewing the literature to examine how authors in your discipline or area of interest have composed their literature reviews. Read them to get a sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own research or ways to organize your final review. The bibliography or reference section of sources you've already read are also excellent entry points into your own research.

Here is a sample literature review from an article, including highlighting and notes on the literature reviews.  

• Barrett, C., Cannon, B., & O'Hare, L. (2007). "The Application of Library Outreach Strategies in Archival Settings." 

(adapted from "The Literature Review"  from Organizing Your Social Research Paper, University of Southern California )

More help for Lit Reviews

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• URL: https://libguides.jsu.edu/literaturereview

The Literature Review: 5. Organizing the Literature Review

• 1. Introduction
• 2. Why Do a Literature Review?
• 3. Methods for Searching the Literature
• 4. Analysing the Literature
• 5. Organizing the Literature Review
• 6. Writing the Review

1. Organizing Principles

A literature review is a piece of discursive prose, not a list describing or summarizing one piece of literature after another. It should have a single organizing principle:

• Thematic - organize around a topic or issue
• Chronological - sections for each vital time period
• Methodological - focus on the methods used by the researchers/writers

4. Selected Online Resources

• Literature Review in Education & Behavioral Sciences This is an interactive tutorial from Adelphi University Libraries on how to conduct a literature review in education and the behavioural sciences using library databases
• Writing Literature Reviews This tutorial is from the Writing section of Monash University's Language and Learning Online site
• The Literature Review: A Few Tips on Conducting It This guide is from the Health Services Writing Centre at the University of Toronto
• Learn How to Write a Review of the Literature This guide is part of the Writer's Handbook provided by the Writing Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison

2. Structure of the Literature Review

Although your literature review will rely heavily on the sources you read for its information, you should dictate the structure of the review. It is important that the concepts are presented in an order that makes sense of the context of your research project.

There may be clear divisions on the sets of ideas you want to discuss, in which case your structure may be fairly clear. This is an ideal situation. In most cases, there will be several different possible structures for your review.

Similarly to the structure of the research report itself, the literature review consists of:

• Introduction

Introduction - profile of the study

• Define or identify the general topic to provide the context for reviewing the literature
• Outline why the topic is important
• Identify overall trends in what has been published about the topic
• Identify conflicts in theory, methodology, evidence, and conclusions
• Identify gaps in research and scholarlship
• Explain the criteria to be used in analysing and comparing the literature
• Describe the organization of the review (the sequence)
• If necessary, state why certain literature is or is not included (scope)

Body - summative, comparative, and evaluative discussion of literature reviewed

For a thematic review:

• organize the review into paragraphs that present themes and identify trends relevant to your topic
• each paragraph should deal with a different theme - you need to synthesize several of your readings into each paragraph in such a way that there is a clear connection between the sources
• don't try to list all the materials you have identified in your literature search

From each of the section summaries:

• summarize the main agreements and disagreements in the literature
• summarize the general conclusions that have been drawn
• establish where your own research fits in the context of the existing literature

5. A Final Checklist

• Have you indicated the purpose of the review?
• Have you emphasized recent developments?
• Is there a logic to the way you organized the material?
• Does the amount of detail included on an issue relate to its importance?
• Have you been sufficiently critical of design and methodological issues?
• Have you indicated when results were conflicting or inconclusive and discussed possible reasons?
• Has your summary of the current literature contributed to the reader's understanding of the problems?

3. Tips on Structure

A common error in literature reviews is for writers to present material from one author, followed by information from another, then another.... The way in which you group authors and link ideas will help avoid this problem. To group authors who draw similar conclusions, you can use linking words such as:

• additionally

When authors disagree, linking words that indicate contrast will show how you have analysed their work. Words such as:

• on the other hand
• nonetheless

will indicate to your reader how you have analysed the material. At other times, you may want to qualify an author's work (using such words as specifically, usually, or generally ) or use an example ( thus, namely, to illustrate ). In this way you ensure that you are synthesizing the material, not just describing the work already carried out in your field.

Another major problem is that literature reviews are often written as if they stand alone, without links to the rest of the paper. There needs to be a clear relationship between the literature review and the methodology to follow.

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 5. The Literature Review
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
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• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
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• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

A literature review surveys prior research published in books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have used in researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within existing scholarship about the topic.

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . Fourth edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014.

Importance of a Good Literature Review

A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories . A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

• Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
• Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
• Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant research, or
• Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem has been researched to date.

Given this, the purpose of a literature review is to:

• Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem being studied.
• Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
• Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2011; Knopf, Jeffrey W. "Doing a Literature Review." PS: Political Science and Politics 39 (January 2006): 127-132; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012.

Types of Literature Reviews

It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the primary studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally among scholars that become part of the body of epistemological traditions within the field.

In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews. Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are a number of approaches you could adopt depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study.

Argumentative Review This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply embedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews [see below].

Integrative Review Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses or research problems. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of review in the social sciences.

Historical Review Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about saying what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.

Systematic Review This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review. The goal is to deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all of the research about a clearly defined research problem . Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to examining prior research studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the social sciences.

Theoretical Review The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

NOTE: Most often the literature review will incorporate some combination of types. For example, a review that examines literature supporting or refuting an argument, assumption, or philosophical problem related to the research problem will also need to include writing supported by sources that establish the history of these arguments in the literature.

Baumeister, Roy F. and Mark R. Leary. "Writing Narrative Literature Reviews."  Review of General Psychology 1 (September 1997): 311-320; Mark R. Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature." Educational Researcher 36 (April 2007): 139-147; Petticrew, Mark and Helen Roberts. Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide . Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2006; Torracro, Richard. "Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Guidelines and Examples." Human Resource Development Review 4 (September 2005): 356-367; Rocco, Tonette S. and Maria S. Plakhotnik. "Literature Reviews, Conceptual Frameworks, and Theoretical Frameworks: Terms, Functions, and Distinctions." Human Ressource Development Review 8 (March 2008): 120-130; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Thinking About Your Literature Review

The structure of a literature review should include the following in support of understanding the research problem :

• An overview of the subject, issue, or theory under consideration, along with the objectives of the literature review,
• Division of works under review into themes or categories [e.g. works that support a particular position, those against, and those offering alternative approaches entirely],
• An explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others,
• Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of research.

The critical evaluation of each work should consider :

• Provenance -- what are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments supported by evidence [e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives, statistics, recent scientific findings]?
• Methodology -- were the techniques used to identify, gather, and analyze the data appropriate to addressing the research problem? Was the sample size appropriate? Were the results effectively interpreted and reported?
• Objectivity -- is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?
• Persuasiveness -- which of the author's theses are most convincing or least convincing?
• Validity -- are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?

II.  Development of the Literature Review

Four Basic Stages of Writing 1.  Problem formulation -- which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues? 2.  Literature search -- finding materials relevant to the subject being explored. 3.  Data evaluation -- determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic. 4.  Analysis and interpretation -- discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature.

Consider the following issues before writing the literature review: Clarify If your assignment is not specific about what form your literature review should take, seek clarification from your professor by asking these questions: 1.  Roughly how many sources would be appropriate to include? 2.  What types of sources should I review (books, journal articles, websites; scholarly versus popular sources)? 3.  Should I summarize, synthesize, or critique sources by discussing a common theme or issue? 4.  Should I evaluate the sources in any way beyond evaluating how they relate to understanding the research problem? 5.  Should I provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions and/or a history? Find Models Use the exercise of reviewing the literature to examine how authors in your discipline or area of interest have composed their literature review sections. Read them to get a sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own research or to identify ways to organize your final review. The bibliography or reference section of sources you've already read, such as required readings in the course syllabus, are also excellent entry points into your own research. Narrow the Topic The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to read in order to obtain a good survey of relevant resources. Your professor will probably not expect you to read everything that's available about the topic, but you'll make the act of reviewing easier if you first limit scope of the research problem. A good strategy is to begin by searching the USC Libraries Catalog for recent books about the topic and review the table of contents for chapters that focuses on specific issues. You can also review the indexes of books to find references to specific issues that can serve as the focus of your research. For example, a book surveying the history of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict may include a chapter on the role Egypt has played in mediating the conflict, or look in the index for the pages where Egypt is mentioned in the text. Consider Whether Your Sources are Current Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. This is particularly true in disciplines in medicine and the sciences where research conducted becomes obsolete very quickly as new discoveries are made. However, when writing a review in the social sciences, a survey of the history of the literature may be required. In other words, a complete understanding the research problem requires you to deliberately examine how knowledge and perspectives have changed over time. Sort through other current bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects. You can also use this method to explore what is considered by scholars to be a "hot topic" and what is not.

III.  Ways to Organize Your Literature Review

Chronology of Events If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials according to when they were published. This approach should only be followed if a clear path of research building on previous research can be identified and that these trends follow a clear chronological order of development. For example, a literature review that focuses on continuing research about the emergence of German economic power after the fall of the Soviet Union. By Publication Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on environmental studies of brown fields if the progression revealed, for example, a change in the soil collection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies. Thematic [“conceptual categories”] A thematic literature review is the most common approach to summarizing prior research in the social and behavioral sciences. Thematic reviews are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time, although the progression of time may still be incorporated into a thematic review. For example, a review of the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics could focus on the development of online political satire. While the study focuses on one topic, the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics, it would still be organized chronologically reflecting technological developments in media. The difference in this example between a "chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: themes related to the role of the Internet in presidential politics. Note that more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. A review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according to the point being made. Methodological A methodological approach focuses on the methods utilized by the researcher. For the Internet in American presidential politics project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the portrayal of American presidents on American, British, and French websites. Or the review might focus on the fundraising impact of the Internet on a particular political party. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.

Other Sections of Your Literature Review Once you've decided on the organizational method for your literature review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be easy to figure out because they arise from your organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period; a thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue. However, sometimes you may need to add additional sections that are necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you include in the body is up to you. However, only include what is necessary for the reader to locate your study within the larger scholarship about the research problem.

Here are examples of other sections, usually in the form of a single paragraph, you may need to include depending on the type of review you write:

• Current Situation : Information necessary to understand the current topic or focus of the literature review.
• Sources Used : Describes the methods and resources [e.g., databases] you used to identify the literature you reviewed.
• History : The chronological progression of the field, the research literature, or an idea that is necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not already a chronology.
• Selection Methods : Criteria you used to select (and perhaps exclude) sources in your literature review. For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-reviewed [i.e., scholarly] sources.
• Standards : Description of the way in which you present your information.
• Questions for Further Research : What questions about the field has the review sparked? How will you further your research as a result of the review?

IV.  Writing Your Literature Review

Once you've settled on how to organize your literature review, you're ready to write each section. When writing your review, keep in mind these issues.

Use Evidence A literature review section is, in this sense, just like any other academic research paper. Your interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence [citations] that demonstrates that what you are saying is valid. Be Selective Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of information you choose to mention should relate directly to the research problem, whether it is thematic, methodological, or chronological. Related items that provide additional information, but that are not key to understanding the research problem, can be included in a list of further readings . Use Quotes Sparingly Some short quotes are appropriate if you want to emphasize a point, or if what an author stated cannot be easily paraphrased. Sometimes you may need to quote certain terminology that was coined by the author, is not common knowledge, or taken directly from the study. Do not use extensive quotes as a substitute for using your own words in reviewing the literature. Summarize and Synthesize Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each thematic paragraph as well as throughout the review. Recapitulate important features of a research study, but then synthesize it by rephrasing the study's significance and relating it to your own work and the work of others. Keep Your Own Voice While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice [the writer's] should remain front and center. For example, weave references to other sources into what you are writing but maintain your own voice by starting and ending the paragraph with your own ideas and wording. Use Caution When Paraphrasing When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author's information or opinions accurately and in your own words. Even when paraphrasing an author’s work, you still must provide a citation to that work.

V.  Common Mistakes to Avoid

These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research literature.

• Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem;
• You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevant sources to use in the literature review related to the research problem;
• Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant primary research studies or data;
• Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
• Does not describe the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to review;
• Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or meta-analytic methods; and,
• Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary findings and alternative interpretations found in the literature.

Cook, Kathleen E. and Elise Murowchick. “Do Literature Review Skills Transfer from One Course to Another?” Psychology Learning and Teaching 13 (March 2014): 3-11; Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . London: SAGE, 2011; Literature Review Handout. Online Writing Center. Liberty University; Literature Reviews. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2016; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012; Randolph, Justus J. “A Guide to Writing the Dissertation Literature Review." Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation. vol. 14, June 2009; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016; Taylor, Dena. The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Writing a Literature Review. Academic Skills Centre. University of Canberra.

Writing Tip

Break Out of Your Disciplinary Box!

Thinking interdisciplinarily about a research problem can be a rewarding exercise in applying new ideas, theories, or concepts to an old problem. For example, what might cultural anthropologists say about the continuing conflict in the Middle East? In what ways might geographers view the need for better distribution of social service agencies in large cities than how social workers might study the issue? You don’t want to substitute a thorough review of core research literature in your discipline for studies conducted in other fields of study. However, particularly in the social sciences, thinking about research problems from multiple vectors is a key strategy for finding new solutions to a problem or gaining a new perspective. Consult with a librarian about identifying research databases in other disciplines; almost every field of study has at least one comprehensive database devoted to indexing its research literature.

Frodeman, Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Just Review for Content!

While conducting a review of the literature, maximize the time you devote to writing this part of your paper by thinking broadly about what you should be looking for and evaluating. Review not just what scholars are saying, but how are they saying it. Some questions to ask:

• How are they organizing their ideas?
• What methods have they used to study the problem?
• What theories have been used to explain, predict, or understand their research problem?
• What sources have they cited to support their conclusions?
• How have they used non-textual elements [e.g., charts, graphs, figures, etc.] to illustrate key points?

When you begin to write your literature review section, you'll be glad you dug deeper into how the research was designed and constructed because it establishes a means for developing more substantial analysis and interpretation of the research problem.

Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1 998.

Yet Another Writing Tip

When Do I Know I Can Stop Looking and Move On?

Here are several strategies you can utilize to assess whether you've thoroughly reviewed the literature:

• Look for repeating patterns in the research findings . If the same thing is being said, just by different people, then this likely demonstrates that the research problem has hit a conceptual dead end. At this point consider: Does your study extend current research?  Does it forge a new path? Or, does is merely add more of the same thing being said?
• Look at sources the authors cite to in their work . If you begin to see the same researchers cited again and again, then this is often an indication that no new ideas have been generated to address the research problem.
• Search Google Scholar to identify who has subsequently cited leading scholars already identified in your literature review [see next sub-tab]. This is called citation tracking and there are a number of sources that can help you identify who has cited whom, particularly scholars from outside of your discipline. Here again, if the same authors are being cited again and again, this may indicate no new literature has been written on the topic.

Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2016; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

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• UConn Library
• Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide
• Introduction

Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide — Introduction

• Getting Started
• How to Pick a Topic
• Strategies to Find Sources
• Evaluating Sources & Lit. Reviews
• Tips for Writing Literature Reviews
• Writing Literature Review: Useful Sites
• Citation Resources
• Other Academic Writings

What are Literature Reviews?

So, what is a literature review? "A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries." Taylor, D.  The literature review: A few tips on conducting it . University of Toronto Health Sciences Writing Centre.

Goals of Literature Reviews

What are the goals of creating a Literature Review?  A literature could be written to accomplish different aims:

• To develop a theory or evaluate an existing theory
• To summarize the historical or existing state of a research topic
• Identify a problem in a field of research 

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1997). Writing narrative literature reviews .  Review of General Psychology , 1 (3), 311-320.

What kinds of sources require a Literature Review?

• A research paper assigned in a course
• A thesis or dissertation
• A grant proposal
• An article intended for publication in a journal

All these instances require you to collect what has been written about your research topic so that you can demonstrate how your own research sheds new light on the topic.

Types of Literature Reviews

What kinds of literature reviews are written?

Narrative review: The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific topic/research and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weakness, and gaps are identified. The review ends with a conclusion section which summarizes the findings regarding the state of the research of the specific study, the gaps identify and if applicable, explains how the author's research will address gaps identify in the review and expand the knowledge on the topic reviewed.

• Example : Predictors and Outcomes of U.S. Quality Maternity Leave: A Review and Conceptual Framework:  10.1177/08948453211037398  

Systematic review : "The authors of a systematic review use a specific procedure to search the research literature, select the studies to include in their review, and critically evaluate the studies they find." (p. 139). Nelson, L. K. (2013). Research in Communication Sciences and Disorders . Plural Publishing.

• Example : The effect of leave policies on increasing fertility: a systematic review:  10.1057/s41599-022-01270-w

Meta-analysis : "Meta-analysis is a method of reviewing research findings in a quantitative fashion by transforming the data from individual studies into what is called an effect size and then pooling and analyzing this information. The basic goal in meta-analysis is to explain why different outcomes have occurred in different studies." (p. 197). Roberts, M. C., & Ilardi, S. S. (2003). Handbook of Research Methods in Clinical Psychology . Blackwell Publishing.

• Example : Employment Instability and Fertility in Europe: A Meta-Analysis:  10.1215/00703370-9164737

Meta-synthesis : "Qualitative meta-synthesis is a type of qualitative study that uses as data the findings from other qualitative studies linked by the same or related topic." (p.312). Zimmer, L. (2006). Qualitative meta-synthesis: A question of dialoguing with texts .  Journal of Advanced Nursing , 53 (3), 311-318.

• Example : Women’s perspectives on career successes and barriers: A qualitative meta-synthesis:  10.1177/05390184221113735

Literature Reviews in the Health Sciences

• UConn Health subject guide on systematic reviews Explanation of the different review types used in health sciences literature as well as tools to help you find the right review type
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Writing a Literature Review

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A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels and plays). When we say “literature review” or refer to “the literature,” we are talking about the research ( scholarship ) in a given field. You will often see the terms “the research,” “the scholarship,” and “the literature” used mostly interchangeably.

Where, when, and why would I write a lit review?

There are a number of different situations where you might write a literature review, each with slightly different expectations; different disciplines, too, have field-specific expectations for what a literature review is and does. For instance, in the humanities, authors might include more overt argumentation and interpretation of source material in their literature reviews, whereas in the sciences, authors are more likely to report study designs and results in their literature reviews; these differences reflect these disciplines’ purposes and conventions in scholarship. You should always look at examples from your own discipline and talk to professors or mentors in your field to be sure you understand your discipline’s conventions, for literature reviews as well as for any other genre.

A literature review can be a part of a research paper or scholarly article, usually falling after the introduction and before the research methods sections. In these cases, the lit review just needs to cover scholarship that is important to the issue you are writing about; sometimes it will also cover key sources that informed your research methodology.

Lit reviews can also be standalone pieces, either as assignments in a class or as publications. In a class, a lit review may be assigned to help students familiarize themselves with a topic and with scholarship in their field, get an idea of the other researchers working on the topic they’re interested in, find gaps in existing research in order to propose new projects, and/or develop a theoretical framework and methodology for later research. As a publication, a lit review usually is meant to help make other scholars’ lives easier by collecting and summarizing, synthesizing, and analyzing existing research on a topic. This can be especially helpful for students or scholars getting into a new research area, or for directing an entire community of scholars toward questions that have not yet been answered.

What are the parts of a lit review?

Most lit reviews use a basic introduction-body-conclusion structure; if your lit review is part of a larger paper, the introduction and conclusion pieces may be just a few sentences while you focus most of your attention on the body. If your lit review is a standalone piece, the introduction and conclusion take up more space and give you a place to discuss your goals, research methods, and conclusions separately from where you discuss the literature itself.

Introduction:

• An introductory paragraph that explains what your working topic and thesis is
• A forecast of key topics or texts that will appear in the review
• Potentially, a description of how you found sources and how you analyzed them for inclusion and discussion in the review (more often found in published, standalone literature reviews than in lit review sections in an article or research paper)
• Summarize and synthesize: Give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: Don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections, comparisons, and contrasts.

Conclusion:

• Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance
• Connect it back to your primary research question

How should I organize my lit review?

Lit reviews can take many different organizational patterns depending on what you are trying to accomplish with the review. Here are some examples:

• Chronological : The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time, which helps familiarize the audience with the topic (for instance if you are introducing something that is not commonly known in your field). If you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze the patterns, turning points, and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred (as mentioned previously, this may not be appropriate in your discipline — check with a teacher or mentor if you’re unsure).
• Thematic : If you have found some recurring central themes that you will continue working with throughout your piece, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about women and religion, key themes can include the role of women in churches and the religious attitude towards women.
• Qualitative versus quantitative research
• Empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the research by sociological, historical, or cultural sources
• Theoretical : In many humanities articles, the literature review is the foundation for the theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You can argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theorical concepts to create a framework for your research.

What are some strategies or tips I can use while writing my lit review?

Any lit review is only as good as the research it discusses; make sure your sources are well-chosen and your research is thorough. Don’t be afraid to do more research if you discover a new thread as you’re writing. More info on the research process is available in our "Conducting Research" resources .

As you’re doing your research, create an annotated bibliography ( see our page on the this type of document ). Much of the information used in an annotated bibliography can be used also in a literature review, so you’ll be not only partially drafting your lit review as you research, but also developing your sense of the larger conversation going on among scholars, professionals, and any other stakeholders in your topic.

Usually you will need to synthesize research rather than just summarizing it. This means drawing connections between sources to create a picture of the scholarly conversation on a topic over time. Many student writers struggle to synthesize because they feel they don’t have anything to add to the scholars they are citing; here are some strategies to help you:

• It often helps to remember that the point of these kinds of syntheses is to show your readers how you understand your research, to help them read the rest of your paper.
• Writing teachers often say synthesis is like hosting a dinner party: imagine all your sources are together in a room, discussing your topic. What are they saying to each other?
• Look at the in-text citations in each paragraph. Are you citing just one source for each paragraph? This usually indicates summary only. When you have multiple sources cited in a paragraph, you are more likely to be synthesizing them (not always, but often
• Read more about synthesis here.

The most interesting literature reviews are often written as arguments (again, as mentioned at the beginning of the page, this is discipline-specific and doesn’t work for all situations). Often, the literature review is where you can establish your research as filling a particular gap or as relevant in a particular way. You have some chance to do this in your introduction in an article, but the literature review section gives a more extended opportunity to establish the conversation in the way you would like your readers to see it. You can choose the intellectual lineage you would like to be part of and whose definitions matter most to your thinking (mostly humanities-specific, but this goes for sciences as well). In addressing these points, you argue for your place in the conversation, which tends to make the lit review more compelling than a simple reporting of other sources.

Literature Reviews

• What is a Literature Review?
• Steps for Creating a Literature Review
• Providing Evidence / Critical Analysis
• Challenges when writing a Literature Review
• Systematic Literature Reviews

Developing a Literature Review

1. Purpose and Scope

To help you develop a literature review, gather information on existing research, sub-topics, relevant research, and overlaps. Note initial thoughts on the topic - a mind map or list might be helpful - and avoid unfocused reading, collecting irrelevant content.  A literature review serves to place your research within the context of existing knowledge. It demonstrates your understanding of the field and identifies gaps that your research aims to fill. This helps in justifying the relevance and necessity of your study.

To avoid over-reading, set a target word count for each section and limit reading time. Plan backwards from the deadline and move on to other parts of the investigation. Read major texts and explore up-to-date research. Check reference lists and citation indexes for common standard texts. Be guided by research questions and refocus on your topic when needed. Stop reading if you find similar viewpoints or if you're going off topic.

You can use a "Synthesis Matrix" to keep track of your reading notes. This concept map helps you to provide a summary of the literature and its connections is produced as a result of this study. Utilizing referencing software like RefWorks to obtain citations, you can construct the framework for composing your literature evaluation.

2. Source Selection

Focus on searching for academically authoritative texts such as academic books, journals, research reports, and government publications. These sources are critical for ensuring the credibility and reliability of your review. 

• Academic Books: Provide comprehensive coverage of a topic.
• Journal Articles: Offer the most up-to-date research and are essential for a literature review.
• Research Reports: Detailed accounts of specific research projects.
• Government Publications: Official documents that provide reliable data and insights.

3. Thematic Analysis

Instead of merely summarizing sources, identify and discuss key themes that emerge from the literature. This involves interpreting and evaluating how different authors have tackled similar issues and how their findings relate to your research.

4. Critical Evaluation

Adopt a critical attitude towards the sources you review. Scrutinize, question, and dissect the material to ensure that your review is not just descriptive but analytical. This helps in highlighting the significance of various sources and their relevance to your research.

Each work's critical assessment should take into account:

Provenance:  What qualifications does the author have? Are the author's claims backed up by proof, such as first-hand accounts from history, case studies, stories, statistics, and current scientific discoveries? Methodology:  Were the strategies employed to locate, collect, and evaluate the data suitable for tackling the study question? Was the sample size suitable? Were the findings properly reported and interpreted? Objectivity : Is the author's viewpoint impartial or biased? Does the author's thesis get supported by evidence that refutes it, or does it ignore certain important facts? Persuasiveness:  Which of the author's arguments is the strongest or weakest in terms of persuasiveness? Value:  Are the author's claims and deductions believable? Does the study ultimately advance our understanding of the issue in any meaningful way?

5. Categorization

Organize your literature review by grouping sources into categories based on themes, relevance to research questions, theoretical paradigms, or chronology. This helps in presenting your findings in a structured manner.

6. Source Validity

Ensure that the sources you include are valid and reliable. Classic texts may retain their authority over time, but for fields that evolve rapidly, prioritize the most recent research. Always check the credibility of the authors and the impact of their work in the field.

7. Synthesis and Findings

Synthesize the information from various sources to draw conclusions about the current state of knowledge. Identify trends, controversies, and gaps in the literature. Relate your findings to your research questions and suggest future directions for research.

Practical Tips

• Use a variety of sources, including online databases, university libraries, and reference lists from relevant articles. This ensures a comprehensive coverage of the literature.
• Avoid listing sources without analysis. Use tables, bulk citations, and footnotes to manage references efficiently and make your review more readable.
• Writing a literature review is an ongoing process. Start writing early and revise as you read more. This iterative process helps in refining your arguments and identifying additional sources as needed.  

Brown University Library (2024) Organizing and Creating Information. Available at: https://libguides.brown.edu/organize/litreview (Accessed: 30 July 2024).

Pacheco-Vega, R. (2016) Synthesizing different bodies of work in your literature review: The Conceptual Synthesis Excel Dump (CSED) technique . Available at: http://www.raulpacheco.org/2016/06/synthesizing-different-bodies-of-work-in-your-literature-review-the-conceptual-synthesis-excel-dump-technique/ (Accessed: 30 July 2024).

Study Advice at the University of Reading (2024) Literature reviews . Available at: https://libguides.reading.ac.uk/literaturereview/developing (Accessed: 31 July 2024).

Further Reading

Frameworks for creating answerable (re)search questions  How to Guide

Literature Searching How to Guide

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The open innovation kaleidoscope: navigating pathways and overcoming failures

• Original Paper
• Open access
• Published: 31 August 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Maral Mahdad   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6612-5664 1 &
• Saeed Roshani 2  

In this study, we conduct a panoramic analysis of two decades of open innovation (OI), leveraging topic modeling with machine learning to map out ten critical OI pathways and their associated failure mechanisms on the micro, meso, and macro levels. Open innovation has revolutionized organizational innovation, collaboration, and competition. However, it presents complexities that require a multifaceted approach to research. Our findings, informed by interpretative thematic analysis, reveal distinct scholarly debates and three primary controversies within the OI research landscape, pointing to the need for future research to integrate these diverse narratives. By providing a comprehensive synthesis of the OI field’s evolution and current state, along with an analysis of its underlying failure mechanisms, we aim to guide strategic decision-making in OI practice, and enrich the academic discourse on its operational and strategic dimensions. Finally, we highlight several potential avenues for future research that emerge from our synthesis of the literature.

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1 Introduction

In two decades of open innovation, the landscape resembles a kaleidoscope where numerous facets and aspects intersect. This gives rise to a dynamic phenomenon marked by opportunities as well as challenges (Chesbrough 2004 ). The concept of open innovation introduced by Henry Chesbrough in his seminal book (Chesbrough 2003a , b ) has reshaped the way organizations innovate and revolutionized how they collaborate, compete, and adapt in a rapidly evolving environment. Over the past two decades, OI has transformed the boundaries of theoretical constructs and scholarly research. It has embedded itself in the strategies, tactics and operations of businesses, governments, and institutions (Holgerson et al. 2022 ; McGahan et al. 2021 ; Rexhepi et al. 2019 ; West and Bogers 2017 ). However, as the open innovation landscape unfolds, it reveals a complex interplay of elements, factors and levels of analysis that require a panoramic view—a kaleidoscopic examination—to capture different pathways that characterize the spectrum. In addition, these complexities depend on a range of contextual elements in the firm and the business environment (Madanaguli et al. 2023 ).

Open innovation has proven transformative in reshaping industries (Christensen et al. 2005 ), changing competitive business environments (Bacon et al. 2020 ), and fostering opportunities for companies efficiently practicing OI (e.g. Caputo et al. 2016 ; Majchrzak et al. 2023 ). Yet, for all its promise, open innovation comes with challenges (Dabic et al. 2023 ; Madanaguli et al. 2023 ; Chaudhary et al. 2022 ). As it extends from idea generation to scalability it encompasses process-related challenges (Madanaguli et al. 2023 ). The transition from collaboration to “coopetition” introduces strategic challenges (Corbo et al. 2023 ; Gast et al. 2019 ; Kallmuenzer et al. 2021 ; Xue et al. 2023 ). Open innovation is marked by complexities and ambiguities. As organizations explore this terrain, they encounter the shadows of potential failures (Cricelli et al. 2023 ). Recognizing that the potential of a kaleidoscope lies in its ever-shifting patterns, we understand that open innovation, requires a multifaceted lens to comprehend its full potential. Creating an unbiased panoramic view through diverse literature review methods advances academic discussion and fuels our motivation. This view provides a solid foundation for our analytical exploration along research pathways (Kraus et al. 2022 ). In our research, we use topic modeling with machine learning algorithms (Hannigan et al. 2019 ) to enable the unbiased view over the two decades of OI research and increase replicability and transparency. Thereby, we incorporate extra dimensions of openness and soundness to the outcomes of traditional systematic reviews (Kraus et al. 2020 ). We add a novel abductive interpretative reasoning layer (Walton 2014 ) for comprehensively understanding open innovation failures and risks across ten open innovation pathways. In doing so, we aim to equip organizations and scholars with a well-rounded perspective that guides their strategic decision-making in practicing OI. Therefore, our research answers the question: What predominant topics have been explained by recent scholarly discourse in open innovation, and how are failure mechanisms within these topics delineated across the micro, meso, and macro organizational levels?

This multi-level system perspective was originally inspired by “Coleman’s Boat” (Coleman 1994 ), which aims to bridge macro and micro levels by pointing out the key components needed to develop robust theory. In management research, the macro level often encompasses the system, economy, industry, and society, while the micro level refers to individual and behavioral attributes (Cowen et al. 2022 ). In this context, meso-level refers to firm-level outcomes. Additionally, it is well-documented that the phenomenon of open innovation spans multiple levels, and our approach to investigating it at different levels aligns with prior literature (e.g., Bogers et al. 2017 ).

The field of open innovation, though extensively researched, continues to suffer from a fragmented understanding of its diverse and evolving nature, characterized by multiple pathways and shifting narratives. For example, Bertello et al. ( 2024 ) extensively reviewed the literature of the field. They showed that some scholars have attempted to leverage well-established theories such as a resource-based or knowledge-based view of the firms, while others have begun to renew the theoretical foundation to generate new discussions. These endeavors have enriched the field of open innovation. However, they have also increased the heterogeneity of its theoretical foundations, making it more challenging to develop coherent theories in new empirical contexts. This drives our first motivation to conduct a comprehensive examination and synthesis of open innovation research. We aim to shed light on its historical evolution and chart the path for future academic inquiries through topic modeling, a machine learning technique that uses natural language processing. Topic modeling offers a dynamic, comprehensive method for discerning hidden data patterns, surpassing traditional systematic literature reviews (SLR) in revealing emerging trends and adapting to shifts in research (Kraus et al. 2022 , 2024 ; Brem et al. 2023 ; Hannigan et al. 2019 ). Its aptitude for processing extensive datasets and the use of visualization tools simplifies the understanding of complex topic relationships (Hannigan et al. 2019 ). Objective and reflective analyses become fundamental for assessing the existing knowledge base, pinpointing knowledge gaps, and evaluating the efficacy and productivity of open innovation research This benefits both the practice and academic communities (Randhawa et al. 2016 ) and ultimately moves them forward. In fact, topic modeling techniques offer researchers the opportunity to create multi-dimensional artifacts like differentiation and novelty (Hannigan et al. 2019 ). However, its full potential is realized when an iterative and interpretive approach is integrated into the analytics. The novelty of our research comes from using interpretative thematic analysis to qualitatively examine topics identified by topic modeling techniques through the lens of failure. The diversity of OI pathways plays a pivotal role in shaping the identity and avenues of open innovation research and practice, reflecting its core concepts, paradigms, recognition mechanisms, and directions (Radziwon et al. 2022 ).

The choice of failure as a lens to examine open innovation (OI) challenges has recently received attention in OI research, although it has not been specifically carved into various OI pathways. Failure as an analytical lens was selected for two main reasons. First, the lack of studies on the downsides of OI represents a significant gap, potentially giving the misleading impression that OI is a cure-all for firms’ innovation challenges (Greco et al. 2022 ). Second, the need for alternative review techniques is necessary to gain a fine-grained understanding of open innovation failure (Chaudhary et al. 2022 ).

Our research therefore encompasses two decades of open innovation, offering a comprehensive analysis of ten critical pathways within the OI domain. In addition, it illustrates the nuanced failure mechanisms at micro, meso and macro levels that could negatively affect OI processes. Furthermore, it provides a snapshot of the current landscape and proposes prospective trajectories for the evolution of OI research based on the controversies in the field.

2 Methodology

This research improves topic modeling by integrating interpretative analysis commonly found in systematic literature reviews. This is in line with methodologies emphasized by leading experts like Kraus et al. ( 2022 ). Using an in-depth literature review conjoined with the procedure of topic modeling, the present research offers a comprehensive and categorized view of existing literature pertinent to open innovation within business and management domain. The approach combines a detailed literature review with topic modeling to offer a comprehensive perspective and categorization of existing literature on open innovation within the business and management domain. Our methodology follows a structured and transparent process, adhering to best practices for conducting systematic literature reviews (SLRs) as outlined in recent literature (Kraus et al. 2024 ). Specifically, the guidelines provided by Dhiman et al. ( 2023 ) and Rammal ( 2023 ) were instrumental in shaping our approach, ensuring that our review is thorough, systematic, and replicable. Additionally, recent studies have effectively utilized the SLR methodology to explore various aspects of management research, demonstrating its versatility and robustness. For instance, Sauer and Seuring ( 2023 ) employed an SLR to develop a comprehensive guide for conducting literature reviews in management research, emphasizing key decisions and steps. Similarly, other researchers have applied SLRs to investigate diverse topics, such as supply chain management (da Silva et al. 2024 ), absorptive capacity (Pütz et al. 2024 ), crowdsourcing and open innovation (Cricelli et al. 2022 ; Carrasco-Carvajal et al. 2023 ), the organizational, environmental, and socio-economic sustainability of digitization (Chopra et al. 2024 ), further validating the methodology’s applicability and relevance in our study.

Our methodology involves four key steps as described in Table  1 : data collection, topic modeling, topic exploration, and topic interpretation with failure as a lens. In the data collection phase, we employed a comprehensive search strategy across Web of Science, to gather relevant peer-reviewed articles. We then utilized Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) for topic modeling, which allowed us to identify and categorize latent topics within the literature systematically (Blei 2012 ; Brem et al. 2023 ). The subsequent exploration and interpretation of these topics involved a critical analysis that integrates insights from the literature on systematic reviews in management research, drawing on established frameworks to ensure a comprehensive and nuanced synthesis. This robust methodological framework ensures that our study not only maps the existing body of knowledge but also identifies key gaps and future research directions in the field of open innovation, as emphasized by Rana et al. ( 2023 ), Rammal ( 2023 ) and Baltazar et al. ( 2023 ) (Fig.  1 ).

Overview of the research methodology

2.1 Data collection

To ensure a comprehensive examination of the open innovation literature, our primary data source was the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) database. The WoSCC is widely recognized for its extensive coverage of high-quality research articles across various disciplines. WoS is one of the most comprehensive and widely used citation databases in the academic community. It covers more than 13,610 journals across all disciplines (Singh et al. 2021 ; Falagas et al. 2008 ). To find most relevant articles in the field, we used a search string based on Gao et al. ( 2020 ). Additionally, in recognition of the first article in this domain written by Chesbrough ( 2003a , b ), we refined our search to encompass articles from 2003 to 2023 (Gao et al. 2020 ; Kovacs et al. 2015 ). The detailed search criteria and keywords employed are presented in Table  1 .

The initial retrieval yielded a sample of 2,551 articles. Recognizing the importance of data quality in conducting rigorous research, we undertook a thorough data-cleaning process. This involved supplementing missing abstracts, removing duplicates, and discarding articles without abstracts. After this rigorous cleaning process, we were left with a final sample of 2,537 unique articles These formed the basis for our subsequent analyses.

2.2 Topic modeling

After finalizing the collection of relevant articles, we explored topic modeling, a method essential for uncovering hidden thematic patterns in large volumes of text (Blei 2012 ). This technique offers an objective perspective on dominant trends and provides a detailed understanding of the subject matter. In natural language processing and machine learning, a topic model is a statistical method for determining the “topics” in a set of documents. Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) can uncover hidden semantic structures and topics in a large body of unstructured textual data using natural language processing, machine learning, and statistical algorithms (Blei et al. 2012 ; Wang and Blei 2011 ).

There are several notable advantages to using topic models. They rest on mathematically robust principles, elucidating the intricate dynamics of document generation. Moreover, they operate without needing prior categorization or labeling of documents, enabling an autonomous and expert-independent analysis. This autonomy extends to their capability to systematically organize and summarize vast swathes of documents, making them invaluable in text mining applications (Lee and Kang 2018 ). These attributes have led to an increased interest in topic models, finding successful applications across diverse text mining activities (Yan 2014 ). Several researchers in management studies have employed topic modeling techniques. Specifically, these approaches have been explored in fields such as marketing (Mustak et al. 2021 ; Amado et al. 2018 ), technology and innovation management (Lee and Kang 2018 ), information systems (Jeyaraj and Zadeh 2020 ), crisis innovation (Brem et al. 2023 ), open innovation (Lu and Chesbrough 2022 ), and human resource management (Thakral et al. 2023 ).

Before conducting topic modeling to identify relevant topics, some pre-processing procedures were required. Both the title and abstract of the articles were amalgamated to serve as the model’s input. This decision was based on the rationale that titles encapsulate the most representative terms, and the abstract delineated the study’s context, objectives, methodologies, and conclusions. We employed several steps to create a corpus that was used for topic modeling. In the initial phase, the entire text was divided into sentences and the sentences into the tokens (tokenization). Punctuation and numerical characters were subsequently excluded, and all characters were converted to lowercase. The subsequent step entailed the removal of words with fewer than three characters, including the extension of this process to eliminate structural words commonly found in abstracts, such as “aim,” “purpose,” “study,” “framework,” and “effect” (stop words). Next, word bigrams were created to link words that co-occur frequently. For instance, the combination of “business” and “model” was treated as “business_model”. Using lemmatization algorithms, words were transformed into their root forms to reduce dimensionality without loss of generality. For example, the term “industry” could manifest as “industry” or “industries” as a noun, “industrial” as an adjective, “industrialize,” “industrializes,” or “industrialized” as a verb, and “ndustrially” as an adverb. This was followed by word-stemming procedures that streamlined these words to their base forms, exemplified by the stemming of various forms of the term “industry” to “industri”. In addition, we removed all terms that occurred fewer than five times across all documents or that appeared in more than 70% of records. The final step in preprocessing was to convert the documents into a bag-of-words format. In this model, each document was depicted as a vector consisting of an unsequenced set of words. All of these tasks were implemented using gensim v. 3.8.3 (Rehurek and Sojka 2010 ), NLTK v. 3.7, and spaCy v. 3.0.0. (Honnibal et al. 2020 ).

We employed Latent Dirichlet Allocation-LDA (Blei et al. 2003 ) for topic modeling and used the Machine Learning for Language Toolkit (MALLET) for implementation. MALLET is an open-source Java-based machine learning package known for its sophisticated tools for statistical natural processing, document classification, sequence tagging, numerical optimization, and topic modeling, among others (McCullum 2002 ). One of its primary advantages is its scalable and efficient implementation of Gibbs sampling. Additionally, it provides efficient methods for document-topic hyperparameter optimization and has built-in tools for inferring topics on unseen documents using trained models. The MALLET tool is multi-threaded and optimized for performance on a single machine. However, it is worth noting its limitations. It can be memory-intensive, and handling extremely large datasets might lead to frequent garbage collection. As a result, it might not be scalable for massive datasets and can be challenging to scale across multiple nodes of a cluster (Sukhija et al. 2016 ). Despite these limitations, MALLET's robust features and efficiency, combined with the size of our data, made it a suitable choice for our study’s dataset and requirements.

Determining the optimal number of topics is a significant challenge in topic modeling. Researchers often use several measures, such as coherence and perplexity, to pinpoint the optimal number of topics. Although the perplexity measure is commonly used for this purpose (Jeong et al. 2019 ), there are no standard packages for its computation in MALLET. To address this issue, we used the topic coherence score to determine the optimal number of topics. This metric measures the quality of a given topic model by computing the semantic similarity between its highest-scoring terms. We used two specific coherence measures: c_v and u_mass. The c_v measure, rooted in a sliding window approach, uses a one-set segmentation of top words and indirect cosine similarity for confirmation. In contrast, u_mass is based on document co-occurrence counts and a one-preceding segmentation, confirming using the measure of log conditional probability (Röder et al. 2015 ). For c_v, higher values indicate better topic coherence, while for u_mass, values closer to zero suggest peak coherence (Röder et al. 2015 ) Our analysis employed both the c_v and u_mass measures. While some studies adopt statistical approaches, others rely on subjective analysis, where experts evaluate the appropriateness of number of topics (Madzík et al. 2023 ). Subsequently, we also engaged expert opinions to validate and refine our topic selection based on the coherence scores. As shown in Fig.  2 , the coherence scores, when plotted against the number of topics, provide insightful observations. The c_v scores consistently hover around their peak within the range of eight to 13 topics, reaching a peak of 0.3991 at 10 topics. This consistency suggests a stable and coherent representation of the data within this range. Meanwhile, the u_mass score indicates two topics as optimal, with scores closest to zero. However, such minimalistic categorization could potentially oversimplify our dataset, neglecting its inherent complexity and nuances. Within the range of eight to 13 topics, the u_mass scores are less negative, hinting at a semantic closeness and meaningful topic delineation. Given these findings, and for a more comprehensive perspective, we deemed it prudent to explore the topic range of eight to 13, striking a balance between coherence and detailed representation. A thorough evaluation of these topics subjectively led us to determine the optimal topic number at 10, marked by a c_v score of 0.3991 and an u_mass score of − 2.154.

Topic coherence scores

2.3 Topic exploration

Upon building the LDA model with 10 topics, we employed various techniques to further explore these topics. We visualized topics using the word_cloud library v. 1.8.1, where the size of each word within a specific topic is proportionate to its frequency within that topic. Additionally, we used the PyLDAvis library v. 2.1.2 for topic interpretation, based on the 10 topics identified earlier (Sievert and Shirley 2014 ). PyLDAvis facilitates topic visualization and offers deeper insights through its unique inter-topic distance mapping. This tool computes topic centers using Jensen–Shannon divergence (JSD) and calculates inter-topic distances using multidimensional scaling. It effectively maps multi-dimensional topic distances onto a two-dimensional plane, providing a spatial representation of topic proximity.

Subsequently, we also normalized the weight of each topic per year to analyze the annual changes in open innovation research. We used Mann–Kendall (MK) test. The null hypothesis in this nonparametric test is that the sample data are independent and randomly distributed (Hamed and Rao 1998 ). We used the pyMannKendall python package Version 1.4.2, which is a pure Python implementation of non-parametric Mann–Kendall trend analysis (Hussain and Mahmud 2019 ). However, before using the Mann–Kendall test, we needed to confirm that autocorrelation was not present in our data, as it could bias the Mann–Kendall results. For this, we employed the Durbin–Watson statistic, which tests for serial correlation between errors (Neeti and Eastman 2011 ). The Durbin–Watson test produces values that range from zero to four. A value close to two suggests no autocorrelation, while a value near zero indicates positive autocorrelation. Values near four imply negative autocorrelation. Our results shows that all values are below two, indicating the presence of positive autocorrelation in the data. In this case we used Hamed and Rao’s modification test to identify trends in topics (Hamed and Rao 1998 ). Upon further investigation, we noticed fluctuations in the data before 2002. To mitigate the potential biases these fluctuations might introduce to our trend analysis, we excluded data prior to 2002. After this adjustment, we recalculated the Mann–Kendall test to discern trends in the topics. To classify the most pertinent documents for each topic, we extracted the dominant topic for each document in our corpus. Using our LDA model, we assigned each document to the topic that had the highest contribution in that document. The “Dominant Topic” in our dataset is determined by identifying the topic number with the highest percentage contribution for that document. This is recorded as “Contribution %,” which signifies the weight of the topic in that particular document. This method ensures that each document is associated with its most relevant topic. It streamlines the process of analyzing journals and other sources based on topic dominance.

2.4 Topic interpretation and failure as a lens

Following the identification of topics, we embarked on an interpretive analysis of each one. Every article in our sample was categorized based on its predominant topic. Subsequently, to contextualize and synthesize the most pivotal contributions, we reviewed the articles with a high percentage of contribution to their associated topic. Our initial approach involved a thorough examination of the abstracts of articles with significant contributions to each topic. This facilitated the selection of works serving as exemplars. The representativeness of these chosen articles was cross-verified against the topic-related terms for accuracy. Upon this validation, we investigated these selected articles with other significant contributions within the same topic domain. As a culminating step in our analytical process, after an exhaustive review of articles within each topic, we assigned descriptive failure labels to every topic to encapsulate its essence. We adopted a failure lens for the selected articles in each topic, based on the rationale that these papers investigate OI cases representing constraints, limits, risks, or challenges for OI implementation. We then categorized the associating level as micro, meso, or macro, and included theoretical and conceptual papers in this analysis.

We collected 2,537 articles from the Web of Science database from 2003 to 2023. Figure  3 shows the number of publications in the field of open innovation from 2003 to 2023. The data shows a steady increase in the number of publications over time, with a peak in 2022 with 354 articles, followed by 276 articles in 2021 and 259 articles in 2020. The data suggests that open innovation is a rapidly growing field of research, with a high level of interest from the academic community.

Growth of scientific publications on open innovation (Web of Science). Note : The decrease observed in 2023 can be attributed to the year not being complete at the time of analysis

Table 2 provides a detailed breakdown of the most frequently cited journals within the realm of open innovation research in business and management. “Technological Forecasting and Social Change” holds a prominent position with 133 publications and a cumulative citation count of 5,239, translating to a citation impact of 39.40. “R&D Management” and “Technology Analysis & Strategic Management” closely follow with 121 and 91 publications, amassing 10,084 and 1,748 citations, respectively. Notably, “Research Policy” has a high citation impact of 130.87, indicating its seminal contributions to this field.

3.1 Topic modeling results

The use of topic modeling enabled us to uncover latent semantic structures within the unstructured textual data we collected. Through this technique, we identified a model consisting of 10 distinct pathways, which effectively encapsulated a comprehensive range of OI-related subjects. The word-cloud analysis of the topic modeling outcomes, presented in Fig.  4 , visually portrays the word distribution within the eleven identified topics.

Word cloud of open innovation topics in business and management research

Table 3 provides an overview of the key terms associated with each topic, along with the corresponding count of documents and the cumulative citation count. These findings collectively underscore the diverse array of topics that span across various academic disciplines.

In this comprehensive examination of ten pivotal topics in the field of open innovation research, we present our result in each pathway implementing a dual analytical framework. Initially, we describe the principal attributes inherent in each pathway, subsequently progressing to an abductive exploration that unveils the associated failure mechanisms embedded within the open innovation landscape. This multifaceted analytical approach extends across the micro (individual), meso (organizational), and macro (system) levels of analysis, providing a holistic view of OI failures in these pathways.

3.1.1 Pathway 1: value creation and capture in OI setting

Main features :

Within the open innovation landscape, the emergence of collaborative ecosystems stands out as a pivotal theme. Central to this pathway is the intricate interplay between business models, ecosystems, and networks. Specifically, the concept of a business model as a tangible construct takes the spotlight. In open innovation contexts, business models play an indispensable role in delineating the generation and capture of value within collaborative networks. This pathway also introduces the collaborative business model concept, underscoring the significance of co-creating and capturing value that extends beyond the confines of a single firm. Furthermore, it emphasizes the imperative of network alignment and the need for well-structured, interconnected networks. These facilitate the effective creation and capture of value at a macro level. Notably, this pathway displays strong linkages with sustainability transition research. It sheds light on the role of value creation and capture mechanisms in driving sustainability-oriented open innovation.

Failures in value creation and capture in OI:

At the micro level, we found that issues related to learning, attitudes, and organizational culture can slow down value creation processes. At the individual level, resistance to change hinders creative processes related to co-creating values with other organizations. At the meso level, organizational capabilities play a pivotal role in determining the effectiveness of value capture mechanisms. Challenges such as information asymmetry, limited rationality, and opportunistic behavior can impede the realization of value from collaborative efforts. Furthermore, the uneven distribution of intellectual property (IP) ownership can lead to disputes that affect value capture mechanisms, often resulting in wasteful litigations. Our findings indicate that, on the macro level, we could not extract any factors. External factors, such as regulatory, economic, and cultural aspects, that impact how value is created and shared in the broader context, need to be further examined.

3.1.2 Pathway 2: managing the OI process

Main features:

The second pathway in our exploration phase leads to the management of open innovation processes. It includes a broad range of sub-themes, including empirical case studies on OI processes involving SMEs and LEs. An integral aspect is the emphasis on the management of knowledge flows, ensuring that valuable insights and expertise circulate efficiently in open innovation ecosystems. Furthermore, this pathway exhausts the concept of the “Liability of Smallness,” which is discussed in the context of SMEs and the unique challenges they face in the OI paradigm. Additionally, this pathway deals with the role of discovering market opportunities and the execution of collaborative research and development (R&D) efforts as two domains in managing OI processes. Additionally, assessing the strategic fit of and with partners plays a pivotal role in managing OI process.

Failure in managing the OI process:

At the micro level, individual networks may fail to contribute effectively. The “Not Invented Here” (NIH) syndrome can create barriers, leading to the dismissal of valuable external ideas. Employee competencies are critical, and misalignment with team members can result in failures. At the meso level, an organizational culture that discourages risk-taking and does not tolerate failure can stall the open innovation process. When open innovation projects lack connection and consistency with the company’s business model, underperformance and failure can occur. Risks related to asset complementarity, chain characteristics, and persistent NIH at the inter-organizational level, along with ineffective knowledge transfer, pose significant challenges. As with Pathway 1, the macro level presents no failure mechanisms to analyze in this context.

3.1.3 Pathway 3: managing knowledge inflows/outflows

This pathway leads to the dynamic processes of knowledge inflows and outflows within the context of open innovation. Central elements in this pathway include knowledge assimilation representing the internalization and integration of external knowledge within an organization, and aligning it with existing capabilities and objectives to create value. The other core sub-theme within this pathway is the role of absorptive capacity as the organization’s ability to effectively identify, acquire, and apply external knowledge, emphasizing its capacity to absorb, adapt, and leverage this knowledge for innovation and competitiveness. The pathway through many empirical examples underscores that external knowledge, while valuable, may not seamlessly align with an organization’s existing capabilities unless it is harmonized with their specific business needs and grafted onto their existing operations.

Failures in managing knowledge flows:

At the micro level, cognitive abilities and role identities can impede the effective assimilation of external knowledge within organizations. Failures can also arise from issues related to bisociative cognition and the quality of external knowledge. External knowledge that is incompatible with an individual’s existing capabilities can result in suboptimal outcomes. At the meso level, failures may stem from the inability to recognize and locate cross-border knowledge, both in terms of the search for relevant knowledge and its integration. Furthermore, the lack of organizational ambidexterity, which involves balancing the exploration and exploitation of knowledge, can hinder the effective assimilation of external knowledge. At the macro level, failure can result from an organization’s inability to reconfigure its knowledge in response to external market movements. Additionally, the knowledge climate, both locally and at a distance, can affect the efficacy of knowledge flows and their alignment with the organization’s strategic objectives.

3.1.4 Pathway 4: the fuzzy front-end of the innovation process

This pathway leads to the multifaceted process of developing new products and services. It deals with the “fuzzy front end,” the initial stage of innovation where ideas are generated and preliminary concepts take shape. The subsequent research and development (R&D) stage is a critical phase where ideas are refined and developed into tangible offerings. The research along this pathway deals with the concept of “outside in” and emphasizes the importance of considering external perspectives, such as customer feedback and market insights, in the innovation process. Moreover, it highlights the active engagement of consumers in new product development (NPD) and new service development (NSD), illustrating the growing trend of co-creation and collaboration in shaping new offerings.

Failures in the fuzzy front end of innovation:

At the micro level, limited attentional capacity can make the management of multiple issues less effective when these issues compete for the attention of top management teams during the NPD and NSD processes. This may result in crucial aspects being overlooked or underemphasized. At the meso level, failures can arise from the absence of robust legal strategies to protect intellectual property, as well as inadequate technological resources within the organization. Such failures can harm the development of innovative products and services. At the macro level, industry-level factors, such as the pace of technological change (industry-level clock), the lack of technological diversity or intensity in the market, and a scarcity of competition, along with environmental contingencies, can collectively influence the success or failure of NPD and NSD initiatives.

3.1.5 Pathway 5: the quadruple helix

Research on this pathway deals with the dynamics of collaboration between small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), university-industry collaboration and public partnerships. It examines the role played by entrepreneurial agents within the quadruple helix model. On this pathway the interactions among academia, industry, government, and civil society are examined as open innovation modes. Open innovation at the project level receives attention, providing a more granular perspective on collaborative network efforts and showing how individual and organizational levels interact.

Failures in the quadruple helix:

At the micro level, issues related to team openness, interpersonal skills, and leadership have been found to be critical factors for university–industry collaboration and innovation. At the project level, ambiguities surrounding project goals among partners can lead to misalignment and underperformance. Meso-level challenges encompass measurement issues and key performance indicator (KPI)-related challenges, including the need for interoperable KPIs and the potential influence of bureaucratic hurdles in different institutions. At the macro level, dilemmas related to proximity, market conditions, and governmental support can influence the success or failure of collaborations between SMEs, universities, industries, and government entities, affecting the larger innovation landscape.

3.1.6 Pathway 6: OI and resilience

This pathway leads to exploring the intricate relationship between open innovation and the concept of ecosystems. It emphasizes the interplay between resilience and the ecosystem’s health in the context of innovation. The research on this pathway deals with subjects related to exogenous shocks. An example is the impact of events like the COVID-19 pandemic on open innovation practices. Grand challenges are a focal point of this pathway, leading to discourse about how open innovation can address and contribute to overcoming societal issues. Additionally, the transformation of business models in the context of societal challenges is a key feature. Analyzing such transformations shows how open innovation can catalyze the evolution of organizational strategies and structures.

Failures in OI resilience:

At the meso level, business model failure is risky, particularly when organizations do not change their traditional business models to align with new market dynamics and innovation logic. Inconsistencies in vision regarding innovation can create challenges in navigating open innovation successfully. Resistance to change, particularly in traditional non-digital business models, and a lack of organizational agility, can stall innovation efforts. At the macro level, market turbulence is identified as a potential failure factor. The unpredictable nature of markets, particularly in the face of exogenous shocks, can pose significant challenges to open innovation initiatives. This can potentially lead to ecosystem failure. On this pathway, micro-level failure mechanisms are as yet unexplored.

3.1.7 Pathway 7: appropriation strategies

This pathway leads to intellectual property management in open innovation. It mainly deals with phenomena related to external technology acquisition. Licensing is fundamental to this pathway, as it enables organizations to grant or obtain rights to use, develop, or commercialize specific technologies. The value of licensed patents is a key discussion point, showing the value of patents as assets in open innovation. This pathway notably emphasizes the significance of technology-related strategies in open innovation practices.

Failures in appropriation strategies:

At the micro level, failure can come from a lack of meaningful interaction between individual licensees and licensors. This can impede the effective exchange of knowledge and technology. Reverse learning, where knowledge flows in an undesired direction, can also pose challenges. At the meso level, failures may stem from ineffective intellectual property (IP) strategies, as well as a lack of market knowledge, which can affect the organization’s ability to protect and leverage its technology effectively. At the macro level, the absence of market-level technology information, which involves actively seeking external technologies on a broader scale, can be a failure factor, potentially resulting in missed opportunities.

Additionally, the paradox of depth of openness and closeness in appropriation strategies is partially discussed on this pathway. The imbalance found to lead to issues such as anti-commons (resource underuse), trolling (unfair patent assertion), and the multiplication of wasteful litigations. These issues can all weaken the effective use of intellectual property in open innovation initiatives.

3.1.8 Pathway 8: platforms and communities

This pathway is characterized by a rich body of literature focused on consumer engagement as an OI mechanism. It encompasses the microfoundational aspects of engagement, including cognition and behavior, to unravel how consumers participate in various innovation communities. Usercommunities, within which tangible incentives, formal authority, and established institutions are notably absent, are central to this discourse. The pathway encompasses innovations ranging from user-led changes to open platforms. It showcases the diverse ways in which consumers contribute to innovation.

Failures in platform and communities:

At the micro level, the motivation for participation is pivotal. Failure can arise when consumers lack incentives or enthusiasm to engage actively. The diversity and effectiveness of consumers’ creativity portfolios, as well as the leadership within informal institutions, can significantly affect the outcomes of consumer engagement efforts. At the meso level, challenges can stem from a lack of ways to measure user contributions to innovative products, and thus failing to reward them effectively. At the macro level, failures may result from difficulties in adopting engagement strategies in line with socio-cultural factors and gaining collective approval. Governance failures, which pertain to the structures and processes governing consumer engagement, can weaken the effectiveness of user communities in shaping innovations. The notion of “empty bar symptoms” represents unique and noteworthy failure factors in this context. It may signify challenges related to participation, productivity, or the fulfillment of expectations within consumer engagement scenarios.

3.1.9 Pathway 9: OI activities, firm performance, and output

This pathway primarily leads to understanding how access to external technologies can affect both modular and radical forms of innovation, and ultimately a firm’s innovation performance. The Quadruple Helix model also appears here, showing the roles of customers, suppliers, and universities in shaping innovation outcomes. Notably, positive innovation output is observed when these stakeholders are involved, but cross-sector collaborative innovation may negatively affect innovation output. Additionally, the pathway explores the effects of inbound and outbound activities on innovation performance. Research on this pathway shows that inbound activities improve radical innovation performance, but impede incremental innovation performance, while focusing on outbound activities produces the opposite effects.

Failures in OI activities and performance:

Failure mechanisms in this pathway are not detailed at the micro level. At the meso level, challenges can arise from issues related to organizational capability and routines, the firm’s ability to consistently access and evaluate external knowledge resources, the lack of organizational ambidexterity, the excessive practice of open innovation, and the firm’s technological capabilities impeding organizational ability to carry out OI practices.

At the macro level, failure can result from slow changes in the technological environment, particularly in mature industries where innovation may be slower to evolve or adapt to external factors.

3.1.10 Pathway 10: crowdsourcing

This pathway leads to understanding the process of idea generation and how innovation contests facilitate it. At the microfoundational level, the focus is on motivation theory, examining what drives individuals’ participation in these contests. Social exchange theory is a central framework used in this pathway for understanding sociological and psychological factors related to the dynamic interaction between two parties. Notably, research is limited on how organizations and systems affect these processes. Most studies focus on individual and small-group dynamics.

Failures in crowdsourcing:

At the micro level, failures can occur when individuals participating in contests underinvest their efforts, leading to suboptimal solutions. Misalignment between the motivations of solvers and seekers (those seeking solutions) can hinder the success of idea generation. The lack of perspective on the ultimate impact of their solutions may also result in failures, because solvers may not fully comprehend the potential value of their contributions. Additionally, a lack of monetary reward and trust in contest platforms can act as deterrents. At the meso level, failures may stem from organizations ineffectively implementing the suggestions generated in contests. The organization’s ability to recombine knowledge, its absorptive capacity, and its ability to proactively provide and receive suggestions can affect the success of idea generation and innovation contests. Specific failure mechanisms are not detailed for the macro level in this context.

Table 4 summarizes the results of the open innovation pathways, main features, and failures.

3.2 Results of Mann–Kendall test

As previously noted, we employed the weight of each topic per year to analyze the annual shifts in open innovation research. Figure  5 visually captures the evolution of these topics from 2003 to 2023. At a glance, it appears that the publication proportion for all topics experienced fluctuations, especially between 2003 and 2005. For a more rigorous understanding of these observed trends, we applied the Mann–Kendall test. The results of this test, delineated in Table  5 , give a statistically substantiated account of the topic trajectories.

Temporal trends in open innovation research topics (1993–2023)

The Mann–Kendall Test results presented in Table  5 provide valuable insights into the annual trends of open innovation research topics over a specific time period. Each research topic has been examined for its trajectory, with particular attention paid to the direction and significance of trends, denoted by p -values and z-scores. Moreover, the tau statistic has been employed to gauge the strength and direction of these trends, offering a comprehensive perspective on the evolution of each research theme.

In our analysis, we observed that some topics have experienced a noteworthy decline in research interest. Notably, “Value Creation and Capture Process” (Topic 1) and “OI Strategic Management” (Topic 2) exhibit decreasing trends with p -values of 0.009 and < 0.000 respectively, accompanied by negative z-scores of − 2.605 and − 3.984. These findings suggest that scholarly attention to these topics has waned over the studied period.

On the other hand, certain research areas have seen a surge in interest. “Quadruple Helix” (Topic 5) and “OI and Resilience” (Topic 6) display increasing trends, with highly significant p -values of 0.034 and 0.001, and positive z-scores of 2.116 and 3.177 respectively. These results signify a growing focus on collaborative endeavors, business models, and ecosystem dynamics within the academic community. Meanwhile, “Managing Knowledge Inflows and Outflows” (Topic 3), “The Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation” (Topic 4), “Platforms and Communities” (Topic 8), and “Crowdsourcing” (Topic 10) present no significant trends, as indicated by their p -values and z-scores. These research themes have maintained a relatively stable level of attention in recent years. Finally, “OI Outputs” (Topic 9) has emerged as an area of increasing significance, shown by a significant p -value and a positive z-score of 5.324. This points to a notable uptick in scholarly focus on factors affecting firm performance within the open innovation context.

The inter-topic distance map provides valuable insights into the relationships and proximities between the identified topics in our open innovation research (Fig.  6 ). The two-dimensional visualization provides an insightful representation of the relationships between the topics in our corpus. The x and y axes represent the Inter-topic Distance Map, where each bubble represents a topic, and the distance between the bubbles indicates how distinct or similar the topics are from each other.

Inter-topic distance map

The map shows that Topic 10 (Crowdsourcing), Topic 5 (Quadruple Helix), and Topic 8 (Platforms and Communities) are very similar. This is likely because crowdsourcing is often enabled by platforms and communities. Topic 1 (Value Creation and Capture Process) and Topic 2 (OI Strategic Management) are also close together on the map, because the two topics are closely related. Open innovation is a process that companies use to create new value and develop new services by leveraging external resources and ideas.

“The Fuzzy Front-End of Innovation” (Topic 4) and “OI Outputs” (Topic 9) exhibit intertwined themes. The cross-linkage of terms such as firm , product , and strategy reflects the potential interplay between product development and the overarching performance of the firm. It signifies that the effectiveness of new products or service developments often translates to the overall performance metrics of firms.

However, what stands out is “Managing Knowledge Inflows and Outflows” (Topic 3). Accompanied by terms like knowledge , absorptive capacity , and transfer , this topic encompasses the mechanics of managing, assimilating, and exploiting knowledge from both internal and external sources. Topic 3 indicates that knowledge management is a broad theme that may intersect with other OI topics without being tied to particular settings. Additionally, the intertopic map reveals three distinct controversies in the open innovation scholarly research community, which we will discuss and use as guidelines for future research directions.

4 Discussion in the current landscape of OI research: pathways for future research

Intertopic distance maps serve as strategic guides in topic modeling to uncover potential research directions in the OI research field. The gaps or distances between topics on such maps can show valuable insights. They may indicate under-researched areas for future research, or point out theoretical divides that call for new or integrative theoretical frameworks. They also show visually how mature or saturated certain research areas are based on topic clustering. Additionally, the spatial separation between topics can show the need for interdisciplinary research to bridge related domains. By focusing on these distances and the relational dynamics they represent, we identify and prioritize three areas where further investigation could yield significant contributions to OI fields and topics. Then, we discuss our analytical results regarding failure in the field of open innovation. Our discussion section also informs avenues for future research.

4.1 The OI landscape

4.1.1 controversy 1: the distance between managing knowledge flows and the oi main topic cluster.

One could assume that managing knowledge flows constitutes the core of all open innovation (OI) activities and processes. The large gap between this topic and other principal OI topics has scholarly significance, requiring further understanding. We point out several reasons for this observation, looking in depth at the following topics: The literature comprising Topic 3 employs specialized terminologies tied to the knowledge management and knowledge economy sectors, mainly through the lens of the knowledge-based view (KBV) of the firm (e.g. Brunswicker and Vanhaverbeke 2015 ; Santoro et al. 2018 ; Chiang and Hung 2010 ). Conversely, the core cluster of the open innovation (OI) field is characterized by a prevalent adoption of the resource-based view (RBV) as the theoretical underpinning (e.g. Chesbrough and Crowther 2006 ; Mortara andMinshall 2011 ; Du et al. 2014 ). Thereby, it highlights a divergence in theoretical perspectives within OI research. A potential angle for future research in open innovation is to promote research using theoretical pluralism and cross-disciplinary projects. Few researchers have proposed ways to implement theoretical pluralism and combine lenses in management research. Okhuysen and Bonardi ( 2011 ) explain that the challenge in developing “multi-lens” theories lies in the conceptual closeness of the theories being integrated and the extent to which their foundational assumptions align. Their solution is a so-called “paradigm sliding.” This entails combining theoretical perspectives that are conceptually close and harmonious in terms of their fundamental premises. In general, the distance between the topics could be shortened by promoting multi-lens contributions.

4.1.2 Controversy 2: The distance between OI output and the OI main topic cluster

The open innovation concept and its research rest on the notion that collaboration positively influences innovation (Audretsch and Belitski 2024 ). Despite theoretical recognition of the crucial role external knowledge plays in enhancing a firm’s innovation and productivity through knowledge transfer or spillovers (Dahlander and Gann 2010 ; Bogers et al. 2018 ), empirical studies on OI outcomes are scarce. The complexity of such empirical research (Audretsch and Belitski 2024 ; Mention 2011 ) may contribute to the data sparsity on OI output, which, in turn, accounts for the observed research gap. Nonetheless, our findings suggest that this topic is burgeoning, so it presents an exciting avenue for future inquiry. Future research on OI could benefit from the development of new, robust structural indicators that offer a clearer measurement of OI outcomes.

4.1.3 Controversy 3: the distance between appropriation strategy and the OI main topic cluster

In the literature of strategic management and initial studies of open innovation (OI), the discussion often focused on appropriation strategies as a key means to implement OI activities, especially how firms safeguard and leverage their intellectual property, licensing, and competitive advantage. As the OI field has evolved, research has expanded to encompass the broader integration of external and internal ideas to drive innovation. This shift has led to the emergence of distinct research communities and diverse methodological approaches . The appropriation strategies topic, which typically involves technological innovation, technology procurement, and patent analysis (e.g. Guo et al. 2016 ; Noh and Li 2020 ; Klechtermans et al. 2022 ), illustrates one of the challenges in drawing the OI field’s boundaries. This subject area is often explored through econometric methods and the analysis of patent data and large technological innovation datasets. Conversely, contemporary OI research primarily examines the “how”—the practices of the OI process—with limited attention to technological valorization and IP management. This diverges from Chesbrough’s initial focus when introducing the OI concept (Chesbrough 2003a , b ). Researchers with an interest in the topic of open innovation could make a significant contribution by bridging these two research communities, renewing the focus on appropriation strategies.

4.2 OI pathways through the lens of failure

Our abductive analysis shows researchers have examined OI failure at the micro-level. Specifically, learning and culture were found to contribute to risk in the majority of topics. This aligns with Cricelli et al. ( 2023 ), who discussed elements of OI adoption resistance, “not invented here syndrome” (NIH), and similar micro-foundational issues. Our contribution to the micro-foundational elements includes the cognitive limitations of individuals and the limited attentional capacity of top management teams in managing and organizing for open innovation.

When discussing cognitive limitations, we refer to the inability of individuals to assimilate knowledge within organizations. This perspective goes beyond prior studies, which assume the success of collaboration relies on the interpretation and perception of members about themselves and others in the collaboration (e.g., Skippari et al. 2017 ). Another micro-level factor that could better inform the future of OI research is the attentional capacity of management teams toward OI activities within organizations. In a study by Sisodiya et al. ( 2013 ), it was found that managers gave different levels of attention to inbound versus outbound OI activities and their potential effects. This imbalance negatively affected OI outcomes. When examining micro-level risk factors for organizing OI activities, organizational behavior theories such as selective attention theory could enrich research on OI failure.

At the meso level, significant risks associated with OI failure include inadequate business model adjustments (e.g., Albats et al. 2023 ), IP-related failures (e.g., Grandstrand and Holgersson 2014 ), and challenges related to measuring OI performance at the organizational level (e.g., Brunswicker and Chesbrough 2018 ). Research on OI failure at the organizational level is the most developed, which is not surprising given that OI is mainly developed and practiced at this level. However, some factors remain relatively new to the field and call for further investigation.

One such factor is the excessive practice of OI, which refers to situations where an organization overinvests in building external relationships, ideas, methods, and innovations without considering the specific requirements of each investment (e.g., Greco et al. 2016 ). Research on OI failure at the meso level could benefit from exploring the question of what constitutes efficient and balanced OI activities.

At the macro level, our findings align with those of Bertello et al. ( 2024 ), indicating that this is the least developed research domain in both OI research and in addressing failure. The impact of external influences on OI has been discussed previously, particularly in the context of post-COVID-19 scenarios, where OI was used as a strategy for business continuity during crises (e.g., Liu et al. 2022 ; Bertello et al. 2022 ). These studies demonstrate that overcoming crises often necessitates open innovation practices, especially for SMEs, to mitigate the negative impacts of a large-scale crisis such as the pandemic (Markovic et al. 2021 ).

However, research has overlooked the influence of economic crises on ongoing OI activities of firms. Two research foci that we found particularly interesting and underexplored are the effects of stagnant economic growth and market turbulence on open innovation activities. It remains to be seen how a stagnant market or industry impacts the OI activities of companies and whether marginal economic growth in a sector challenges collaborative innovation. Similarly, research on OI has not sufficiently addressed the challenges posed by market turbulence, such as high variations in customer preferences and product demand (Jaworski and Kohli 1993 ), on existing OI processes.

5 Conclusions

In the pursuit of open innovation, this research presents a multifaceted analysis of ten pivotal pathways researched in the past two decades in the OI domain, proposing insights into the micro, meso, and macro levels of failure mechanisms that can affect open innovation initiatives (see Table  4 ) in addition to presenting the current state and potential future directions of the field.

Based on our results and arguments, this study proposes a way forward in the OI research domain by uncovering its pathways in the past two decades and analyzing the multifaceted mechanism of failure in each pathway. In this research we have identified key trends, patterns, and shifts that have shaped the current landscape of open innovation. This kaleidoscopic analysis allows us to pinpoint specific pathways and anticipate risk factors. Furthermore, our study unpacks the complexities of failure mechanisms and the potential for future research along different OI pathways, shedding light on their micro, meso, and macro levels.

We emphasize the lack of research on macro-level mechanisms. This analytical insight suggests that while organizations concentrate on internal and inter-organizational factors, broader contextual aspects of open innovation, such as regulatory, economic, and market influences, remain relatively unexplored. Collaboration in various forms is the backbone of OI, whether it involves other firms, universities, government entities, or consumers. Challenges related to individual/employee networks and team dynamics, intertwined with the ambiguity of collaborative project goals, have impeded open innovation efforts. Organizations should actively promote open communication, trust-building, and role clarity in collaborative networks.

Finally, the analysis of the pathway on “OI and Resilience” shows the importance of the business model as an adaptable artifact in the face of external shocks and societal challenges. Business models could act as artifacts connecting organizations to their environment and to other actors, thus embracing a panoramic view of the organization’s OI strategies.

For scholars, the pathways we have found offer a valuable roadmap for future research, guiding them to analyze the nuances of open innovation failure. Our findings emphasize the importance of considering not only individual and organizational factors, but also the broader system and the context of OI to understand how these initiatives can thrive or fail. Our analysis also leads to recommendations for organizations seeking to implement open innovation. First, by identifying and understanding the specific failure mechanisms at the micro, meso, and macro levels, organizations can develop interventions targeted at these risks. For instance, depending on the OI pathway, a firm can address cognitive limitations and attentional capacity at the micro level to improve individual and team performance in OI initiatives. At the meso level, organizations can refine their business models and IP management practices to better align with OI objectives and ensure more robust and resilient innovation processes. Furthermore, by considering the macro-level influences such as economic conditions and market turbulence, firms can adapt their OI strategies to be more responsive to external shocks and uncertainties. Ultimately, insights from our research can guide organizations in fostering more effective collaborations, optimizing resource allocation, and achieving innovation outcomes in a dynamic and complex business environment.

Finally, while we intend to show the OI pathways and the mechanisms of failure within them, our research is not without its limitations. One such limitation is the inherent dependency of our findings on the accuracy and efficiency of topic modeling algorithms. Topic modeling is a powerful tool for identifying themes and patterns within large datasets. However, the quality of its results depends on the selection of parameters, preprocessing steps, and the algorithm used (Hannigan et al. 2019 ). Furthermore, topic modeling does not account for the contextual nuances and subtleties of the text. This could result in overlooking important details and insights. The second limitation is due to the abductive analysis of the texts. While valuable for generating insights from the data, it is inherently subjective and influenced by the researchers’ perspectives and experiences. This subjectivity can introduce biases and affect the interpretation of results. The iterative nature of abductive analysis relies on the researchers’ ability to identify and make sense of patterns. This aptitude can vary significantly between individuals (Tavory and Timmermans 2014 ). Additionally, the interpretive layer added to the analytics can lead to different conclusions depending on the researchers’ backgrounds and prior knowledge. For future research, scholars in the OI field could advance their algorithms and combine multiple methods to validate the robustness of their findings. In addition, future researchers could use mixed-method approaches to reduce the risks of oversimplification in interpretative analysis.

Data availability

The data for this study has been derived from Web of Science database.

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Mahdad, M., Roshani, S. The open innovation kaleidoscope: navigating pathways and overcoming failures. Rev Manag Sci (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-024-00804-7

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Toward a sustainable surimi industry: comprehensive review and future research directions of demersal fish stock assessment techniques.

1. Introduction

• What are the knowledge coverage and research gaps concerning key sustainability-related concepts in the utilization of demersal fish in the surimi industry, as well as in the LB-SPR method for assessing biological length-based reproduction as a support method in the surimi industry, and how can these gaps be addressed in future research?
• What aspects of implementation can enhance the quality and scope of the LB-SPR method in assessing reproduction based on biological length, and how can these steps contribute to improving sustainability in the surimi industry?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. study design, 2.2. data collection and materials, 2.3. literature selection and mapping methods, 2.4. analytical method, 2.5. study framework, 3. results and discussion, 3.1. study selection, credibility–validity assessment, and knowledge cluster mapping.

3.2. Sustainability-Related Information in Demersal Fish Stock Assessments for the Surimi Industry

3.3. methodology of length-based reproductive assessments (lb-sprs), 3.4. case studies on the application and benefits of the lb-spr, 3.5. multi-aspect implications of lb-spr: fisheries business, communities, and policies, 3.6. contribution to the field, gaps, and recommendations for future research, 4. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Nugroho, K.C.; Zulbainarni, N.; Asikin, Z.; Budijanto, S.; Marimin, M. Toward a Sustainable Surimi Industry: Comprehensive Review and Future Research Directions of Demersal Fish Stock Assessment Techniques. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7759. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177759

Nugroho KC, Zulbainarni N, Asikin Z, Budijanto S, Marimin M. Toward a Sustainable Surimi Industry: Comprehensive Review and Future Research Directions of Demersal Fish Stock Assessment Techniques. Sustainability . 2024; 16(17):7759. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177759

Nugroho, Kuncoro Catur, Nimmi Zulbainarni, Zenal Asikin, Slamet Budijanto, and Marimin Marimin. 2024. "Toward a Sustainable Surimi Industry: Comprehensive Review and Future Research Directions of Demersal Fish Stock Assessment Techniques" Sustainability 16, no. 17: 7759. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177759

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• Published: 06 September 2024

Breastfeeding experiences of women with perinatal mental health problems: a systematic review and thematic synthesis

• Hayley Billings 1 ,
• Janet Horsman 1 ,
• Hora Soltani 1 &
• Rachael Louise Spencer 2  

BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth volume  24 , Article number:  582 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Despite its known benefits, breastfeeding rates among mothers with perinatal mental health conditions are staggeringly low. Systematic evidence on experiences of breastfeeding among women with perinatal mental health conditions is limited. This systematic review was designed to synthesise existing literature on breastfeeding experiences of women with a wide range of perinatal mental health conditions.

A systematic search of five databases was carried out considering published qualitative research between 2003 and November 2021. Two reviewers conducted study selection, data extraction and critical appraisal of included studies independently and data were synthesised thematically.

Seventeen articles were included in this review. These included a variety of perinatal mental health conditions (e.g., postnatal depression, post-traumatic stress disorders, previous severe mental illnesses, eating disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorders). The emerging themes and subthemes included: (1) Vulnerabilities: Expectations versus reality; Self-perception as a mother; Isolation. (2) Positive outcomes: Bonding and closeness; Sense of achievement. (3) Challenges: Striving for control; Inconsistent advice and lack of support; Concerns over medication safety; and Perceived impact on milk quality and supply.

Conclusions

Positive breastfeeding experiences of mothers with perinatal mental health conditions can mediate positive outcomes such as enhanced mother/infant bonding, increased self-esteem, and a perceived potential for healing. Alternatively, a lack of consistent support and advice from healthcare professionals, particularly around health concerns and medication safety, can lead to feelings of confusion, negatively impact breastfeeding choices, and potentially aggravate perinatal mental health symptoms. Appropriate support, adequate breastfeeding education, and clear advice, particularly around medication safety, are required to improve breastfeeding experiences for women with varied perinatal mental health conditions.

Peer Review reports

Breastfeeding is a key public health measure, conferring short- and long-term health and socio-economic benefits for women and their offspring [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Breastfeeding has been identified as crucial in meeting the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 [ 5 ] with the World Health Organisation aiming for global rates of 50% exclusive breastfeeding until 6 months of age by 2025 [ 6 ]. Despite an increasing research base about what helps or hinders breastfeeding, there is a dramatic drop in breastfeeding prevalence within the first six weeks of birth, especially in high income countries [ 1 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. The reasons given for cessation of breastfeeding suggest that few mothers gave up because they planned to, citing challenges such as physical pain [ 10 ], perceived insufficient milk supply [ 11 ], and breastfeeding not fitting in with family and/ or work life [ 12 ], and although complex physiological and psychosocial factors influence breastfeeding practices, evidence also suggests that mothers who experience postnatal depression may be at a greater risk of early breastfeeding cessation [ 13 , 14 ].

Perinatal mental health (PMH) conditions are mental illnesses which occur during pregnancy and up to a year following birth [ 15 , 16 ] and include a range of conditions such as: depression, anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), tokophobia, bipolar disorder, postpartum psychosis, eating disorders and personality disorders [ 17 ]. These conditions are associated with increased morbidity and are a leading cause of maternal death in high-income countries [ 17 ]. Globally it is estimated that between 15 and 25% of women experience mental illness during the perinatal period, either as a new condition or as a reoccurrence of a pre-existing condition [ 17 ].

Breastfeeding is known to have psychological benefits, such as improving mood and protecting against postnatal depression in mothers, enhancing socio-emotional development in the child and strengthening mother-child bonding [ 13 , 14 , 18 , 19 ]. However, previous reviews of women’s experiences of breastfeeding whilst experiencing mental health conditions have focused primarily on postnatal depression (PND) [ 19 ]. No previous reviews have been identified which investigate the experiences and perspectives of women with a variety of perinatal mental illnesses with a view to improving breastfeeding health intervention strategies for women with such conditions.

This systematic review was reported in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 statement [ 20 ]. The review protocol was registered with PROSPERO in 2021 (registration number CRD42021297076 Available from: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42021297076 ). There was no requirement to deviate from this protocol during the study.

Search strategy

A literature search was undertaken for studies published from 2003 to Nov 2021. The selection of 2003 was to identify research undertaken following publication of the World Health Organisation Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding [ 21 ]. This advised that women exclusively breastfeed for six months and continue breastfeeding for two years and beyond for optimal health benefits to mother and infant.

The search was conducted using five electronic databases: Medline and CINAHL Complete (EBSCOhost), Maternity & Infant Care (Ovid), APA PsycInfo ® (ProQuest) and Web of Science Core Collection (Clarivate).

Search terms were devised according to the SPIDER (Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation, Research type) framework [ 22 ] (Table  1 ). Reference lists of included articles were scrutinised for possible additional studies.

Eligibility criteria

Eligible studies included:

published from 2003.

peer-reviewed articles.

published in English.

any setting.

qualitative primary research data.

participants were women experiencing mental health issues.

described experiences, perceptions, views, and opinions in relation to breastfeeding.

Study selection

Titles, abstracts, and potentially relevant full texts were screened independently by two authors against the eligibility criteria. Disagreement was resolved through discussion and consultation with a third author.

Data extraction

Data extracted included study authors, title, year of publication, country of origin, source of funding, study aims, study design, recruitment strategies, participant ethnicity, PMH condition, and study results. Two authors independently extracted data.

Quality appraisal of included studies was carried out to demonstrate rigour, using a Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) appraisal tool [ 23 ], however this was not used as an indicator for inclusion in the analysis.

Data synthesis

Thematic synthesis, a method of analysis widely used for qualitative systematic reviews, was undertaken [ 24 ]. This involved line by line coding of extracted quotations followed by development of descriptive and analytical themes. NVivo software was used to systematically code extracted data. Verbatim quotations, along with information on themes and sub-themes they were assigned to in the original study, were imported into the software. Codes and their supporting data were reviewed to identify related categories which could be grouped into broader descriptive themes. From this, overarching analytic themes were identified.

Author reflexivity was considered and addressed throughout the review with regular discussions between authors to debate and establish aspects such as definitions of mental health, use of terminology, themes, subthemes and the interplay between them.

Patient and public involvement

Once key findings were established, the project team organised two patient and public involvement events, which included ethnic minority perinatal peer supporters and a pre/postnatal peer support group with PMH experiences. Feedback from these groups showed that the themes identified by the review captured the main priorities of the groups.

The study selection process is outlined on the PRISMA [ 20 ] flow diagram (Fig.  1 ). A total of 5510 studies were retrieved. After removing duplicates ( n  = 2604) and excluding articles which were not relevant following screening of title and abstract ( n  = 2878), full text of the remaining 28 studies were screened. Of these, 11 studies were excluded, resulting in 17 studies being included in this review.

PRISMA flow diagram detailing study selection [ 20 ]. CINAHL – Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature. PRISMA flow diagram- Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ . 2021;372(71). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71

Characteristics of the studies

From the 17 included studies, four used thematic analysis, two in a qualitative study [ 25 , 26 ] and two within a mixed methods secondary analysis of existing data [ 27 , 28 ]. Six studies used phenomenological methods [ 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ], two used an ethnographic approach [ 35 , 36 ] and three undertook a Grounded Theory approach [ 37 , 38 , 39 ]. One study used a psychoanalytically informed analysis [ 40 ] and one used comparative analysis [ 41 ].

Following CASP quality appraisal, the methodological quality of included papers was ranked as either low ( n  = 3), moderate ( n  = 2) or high ( n  = 12), (Table  2 ).

Of the included studies, seven focused on PND, four included patients with PND and/or emotional difficulties, postnatal blues or mental distress, two focused on mood disorders, four included women previously diagnosed with severe mental illnesses, eating disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder, and/or traumatic childbirth/PTSD.

There were a total of 551 participants across the studies. Of these, 456 were married/cohabiting, 18 were single/separated, and 77 did not specify. For educational attainment, 321 participants identified as either ‘well educated’ or having studied beyond high school level. A total of 86 participants received a school education (high school or below), 14 participants had no schooling and 130 did not specify. Of the 17 studies, 15 were carried out in high-income countries and two in low-income countries (Table  3 ).

Through in-depth analysis of the data, three overarching themes: Vulnerabilities, Positive outcomes, and Challenges, emerged. These themes and associated sub themes are shown in Table  4 . The interplay among these major domains within the context of themes and subthemes are summarised in Fig.  2 .

Illustration of the interplay of themes and subthemes of the breastfeeding experiences of women with perinatal mental health problems PMH – Perinatal mental health

Theme: vulnerabilities

Expectations versus reality.

For some new mothers the reality of breastfeeding did not meet their expectations of being easy and ‘natural’, leaving them feeling unprepared and disillusioned when they experienced difficulties.

“You think you’re a completely useless mother and, you know, you should be able to know how to do this instinctively [breastfeeding] and in fact it’s probably the hardest thing I’ve ever done.” (25, p255).

Limited availability of antenatal breastfeeding advice led to mothers being unaware of the potential complexities of breastfeeding during the early days and weeks.

“Everyone make it seem like it’s natural because your body produces [milk]. It’s just something that should frequently come to you as soon as you have the baby., but it’s not like that. You had to hold the baby a certain way, you got to adjust your thing a certain way, you got to put the nipple in far enough for the baby to get it. There’s a lot to it. It’s really complicated.” (26, p5).

Self-perception as a mother

To be perceived as a ‘good mother’, by themselves and others, some women felt they must breastfeed at all costs. This perceived association of breastfeeding as the representation of ‘good mothering’, appeared to result in self-imposed pressure.

“I was so desperate to breastfeed him and I felt as if it was my, I felt as if I had some moral obligation as a mother and if I didn’t breast feed him I was badly letting him down.” (25, p255).

If these women were then unable to breastfeed, or if they faced significant breastfeeding difficulties, this sometimes led to feelings of guilt or inadequacy.

“There’s so much pressure on you to breastfeed. so you’re told that breast is best and you should do it and so when you don’t you think you are a failure and it’s what you should be doing.” (39, p322).

The opinions of family, friends and health professionals also played a significant part in the woman’s perception of her status as a ‘good mother’.

“The approval thing was a big factor. Everyone was telling me how well I’d done to keep breastfeeding. All that approval made me feel really good about myself, and that I was being a good mother to (baby). I wasn’t thinking negative thoughts about myself, I was feeling very positive really.” (35, p114).

However, for some mothers, this resulted in added pressure, causing them to hide their feelings and maintain an outward display of happiness.

“I didn’t want to talk with anybody about it, I always had to pretend that I was doing just great … I thought that wasn’t normal, that I was a bad mom who felt that way.” (37, p264).

Finding the right support could be very beneficial but some women had negative experiences of clinics or groups, undermining their self-belief.

“Daggers are drawn and everybody’s acting as if they can rule the world and the trouble is, when you’re depressed you just see that image and you think, I’m never going to be as good as this.” (39, p323).

Feelings of isolation felt by breastfeeding women were exacerbated by mental health issues, with Homewood et al. (39, p325) suggesting that breastfeeding could contribute to depression by increasing the sense of being trapped by the infant’s dependency.

“abandoned and alone … .scared all the time that something would happen to the baby…” (37, p264).

The sense of isolation was increased by the fact that seeking help could be difficult for women who were distressed because they were reluctant to reveal their negative feelings.

“I was feeling like really sad and just really isolated and really stuck!. . I just thought. . “How am I going to take care of this baby? And I am feeling so crappy!” I found it to be really hard just to reach out and admit that I was feeling the way that I was. I don’t know why I was so worried about being stigmatized, but I was. I just didn’t want that label of being a person with postpartum depression.” (32, p12) “.

Theme: positive outcomes

Bonding and closeness.

Whilst struggling with mental health issues, the experience of breastfeeding successfully could increase mothers’ positive feelings toward the baby, allowing them to enjoy time spent together and enhance their confidence.

“I used to feed her and it was the time I got a little lump in my throat and thought, oh, perhaps she’s not that bad, and I thought, this is perhaps how people feel a bit more of the time than I feel it.” (39, p323).

Some women reported that the physical aspect of breastfeeding allowed a connection that could compensate, to a degree, for the mental withdrawal caused by the depressive symptoms.

“I think [breastfeeding] helps because even if I feel like some days I’m not very connected emotionally, I know that at least I’m providing the baby with physical touch and bonding and all that. Even if I’m not mentally 100% there. So, I think it makes me feel better about myself as a mom.” (33, p641).

One mother noted that breastfeeding could reduce feelings of stress.

‘‘When I’m nursing her, I’m able to just hold her. And that just alleviates any worries, any stress that I’ve had through the day, just knowing that she needs me, that she’s finding comfort in me, that I’m able to comfort her. She’s comforting me at the same time.” (26, p5).

Sense of achievement

Achieving success with breastfeeding was a factor in mitigating some of the guilt that women with eating disorders might feel about the possible effects of their eating disorder on the baby, positively affecting their self-esteem.

“It wasn’t my instinct to want to breastfeed him but in the end I did. In some ways it made up for all the damage I thought I’d done to him because of my eating disorder.” (35, p113).

Some women who had experienced a traumatic birth perceived breastfeeding as having the potential to heal and reinforced their self-perception as a good mother.

“I would cover her up to feed her and hide her little head in the clothing. Not because of dignity, but because I did not want anyone else to see the magic and healing that was happening between us. Being able to breastfeed my daughter, despite all the odds, is my proudest achievement in life. I wear it in my soul as a badge of honor.” (29, p233).

Women described how breastfeeding was within their sphere of control whereas other aspects of motherhood were not.

“[Breastfeeding] was the one thing that I could control. . I think that it made me feel better because it was the one thing that I was successful at, as a mom, because my birth went so shitty, and everything just kind of spiraled down and my mood and everything. . .I lean on [breastfeeding] a lot. It is my thing with her that no one can take away. . .I don’t like other people doing it. I don’t even like the suggestion of other people doing it.” (32, p12).

Theme: challenges

Striving for control.

Some women with eating disorders perceived stopping breastfeeding as the only way to allow them to resume control over their body and their eating.

“I wanted my body back and I knew I wouldn’t get it back until I’d stopped breastfeeding. I knew the minute that stopped feeding him I could control my food again and that’s what I wanted. When I was feeding I needed to eat properly because he needs the nutrients.” (35, p114).

For women with obsessive compulsive disorder [ 30 ], some responded to contamination fears by breastfeeding, sometimes for much longer than planned.

“I forced myself to breastfeed for the whole of the first year because I was convinced that formula would be contaminating his body.” (30, p317).

Other women with eating disorders chose not to breastfeed in order to allow themselves to return to purging and undertaking strenuous exercise in order to lose their pregnancy weight rapidly [ 35 ].

Some still struggled between eating a ‘good’ diet to produce ‘healthy’ milk and the desire to return to their usual strategies such as restricted eating or purging.

“I didn’t need to make myself sick so often [when breastfeeding] but that wasn’t because I didn’t want to! [Laughs] I had to fight with myself all the time to control the urge. I thought breastfeeding would take that urge away but it didn’t. It eased a bit but I was still vomiting all the time I was breastfeeding.” (35, p112).

Inconsistent advice and lack of support

Women’s difficulties and lack of confidence with breastfeeding were increased by inconsistent advice from both professionals and family [ 25 ]. Mothers frequently made reference to seeking advice from healthcare professionals during the early weeks of breastfeeding but felt they were often left unsupported.

“I was alone and . the nurse often didn’t answer the buzzer, my buzzer when I was trying to breast feed and things. Again I felt so kind of, incredibly sensitive about everything, and anxious about everything, and they just weren’t there, were never there for me.” (25, p256).

Mothers described feeling pressurised by healthcare professionals to continue breastfeeding [ 35 ] and, without adequate support, women would often turn to friends or relatives for infant feeding advice [ 25 ].

Concerns over medication safety

Concerns regarding medication safety and breastfeeding [ 26 , 27 , 34 ] led some women to discount breastfeeding as an option for them.

“….I could try and breastfeed, but yeah, I decided that wasn’t—a good idea. Because it’s too hard and I wouldn’t be able to go back on my medication—right away after the baby was born. You have to wait two months, or something like that. So I thought that was dangerous— for both of us.” (34, p383).

Whilst others discontinued breastfeeding due to health concerns for the baby.

“And I had to get my wisdom teeth pulled out, so I decided to stop because they put you on antibiotics and stuff like that. So I just stopped.”(26, p5).

Some women with severe mental illness felt that due to the complexities of their mental health, breastfeeding was not considered relevant and was “de-prioritized” for other aspects of acute care [ 27 ]. Despite many mothers expressing strong preferences to continue breastfeeding, the mothers often felt that their preferences were ignored.

“Medication was an issue as I was initially given medication that specified it should not be taken while breastfeeding, when I had made my wish to breastfeed very clear.” (27, p7).

Some women felt that they needed to prompt staff to consider whether the medication they were prescribed would allow breastfeeding, or, alternatively, be given the choice to cease breastfeeding to allow them to have the most suitable medication to treat their mental health condition.

“I wish they had told me to stop breastfeeding rather than give me diluted medication.” (27, p6).

Others described being given contradictory information from health professionals about breastfeeding whilst taking psychotropic medication:

“Early in pregnancy, the mental health midwife said not to take fluoxetine if breastfeeding and to change to sertraline or citalopram. Next time I saw her later on and she said I could stay on fluoxetine if I was happy on it.” (27, p6).

Such conflicting advice made mothers confused and distressed. A resultant lack of confidence in healthcare professionals “ prompted some women to conduct their own research or to disregard medical advice ” (27, p6).

Perceived impact on milk quality and supply

There was a perception that women with PMH conditions would be unable to produce a sufficient quality and/or volume of breastmilk to sustain their baby nutritionally. This concern could potentially generate feelings of depression for women [ 26 ].

Some mothers perceived that their own poor nutrition could potentially cause problems with breastfeeding. This concern was often associated with eating disorders [ 26 ], food unavailability or lack of appetite due to mental ill health [ 38 , 41 ]. For women with eating disorders there was a belief that frequent cycles of binging and purging were not compatible with producing sufficient good quality breast milk. This caused some women to discount breastfeeding, and some received pressure from partners to bottle feed in the belief that the child would not receive the necessary nutrition.

“He (husband) didn’t want me to breastfeed because he thought I wasn’t eating enough to feed her (baby) properly. [.] He was on and on about me giving her the bottle. He even dragged my sister in to try and get her to talk me round.” (35, p111).

Some women with eating disorders did wish to breastfeed and commented on needing to change their eating patterns to achieve this.

“I had to eat properly when I was breastfeeding because I had a baby to think about. The baby needs nutrition. I thought whatever I eat the baby is going to get it. So I had to eat properly. Like when I was pregnant I made myself eat properly.” (35, p112).

Depression and anxiety are a common problem in the perinatal period, and pregnancy and childbirth can put women at risk of relapse or exacerbation of pre-existing mental illness [ 17 ]. Although postpartum anxiety is more prevalent than postpartum depression [ 42 ] we did not find any studies of women’s experiences of anxiety and breastfeeding. In this review there were examples of specific mental illnesses being associated with specific issues in relation to breastfeeding along with the difficulties faced by many women. Data from the included studies replicated what is already known regarding the relationship between perinatal depression and breastfeeding, that this relationship is bidirectional, with evidence of depressive symptoms contributing to worse breastfeeding outcomes and breastfeeding challenges sometimes serving as a trigger for postnatal depressive symptoms [ 43 ].

In this study it was found that, for mothers who were struggling with their mental health, the sense of achievement obtained by successful breastfeeding could boost their self-esteem and bolster the perception of themselves as a good mother [ 29 , 32 , 40 ]. These mothers found that breastfeeding could increase their mother/child bond and reinforce their confidence as a mother and felt that the closeness experienced during breastfeeding could reduce feelings of stress and compensate their baby for times when they were feeling withdrawn [ 26 , 33 , 35 , 39 ].

However, the perception that ‘good mothering’ is defined by successful breastfeeding can also result in overwhelming pressure for mothers, who may feel obliged to breastfeed despite experiencing challenges [ 44 , 45 , 46 ]. This pressure can then be further compounded by the attitudes and behaviours of healthcare professionals, family members and society in general [ 46 ]. A large proportion of the women in the included studies had a strong intention to breastfeed [ 25 , 28 , 31 , 33 , 37 ] and were often motivated to continue, despite difficulties, because of the pressure they placed on themselves to fulfil the role of the ‘good mother’. If they then had difficulties or ceased breastfeeding they often experienced feelings of guilt, inadequacy, and failure [ 25 , 27 , 40 ].

There is a wealth of literature describing the guilt and despair experienced when women’s expectations for breastfeeding to occur naturally, the desire to be a good mother, and ‘breast is best’, clash with the demands and labour-intensive workload that breastfeeding often entails [ 43 , 44 , 47 , 48 ]. A lack of antenatal education regarding potential breastfeeding challenges appears to be evident, with much of this being dedicated to the benefits of breastfeeding to both mother and baby, and although this information is important, it can provide a skewed ideal of the breastfeeding process [ 47 ]. Findings from studies by Hoddinott et al. [ 47 ] and Redshaw and Henderson [ 48 ] suggested realistic antenatal education is key to preparing women for common difficulties and suggest providing a realistic view rather than rosy pictures or patronising breastfeeding workshops with knitted breasts and dolls [ 47 ]. This lack of preparation for the challenges that frequently arise during the early days of breastfeeding can result in mothers feeling inadequate and unable to cope [ 45 , 46 ], potentially resulting in early discontinuation of breastfeeding and/or a decline in mental wellbeing.

The perception that mental health conditions can lead to insufficient or poor-quality breast milk is a common perception amongst breastfeeding women. A systematic review of breastfeeding problems by Karaçam and Sağlık, [ 49 ], found that 12 out of 34 studies referred problems such as “inadequate breastmilk/lack of breastmilk/ concern for inadequate breastmilk/thought that the baby was not satiated adequately/inadequate weight gain.” The theme was again identified by this study, particularly amongst those with eating disorders [ 29 , 35 ] and women from the two African based studies [ 38 , 41 ]. Women’s perceptions were primarily that poor mental health leads to inadequate nutritional intake (due to lack of appetite/disordered eating) and therefore impacts breastmilk volume and quality. This added burden of believing that their breastmilk may not adequately sustain their child could potentially further impact their mental health as a perceived failure [ 29 ].

For some women a sense of isolation in their role as carer, and specifically regarding breastfeeding was expressed in the included studies [ 25 , 32 , 34 ]. The sense of isolation can be magnified both by the symptoms of mental health issues and the reluctance of the mothers to reveal their condition, either pre-existing or newly emerging, to their loved ones and health professionals, worrying about what they may think [ 30 , 32 , 37 ]. This is reflected in previous research, which found stigma associated with mental ill health, compounded by a pervasive social stigma attached to being seen to ‘fail’ as a mother, leads to under-reporting of perinatal mental health issues [ 50 ]. A study of Australian women undergoing routine psychosocial assessment also found that 11.1% reported they were not always honest in the assessment and lack of trust in the midwife was the most frequent reason for non-disclosure [ 51 ]. Failure to reveal previous mental health issues may lead to inappropriate or sub-optimal advice [ 35 ].

The findings also identified that a lack of trust in the support and advice given by health professionals was also a contributing factor when considering medication safety and was stated as a reason to cease or not commence breastfeeding [ 27 , 34 ]. These inconsistencies sometimes prompted women to undertake their own research to gain answers [ 27 ], which could potentially lead to serious health consequences. The concerns held by women regarding medication safety and breastfeeding were highlighted in a Swedish study [ 52 ] which found that 57.7% of pregnant participants classed medication use during breastfeeding as harmful/probably harmful.

This lack of consistent advice regarding medication safety is largely due to a lack of high-quality evidence [ 53 ]. However, for those requiring medication during the postnatal period, clearer guidance is needed from healthcare professionals on the suitability of each type of medication when breastfeeding, and whether alternative medications can be considered so that breastfeeding can be undertaken safely without additional worry. Some women in the study felt they did not have the opportunity to make an informed choice regarding their medication and that desire to breastfeed was deprioritised over their mental health [ 27 ]. However, findings from this and previous studies have shown that when breastfeeding is successful it can improve mood and help protect against postnatal depression [ 32 , 33 , 54 , 55 ], as well as strengthen mother-child bonding [ 26 , 33 ]. It may therefore be the case that, in conjunction with suitable medication, breastfeeding may further help to boost mood and improve the overall wellbeing of the mother by providing a sense of achievement and control.

Negative attitudes towards diagnosis and treatment of perinatal mental health conditions result in women avoiding help seeking and reinforces feelings of stigma and guilt. Organisational-level factors such as inadequate resources, fragmentation of services and poor interdisciplinary communication compound these individual-level issues [ 50 , 56 ]. Structural factors (especially poor policy implementation) and sociocultural factors (for example language barriers) also cause significant barriers to accessing services for this group of women [ 50 , 56 ].

A strength of this review is the inclusion of literature regarding various mental health conditions (not purely depression) which had not been previously synthesised. This review highlights that each mental health condition may impact differently on breastfeeding experiences and merits separate investigation to inform policy and practice. The findings from this synthesis were based on a systematic literature search of five electronic databases. Inductive and in-depth analysis, using an iterative approach, allowed for immersion in the data, which strengthened the review findings.

Limitations were similar to those identified by previous studies relating to maternal mental health needs [ 57 ]. Participants were predominantly white and well educated, and studies were primarily undertaken in high income countries. This means that the findings may not be applicable to all women particularly those from low-income countries who may have different experiences and needs. None of the included studies incorporated the views and experiences of women from low socioeconomic status specifically, who are more likely to experience PMH conditions [ 47 ]. A comparison of the breastfeeding experiences of women with PMH conditions between different countries was beyond the scope of this review, however it must be acknowledged that differences are expected due to variations in culture, health systems, resource, and infant feeding attitudes.

The methods of diagnosing mental health conditions differed between studies. Some participants had a clinical diagnosis, whilst some were included based upon tools such as the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, or a self-diagnosis of distress/depression. This allowed us to increase the scope of studies included but may mean that some studies included women who may have not met the criteria for a clinal diagnosis of depression.

To ensure completeness prior to publication, the original search was again undertaken to capture any studies published between November 2021 and February 2024. The search identified two further papers which met the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Both papers supported the original themes found in the study and therefore further validated the findings. Scarborough et al. [ 58 ] reported a perceived pressure to breastfeed, mixed impact on the mental health of the mother and the mother infant bond, and challenges receiving adequate information and support. Frayne et al. [ 59 ] highlighted the importance of good communication, consistency of advice, and shared decision making for women taking psychotropic medication, and the challenges faced if these aspects were not achieved.

There is a complex dynamic relationship amongst breastfeeding intention, practice, and experiences for mothers with PMH conditions. The intensity and magnitude of positive outcomes that women describe, and the challenges experienced, are exacerbated in mothers with PMH conditions. The challenging experiences are particularly influenced by a lack of support, shame, fear of stigmatisation and additional health concerns, such as worries over medication safety.

The synthesis identified inconsistent advice from healthcare professionals, particularly in relation to medication. Further training and improved communication pathways between specialities may help enhance perinatal maternity care provision. An in depth understanding of the women’s views/needs in relation to their specific PMH condition could help enhance their experiences of infant feeding. This will help women to make informed choices about feeding, increasing their sense of control and improving self-efficacy, which could have a positive impact on their emotional and physical wellbeing, their ability to bond with their baby and their transition to motherhood.

Gaps identified through this systematic review include the need for further investigation on breastfeeding and PMH in women from minority groups, as well as a need for robust evidence and advice on medication use during breastfeeding for women experiencing perinatal mental ill health.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files].

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Motivations of family advisors in engaging in research to improve a palliative approach to care for persons living with dementia: an interpretive descriptive study

• Stephanie Lucchese 1 , 2 ,
• Marie-Lee Yous 1 ,
• Julia Kruizinga 1 ,
• Shirin Vellani 2 , 3 ,
• Vanessa Maradiaga Rivas 1 ,
• Bianca Tétrault 4 ,
• Pam Holliday 1 ,
• Carmel Geoghegan 5 ,
• Danielle Just 2 ,
• Tamara Sussman 4 ,
• Rebecca Ganann 1 &
• Sharon Kaasalainen 1  

Research Involvement and Engagement volume  10 , Article number:  94 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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A Strategic Guiding Council (SGC) was created within a Family Carer Decisions Support study, to engage family carers of persons with advanced dementia as advisors to inform the design and implementation of the study. The SGC consists of an international group of family advisors from Canada, the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the Czech Republic. There are limited studies that have explored the integration of Patient and Public Involvement (PPI) in dementia research, end-of-life care and long-term care. Therefore, this study explores PPI engagement in health research with family carers to understand further their interest in being involved in the SCG within the FCDS intervention which is focused on supporting caregivers to make decisions about end-of-life care for residents with advanced dementia.

This study utilized an interpretive descriptive design and explored the motivations of ten family advisors from Canada, the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands in being part of the SGC. Semi-structured interviews were conducted by phone or videoconferencing and were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using thematic analysis.

Three themes generated from the findings of the study were (1) engaging in reciprocal learning; (2) using lived experience to support other family carers; and (3) creating a collective momentum for advocacy and change.

Conclusions

Family carers motivations to being part of the SCG was driven by their intent to help carers navigate the health system and to create a psychosocial support system for other carers experiencing end-of-life with their loved ones. Being part of the SCG provided a benefit to family carers which provided a venue for them to contribute meaningful information from their experience, learn from other health professionals, research and other advisors and an avenue for advocacy work to improve access to end-of-life care supports through education. To our knowledge, this is the first study that explores the motivations of an international group of family advisors’ engagement in health research to promote integration of a palliative approach to dementia care in long-term care homes. This study further contributes to the literature from an international perspective the importance of PPI in research. Further research is warranted that explores PPI in research to improve access to end-of-life supports.

Plain English summary

Patient and public involvement (PPI) in research has been growing worldwide and ensures that research conducted is relevant to the needs of patients. Within the Family Carer Decisions Support study, we created a Strategic Guiding Council (SGC) to engage family carers of persons with advanced dementia as advisors to improve access to a palliative approach to care. The SGC includes family advisors from Canada, the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Italy and the Czech Republic. The goal of the strategy was to engage with family advisors in research activities to improve access to a palliative approach and quality of care provided to people with dementia receiving end-of-life care. Including patients and family in research is extremely important, therefore our aim in this study was to explore family advisors’ motivations to engaging in the SGC. Family advisors reported encountering challenges with navigating the health system with end-of-life care and they chose to participate in the SGC to support other carers who are experiencing a similar situation. Being part of the SGC also provided the family advisors with an avenue to advocate on the importance of improving access to end-of-lifesupports and the opportunity to learn from other advisors, health professionals and researchers.

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Introduction

Patient and Public Involvement (PPI) in research has been growing internationally due to efforts to ensure that health research is relevant, meaningful and impactful for patients and the public [ 1 ]. PPI ensures studies are focused on patient-identified priorities and encourages patients and their family/friends to be proactive partners in all stages of the research process: study design, intervention implementation, interpretation and developing of findings and knowledge translation [ 2 , 3 ]. PPI values a person’s lived experience and reported benefits include improvement in patient experiences, high quality health care and ensuring research funding is allocated to studies that are relevant and deemed a priority to patients and the public [ 4 , 5 ]. Most importantly, PPI ensures that work is being carried out with or by members of the public, rather than for them or about them.

The inclusion of PPI in health research has been deemed a priority in many countries [ 6 ]. The United Kingdom has made PPI participation a requirement to increase community involvement in health service planning and decision making in the delivery of health initiatives and research [ 6 ]. Similarly, in Canada, the Canadian Institute for Health Research (CIHR) developed partnerships with funding agencies to develop a Strategy for Patient-Oriented Research to improve health outcomes by promoting the engagement of patients and focusing on priorities identified by patients [ 7 ]. PPI has been studied in stroke care [ 8 ], dialysis [ 9 ], mental health research [ 10 ] and has been growing within dementia research [ 11 ]. Findings from the Bethell et al. (2018) scoping review discussed the importance of collective learning from people with lived experience with dementia and reinforced the importance of challenging societal views that portray people with dementia as not fully capable of participating in research [ 11 ]. Although there is broad consensus on the importance of integrating PPI in health research, further research is warranted to explore the integration of PPI in dementia research, long term care (LTC) and end-of-life care to improve health outcomes for older adults living with dementia and their family carers through meaningful engagement in health research.

In order to improve the quality, relevance and uptake of research amongst family carers, PPI engagement was integrated within the Family Carer Decision Support (FCDS) mySupport study [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. The FCDS intervention focused on supporting caregivers to make decisions about end-of-life care for residents with advanced dementia. Introducing a palliative approach to care promotes a comprehensive person-centered approach to care for residents during end-of-life through advance care planning, management of disease symptoms, psychosocial and spiritual care and bereavement support [ 15 ]. The FCDS study was implemented in Canada, the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Czech Republic, and Italy during the COVID-19 pandemic. An international PPI panel, called The Strategic Guiding Council, was formed early on to help inform the design, implementation and evaluation of the FCDS intervention by advising the research team and sharing their experiences in caring for individuals living with advanced dementia in LTC. There were 15 people involved in the Strategic Guiding Council. These individuals met via Zoom at quarterly Strategic Guiding Council meetings. They were involved in reviewing draft intervention components such as the comfort care booklet, providing assistance in interpreting study findings, and offering recommendations for knowledge translation and dissemination activities [ 16 , 17 ].

To our knowledge, there are currently no research studies that have explored PPI engagement in health research within an international Strategic Guiding Council. In addition, there is little information in the literature that discusses how to engage and involve families in LTC research [ 18 , 19 ]. Meaningful engagement with family carers is an important area to focus on in research as it provides researchers with a unique perspective of their lived experience which can also lead to an improvement in research questions, facilitate knowledge transfer and promote trust [ 18 , 20 ]. Therefore, this qualitative study aimed to contribute to the literature on PPI engagement with family carers by exploring the motivations of family carers to become family advisors on the Strategic Guiding Council. It is imperative to explore the motivations of family carers in research for recruitment and retention purposes as they are important members of the research team who can provide feedback on the practicality and relevance of interventions. The research question was: What are family advisors’ motivations in working with a Strategic Guiding Council and research team to promote integration of a palliative approach to dementia care in LTC homes?

This study utilized Sally Thorne’s (2016) interpretive description methodology to address the research question. Interpretive description is grounded in a naturalistic inquiry and objective knowledge is unattainable through empirical analysis but rather, the participants and researcher construct meaning together [ 21 ]. Interpretive descriptive is known as a useful methodology to generate knowledge for health service research due to its focus on experiential knowledge and exploring human commonalities and differences [ 21 ]. This approach was suitable for this study to reflect on the diverse experiences of family carers in supporting persons living with dementia which shaped their motivations to engage in research as family advisors.

Convenience sampling [ 22 ] was used to locate participants who were interested in being a member of the Strategic Guiding Council to advise the FCDS study and share their viewpoint as family carers for individuals living with advanced dementia. Specifically, they met the following inclusion criteria: (a) family carer of a person with advanced dementia (living or passed away in the last five years); (b) 16 years of age or older; and (d) comfortable communicating in English.

Recruitment

Recruitment for the Strategic Guiding Council consisted of both passive and active recruitment strategies. We attempted to recruit participants from all six countries involved in the FCDS intervention, however we were unable to recruit family carers from Italy and the Czech Republic due to language barriers. Hence, we ended up with family carers from four of the six participating countries: Canada, United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland and the Netherlands. The recruitment of family advisors to join the Strategic Guiding Council and research study was conducted through the completion of an Expression of Interest Form and country-specific recruitment flyer, which were posted at local organizations (i.e., LTC homes) for a period of two months between June to August 2020. The Expression of Interest Form and the Country-Specific Recruitment Flyers were also posted on the mySupport website. Family carers who were interested in participating in the Strategic Guiding Council completed the Expression of Interest Forms and once completed, the PPI study coordinator, along with the country-specific research representative, contacted eligible individuals who met the inclusion criteria.

Active recruitment strategies for the study consisted of staff working in LTC homes or nursing homes to share information to family carers regarding the Strategic Guiding Council and mySupport study following a recruitment script guideline developed by the research team. Verbal permission was sought from the family carers to have their contact information shared with the research team to discuss the Strategic Guiding Council and mySupport study further. A telephone or email recruitment script was used by research staff to inform interested family carers about the study, answer any questions and affirm their continued interest to participate. Family carers that provided consent to be part of the Strategic Guiding Council as family advisors were provided with an orientation, which was conducted by the PPI coordinator or the country-specific research representative either in-person or virtually. Two family advisors were included in this manuscript as co-authors as they contributed to writing and reviewing the manuscript.

Data collection

Demographic data such as country of residence, sex, age, and relationship to person living with dementia were collected electronically using LimeSurvey. Semi-structured interviews were conducted by the PPI coordinator or by the country specific research representative either on the telephone or Zoom videoconference platform based on participants’ preference from September 2020–2021. The interviewers were master’s prepared or graduate students in the field of nursing and health studies. Interviews were scheduled based on their preference for time in their respective time zones and within the first three months of joining the Strategic Guiding Council. Interviews were conducted in English and the country specific research coordinator was available to assist participants with translation support as a ‘buddy’. Participants took part in an interview in a quiet, private location of their choosing such as in their home. An interview guide was used to explore family carers’ motivation in working with a Strategic Guiding Council and research team and developed through a review of the literature for PPI concepts. Examples of interview questions were: What is your experience with palliative care? What is your experience working with research and what about your experience working on a panel or a committee? What is your understanding of a Strategic Guiding Council? The interviews lasted 30 to 40 min and were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Identifying information was removed and transcripts were reviewed against the recording for accuracy [ 23 ]. Participants’ identity was protected throughout the study and all study information that was recorded, transcribed and analyzed were kept in a locked cabinet or stored in a password protected, encrypted file.

Data analysis

Demographic data were analyzed using counts for categorical data and means and standard deviations (SD) for continuous data. The first stage of data analysis consisted of “sorting and organizing” [21 pp 156] the data by reading the transcripts. In the second stage, “making sense of pattern” [21 pp 163], the authors (SL and JK) analyzed two transcripts independently and generated a code list and themes. The authors (SL and JK) met together and discussed their preliminary findings. Descriptive codes were merged to develop themes or groupings [ 21 ]. The findings were then discussed with additional research team members (SV, VM and SK) and themes were defined based on consensus. Once consensus was gained within the research team, SL proceeded with analyzing the remaining transcripts using Dedoose qualitative software. For the final stage, “transforming pattern into findings” [21 pp 173] the author SL met frequently with the research team during data analysis to review the findings and themes generated. The final written conceptualization of the findings was reviewed by the research team and presented in this study [ 21 ].

Ethical considerations

This study was approved by local research ethics board (#5837). Research was conducted following the standards outlined by the Tri- Council Policy Statement for Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans [ 24 ]. Written and verbal informed consent was sought from all participants with the understanding that their participation in the study would not influence them or their relatives care at the LTC home. Each participant had experience as a family carer for a relative with dementia and due to this, were sensitive to emotional reactions. Therefore, the sensitive interviewing techniques were employed, which included validation of emotions and experiences of the interviewer, frequent breaks and if needed, discontinuation of the interview.

Rigour and trustworthiness

Several strategies were employed by the research team to enhance trustworthiness and rigour in the study. The research team participated in co-constructing knowledge by interpreting participants experiences from the semi-structured interviews. Researcher triangulation was achieved by meeting frequently with the research team to discuss data analysis and themes developed. Engaging in triangulation allowed the researcher to confirm constructed perception of an event or process [ 21 ]. An audit trial was maintained by the primary author to establish confirmability of the research findings and ensure the findings are based on participants responses instead of the researchers’ own preconceptions and biases.

Characteristics of sample

A total of 10 family advisors shared their perspectives in being part of the Strategic Guiding Council for the mySupport Family Carer Decision Support Study. There was representation from four countries, Canada ( n  = 4), United Kingdom ( n  = 1), the Netherlands ( n  = 1), and the Republic of Ireland ( n  = 4). Demographics were missing for some advisors ( n  = 5). Half of the advisors were female ( n  = 5). The mean age of advisors was 65.6 years (SD = 5.0) and most were caring for a spouse or parent. Most of the advisors reported having education at the post-secondary level (i.e., college, bachelor’s degree, masters).

Overview of findings

Three themes represented the family advisors’ motivation in engaging with the Strategic Guiding Council: (1) engaging in reciprocal learning; (2) using lived experience to support other family carers ; and (3) creating a collective momentum for advocacy and change.

Theme 1. Engaging in reciprocal learning

This first theme explains how family advisors were motivated to be engaged with the Strategic Guiding Council and research team to help and also learn about health and social services from other care partner experiences. This was identified by one advisor who shared: “I have experiences that might be valuable, but other people on the council may have experiences that could help me as well” (P2, Canada). A family advisor expressed that engaging with health professionals on the research team (e.g., nurses, physicians, social workers) allowed for reciprocal learning, where the care partner learned from the health professional and the health professional had the chance to learn from caregivers:

I also very much enjoy the interaction of working with professionals [health]. I love the learning experience that both of us can get and ultimately again as we discussed before, what I learn I can then take back to the people who can gain the most from what I learn. Which are the people suffering the condition. (P5, United Kingdom)

By engaging with the Strategic Guiding Council, participants mentioned that it provided them with the opportunity to learn about interventions and programs that are happening in other countries. Family advisors further endorsed that being involved with the Strategic Guiding Council, not only did it promote reciprocal learning between the caregiver and healthcare team, it also allowed family advisors to be active participants in their loved one’s care and not “only visitors” (P6, The Netherlands).

Theme 2. Using lived experience to support other family carers

This theme describes the participants’ lived experience as a family carer of a person with dementia and how their experience was a driver for engaging with the Strategic Guiding Council. Based on their own experiences, family advisors expressed a strong desire to create a circle of moral and psychosocial support system for other carers. Advisors endorsed that their personal experience with a loved one gave them “the drive to do something” (P10, the Republic of Ireland). This revealed how they reflected on their previous experiences in supporting persons with dementia to inform necessary changes for other family carers. The advisor further elaborated: “I thought for anybody that’s going through it, you know I’m going to try and do something to help improve this”. This sentiment was further expressed by another participant:

I think just giving my personal experience that I’ve had in Long Term Care. I watched how my father lived and how his end of life was and just want to help in any way that I can for other families going through such a difficult time. (P1, Canada)

Family advisors expressed experiencing challenges with obtaining appropriate end-of-life care for their loved one due to clinicians working in care homes limited knowledge regarding a palliative approach to care, which contributed to negative experiences. One participant mentioned, “My mom’s GP [general practitioner] denied her Palliative Care because he said she didn’t have Cancer” (P9, The Republic of Ireland). The advisor further attributed that the lack of information from the physician led to feelings of frustration but then ‘sparked something within’, which led the participant to determine that: “rather than fighting the system, I educated myself. I just decided I would speak out and tell mom’s story to change those mistakes and hopefully make a difference” (P9, The Republic of Ireland)

Another advisor expressed a similar situation where she experienced challenges with her husband receiving adequate pain management despite advocating on his behalf to stakeholders in his long-term care home and physician. The advisor shared:

With my husband, the home didn’t know anything about Palliative Care and we became increasingly desperate because he was having such terrible pain. Awful pain, and it was just awful to see his body twisting. I was so desperate. I tried to get him into a hospice and they had no beds and I turned to the Palliative Care nursing team that cover residents around the country side and towns. They said they can’t come in and help unless they are asked to by the GP that covers the residential home and I asked him [GP] and he wouldn’t speak to me. (P5, United Kingdom)

After advocating on behalf of her husband for adequate end-of-life care, the advisor further shared:

It was only the day before he died that he was completely pain free. The last few days of his life he had some pain control. That shouldn’t have happened, he should have had pain control months before, or weeks before he became in such a terrible state. That’s why I’m desperate that it doesn’t happen to other people. (P5, United Kingdom)

Although many family advisors shared negative experiences with end-of-life care, an advisor described end-of-life care as a “beautiful, worthwhile thing to be a part of” (P2, Canada). She further describes how end-of-life care has been a large part of her life since she was a caregiver to family members who passed away in LTC. Therefore, she hopes to be able to help others going through a difficult moment by sharing her experience:

It’s worthwhile to be able to share the things you know and share your experience with families to have when they are facing this end-of-life care phase. It’s a really difficult circumstance to be in and it’s very complex it’s nothing that you can rehearse for… I think that my experience could be valuable to other people. (P2, Canada)

A strong motivating factor that led advisors to engage with the Strategic Guiding Council and research team was to help others navigate the health system. Advisors expressed encountering challenges navigating the health system to ensure that their family member with dementia was provided with the treatment that they needed. Many endorsed a motivation to be engaged with the Strategic Guiding Council was to help other caregivers navigate the health system. An advisor shared: "I think it is in helping people find their way through different systems … as they begin to navigate it and know the important things to look for and what things to just let go" (P4, Canada).

In addition, an advisor also learned from her experience that it is important to seek help early on and engage in discussions about dying early on in a person’s care until they are at the end-of-life. She shared:

My mission is that what happened to my husband never happens to other people. They get to that stage and understand and get help quickly … definitely get help early on and leave it sort of until its Palliative and it can’t be controlled. They need to know earlier on. (P5, United Kingdom)

A family advisor further described supporting a family member with dementia as the power of attorney and described the process as not black or white. The advisor disclosed the challenges and complexities of being power of attorney, especially in relation with capacity of understanding concerns. Supporting families navigate these concerns was a motivating factor for the advisor to join the Strategic Guiding Council. One advisor expressed: “To think that I could help family members understand what might be ahead of them, I thought was interesting and useful…so that was the motivation” (P8, The Republic of Ireland). Overall, participants identified the importance of sharing their knowledge and experience as a means of enlightening others and helping other carers in their caregiving journey.

Theme 3. Creating a collective momentum for advocacy and change

This theme describes the importance of advocacy to improve access to palliative care supports and education to reduce stigma in end-of-life care. Family advisors are motivated to be engaged with the Strategic Guiding Council to be able to use their voice to improve the quality of care provided to individuals with dementia and use their voices to “support or influence the direction of the program (P7, The Republic of Ireland). An advisor shared:

Advocate for elderly people to have Comfort Care, even if it is not in the last part of their lives. They have to have Comfort Care even when the disease of Dementia comes, to have all the people around you and try to make the life of the person as comfortable as can be. (P6, The Netherlands)

An advisor shared how being involved in their loved ones care brought fulfillment in their life through the advocacy work they are engaged in:

I look back now and I think it’s probably the best thing I have achieved in my life. Plus, it’s opened up my world to meeting amazing people. Like even now talking to you today [researcher], like if mom hadn’t come into my life, I wouldn’t be doing any of this [advocacy]. I don’t’ know what I’d be doing but I certainly wouldn’t’ be worrying about Dementia and end of life or having anything to do with it. It’s completely the opposite to what my life was. (P9, The Republic of Ireland)

Despite programs developed to bring more awareness regarding dementia care, advisors endorsed that there is still stigma that exists regarding dementia.

I don’t know about other countries but in the Republic of Ireland there’s not as much of a stigma as there was but there’s definitely still a stigma around Dementia or Alzheimer’s. There’s definitely huge education needed for the general public as well. It’s getting better. People are more aware, as well as there are more supports. But there’s still … you know, it’s one of those things that some people don’t want to talk about. (P10, The Republic of Ireland)

The Strategic Guiding Council was identified as an opportunity for advisors to be engaged in research initiatives and cross-country collaborations to improve integration of a palliative approach to care for individuals with dementia. An advisor who also had a long career in research shared:

I like the idea that it’s an international project and it will be interesting to see what the results are and also to make a difference for families that have family members or friends who have Dementia and reach end of life. It would be nice to make a difference if we can somehow. I like fairly efficient things, but I want to see some real impact you know collectively from this research project. I’ve been doing research for forty-five years so I know that lots of things take a long time to make a difference but I’d like to see some real outcomes from the research. (P3, Canada)

Through engagement in the Strategic Guiding Council and research team, a collective momentum for change can be made to improve the care being provided to people with dementia and provide person-centered care. An advisor emphasized the importance for health professionals to explore the wishes of the person with dementia and their family members to improve quality of life:

The nurses and the staff must be aware of the wishes of patients and family of the patients so they can be part of the last few times [moments] of the patient’s life and try to make it more about the person and family want to have and not the wishes of the organization to be efficien.t (P6, The Netherlands)

This study sought to explore the perspectives of family advisors’ motivations in working with a Strategic Guiding Council and research team to promote integration of a palliative approach to improve dementia care in LTC homes. To our knowledge, this is the first study which explores the perspectives of family carers motivations to participate in PPI research in an international Strategic Guiding Council, from four participating countries (Canada, United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, and the Netherlands). The Strategic Guiding Council international study provided the advisors with an opportunity to be engaged in cross-country collaborations to improve end-of-life care for individuals with dementia and support the research team in determining opportunities to improve patient and family engagement.

The study findings are relevant to healthcare as it provides the perspectives of family carers motivation in being partners in care and research, which is an area of research that requires further exploration in LTC settings [ 18 ]. Involving family and patients in the development and implementation of research, enriches the relevance of the study by generating interventions that are sustainable and translatable to the community of interest [ 25 ]. PPI involvement is a growing area in health research and ensures that research is conducted in a manner that is relevant and meaningful to patients and the public [ 26 , 27 ]. Warner et al. [ 28 ] emphasizes the importance of involving patients and families in their care to ensure care reflects their needs and values. Through patient and family integration in the planning process, it can lead to positive patient end-of-life and family bereavement outcomes [ 28 ].

Family advisors in the study discussed how their lived experience providing care for a person with dementia was a motivating factor to wanting to be engaged with a Strategic Guiding Council and research team. Participants wanted to use their experience to help others who are going through difficult situations. Similar to the findings in our study, a study conducted by Cashin et al. [ 29 ] explored family’s motivation to being engaged in research and education development with health professionals, which was driven by their desire to improve their knowledge and promote awareness of dementia. Findings from the study are also consistent with family centered research that has been conducted in different disciplines. O’Keeffe et al. [ 30 ] explored family members motivation to being engaged in research in the field of adolescent mental health. A commonly cited motivation for being engaged with a research team was a desire to help others going through similar difficulties [ 30 ].

Advisors in the study discussed challenges with obtaining appropriate referral for end-of-life care or palliative treatment (i.e., pain management) for their loved one which was a driver for them to want to be engaged in a Strategic Guiding Council. Advisors reported stakeholders in care homes and health professionals limited knowledge regarding a palliative approach to care as a reason for experiencing challenges with obtaining a referral or treatment. This finding is consistent in the literature which discusses the need to expand education on end-of-life care amongst health professionals of all disciplines, patients and family [ 31 , 32 , 33 ]. In a study from Bolt et al. [ 34 ], the author emphasizes that nurses who provide care to people with dementia have a crucial role in identifying end-of-life needs and observing changes in clinical health status due to their frequent interactions with residents. However, it is imperative to explore effective education opportunities to promote capacity building within health professionals working in long-term care homes to provide a palliative approach to care to improve the health service delivery of older adults receiving end-of-life care.

PPI research is critical and it is imperative that researchers aim to achieve actionable outcomes with the participation of patients and public participation in research [ 11 ]. Advisors in the study disclosed how they want to be involved with the research team to be able to ‘see some real impact’ from the research projects they are engaged with. In a systematic review conducted by Domecq et al. [ 35 ], patient engagement in the planning and execution of research may improve its translation into clinical practice and may yield meaningful reports that’s written in a language that is understandable for participants and the community, thus supporting knowledge translation. Increasing participatory action research amongst patients and family to improve end-of-life careand dementia care may improve a person’s quality of life through the inclusion of individuals with lived experience to make program improvement recommendations [ 11 ]. Thus, reinforcing the importance of an interdisciplinary and unified approach to research.

Results from this study generated implications for research, policy, and practice. Research and policy implications generated from the study further emphasizes the importance of ensuring PPI is integrated in LTC settings and international research projects to further improve the implementation of a palliative approach to care within nursing homes and improve the quality of life of residents in the late phase of their illness. Advisors in the Strategic Guiding Council supported the FCDS study and were actively involved in creating guides for families and education materials along with the research team. Practice implications from the study reinforces the importance of involving family members in the decision-making process of their loved one’s goals of care during end of life. Families who are not provided the opportunity to discuss their relative’s illness, prognosis, and treatment experience difficulties with decision-making processes, feel uncertainty about the illness and may also feel unprepared for their relative’s death [ 31 ]. Exploring the motivations of family carers allowed the research team to engage family carers meaningfully by ensuring that their perspectives and lived experiences were incorporated in the FCDS research study. In addition, this study further contributes to the limited body of literature that explores PPI research amongst family caregivers in LTC [ 18 , 19 ].

Strengths and limitations

A major strength of this study is that the Strategic Guiding Council includes advisors from four countries with unique contexts with regards to healthcare systems and available services and presents findings PPI research within an international team. Additional study strengths include strategies to enhance trustworthiness of the study findings which consisted of meeting with the research team to engage in debriefing to ensure reflexivity and conformability with the research findings. The authors in the study also utilized triangulation to ensure rigour, which allowed for the confirmation of the findings and different perspective with the phenomena of interest [ 36 ]. Despite the research study utilizing a small sample of individuals from participating countries, this study offered an international perspective that explored the motivation of family advisors’ in working with a Strategic Guiding Council and research team which has not be explored before. Future qualitative research could include a large sample size and more countries beyond Canada and Europe. Advisors had to be comfortable in speaking in English, however a ‘buddy’ such as a research coordinator was assigned to those who required some translation. Despite the use of a ‘buddy’, due to limited time and resources we were unable to recruit family advisors in Italy and Czech Republic. Therefore, we were unable to include advisors in the study due to their limited proficiency in English. Future research should have measures in place to allow participants to take part in interviews in the language of their choosing. This study was also conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic and therefore future research should explore the impact of the pandemic with family caregivers’ participation in research. Additionally, the findings reinforce that family caregivers are motivated to be active participants in their loved ones care and want to be involved in meaningful work through research engagement. Therefore, researchers should aim to explore further family caregivers role in research to support in recruitment and to conduct meaningful research to improve health service delivery for patients.

This study contributed to the enrichment of literature by exploring PPI in research from an international perspective. Motivations that led to engagement with the Strategic Guiding Council and research team consisted of family advisors’ using lived experience to support other family carers and the motivation to engage in reciprocal learning with other care partners and research professionals. While many Family Advisors had strong motivations to be engaged with the Strategic Guiding Council and research team, many endorsed aspirations to support care partners navigate through the complexity of the health system and create a collective momentum for advocacy and change to improve end of life dementia care through their involvement with the Strategic Guiding Council.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Abbreviations

Patient and Public Involvement

Strategic Guiding Council

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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank all the members of the Strategic Guiding Council and all the international researchers in the mySupport study. This study was supported by EU Joint Programme—Neurodegenerative Disease (JPND) project. The project is supported through the following funding organisations under the aegis of JPND— (Canada, Canadian Institutes of Health Research; Czech Republic, Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport; Ireland, Health Research Board; The Netherlands, ZonMW; United Kingdom, Alzheimer’s Society)— www.jpnd.eu .

This is an EU Joint Programme -Neurodegenerative Disease Research (JPND) project. The project is supported through the following funding organisations under the aegis of JPND - www.jpnd.eu : Canada, Canadian Institutes of Health Research (grant number 161462); the Czech Republic, Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (grant number 8F19005); Netherlands, Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (grant number 733051084); Republic of Ireland, Health Research Board (grant number JPND- HSC-2018–002); the UK, Alzheimer’s Society (grant number AS-IGF-17–001). The funders had no role in the design of the study, and will have no role in its execution, analysis, interpretation of the data or write up.

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Contributions

SK is the principal investigator of the study. SL, JK, SV, VM and SK were involved in data analysis. SL and ML drafted the initial version of the manuscript. All authors (SK, SL, ML, JK, SV, VM, BT, PH, CG, DJ, TS, RG) have read, made critical revisions, and approved the final manuscript.

Authors' information

Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Nursing, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 3Z1, CanadaStephanie Lucchese RN, MN, Marie-Lee Yous RN, PhD Julia Kruizinga RN, MScN Vanessa Maradiaga Rivas RN, MScN, Pam Holliday BSc(PT), MSc, Rebecca Ganann RN, PhD, Sharon Kaasalainen RN, PhD.

Lawrence S. Bloomberg, Faculty of Nursing, University of Toronto, 155 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5T 1P8, CanadaStephanie Lucchese RN, MN, Shirin Vellani NP, PhD, Danielle Just PhD.

Virtual Behavioral Medicine Program, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute – University Health Network, 550 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 2A2, Canada Shirin Vellani NP, PhD.

Faculty of Arts, School of Social Work, McGill University, 550 Sherbrooke Ouest H3A B9, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1B9, CanadaBianca Tétrault BA, MSW, Tamara Sussman, MSW, PhD.

Dementia Ireland, Keeping the Spotlight on Dementia and End of Life - Oughterard, Co. Galway, Ireland Carmel Geoghegan

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Correspondence to Sharon Kaasalainen .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

This study was approved by local research ethics board (#5837). Written and verbal informed consent was sought from all participants prior to engaging in the study.

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Not applicable.

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Lucchese, S., Yous, ML., Kruizinga, J. et al. Motivations of family advisors in engaging in research to improve a palliative approach to care for persons living with dementia: an interpretive descriptive study. Res Involv Engagem 10 , 94 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40900-024-00623-w

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Received : 15 March 2024

Accepted : 10 August 2024

Published : 06 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40900-024-00623-w

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