poverty social issues essay

Poverty as a Social Problem

This free essay on poverty as a social problem looks at a grave problem that exists in America and in the world. It provides reasons why people are experiencing poverty as well as some solutions.

Introduction

Literature review, poverty as a social problem: reflection, solutions to poverty as a social problem, social problems: poverty essay conclusion.

Society often perceives poverty as an individualistic issue, believing it is a consequence of bad decisions. That is, people themselves are responsible for the level of income and financial stability of households. However, the subject is much more complex as poverty also results from inadequate structuring of the country’s economy, distribution of goods, and other sectors, making it a social problem. Failure to build a system that would help citizens become financially stable results in various issues associated with crime levels, education, health care, and others. The government is the one that should work to solve them.

There are numerous studies and publications researching the reasons behind poverty. E. Royce (2019) tries to explain in his book how the existing economic system in the United States prevents citizens from reaching an adequate level of income and financial support. The main idea is that the current structure of how goods are distributed across the population does not benefit a large portion of it. Few rich individuals grow wealthier yearly, while millions struggle to find a stable job with a minimum wage.

The inequality created by the government’s failure to build a fair economic system results in a range of social problems. The idea of a poverty line as a measure of well-being has not changed much since the 1960s despite the obvious changes in consumption patterns (Royce, 2019). It is calculated as the sum required for purchasing essential items for living, which does not include modern commodities such as computers, mobile phones, and others.

As a result, low-income people become socially isolated since they do not possess things essential for the modern lifestyle, like social networks. They may be excluded from a community for not corresponding with the public image of active individuals. These mechanisms, combined with the dominant idea of the necessity to achieve success, push poor people away from social life. This factor comes together with the inability to receive proper health care and education services.

The literature also contains studies on how poverty affects the behavior of individuals. For instance, children exposed to life in a low-income household are more likely to develop adverse reactions in the future due to strain resulting from the inability to receive wished items (McFarland, 2017). When placed in a densely populated neighborhood, they may later cause legal problems, creating delinquent areas.

It is easy to predict the social issues that poor people face daily. They cannot receive proper health care services as they are usually costly. Moreover, many commercial organizations offering low-paid jobs traditionally based on customer service may prevent employees from taking sick leaves. As a result, people suffer from various illnesses without attending a hospital, fearing to lose a work placement.

Another issue is the inability of poor people to send their children to high-performing schools, which are expensive as a rule. This factor causes youth to continue living with the same income level as their parents since the absence of quality education prevents them from receiving a decent job. Moreover, children who cannot acquire goods valued by their peers are likely to adopt criminal behavior to achieve success since community norms and morals do not help this purpose.

Summarizing all the above said, it becomes evident that changing the existing economic structure on the governmental level is the most appropriate solution to the issue of poverty. There should be a strategy covering all the aspects affected by this problem. The goal is to increase the level of financial support for disadvantaged groups and give more opportunities for people to grow their income.

Firstly, the social sector should be transformed to meet the needs of all citizens. The government should increase the financing of schools so that all children will have access to quality education. Also, various programs should engage youth in activities after classes. Another step is to make health care affordable for everyone, and there should be no pressure on workers when they decide to take sick leaves.

Secondly, the structure of budget spending should be redesigned. It is evident that social support programs require much financing from taxes. One of the possible strategies is to make the government spend less on other sectors. Also, solving the issue of delinquent behavior among youth by advancing social support may cut costs on police functioning as there will be a lower need for services such as patrolling.

Poverty is a structural problem resulting from a country’s inadequate economic system. It creates various social issues associated with poor health care services, low-quality education, criminal activity, and others. Poverty is a complex subject that cannot be resolved shortly. However, one of the possible strategies is to provide better financial and social support for the population, which will create more opportunities for people to increase their income level.

McFarland, M. (2017). Poverty and problem behaviors across the early life course: The role of sensitive period exposure. Population Research & Policy Review , 36 (5), 739-760.

Royce, E. (2019). Poverty and power: The problem of structural inequality (3rd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

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Poverty Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on poverty essay.

“Poverty is the worst form of violence”. – Mahatma Gandhi.

How Poverty is Measured?

For measuring poverty United nations have devised two measures of poverty – Absolute & relative poverty. Absolute poverty is used to measure poverty in developing countries like India. Relative poverty is used to measure poverty in developed countries like the USA. In absolute poverty, a line based on the minimum level of income has been created & is called a poverty line. If per day income of a family is below this level, then it is poor or below the poverty line. If per day income of a family is above this level, then it is non-poor or above the poverty line. In India, the new poverty line is Rs 32 in rural areas and Rs 47 in urban areas.

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Causes of Poverty

According to the Noble prize winner South African leader, Nelson Mandela – “Poverty is not natural, it is manmade”. The above statement is true as the causes of poverty are generally man-made. There are various causes of poverty but the most important is population. Rising population is putting the burden on the resources & budget of countries. Governments are finding difficult to provide food, shelter & employment to the rising population.

The other causes are- lack of education, war, natural disaster, lack of employment, lack of infrastructure, political instability, etc. For instance- lack of employment opportunities makes a person jobless & he is not able to earn enough to fulfill the basic necessities of his family & becomes poor. Lack of education compels a person for less paying jobs & it makes him poorer. Lack of infrastructure means there are no industries, banks, etc. in a country resulting in lack of employment opportunities. Natural disasters like flood, earthquake also contribute to poverty.

In some countries, especially African countries like Somalia, a long period of civil war has made poverty widespread. This is because all the resources & money is being spent in war instead of public welfare. Countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc. are prone to natural disasters like cyclone, etc. These disasters occur every year causing poverty to rise.

Ill Effects of Poverty

Poverty affects the life of a poor family. A poor person is not able to take proper food & nutrition &his capacity to work reduces. Reduced capacity to work further reduces his income, making him poorer. Children from poor family never get proper schooling & proper nutrition. They have to work to support their family & this destroys their childhood. Some of them may also involve in crimes like theft, murder, robbery, etc. A poor person remains uneducated & is forced to live under unhygienic conditions in slums. There are no proper sanitation & drinking water facility in slums & he falls ill often & his health deteriorates. A poor person generally dies an early death. So, all social evils are related to poverty.

Government Schemes to Remove Poverty

The government of India also took several measures to eradicate poverty from India. Some of them are – creating employment opportunities , controlling population, etc. In India, about 60% of the population is still dependent on agriculture for its livelihood. Government has taken certain measures to promote agriculture in India. The government constructed certain dams & canals in our country to provide easy availability of water for irrigation. Government has also taken steps for the cheap availability of seeds & farming equipment to promote agriculture. Government is also promoting farming of cash crops like cotton, instead of food crops. In cities, the government is promoting industrialization to create more jobs. Government has also opened ‘Ration shops’. Other measures include providing free & compulsory education for children up to 14 years of age, scholarship to deserving students from a poor background, providing subsidized houses to poor people, etc.

Poverty is a social evil, we can also contribute to control it. For example- we can simply donate old clothes to poor people, we can also sponsor the education of a poor child or we can utilize our free time by teaching poor students. Remember before wasting food, somebody is still sleeping hungry.

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Why poverty is not a personal choice, but a reflection of society

Research Investigator of Psychiatry, Public Health, and Poverty Solutions, University of Michigan

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Shervin Assari does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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As the Senate prepares to modify its version of the health care bill, now is a good time to back up and examine why we as a nation are so divided about providing health care, especially to the poor.

I believe one reason the United States is cutting spending on health insurance and safety nets that protect poor and marginalized people is because of American culture, which overemphasizes individual responsibility. Our culture does this to the point that it ignores the effect of root causes shaped by society and beyond the control of the individual. How laypeople define and attribute poverty may not be that much different from the way U.S. policymakers in the Senate see poverty.

As someone who studies poverty solutions and social and health inequalities, I am convinced by the academic literature that the biggest reason for poverty is how a society is structured. Without structural changes, it may be very difficult if not impossible to eliminate disparities and poverty.

Social structure

About 13.5 percent of Americans are living in poverty. Many of these people do not have insurance, and efforts to help them gain insurance, be it through Medicaid or private insurance, have been stymied. Medicaid provides insurance for the disabled, people in nursing homes and the poor.

Four states recently asked the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services for permission to require Medicaid recipients in their states who are not disabled or elderly to work.

This request is reflective of the fact that many Americans believe that poverty is, by and large, the result of laziness , immorality and irresponsibility.

In fact, poverty and other social miseries are in large part due to social structure , which is how society functions at a macro level. Some societal issues, such as racism, sexism and segregation, constantly cause disparities in education, employment and income for marginalized groups. The majority group naturally has a head start, relative to groups that deal with a wide range of societal barriers on a daily basis. This is what I mean by structural causes of poverty and inequality.

Poverty: Not just a state of mind

We have all heard that the poor and minorities need only make better choices – work hard, stay in school, get married, do not have children before they can afford them. If they did all this, they wouldn’t be poor.

Just a few weeks ago, Housing Secretary Ben Carson called poverty “ a state of mind .” At the same time, his budget to help low-income households could be cut by more than US$6 billion next year.

This is an example of a simplistic view toward the complex social phenomenon. It is minimizing the impact of a societal issue caused by structure – macro‐level labor market and societal conditions – on individuals’ behavior. Such claims also ignore a large body of sociological science.

American independence

Americans have one of the most independent cultures on Earth. A majority of Americans deﬁne people in terms of internal attributes such as choices , abilities, values, preferences, decisions and traits.

This is very different from interdependent cultures , such as eastern Asian countries where people are seen mainly in terms of their environment, context and relationships with others.

A direct consequence of independent mindsets and cognitive models is that one may ignore all the historical and environmental conditions, such as slavery, segregation and discrimination against women, that contribute to certain outcomes. When we ignore the historical context, it is easier to instead attribute an unfavorable outcome, such as poverty, to the person.

Views shaped by politics

Many Americans view poverty as an individual phenomenon and say that it’s primarily their own fault that people are poor. The alternative view is that poverty is a structural phenomenon. From this viewpoint, people are in poverty because they find themselves in holes in the economic system that deliver them inadequate income.

The fact is that people move in and out of poverty. Research has shown that 45 percent of poverty spells last no more than a year, 70 percent last no more than three years and only 12 percent stretch beyond a decade.

The Panel Study of Income Dynamics ( PSID ), a 50-year longitudinal study of 18,000 Americans, has shown that around four in 10 adults experience an entire year of poverty from the ages of 25 to 60. The last Survey of Income and Program Participation ( SIPP ), a longitudinal survey conducted by the U.S. Census, had about one-third of Americans in episodic poverty at some point in a three-year period, but just 3.5 percent in episodic poverty for all three years.

Why calling the poor ‘lazy’ is victim blaming

If one believes that poverty is related to historical and environmental events and not just to an individual, we should be careful about blaming the poor for their fates.

Victim blaming occurs when the victim of a crime or any wrongful act is held entirely or partially responsible for the harm that befell them. It is a common psychological and societal phenomenon. Victimology has shown that humans have a tendency to perceive victims at least partially responsible . This is true even in rape cases, where there is a considerable tendency to blame victims and is true particularly if the victim and perpetrator know each other.

I believe all our lives could be improved if we considered the structural influences as root causes of social problems such as poverty and inequality. Perhaps then, we could more easily agree on solutions.

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2.4 The Consequences of Poverty

Learning objectives.

Describe the family and housing problems associated with poverty.
Explain how poverty affects health and educational attainment.

Regardless of its causes, poverty has devastating consequences for the people who live in it. Much research conducted and/or analyzed by scholars, government agencies, and nonprofit organizations has documented the effects of poverty (and near poverty) on the lives of the poor (Lindsey, 2009; Moore, et. al., 2009; Ratcliffe & McKernan, 2010; Sanders, 2011). Many of these studies focus on childhood poverty, and these studies make it very clear that childhood poverty has lifelong consequences. In general, poor children are more likely to be poor as adults, more likely to drop out of high school, more likely to become a teenaged parent, and more likely to have employment problems. Although only 1 percent of children who are never poor end up being poor as young adults, 32 percent of poor children become poor as young adults (Ratcliffe & McKernan, 2010).

Poor children are more likely to have inadequate nutrition and to experience health, behavioral, and cognitive problems.

Kelly Short – Poverty: “Damaged Child,” Oklahoma City, OK, USA, 1936. (Colorized). – CC BY-SA 2.0.

A recent study used government data to follow children born between 1968 and 1975 until they were ages 30 to 37 (Duncan & Magnuson, 2011). The researchers compared individuals who lived in poverty in early childhood to those whose families had incomes at least twice the poverty line in early childhood. Compared to the latter group, adults who were poor in early childhood

had completed two fewer years of schooling on the average;
had incomes that were less than half of those earned by adults who had wealthier childhoods;
received $826 more annually in food stamps on the average;
were almost three times more likely to report being in poor health;
were twice as likely to have been arrested (males only); and
were five times as likely to have borne a child (females only).

We discuss some of the major specific consequences of poverty here and will return to them in later chapters.

Family Problems

The poor are at greater risk for family problems, including divorce and domestic violence. As Chapter 9 “Sexual Behavior” explains, a major reason for many of the problems families experience is stress. Even in families that are not poor, running a household can cause stress, children can cause stress, and paying the bills can cause stress. Families that are poor have more stress because of their poverty, and the ordinary stresses of family life become even more intense in poor families. The various kinds of family problems thus happen more commonly in poor families than in wealthier families. Compounding this situation, when these problems occur, poor families have fewer resources than wealthier families to deal with these problems.

Children and Our Future

Getting under Children’s Skin: The Biological Effects of Childhood Poverty

As the text discusses, childhood poverty often has lifelong consequences. Poor children are more likely to be poor when they become adults, and they are at greater risk for antisocial behavior when young, and for unemployment, criminal behavior, and other problems when they reach adolescence and young adulthood.

According to growing evidence, one reason poverty has these consequences is that it has certain neural effects on poor children that impair their cognitive abilities and thus their behavior and learning potential. As Greg J. Duncan and Katherine Magnuson (Duncan & Magnuson, 2011, p. 23) observe, “Emerging research in neuroscience and developmental psychology suggests that poverty early in a child’s life may be particularly harmful because the astonishingly rapid development of young children’s brains leaves them sensitive (and vulnerable) to environmental conditions.”

In short, poverty can change the way the brain develops in young children. The major reason for this effect is stress. Children growing up in poverty experience multiple stressful events: neighborhood crime and drug use; divorce, parental conflict, and other family problems, including abuse and neglect by their parents; parental financial problems and unemployment; physical and mental health problems of one or more family members; and so forth. Their great levels of stress in turn affect their bodies in certain harmful ways. As two poverty scholars note, “It’s not just that poverty-induced stress is mentally taxing. If it’s experienced early enough in childhood, it can in fact get ‘under the skin’ and change the way in which the body copes with the environment and the way in which the brain develops. These deep, enduring, and sometimes irreversible physiological changes are the very human price of running a high-poverty society” (Grusky & Wimer, 2011, p. 2).

One way poverty gets “under children’s skin” is as follows (Evans, et. al., 2011). Poor children’s high levels of stress produce unusually high levels of stress hormones such as cortisol and higher levels of blood pressure. Because these high levels impair their neural development, their memory and language development skills suffer. This result in turn affects their behavior and learning potential. For other physiological reasons, high levels of stress also affect the immune system, so that poor children are more likely to develop various illnesses during childhood and to have high blood pressure and other health problems when they grow older, and cause other biological changes that make poor children more likely to end up being obese and to have drug and alcohol problems.

The policy implications of the scientific research on childhood poverty are clear. As public health scholar Jack P. Shonkoff (Shonkoff, 2011) explains, “Viewing this scientific evidence within a biodevelopmental framework points to the particular importance of addressing the needs of our most disadvantaged children at the earliest ages.” Duncan and Magnuson (Duncan & Magnuson, 2011) agree that “greater policy attention should be given to remediating situations involving deep and persistent poverty occurring early in childhood.” To reduce poverty’s harmful physiological effects on children, Skonkoff advocates efforts to promote strong, stable relationships among all members of poor families; to improve the quality of the home and neighborhood physical environments in which poor children grow; and to improve the nutrition of poor children. Duncan and Magnuson call for more generous income transfers to poor families with young children and note that many European democracies provide many kinds of support to such families. The recent scientific evidence on early childhood poverty underscores the importance of doing everything possible to reduce the harmful effects of poverty during the first few years of life.

Health, Illness, and Medical Care

The poor are also more likely to have many kinds of health problems, including infant mortality, earlier adulthood mortality, and mental illness, and they are also more likely to receive inadequate medical care. Poor children are more likely to have inadequate nutrition and, partly for this reason, to suffer health, behavioral, and cognitive problems. These problems in turn impair their ability to do well in school and land stable employment as adults, helping to ensure that poverty will persist across generations. Many poor people are uninsured or underinsured, at least until the US health-care reform legislation of 2010 takes full effect a few years from now, and many have to visit health clinics that are overcrowded and understaffed.

As Chapter 12 “Work and the Economy” discusses, it is unclear how much of poor people’s worse health stems from their lack of money and lack of good health care versus their own behavior such as smoking and eating unhealthy diets. Regardless of the exact reasons, however, the fact remains that poor health is a major consequence of poverty. According to recent research, this fact means that poverty is responsible for almost 150,000 deaths annually, a figure about equal to the number of deaths from lung cancer (Bakalar, 2011).

Poor children typically go to rundown schools with inadequate facilities where they receive inadequate schooling. They are much less likely than wealthier children to graduate from high school or to go to college. Their lack of education in turn restricts them and their own children to poverty, once again helping to ensure a vicious cycle of continuing poverty across generations. As Chapter 10 “The Changing Family” explains, scholars debate whether the poor school performance of poor children stems more from the inadequacy of their schools and schooling versus their own poverty. Regardless of exactly why poor children are more likely to do poorly in school and to have low educational attainment, these educational problems are another major consequence of poverty.

Housing and Homelessness

The poor are, not surprisingly, more likely to be homeless than the nonpoor but also more likely to live in dilapidated housing and unable to buy their own homes. Many poor families spend more than half their income on rent, and they tend to live in poor neighborhoods that lack job opportunities, good schools, and other features of modern life that wealthier people take for granted. The lack of adequate housing for the poor remains a major national problem. Even worse is outright homelessness. An estimated 1.6 million people, including more than 300,000 children, are homeless at least part of the year (Lee, et. al., 2010).

Crime and Victimization

As Chapter 7 “Alcohol and Other Drugs” discusses, poor (and near poor) people account for the bulk of our street crime (homicide, robbery, burglary, etc.), and they also account for the bulk of victims of street crime. That chapter will outline several reasons for this dual connection between poverty and street crime, but they include the deep frustration and stress of living in poverty and the fact that many poor people live in high-crime neighborhoods. In such neighborhoods, children are more likely to grow up under the influence of older peers who are already in gangs or otherwise committing crime, and people of any age are more likely to become crime victims. Moreover, because poor and near-poor people are more likely to commit street crime, they also comprise most of the people arrested for street crimes, convicted of street crime, and imprisoned for street crime. Most of the more than 2 million people now in the nation’s prisons and jails come from poor or near-poor backgrounds. Criminal behavior and criminal victimization, then, are other major consequences of poverty.

Lessons from Other Societies

Poverty and Poverty Policy in Other Western Democracies

To compare international poverty rates, scholars commonly use a measure of the percentage of households in a nation that receive less than half of the nation’s median household income after taxes and cash transfers from the government. In data from the late 2000s, 17.3 percent of US households lived in poverty as defined by this measure. By comparison, other Western democracies had the rates depicted in the figure that follows. The average poverty rate of the nations in the figure excluding the United States is 9.5 percent. The US rate is thus almost twice as high as the average for all the other democracies.

A graph of the Percentage of People Living in Poverty, from lowest to highest, it is: Denmark, Iceland, Netherlands, France, Norway, Finland, Sweden, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, The average (excluding the US), Ireland, United Kingdom, Canada, Italy, Greece, Portugal, Spain, and at the highest spot, the United States.

This graph illustrates the poverty rates in western democracies (i.e., the percentage of persons living with less than half of the median household income) as of the late 2000s

Source: Data from Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2011). Society at a glance 2011: OECD social indicators. Retrieved July 23, 2011, from http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/soc_glance-2011-en/06/02/index.html;jsessionid=erdqhbpb203ea.epsilon?contentType=&itemId=/content/chapter/soc_glance-2011-17-en&containerItemId=/content/se .

Why is there so much more poverty in the United States than in its Western counterparts? Several differences between the United States and the other nations stand out (Brady, 2009; Russell, 2011). First, other Western nations have higher minimum wages and stronger labor unions than the United States has, and these lead to incomes that help push people above poverty. Second, these other nations spend a much greater proportion of their gross domestic product on social expenditures (income support and social services such as child-care subsidies and housing allowances) than does the United States. As sociologist John Iceland (Iceland, 2006) notes, “Such countries often invest heavily in both universal benefits, such as maternity leave, child care, and medical care, and in promoting work among [poor] families…The United States, in comparison with other advanced nations, lacks national health insurance, provides less publicly supported housing, and spends less on job training and job creation.” Block and colleagues agree: “These other countries all take a more comprehensive government approach to combating poverty, and they assume that it is caused by economic and structural factors rather than bad behavior” (Block et, al., 2006).

The experience of the United Kingdom provides a striking contrast between the effectiveness of the expansive approach used in other wealthy democracies and the inadequacy of the American approach. In 1994, about 30 percent of British children lived in poverty; by 2009, that figure had fallen by more than half to 12 percent. Meanwhile, the US 2009 child poverty rate, was almost 21 percent.

Britain used three strategies to reduce its child poverty rate and to help poor children and their families in other ways. First, it induced more poor parents to work through a series of new measures, including a national minimum wage higher than its US counterpart and various tax savings for low-income workers. Because of these measures, the percentage of single parents who worked rose from 45 percent in 1997 to 57 percent in 2008. Second, Britain increased child welfare benefits regardless of whether a parent worked. Third, it increased paid maternity leave from four months to nine months, implemented two weeks of paid paternity leave, established universal preschool (which both helps children’s cognitive abilities and makes it easier for parents to afford to work), increased child-care aid, and made it possible for parents of young children to adjust their working hours to their parental responsibilities (Waldfogel, 2010). While the British child poverty rate fell dramatically because of these strategies, the US child poverty rate stagnated.

In short, the United States has so much more poverty than other democracies in part because it spends so much less than they do on helping the poor. The United States certainly has the wealth to follow their example, but it has chosen not to do so, and a high poverty rate is the unfortunate result. As the Nobel laureate economist Paul Krugman (2006, p. A25) summarizes this lesson, “Government truly can be a force for good. Decades of propaganda have conditioned many Americans to assume that government is always incompetent…But the [British experience has] shown that a government that seriously tries to reduce poverty can achieve a lot.”

Key Takeaways

Poor people are more likely to have several kinds of family problems, including divorce and family conflict.
Poor people are more likely to have several kinds of health problems.
Children growing up in poverty are less likely to graduate high school or go to college, and they are more likely to commit street crime.

For Your Review

Write a brief essay that summarizes the consequences of poverty.
Why do you think poor children are more likely to develop health problems?

Bakalar, N. (2011, July 4). Researchers link deaths to social ills. New York Times , p. D5.

Block, F., Korteweg, A. C., & Woodward, K. (2006). The compassion gap in American poverty policy. Contexts, 5 (2), 14–20.

Brady, D. (2009). Rich democracies, poor people: How politics explain poverty . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Duncan, G. J., & Magnuson, K. (2011, winter). The long reach of early childhood poverty. Pathways: A Magazine on Poverty, Inequality, and Social Policy , 22–27.

Evans, G. W., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Klebanov, P. K. (2011, winter). Stressing out the poor: Chronic physiological stress and the income-achievement gap. Pathways: A Magazine on Poverty, Inequality, and Social Policy , 16–21.

Grusky, D., & Wimer, C.(Eds.). (2011, winter). Editors’ note. Pathways: A Magazine on Poverty, Inequality, and Social Policy , 2.

Iceland, J. (2006). Poverty in America: A handbook . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Krugman, P. (Krugman, 2006). Helping the poor, the British way. New York Times , p. A25.

Lee, B., Tyler, K. A., & Wright, J. D. ( 2010). The new homelessness revisited. Annual Review of Sociology, 36 , 501–521.

Lindsey, D. (2009). Child poverty and inequality: Securing a better future for America’s children . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Moore, K. A., Redd, Z., Burkhauser, M., Mbawa, K., & Collins, A. (2009). Children in poverty: Trends, consequences, and policy options . Washington, DC: Child Trends. Retrieved from http://www.childtrends.org/Files//Child_Trends-2009_04_07_RB_ChildreninPoverty.pdf .

Ratcliffe, C., & McKernan, S.-M. (2010). Childhood poverty persistence: Facts and consequences . Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.

Russell, J. W. ( 2011). Double standard: Social policy in Europe and the United States (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Sanders, L. (2011). Neuroscience exposes pernicious effects of poverty. Science News, 179 (3), 32.

Shonkoff, J. P. (2011, winter). Building a foundation for prosperity on the science of early childhood development. Pathways: A Magazine on Poverty, Inequality, and Social Policy , 10–14.

Waldfogel, J. (2010). Britain’s war on poverty . New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

5 Essays About Poverty Everyone Should Know

Poverty is one of the driving forces of inequality in the world. Between 1990-2015, much progress was made. The number of people living on less than $1.90 went from 36% to 10%. However, according to the World Bank , the COVID-19 pandemic represents a serious problem that disproportionately impacts the poor. Research released in February of 2020 shows that by 2030, up to ⅔ of the “global extreme poor” will be living in conflict-affected and fragile economies. Poverty will remain a major human rights issue for decades to come. Here are five essays about the issue that everyone should know:

“We need an economic bill of rights” – Martin Luther King Jr.

The Guardian published an abridged version of this essay in 2018, which was originally released in Look magazine just after Dr. King was killed. In this piece, Dr. King explains why an economic bill of rights is necessary. He points out that while mass unemployment within the black community is a “social problem,” it’s a “depression” in the white community. An economic bill of rights would give a job to everyone who wants one and who can work. It would also give an income to those who can’t work. Dr. King affirms his commitment to non-violence. He’s fully aware that tensions are high. He quotes a spiritual, writing “timing is winding up.” Even while the nation progresses, poverty is getting worse.

This essay was reprinted and abridged in The Guardian in an arrangement with The Heirs to the Estate of Martin Luther King. Jr. The most visible representative of the Civil Rights Movement beginning in 1955, Dr. King was assassinated in 1968. His essays and speeches remain timely.

“How Poverty Can Follow Children Into Adulthood” – Priyanka Boghani

This article is from 2017, but it’s more relevant than ever because it was written when 2012 was the worst economic crisis since the Great Depression. That’s no longer the case. In 2012, around ¼ American children were in poverty. Five years later, children were still more likely than adults to be poor. This is especially true for children of colour. Consequences of poverty include anxiety, hunger, and homelessness. This essay also looks at the long-term consequences that come from growing up in poverty. A child can develop health problems that affect them in adulthood. Poverty can also harm a child’s brain development. Being aware of how poverty affects children and follows them into adulthood is essential as the world deals with the economic fallout from the pandemic.

Priyanka Boghani is a journalist at PBS Frontline. She focuses on U.S. foreign policy, humanitarian crises, and conflicts in the Middle East. She also assists in managing Frontline’s social accounts.

“5 Reasons COVID-19 Will Impact the Fight to End Extreme Poverty” – Leah Rodriguez

For decades, the UN has attempted to end extreme poverty. In the face of the novel coronavirus outbreak, new challenges threaten the fight against poverty. In this essay, Dr. Natalie Linos, a Harvard social epidemiologist, urges the world to have a “social conversation” about how the disease impacts poverty and inequality. If nothing is done, it’s unlikely that the UN will meet its Global Goals by 2030. Poverty and COVID-19 intersect in five key ways. For one, low-income people are more vulnerable to disease. They also don’t have equal access to healthcare or job stability. This piece provides a clear, concise summary of why this outbreak is especially concerning for the global poor.

Leah Rodriguez’s writing at Global Citizen focuses on women, girls, water, and sanitation. She’s also worked as a web producer and homepage editor for New York Magazine’s The Cut.

“Climate apartheid”: World’s poor to suffer most from disasters” – Al Jazeera and news Agencies

The consequences of climate change are well-known to experts like Philip Alston, the special rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights. In 2019, he submitted a report to the UN Human Rights Council sounding the alarm on how climate change will devastate the poor. While the wealthy will be able to pay their way out of devastation, the poor will not. This will end up creating a “climate apartheid.” Alston states that if climate change isn’t addressed, it will undo the last five decades of progress in poverty education, as well as global health and development .

“Nickel and Dimed: On (not) getting by in America” – Barbara Ehrenreich

In this excerpt from her book Nickel and Dimed, Ehrenreich describes her experience choosing to live undercover as an “unskilled worker” in the US. She wanted to investigate the impact the 1996 welfare reform act had on the working poor. Released in 2001, the events take place between the spring of 1998 and the summer of 2000. Ehrenreich decided to live in a town close to her “real life” and finds a place to live and a job. She has her eyes opened to the challenges and “special costs” of being poor. In 2019, The Guardian ranked the book 13th on their list of 100 best books of the 21st century.

Barbara Ehrenreich is the author of 21 books and an activist. She’s worked as an award-winning columnist and essayist.

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About the author, emmaline soken-huberty.

Emmaline Soken-Huberty is a freelance writer based in Portland, Oregon. She started to become interested in human rights while attending college, eventually getting a concentration in human rights and humanitarianism. LGBTQ+ rights, women’s rights, and climate change are of special concern to her. In her spare time, she can be found reading or enjoying Oregon’s natural beauty with her husband and dog.

Mental health effects of poverty, hunger, and homelessness on children and teens

Rising inflation and an uncertain economy are deeply affecting the lives of millions of Americans, particularly those living in low-income communities. It may seem impossible for a family of four to survive on just over $27,000 per year or a single person on just over $15,000, but that’s what millions of people do everyday in the United States. Approximately 37.9 million Americans, or just under 12%, now live in poverty, according to the U.S. Census Bureau .

Additional data from the Bureau show that children are more likely to experience poverty than people over the age of 18. Approximately one in six kids, 16% of all children, live in families with incomes below the official poverty line.

Those who are poor face challenges beyond a lack of resources. They also experience mental and physical issues at a much higher rate than those living above the poverty line. Read on for a summary of the myriad effects of poverty, homelessness, and hunger on children and youth. And for more information on APA’s work on issues surrounding socioeconomic status, please see the Office of Socioeconomic Status .

Who is most affected?

Poverty rates are disproportionately higher among most non-White populations. Compared to 8.2% of White Americans living in poverty, 26.8% of American Indian and Alaska Natives, 19.5% of Blacks, 17% of Hispanics and 8.1% of Asians are currently living in poverty.

Similarly, Black, Hispanic, and Indigenous children are overrepresented among children living below the poverty line. More specifically, 35.5% of Black people living in poverty in the U.S. are below the age of 18. In addition, 40.7% of Hispanic people living below the poverty line in the U.S. are younger than age 18, and 29.1% of American Indian and Native American children lived in poverty in 2018. In contrast, approximately 21% of White people living in poverty in the U.S. are less than 18 years old.

Furthermore, families with a female head of household are more than twice as likely to live in poverty compared to families with a male head of household. Twenty-three percent of female-headed households live in poverty compared to 11.4% of male-headed households, according to the U.S. Census Bureau .

What are the effects of poverty on children and teens?

The impact of poverty on young children is significant and long lasting. Poverty is associated with substandard housing, hunger, homelessness, inadequate childcare, unsafe neighborhoods, and under-resourced schools. In addition, low-income children are at greater risk than higher-income children for a range of cognitive, emotional, and health-related problems, including detrimental effects on executive functioning, below average academic achievement, poor social emotional functioning, developmental delays, behavioral problems, asthma, inadequate nutrition, low birth weight, and higher rates of pneumonia.

Psychological research also shows that living in poverty is associated with differences in structural and functional brain development in children and adolescents in areas related to cognitive processes that are critical for learning, communication, and academic achievement, including social emotional processing, memory, language, and executive functioning.

Children and families living in poverty often attend under-resourced, overcrowded schools that lack educational opportunities, books, supplies, and appropriate technology due to local funding policies. In addition, families living below the poverty line often live in school districts without adequate equal learning experiences for both gifted and special needs students with learning differences and where high school dropout rates are high .

What are the effects of hunger on children and teens?

One in eight U.S. households with children, approximately 12.5%, could not buy enough food for their families in 2021 , considerably higher than the rate for households without children (9.4%). Black (19.8%) and Latinx (16.25%) households are disproportionately impacted by food insecurity, with food insecurity rates in 2021 triple and double the rate of White households (7%), respectively.

Research has found that hunger and undernutrition can have a host of negative effects on child development. For example, maternal undernutrition during pregnancy increases the risk of negative birth outcomes, including premature birth, low birth weight, smaller head size, and lower brain weight. In addition, children experiencing hunger are at least twice as likely to report being in fair or poor health and at least 1.4 times more likely to have asthma, compared to food-secure children.

The first three years of a child’s life are a period of rapid brain development. Too little energy, protein and nutrients during this sensitive period can lead to lasting deficits in cognitive, social and emotional development . School-age children who experience severe hunger are at increased risk for poor mental health and lower academic performance , and often lag behind their peers in social and emotional skills .

What are the effects of homelessness on children and teens?

Approximately 1.2 million public school students experienced homelessness during the 2019-2020 school year, according to the National Center for Homeless Education (PDF, 1.4MB) . The report also found that students of color experienced homelessness at higher proportions than expected based on the overall number of students. Hispanic and Latino students accounted for 28% of the overall student body but 38% of students experiencing homelessness, while Black students accounted for 15% of the overall student body but 27% of students experiencing homelessness. While White students accounted for 46% of all students enrolled in public schools, they represented 26% of students experiencing homelessness.

Homelessness can have a tremendous impact on children, from their education, physical and mental health, sense of safety, and overall development. Children experiencing homelessness frequently need to worry about where they will live, their pets, their belongings, and other family members. In addition, homeless children are less likely to have adequate access to medical and dental care, and may be affected by a variety of health challenges due to inadequate nutrition and access to food, education interruptions, trauma, and disruption in family dynamics.

In terms of academic achievement, students experiencing homelessness are more than twice as likely to be chronically absent than non-homeless students , with greater rates among Black and Native American or Alaska Native students. They are also more likely to change schools multiple times and to be suspended—especially students of color.

Further, research shows that students reporting homelessness have higher rates of victimization, including increased odds of being sexually and physically victimized, and bullied. Student homelessness correlates with other problems, even when controlling for other risks. They experienced significantly greater odds of suicidality, substance abuse, alcohol abuse, risky sexual behavior, and poor grades in school.

What can you do to help children and families experiencing poverty, hunger, and homelessness?

There are many ways that you can help fight poverty in America. You can:

Volunteer your time with charities and organizations that provide assistance to low-income and homeless children and families.
Donate money, food, and clothing to homeless shelters and other charities in your community.
Donate school supplies and books to underresourced schools in your area.
Improve access to physical, mental, and behavioral health care for low-income Americans by eliminating barriers such as limitations in health care coverage.
Create a “safety net” for children and families that provides real protection against the harmful effects of economic insecurity.
Increase the minimum wage, affordable housing and job skills training for low-income and homeless Americans.
Intervene in early childhood to support the health and educational development of low-income children.
Provide support for low-income and food insecure children such as Head Start , the National School Lunch Program , and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) .
Increase resources for public education and access to higher education.
Support research on poverty and its relationship to health, education, and well-being.
Resolution on Poverty and SES
Pathways for addressing deep poverty
APA Deep Poverty Initiative

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108 Social Issues Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Social issues are complex and multifaceted problems that affect individuals, communities, and societies as a whole. These issues can range from poverty and inequality to discrimination and environmental degradation. Writing an essay on a social issue can be a daunting task, but it can also be a rewarding experience that allows you to explore and analyze important topics that impact the world around you.

To help you get started, here are 108 social issues essay topic ideas and examples that you can use as inspiration for your next writing assignment:

The impact of social media on mental health
Income inequality and its effects on society
Police brutality and the Black Lives Matter movement
The rise of fake news and its impact on democracy
Gender inequality in the workplace
Climate change and its effects on vulnerable communities
The opioid crisis and its impact on communities
The criminal justice system and racial disparities
Homelessness and poverty in America
The refugee crisis and global migration patterns
LGBTQ+ rights and discrimination
The rise of nationalism and its impact on global politics
Gun control and mass shootings in America
Environmental racism and its effects on marginalized communities
The impact of globalization on developing countries
Mental health stigma and access to treatment
Cyberbullying and online harassment
The #MeToo movement and sexual harassment in the workplace
Access to healthcare and the rising cost of medical care
The impact of technology on social relationships
Food insecurity and hunger in America
The effects of gentrification on low-income communities
Disability rights and accessibility
The criminalization of poverty and homelessness
Human trafficking and modern-day slavery
The impact of colonialism on indigenous communities
The rise of authoritarianism and threats to democracy
The education achievement gap and disparities in schools
Mental health challenges facing college students
The impact of social isolation on mental health
The influence of religion on social norms and values
The effects of gentrification on cultural identity
The impact of social media on political discourse
The role of activism in social change
Access to clean water and sanitation in developing countries
The impact of social media on body image and self-esteem
The effects of income inequality on public health
The criminalization of drug addiction and mental illness
The impact of climate change on indigenous communities

These are just a few examples of social issues that you can explore in your essay. Remember to choose a topic that you are passionate about and that you feel strongly about. Researching and writing about social issues can be a powerful way to raise awareness and advocate for change in the world. Good luck with your essay!

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A color photograph of a mother and son in a car. Both are holding dogs on their laps and a third dog lays his head over the passenger seat.

Why Poverty Persists in America

A Pulitzer Prize-winning sociologist offers a new explanation for an intractable problem.

A mother and son living in a Walmart parking lot in North Dakota in 2012. Credit... Eugene Richards

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By Matthew Desmond

Published March 9, 2023 Updated April 3, 2023

In the past 50 years, scientists have mapped the entire human genome and eradicated smallpox. Here in the United States, infant-mortality rates and deaths from heart disease have fallen by roughly 70 percent, and the average American has gained almost a decade of life. Climate change was recognized as an existential threat. The internet was invented.

On the problem of poverty, though, there has been no real improvement — just a long stasis. As estimated by the federal government’s poverty line, 12.6 percent of the U.S. population was poor in 1970; two decades later, it was 13.5 percent; in 2010, it was 15.1 percent; and in 2019, it was 10.5 percent. To graph the share of Americans living in poverty over the past half-century amounts to drawing a line that resembles gently rolling hills. The line curves slightly up, then slightly down, then back up again over the years, staying steady through Democratic and Republican administrations, rising in recessions and falling in boom years.

What accounts for this lack of progress? It cannot be chalked up to how the poor are counted: Different measures spit out the same embarrassing result. When the government began reporting the Supplemental Poverty Measure in 2011, designed to overcome many of the flaws of the Official Poverty Measure, including not accounting for regional differences in costs of living and government benefits, the United States officially gained three million more poor people. Possible reductions in poverty from counting aid like food stamps and tax benefits were more than offset by recognizing how low-income people were burdened by rising housing and health care costs.

The American poor have access to cheap, mass-produced goods, as every American does. But that doesn’t mean they can access what matters most.

Any fair assessment of poverty must confront the breathtaking march of material progress. But the fact that standards of living have risen across the board doesn’t mean that poverty itself has fallen. Forty years ago, only the rich could afford cellphones. But cellphones have become more affordable over the past few decades, and now most Americans have one, including many poor people. This has led observers like Ron Haskins and Isabel Sawhill, senior fellows at the Brookings Institution, to assert that “access to certain consumer goods,” like TVs, microwave ovens and cellphones, shows that “the poor are not quite so poor after all.”

No, it doesn’t. You can’t eat a cellphone. A cellphone doesn’t grant you stable housing, affordable medical and dental care or adequate child care. In fact, as things like cellphones have become cheaper, the cost of the most necessary of life’s necessities, like health care and rent, has increased. From 2000 to 2022 in the average American city, the cost of fuel and utilities increased by 115 percent. The American poor, living as they do in the center of global capitalism, have access to cheap, mass-produced goods, as every American does. But that doesn’t mean they can access what matters most. As Michael Harrington put it 60 years ago: “It is much easier in the United States to be decently dressed than it is to be decently housed, fed or doctored.”

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Home — Essay Samples — Social Issues — Poverty in America — Argumentative Paper: Poverty in The United States

Argumentative Paper: Poverty in The United States

Categories: Poverty in America

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Published: Mar 16, 2024

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Root causes of poverty, impact on individuals and society, potential solutions.

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Poverty - List of Free Essay Examples And Topic Ideas

Poverty, a state of deprivation of basic human needs and economic opportunities, is a pervasive issue across the globe. Essays could explore the systemic causes of poverty, its impact on individuals and communities, and the various strategies employed to alleviate poverty. Additionally, discussions might delve into the role of international aid, the impact of globalization, and the ethical responsibilities of affluent individuals and nations toward poverty reduction. A substantial compilation of free essay instances related to Poverty you can find at PapersOwl Website. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

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Without affordable housing there will be a continuous increase in minorities which also leads to a higher poverty rate. Poverty is the state of being extremely poor. Affordable housing helps decrease poverty in many ways than one. Affordable housing fulfills a human’s basic need for shelter as well as provides privacy for families. Those who receive affordable housing assistance and have children, benefit from better nutrition. Affordable housing would reduce poverty and should be available to those who are in […]

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Living in Poverty and being Rich

Poverty is such a simple word, but it is so complicated at the same time. The vast majority of individuals will not fully comprehend the real implication of poverty just by reading its literal meaning from the dictionary, but by learning from their surroundings and experiencing hardship itself. Defining poverty can be being poor financially but is also defined as a comfortable way of living as well as spiritually too. What does it mean actually to be poor? Most […]

Poverty and Obesity

It is a known fact that the individual exert influences on the environment and vice versa. However, no man is an Island and as such, these influences reflect through various levels of social and interpersonal relationships. The social environment of the individual include interaction with peers, friend and family members, through such mechanism as role modeling, social support and social norms (Mary, Karen, Ramona, Karen .Annu. Rev. Public Health 2008.Creating Healthy food and Eating Environments, para 2). The physical environment […]

A Problem Child Poverty and Effects on Education

“The impact of poverty on a child’s academic achievement is significant and starts early,” – Jonah Edelman, co-founder and chief executive officer of Stand for Children (Taylor, 2017). According to the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015, around 20 percent of children in the U.S. lived in poverty (Taylor, 2017). Rather than focusing all our time, attention, and resources on rewriting standards and adding higher stakes standardized tests, are we missing a larger looming issue? Studies have shown that student poverty […]

Cyclical poverty

Collective poverty, concentrated collective poverty, case poverty.

view archival footage of the impoverished American population in the aftermath of the stock market crash of 1929

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Social Science LibreTexts - Poverty
University of Minnesota Libraries - Open Textbooks - Explaining Poverty
CORE - Theories of Poverty: A Critical Review
poverty - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
Table Of Contents

poverty , the state of one who lacks a usual or socially acceptable amount of money or material possessions. Poverty is said to exist when people lack the means to satisfy their basic needs. In this context , the identification of poor people first requires a determination of what constitutes basic needs. These may be defined as narrowly as “those necessary for survival” or as broadly as “those reflecting the prevailing standard of living in the community.” The first criterion would cover only those people near the borderline of starvation or death from exposure; the second would extend to people whose nutrition, housing, and clothing, though adequate to preserve life, do not measure up to those of the population as a whole. The problem of definition is further compounded by the noneconomic connotations that the word poverty has acquired. Poverty has been associated, for example, with poor health, low levels of education or skills, an inability or an unwillingness to work, high rates of disruptive or disorderly behaviour, and improvidence. While these attributes have often been found to exist with poverty, their inclusion in a definition of poverty would tend to obscure the relation between them and the inability to provide for one’s basic needs. Whatever definition one uses, authorities and laypersons alike commonly assume that the effects of poverty are harmful to both individuals and society.

Although poverty is a phenomenon as old as human history, its significance has changed over time. Under traditional (i.e., nonindustrialized) modes of economic production, widespread poverty had been accepted as inevitable. The total output of goods and services, even if equally distributed, would still have been insufficient to give the entire population a comfortable standard of living by prevailing standards. With the economic productivity that resulted from industrialization , however, this ceased to be the case—especially in the world’s most industrialized countries , where national outputs were sufficient to raise the entire population to a comfortable level if the necessary redistribution could be arranged without adversely affecting output.

Groups of depositors in front of the closed American Union Bank, New York City. April 26, 1932. Great Depression run on bank crowd

Several types of poverty may be distinguished depending on such factors as time or duration (long- or short-term or cyclical) and distribution (widespread, concentrated, individual).

(Read Indira Gandhi’s 1975 Britannica essay on global underprivilege.)

Cyclical poverty refers to poverty that may be widespread throughout a population, but the occurrence itself is of limited duration. In nonindustrial societies (present and past), this sort of inability to provide for one’s basic needs rests mainly upon temporary food shortages caused by natural phenomena or poor agricultural planning. Prices would rise because of scarcities of food, which brought widespread, albeit temporary, misery.

In industrialized societies the chief cyclical cause of poverty is fluctuations in the business cycle , with mass unemployment during periods of depression or serious recession . Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, the industrialized nations of the world experienced business panics and recessions that temporarily enlarged the numbers of the poor. The United States’ experience in the Great Depression of the 1930s, though unique in some of its features, exemplifies this kind of poverty. And until the Great Depression, poverty resulting from business fluctuations was accepted as an inevitable consequence of a natural process of market regulation . Relief was granted to the unemployed to tide them over until the business cycle again entered an upswing. The experiences of the Great Depression inspired a generation of economists such as John Maynard Keynes , who sought solutions to the problems caused by extreme swings in the business cycle. Since the Great Depression, governments in nearly all advanced industrial societies have adopted economic policies that attempt to limit the ill effects of economic fluctuation. In this sense, governments play an active role in poverty alleviation by increasing spending as a means of stimulating the economy. Part of this spending comes in the form of direct assistance to the unemployed, either through unemployment compensation , welfare, and other subsidies or by employment on public-works projects. Although business depressions affect all segments of society, the impact is most severe on people of the lowest socioeconomic strata because they have fewer marginal resources than those of a higher strata.

In contrast to cyclical poverty, which is temporary, widespread or “ collective ” poverty involves a relatively permanent insufficiency of means to secure basic needs—a condition that may be so general as to describe the average level of life in a society or that may be concentrated in relatively large groups in an otherwise prosperous society. Both generalized and concentrated collective poverty may be transmitted from generation to generation, parents passing their poverty on to their children.

Collective poverty is relatively general and lasting in parts of Asia, the Middle East , most of Africa, and parts of South America and Central America . Life for the bulk of the population in these regions is at a minimal level. Nutritional deficiencies cause disease seldom seen by doctors in the highly developed countries. Low life expectancy , high levels of infant mortality, and poor health characterize life in these societies.

Collective poverty is usually related to economic underdevelopment. The total resources of many developing nations in Africa, Asia, and South and Central America would be insufficient to support the population adequately even if they were equally divided among all of the citizens. Proposed remedies are twofold: (1) expansion of the gross national product (GNP) through improved agriculture or industrialization, or both, and (2) population limitation. Thus far, both population control and induced economic development in many countries have proved difficult, controversial, and at times inconclusive or disappointing in their results.

An increase of the GNP does not necessarily lead to an improved standard of living for the population at large, for a number of reasons. The most important reason is that, in many developing countries, the population grows even faster than the economy does, with no net reduction in poverty as a result. This increased population growth stems primarily from lowered infant mortality rates made possible by improved sanitary and disease-control measures. Unless such lowered rates eventually result in women bearing fewer children, the result is a sharp acceleration in population growth. To reduce birth rates, some developing countries have undertaken nationally administered family-planning programs, with varying results. Many developing nations are also characterized by a long-standing system of unequal distribution of wealth —a system likely to continue despite marked increases in the GNP. Some authorities have observed the tendency for a large portion of any increase to be siphoned off by persons who are already wealthy, while others claim that increases in GNP will always trickle down to the part of the population living at the subsistence level.

In many industrialized, relatively affluent countries, particular demographic groups are vulnerable to long-term poverty. In city ghettos , in regions bypassed or abandoned by industry, and in areas where agriculture or industry is inefficient and cannot compete profitably, there are found victims of concentrated collective poverty. These people, like those afflicted with generalized poverty, have higher mortality rates, poor health, low educational levels, and so forth when compared with the more affluent segments of society. Their chief economic traits are unemployment and underemployment, unskilled occupations, and job instability. Efforts at amelioration focus on ways to bring the deprived groups into the mainstream of economic life by attracting new industry, promoting small business, introducing improved agricultural methods, and raising the level of skills of the employable members of the society.

Similar to collective poverty in relative permanence but different from it in terms of distribution, case poverty refers to the inability of an individual or family to secure basic needs even in social surroundings of general prosperity. This inability is generally related to the lack of some basic attribute that would permit the individual to maintain himself or herself. Such persons may, for example, be blind, physically or emotionally disabled , or chronically ill. Physical and mental handicaps are usually regarded sympathetically, as being beyond the control of the people who suffer from them. Efforts to ameliorate poverty due to physical causes focus on education, sheltered employment, and, if needed, economic maintenance.

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1 (page 1) p. 1 Introduction

Published: July 2018
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Poverty is a global issue. There are people in every country with a standard of living that is significantly lower than that of others. Nevertheless, the absolute number of people living in poverty has decreased since 1990, especially in the poorest countries in the world. Therefore, there is reason to hope that further poverty reduction can occur. The Introduction outlines the pervasiveness and trends in poverty around the world; the many different causes of poverty that embed themselves in social, political, economic, educational, and technological processes, which affect all of us from birth to death; and considers why poverty matters. Overall, the economy suffers if systematic public policy does not address poverty.

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The biggest social issues to watch in 2024, legislatures across the nation are confronting several social issues including crime, drug use, immigration and poverty. these issues will continue to hold resonance, of course, in the november elections..

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Immigration

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A Brief History of U.S. Foreign Aid

Where and why the United States gives foreign aid has changed over time. Learn the difference between military, economic, and humanitarian aid and the history behind U.S. aid.

A woman displaced by floods uses a box from the U.S. Agency for International Development to move her belongings in Dadu, Pakistan, on October 10, 2010.

Source: Akhtar Soomro/Reuters

According to opinion polls, many Americans believe about one quarter of the federal budget goes toward foreign aid . But the truth is foreign aid makes up less than 1 percent of the U.S. budget.

These overestimations may reflect a misunderstanding of foreign aid in general. For example, a 2013 survey found that, even though about half of Americans think the foreign aid budget should be cut back, as many as 82 percent support foreign aid when asked about its specific programs or goals.

So what is foreign aid?

Foreign aid is the money, services, or physical goods that a country sends to another to help it in some way. Foreign aid might support the recipient country’s economic growth, strengthen its social programs, respond to a crisis, or improve its defense capabilities. For example, during a health crisis, a country might send money to fund local hospitals, services in the form of doctors to administer medication, and goods in the form of those medicines themselves. (A country doesn’t need to be poor to receive aid—the United States regularly gives aid to countries with relatively high gross domestic products [GDPs] such as Israel.)

Foreign aid typically falls into four general categories:

Humanitarian aid

Humanitarian aid consists of materials or other forms of assistance for people in need due to manmade or natural disasters such as war, famine, and extreme weather. This type of aid often aims to address the immediate needs of a population in crisis.

Development aid

Development aid includes investments in the long-term economic development of a country or community. This type of aid aims to give people the building blocks to develop their own businesses and continued sources of income into the future.

Military aid

Military aid includes arms, training, money, or other forms of assistance for the explicit purpose of defense.

Political and economic aid

Political and economic aid supports political stability, economic policy reforms, and democratic institutions . It can provide general budget support in countries where the United States has strategic interests; it can also support activities such as peace talks, human rights organizing, political and criminal justice reforms, and treaty implementation.

The United States is the largest single provider of foreign aid worldwide in total dollars. Since World War II, the United States has distributed almost $4 trillion (adjusted for inflation ) in foreign aid. But most developed countries spend a higher percentage of their GDP on foreign aid than the United States does.

Almost half of U.S. foreign aid is coordinated through an independent government agency, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). Depending on the project, about twenty other departments or agencies, such as the Department of Defense, Peace Corps, and economic development-focused Millennium Challenge Corporation, can be involved as well.

How does the United States use foreign aid?

The United States uses foreign aid as a foreign policy tool to further its interests abroad, while it also aims to promote democratic and humanitarian outcomes for the benefit of all people.

One belief that drives foreign aid is that investing in other countries creates a more stable, prosperous, and democratic world. In practice, multiple types of aid can be used to achieve this goal:

In 2020, the United States committed $4 billion in humanitarian assistance to an international partnership aiming to provide COVID-19 vaccines to ninety-two low- and middle-income countries.
In 2016, USAID focused on providing economic development aid to Bangladesh by partnering with local banks to give loans to low-income farmers to build their businesses.
In 2014, following years of accusations of election corruption in Georgia, USAID sent targeted political development aid to local organizations there to train and deploy election monitors.

Between 1946 and 2021, the United States has spent an average of $49.5 billion each year on foreign aid. Dozens of countries typically receive some form of U.S. foreign aid; a handful of them stand out as the biggest recipients: global counterterrorism partners, and countries with critical global health needs.

Does foreign aid work?

There is no simple answer to that question. Some experts note a lack of accountability for programs and places that receive aid to demonstrate effectiveness in achieving its goals; the accountability issue fuels criticisms that foreign aid is a waste of money. And in some cases, it’s difficult to determine whether foreign aid has achieved its goals: when, for example, the long-term goals include such things as sustainable development or a more peaceful world, measuring outcomes is difficult, especially in the short term.

Sometimes the effects of foreign aid can be more easily identified. As of 2022, the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) has delivered care to more than 25 million people and provided training for 340,000 health workers around the world (much of this progress was made in sub-Saharan Africa). (When the program launched in 2003, only fifty thousand people in Africa had access to any antiretroviral treatment.) Projects like PEPFAR that distribute humanitarian and development assistance demonstrably save lives and promote long lasting development.

But other programs are more of a mixed bag. Despite having received more than $100 billion in U.S. aid since 2002, several USAID projects in Afghanistan remain unfinished . When misused, foreign aid can perpetuate graft, reward mismanagement, and prop up authoritarians. The bottom line is that foreign aid can help but it can also be wasteful or even harmful.

What is true is that U.S. foreign aid has a far reach: economic and development aid that helped rebuild Europe after World War II, humanitarian aid in Africa, and more recently military and development aid to Afghanistan. Only a few places in the world haven’t felt the influence of U.S. aid in some way. The graphs below chart the ebb and flow of U.S. foreign aid into different countries and regions at different times. By looking at the aid flows in the context of what was happening in the world at the time, we can explore how the relationship between foreign aid and foreign policy priorities has evolved.

U.S. Foreign Aid to Regions Over the Years

Rebuilding Europe with the Marshall Plan: 1947–53 The modern era for U.S. foreign aid began after World War II, when the United States sent Western Europe one of the largest foreign aid packages in history. The Marshall Plan had two primary purposes: to rebuild Europe after the devastation caused by World War II and to prevent the Soviet Union , the United States’ main postwar rival, from spreading its communist ideology and influence in Western Europe. U.S. politicians thought that if European countries could avoid mass poverty as they rebuilt, their citizens would be less likely to launch a communist revolution. The Soviet Union and Eastern European countries in its orbit were offered the same aid package. But it was refused, with the Soviet Union condemning the program as U.S. interventionism. The Marshall Plan is especially significant because it influenced the national security focus of future U.S. foreign aid projects.

Defending Ukraine: 2022–Present Since Russia has launched a renewed and expanded invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the United States has been one of the top providers of security assistance to Ukraine. Since 2022, the United States has sent $76.8 billion to Ukraine in financial, humanitarian, and military aid. The aid sent to Ukraine marks the first time a European country holds the top spot of receiving U.S. aid since the Truman administration siphoned funds through the Marshall Plan.

Fighting Communism in the Vietnam War: 1946–77 The Vietnam War was waged from the mid-1950s to 1975 between communist North Vietnam, supported by China and the Soviet Union, and South Vietnam, supported by the United States. In the years leading up to and during the war, the U.S. government poured money into South Vietnam to support the military and promote stability. But following the North Vietnamese victory, the U.S. Congress severed diplomatic relations with and restricted most aid to the country. The United States only resumed providing aid when U.S.-Vietnamese relations began to normalize in the early 1990s. The United States also sent significant amounts of aid to South Korea and Taiwan during the Cold War . In South Korea, U.S. economic and military aid helped fend off a communist North Korea during the Korean War. It also helped jumpstart a dormant economy. In fact, some historians credit South Korea’s economic ascendancy in part to U.S. assistance. Similarly, U.S. aid to Taiwan in the 1950s and 1960s helped keep the government of communist China at bay. It also helped lay the foundation for the island’s economic growth.

Containing the Communist Threat in Latin America: 1961–68 After leftist revolutions sprang up in Latin American countries such as Cuba, stopping the spread of communism across the Western Hemisphere became an important U.S. goal. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy established the Alliance for Progress, an assistance program intended to relieve poverty and social inequality in the participating Latin American countries. Foreign aid spiked immediately after that. The goal was to apply the logic of the Marshall Plan to Latin America; economic stability would theoretically curtail the threat of revolution. The program was dissolved in 1973, largely due to a failure to address the social and economic issues it was meant to. Fighting a War on Drugs: 1982–2000s Starting in the 1980s, one of the priorities of U.S. foreign aid in Latin America was to stop the flow of illegal drugs into the United States. At the beginning of his first term, President Ronald Reagan declared a war on drugs both at home and abroad. Much of the United States’ cocaine supply came from Latin America. Any country in the region that the U.S. government determined was “doing its part” in the war on drugs would receive U.S. foreign aid. Colombia in particular received military aid and training in an attempt to reduce the quantity of drugs originating from the country. Although Colombia has seen some success in curtailing coca production, the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reported in 2017 that the country still accounted for an estimated 70 percent of the world’s cocaine supply.

Fighting AIDS in Africa: 2003–present Starting in the early 1990s, sub-Saharan Africa became the center of the HIV/AIDS pandemic . In 1999, HIV/AIDS was the leading cause of death across Africa. Even though testing and treatment for HIV/AIDS existed, they were not widely available in many African countries. After years of little global action, the United States established the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) in 2004 in select, mostly sub-Saharan African countries. The program allocated funding to provide medicine, money, and personnel to combat HIV/AIDS in affected countries because President George W. Bush believed extending humanitarian aid around the world was an important show of U.S. values. These values, he believed, would lead to more trust in American leadership. When PEPFAR launched, only fifty thousand people in Africa had access to any lifesaving antiretroviral treatment. As of December 2022, PEPFAR had provided that treatment to more than twenty-five million people around the world. PEPFAR quickly became the largest health initiative ever undertaken worldwide, and the U.S. government continues to contribute billions of dollars annually to its funding.

Establishing A Stronghold in the Middle East: 1976–present During the Cold War, when the United States and the Soviet Union were competing for global power and influence, the oil-rich Middle East rose in geopolitical importance to both countries. Several Arab states were aligning with the Soviet bloc, and the United States began to see its ally Israel as an important buffer against Soviet influence in the region. In part to bolster its ally, the United States provided Israel significant military aid during the Cold War. It also helped broker discussions that resulted in the 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, after which it increased aid to Egypt. Even after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States saw Egypt and Israel as important promoters of regional stability. It continues to send billions of dollars in aid to both countries today. Fighting the War on Terror: 2003–present After al-Qaeda terrorists killed almost three thousand people in an attack on the United States on September 11, 2001, the United States declared a “war on terror” and invaded Afghanistan, which had provided sanctuary to the terrorists. Although the Iraqi government was not involved in the 9/11 attacks, the United States also invaded Iraq in 2003, in part on the incorrect assumption that the Iraqi government was developing weapons of mass destruction. After coalition forces toppled Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein and his government, U.S. troops fought insurgents and worked to support democratic institutions .

Fueling the Green Revolution: 1959–70 Because of a postcolonial focus on industrialization over agriculture, India was in the midst of a massive famine by 1961 as farmers were not producing enough food to feed the population. The United States sent foreign aid in the form of wheat to help alleviate the famine; in 1965, one-fifth of all U.S. wheat production went to India. USAID also helped fund agricultural development, including by helping to institute university programs that studied agriculture. This helped fuel what became known as the green revolution—the rapid development of new agricultural techniques that dramatically increased how much food countries could produce. Fighting the War on Terror: 2001–present After 9/11, the United States invaded Afghanistan and toppled its ruling group, the Taliban, which had been accused of hiding and protecting al-Qaeda operatives. What followed was two decades of aid packages aimed at creating some kind of stability in Afghanistan amid an active war, to mixed results. Although the United States withdrew in 2021, USAID programs continued to work to strengthen civil society, expand economic opportunity, and stabilize conflict zones in the country. The Taliban’s gaining of control of the country has further destabilized these efforts, raising new challenges.

Poverty as a Global Social Problem Essay

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Poverty is a social problem defined as a situation where one has inadequate material possessions or income to cater to one’s basic needs. Billions of people worldwide live in intense poverty, and half of the world population lives with income below 2.50 dollars (“Net direct investment, billions of US dollars”, 2021). Destitution entails more than just the absence of productive resources and income. It encompasses limited education access and inadequate health services, poor sanitation, and social discrimination. Poverty is classified in two ways, relative and absolute, where absolute poverty is a consistent set of standards between countries over time. It refers to a condition associated with severe scarcity of basic human needs, including sanitation facilities, food, shelter, health, safe drinking water, education, and information.

Relative poverty is considered socially defined and needs a social context, which argues that needs, which are considered fundamental, are not the objectives measures of insufficiency. Vulnerability to this issue is widespread in many developing nations, where one-fourth of the population is deficient, and one –third is slipping into and out of scarceness (Min & Chandrasekhar, 2019). Poverty is caused by gender discrimination, absence of social services, joblessness, lack of access to health care, physical disabilities, food insecurity, limited access to clean water resources, and lack of shelter. Poverty is viewed in two ways, either positive or negative. It is a hostile entity that poses a threat to many developing countries. It can also be considered a fundamental social problem since it aids in reusing goods.

Poverty in Kenya

Kenya is among the developing countries in the African continent, thus facing the challenges encountered by other unindustrialized countries to eradicate poverty. UNICEF’s latest report shows that around 46% of Kenyans fell below the poverty line, although many overlooked the issue (BALAJI, 2020). Many people earn less than 2 dollars a day illustration that most Kenyan cannot access the basic human wants (Rimmer, 2018).

Unemployment is a major issue that leads to some part of populations moving from rural to urban areas searching for jobs. Many people who move to towns do not secure employment due to illiteracy; thus, they live in slums. For example, the research shows that Kibera is the largest slum in the country, and this is where many people move to settle after losing hope of getting employed in towns (Meredith & MacDonald, 2017). People in the slums experience low living standards, and many children are unable to access primary education. There is also limited access to healthcare, sanitation, and clean water. This results in many youths indulging in the use of drugs that harm their health.

An increase in population is another problem associated with the rise in poverty level in the country. Many families who live below the poverty line have between 4-6 children (Elliott, 2018). Food shortage becomes a problem since parents are unable to provide food to their children. As a result, many children have retorted growth accompanied by malnutrition diseases such as marasmus (Dyer, 2018). The increase in population contributes to congestion in towns and families, resulting in a high spread of infectious diseases. This leads to many people congesting in health centers leading to poor sanitation.

Furthermore, pandemics such as COVID-19 and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) also contribute to high poverty levels in Kenya. HIV and AIDS scourge widely spread, forcing many Kenyan to continue living in poverty. Many families live under pressing financial circumstances; for example, furnishing patients with anti-retro virus (ARV) medicine and a balanced diet to increase their immunity become a problem. This results in increased mortality rates leaving behind orphans who end up becoming homeless.

Comparison of the Poverty Level in South Africa and that of Kenya and Their Solutions

South Africa is a country in Africa where poverty is manifested in many ways similar to those of Kenya. Unemployment due to many women entering the labor market despite having unskilled labor personnel is a significant cause of poverty. Many people relocate from rural to urban areas in search of jobs. This migration gives rise to slums as many people are unable to secure employment. For example, the research shows that the Flamingo and Santin in slums are the largest slums in South Africa occupied by poor people living under poverty-stricken conditions (Ng’ayu, 2019). Social evils such as robbery, prostitution, and murder arise as people look for ways to put food on the table.

The problem of food shortage has stricken many people in South Africa, leading to their suffering. The research shows that food security is stimulated by an increase in population as many families have many children whose parents are unable to provide food (Guo, 2019). This problem of decreased food contributes to lack of education to many families a hence parents are unable to pay fees to their children. Food shortage leads to many people developing diseases, resulting in congestion in hospitals as many people go there to seek medical attention.

COVID-19, HIV, and AIDS pandemic are other problems that lead to the spread of poverty. UNAIDS, an organization in the world, estimates that South Africa accounts for half of the new HIV infection (“Yogan Pillay: integrating tuberculosis and HIV care in South Africa”, 2018) Increased AIDS meant that death is inevitable; thus, many people who depend on the victim for survival continue living in poverty. COVID-19 is a threat due to the government’s extraordinary measures in an attempt to reduce its spread. Many people lose jobs while others are forced to work for fewer hours due to curfew, incurring significant business losses.

South Africa has different ways to reduce the rising poverty level in the state. The government works on ensuring that job opportunities are created, especially for the youth. This is by setting up industries in rural areas and making employment, thus reducing rural-urban migration. There is a reduction in slums as many people opt to go back to their villages to secure jobs. The government has also introduced free primary and tertiary education and offered scholarships to the best students.

Comparison of Poverty Levels in Nigeria and that of Kenya and their Solution

Nigeria is the second leading country in terms of poverty in the world. Parallel to Kenya, Nigeria experiences the emergence of slums as new immigrants arrive in towns from rural areas searching for employment. This increases pressure on the already impoverished living conditions. Research shows that Makoko and Ilaje are the biggest slums in the country, with many people living under poor living conditions (Wise, 2016). Lack of basic social amenities such as toilets, proper sanitation, contributes to widespread diseases such as cholera.

HIV and AIDS are other pandemics that revolve in the state, resulting in many people living in absolute poverty. Many people lose their jobs; thus, they cannot provide basic needs to their family members. This situation leads to an increase in population as many people are idle, which increases poverty since parents cannot provide basic needs to their many kids. COVID-19 also leads to food shortages and a lack of capital to educate their children, increasing their illiteracy level. People also pamper in immoral behaviors such as prostitution which increases the rate of HIV and AIDS spread.

The Nigerian government found out ways to solve these problems to reduce the increasing poverty levels. The government demolished the slums and introduced the housing and slums policies to ensure access to good and affordable housing for every citizen. The country also looked for solutions to solve the spread of HIV and AIDS by campaigning and offering education on preventing the virus by introducing courses on HIV and AIDS awareness in the curricular. The government also insists on family planning methods in place to reduce the high rate of population growth.

Lessons that can Help Policy Debate in Kenya Learned from a Comparison of South Africa and Nigeria

The policy discussion in Kenya should aim their arguments on solutions to curb poverty in the country, basing their reference to solutions applied in South Africa and Nigeria. Kenya’s government should introduce free education in all sectors to ensure that everyone can access primary education. It should also introduce slum and housing policies to ensure a favorable environment to reduce the spread of both water and infectious diseases. The government should introduce family planning methods to reduce population growth. The curriculum should change to include life skills, such as HIV, and ways to avoid its spread. There will be a reduction in the poverty level, and thus, the development will take place by applying this.

In conclusion, poverty can be viewed as a global social issue affecting many developing countries, making them lag in development terms. Its leading causes include the flawed education system, unemployment, disease pandemics, drug abuse, and rapid population growth. These problems result in high mortality rates due to inadequate health facilities, rural-urban migration due to an increase in population, resulting in the evolution of slums. The government should implement measures to reduce poverty by providing a new education curriculum, creating job opportunities, and setting up industries in rural areas to reduce rural-urban migration.

Balaji, m. (2020). Negotiating poverty line-study on density effect around the poverty line for Indian states. The Singapore Economic Review , 65 (1), 139-160. Web.

Dyer, O. (2018). Yemen: Number of children under 5 who have died from malnutrition may be as high as 85 000, says Save the Children. BMJ , k4949. Web.

Elliott, W. (2018). An asset-building agenda for the twenty-first century: Giving families something to live for. Journal Of Children And Poverty , 24 (2), 145-158. Web.

Guo, F. (2019). Transcendental meromorphic functions whose first order derivatives have finitely many zeros. Advances in Pure Mathematics , 09 (11), 925-933. Web.

Meredith, T., & MacDonald, M. (2017). Community-supported slum-upgrading: Innovations from Kibera, Nairobi, Kenya. Habitat International , 60 , 1-9. Web.

Min, J., & Chandrashekhar, Y. (2019). One in, one out, many more to go. JACC: Cardiovascular Imaging , 12 (2), 385-387. Web.

Net direct investment, billions of US dollars. (2021), 2021 (1). Web.

Ng’ayu, M. (2019). Slums, land and poverty: A situational analysis in the five largest cities in Kenya. The International Journal Of Humanities & Social Studies , 7 (8). Web.

Rimmer, A. (2018). Black and Asian doctors earn less than their white colleagues, official NHS figures show. BMJ , k4124. Web.

Wise, J. (2016). Many people receive suboptimal care after myocardial infarction, research shows. BMJ , i2655. Web.

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Rich and Poor Nations (Planet of Slums)
"Planet of Slums" a Book by Mike Davis
“The Planet of Slums” a Book by Mike Davis
Poverty, Social Class, and Intersectionality
Chronic Hunger in the US: Causes and Prevention
Wealth and Poverty: The Christian Teaching on Wealth and Poverty
The Criminalization of Poverty in Canada
Homelessness and its Solutions
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Chicago (N-B)

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Bibliography

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Social Determinants of Type 2 Diabetes in Rural vs. Urban Communities

image showing a city and a farm juxtaposed next to each other

By Austin V. Joseph

Illustration by Junyue Ma

Introduction and Background

Type 2 diabetes is a chronic immunological disease resulting from the body’s inability to process insulin. It affects populations worldwide, with a global prevalence of 537 million adults (age 20-79), which is expected to rise to 783 million by 2045, making up over 10% of the world’s total population. 1,2 This condition is linked to comorbidities including hypertension, liver disease, kidney disease, retinopathy, polycystic ovary syndrome, and obstructive sleep apnea. While the physical afflictions of type 2 diabetes are well documented, its economic implications are often neglected. People living with diabetes are put under an increased financial strain due to the costs of treatment, surgery, dialysis, etc. According to the CDC, people diagnosed with diabetes incur an average of $19,700 in annual medical expenses, which is over two times the medical expenses of a person without diabetes. 3 Living with type 2 diabetes also creates occupational barriers due to disability, which can hamstring a person’s income. The effect of disabilities caused by diabetes often bleeds over to the patient’s family members who may have to assist them physically and financially.

The most common physical risk factors associated with type 2 diabetes are poor diet, obesity, and family history. Sugar, refined carbohydrates, and processed foods are key dietary drivers of type 2 diabetes because they increase blood sugar levels at such a high rate that glucose cannot be sufficiently stored in the liver, which makes the job of insulin much more difficult. 4 A poor diet, combined with a sedentary lifestyle will also increase the risk of obesity. Excess body weight causes increased insulin resistance in muscle and tissue cells. 5 An individual with a family history of diabetes is more likely to develop the disease due to genetic predisposition, but more so due to the poor habits that may have been learned during the person’s formative years, such as an unhealthy diet and little to no exercise. While there is no cure for type 2 diabetes, individuals are usually placed on diet and exercise programs along with regular monitoring of body weight and hemoglobin A1C levels to prevent or treat the disease.

The social determinants of health are the biggest drivers of health disparities globally, playing a massive role in influencing risk factors and the ability to use preventative measures for type 2 diabetes. These determinants are often connected to structural impediments, including delayed diagnosis, failure of therapies, and unaffordable treatment. 6 Poor access to quality healthcare decreases the likelihood of receiving screening, checkups, or adequate treatment after the onset. In addition to the financial strain of utilizing care, individuals with low socioeconomic status are more likely to have limited healthy food options, which creates a compounding burden by subjecting them to an unhealthy diet. Individuals living in low-income communities often experience a hostile lived environment, increasing the levels of stress they endure, which is associated with a higher proclivity toward diabetes or risky behaviors that lead to diabetes.

Despite its status as a rich nation, the United States has struggled to decrease the burden of diabetes, as morbidity and mortality rates have climbed over the decades. One of the pitfalls of large, diverse nations like the U.S. is that they are highly susceptible to health disparities among different demographics. Health disparities have been studied extensively with a focus on race, gender, sexual orientation, and income level. However, there may be a residential basis for disparate health outcomes in the U.S. This paper will critically examine peer-reviewed health literature that has determined significant differences in type 2 diabetes between rural and urban communities. This paper will then use this literature and other evidence to address the following question: What factors contribute to the disparities in type 2 diabetes prevalence in rural versus urban communities in the United States?

Methodology

Background Search → The purpose of this search was to retrieve reputable information on type 2 diabetes for the introduction. Google was used to get certain statistics such as global prevalence, mortality, future projections, and average expenditures of living with diabetes to contextualize the burden of this disease for the introduction. Information on the most current prevalence, mortality, and projection of type 2 diabetes was pulled from Diabetes Atlas. Information on healthcare expenditures and risk factors for diabetes was pulled from the CDC. Since poverty statistics are relevant in this literature, data derived from the USDA reported by the Rural Health Information Hub were referenced. All of these references are not produced from peer-reviewed literature but are from reputable databases, hence their inclusion in the citations. There are a total of seven references that were derived from this background search, one of them being a published review that yielded evidence-based information regarding the structural risk factors that may contribute to type 2 diabetes.
Targeted Search → PubMed, Wiley Online Library, and Google Scholar were search engines used for my targeted search. Boolean operators were utilized to connect keywords such as “type 2 diabetes”, “rural”, “urban”, “United States,” “US,” or “America.” In total this search yielded 45 results in PubMed, and over 100,000 results in the other two databases To explore literature on social determinants that may contribute to the burden of diabetes in rural communities, the terms “income”, “socioeconomic status” “education”, “physical activity” and “care” or “access to healthcare” were used, which yielded 23 results in total in Pubmed and over 100,000 in the other two databases. The cut down to 12 sources was determined by eligibility criteria and the elimination of studies that were conducted utilizing similar methods. References used in the results section are represented as AMA citations.
Inclusions and Exclusions → Literature that met the criteria for use as evidence needed to specifically research diabetes and/or determinants associated with diabetes, cover populations in rural and urban communities in the U.S., and be recent enough to be considered relevant in 2023. Included studies were based on rural and urban areas in the U.S. and covered type 2 diabetes diabetes, obesity, socioeconomic status or income, education, or quality of healthcare. If the study researched any of those topics without researching diabetes directly, it was still included because those are known determinants of diabetes. Eligible articles for review may include cross-sectional, randomized controlled trials, case-control studies, other systematic reviews, or published papers that reference public data. The type of article is not a concern for this evidence synthesis because both qualitative and quantitative data will be used to answer the research question. Due to the nature of the research question, it was anticipated that randomized controlled trials and case-control studies would not be found. Any literature that studies that conducted research outside of the United States was excluded, as the population of interest for this paper is rural and urban residents in the US. The age of what was considered a useful study was limited to three decades, so any research that was conducted before the 1990s was excluded in order to account for any changes to those findings due to interventions.

Evidence indicates that there is a difference in diabetes outcomes between rural and urban communities in the United States and that rural communities are disproportionately affected, independent of predisposing characteristics (race, age, sex). In 2006, a cross-sectional analysis of data taken from a Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) conducted on rural and urban residents from 47 states in the US showed that a higher proportion of rural residents reported diabetes than urban residents among all racial/ethnic classifications. 7 According to the BRFSS, diabetes status was determined by responses to the question, “Have you ever been told by a doctor you have diabetes?” Those responding “Yes” were considered to be persons living with diabetes. This presents a limitation to the study, as accurate information can be barred by individuals who have not been diagnosed or have not seen a healthcare provider. Overall, this study suggests that there is merit in researching potential factors that may cause a higher burden of type 2 diabetes in rural communities. Further analysis of health literature denotes three possible risk factors of type 2 diabetes that disproportionately affect rural populations: socioeconomic status, lack of physical activity, and inadequate access to health services.

Socioeconomic Status

The evidence in this systematic review points to socioeconomics as the primary reason for a higher prevalence of type 2 diabetes in rural communities than in urban communities. As previously established, low-income communities create a compounding burden that subjects individuals to an unhealthy diet as well as the financial strains of utilizing care and missing work due to disability. Poverty has a direct impact on type 2 diabetes disparities and is more prevalent in rural residential areas. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Economic Research Service, in 2019, 15.4% of people living in rural areas had an income below the federal poverty line, while those living in urban areas had a poverty rate of only 11.9%. 8 As a result of a higher prevalence of poverty among rural communities, their residents are more likely to live in “food deserts”, or areas in which it is difficult to buy affordable or good-quality food. These environments are far more likely to contain fast food chains and “convenience” stores that sell cheap processed foods as opposed to grocery stores and high-quality retail markets (i.e. Whole Foods) and fast-casual restaurants (i.e. Chipotle). 19 The high saturation of fast foods combined with the shortage of fresh produce markets hinders the ability to consistently store adequate food in the household, causing uncertainty regarding the availability and quality of the family’s next meal. This phenomenon describes food insecurity. Sociologists Joy Rayanne Piontak and Michael D. Schulman explored spatial inequalities in food insecurity in the United States, specifically the problems of hunger and food access in non-metropolitan and rural localities. They found that households in the South, a heavily rural region, have the highest rates of food insecurity. A rather alarming finding from this study was that according to the USDA Food Environment Atlas, rural counties had an average 5.77% decrease in the number of grocery stores from 2007-2011. 9

In addition to the significant gap in poverty, rural communities have less socioeconomic mobility, further perpetuating their exposure to food insecurity and other type 2 diabetes risk factors. In 2018, Iryna Kyzyma, a researcher at the Luxembourg Institute of SocioEconomic Research and a Research Affiliate at the IZA Bonn, conducted a study to determine the comparative persistence of poverty in rural and urban areas. Results were derived from survey data from over five years (2008-2013) in which participants were asked about their socioeconomic situation every four months. The analysis concluded that rural residents experienced poverty at a higher rate than urban residents, and they also stayed in poverty for a longer time period. She also found that urban residents who rose out of poverty were less likely to fall back into poverty than rural residents who rose out of poverty. 10 Given the nature of the U.S. economy along with the financial crisis of 2008, using survey data that expands beyond five years should make a stronger case. It should also be noted that the participants living in poverty could have experienced a certain level of discomfort in answering the survey questions truthfully. In summary, the eligible health literature covering the socioeconomic status of rural populations indicates that poverty is associated with food insecurity, poverty is more prevalent in rural communities than urban, and poverty persists for a longer duration in rural areas than urban areas. Given the connection between type 2 diabetes, food insecurity, and income, socioeconomic status can be a feasible determinant of residential disparities in type 2 diabetes.

Physical Activity

Low physical activity is a known indicator of obesity and type 2 diabetes. In this review, two articles conflicted on this topic. One study, published by Parks, et al in 2003, was a cross-sectional study that sampled adults of various socioeconomic backgrounds from urban an d rural areas (n = 1818) to determine if there is a significant difference in physical activity based on the type of environment they live in. In this study, lower-income residents were less likely than higher-income residents to meet physical activity recommendations. Rural residents were least likely to meet recommendations; suburban residents were most likely to meet recommendations. Suburban, higher-income residents were more than twice as likely to meet recommendations than rural, lower-income residents. 11 The limitation of this study was that the population that was the least likely to meet recommendations was classified as rural and lower income, which could mean that low income is a confounder and that rural residence itself is not indicative of less physical activity.

The other study, conducted by Liu, et al in 2008 was a cross-section of the National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH), a module of the State and Local Area Integrated Telephone Survey, conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The respondents of this survey were the child’s parent (95.7%) or guardian (4.3%) who knew the most about the child’s health and health care. The goal of this study was to use the Survey to get data on overweight status and levels of physical activity of children living in rural and urban areas to influence the design of policy interventions. According to the results, rural children (16.5%) were more likely to be overweight than urban children (14.3%). However, it was also found that urban children at 29.1% were more likely to be physically inactive than rural children at 25.2%. 12 These findings indicate that there are possible confounders within rural settings that contribute to being overweight. One can refer to the impact of socioeconomic status as well as access to healthy food options as a differentiator. A notable limitation of this study was its use of parentally reported data on height and weight, which may be inaccurate for children under ten years of age. In brief, physical activity may or may not be a driver of type 2 diabetes disparities in rural and urban areas but obesity may still be a concern. Further context on related factors affecting the populations in each area is necessary.

Access to Health Services and Information

Various health literature suggests that rural populations in America have less access to quality healthcare and health information compared to urban populations. Out of the eligible articles utilized for this paper, one systematic review and two surveys cover this topic. The systematic review, published in 2015, reported significant differences in healthcare access between rural and urban areas. The studies in this review had findings of insufficient public transportation, staffing shortages, poor availability of broadband internet services, and patient reluctance to seek care based on cultural and financial constraints. 13 One limitation when citing other systematic reviews is the reliance on watered-down information from the studies it references. There is always a possibility of biased selection with sources and the omittance of limitations of certain studies cited in the review.

A survey is a more effective measure to use when discussing access to health information and services because it allows individuals to self-report their experience with healthcare access and self-management. Since there is no cure for diabetes, health information and self-management are crucial components of prevention and treatment. Ultimately, practicing self-management and being well-informed of diabetes risk factors can lead to the lifestyle habits that are needed to prevent or reverse the disease. Two studies show evidence of inequitable access or use of health information and self-management among rural and urban populations in the United States. A survey-based study published in 2018 was conducted to determine who claims to have access to health information. Linear regression was utilized to show associations between rurality and health literacy. The findings were: compared to urban residents, rural residents had lower access to health information from sources including primary care providers, specialist doctors, blogs, and magazines, and less use of search engines. After accounting for socio-demographics, rural residents only had lower access to specialist doctors than urban residents. 14 These findings may underscore a need for telehealth services focused on rural populations, including a database of relevant health information and available physicians. Lower employment of specialists in rural areas is a factor that should be considered as well. As for the limitations of this study, it was administered through an online survey that inquired about access to 25 health information sources. There may be a substantial population of urban residents without internet access who may also be lacking access to health information. Furthermore, the study was limited to 25 health information sources, which can exclude local, lesser-known sources. However, local sources may be considered most reliable in rural areas.

Another study analyzed surveys from the North Carolina Behavior Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) to determine differences in participation in diabetes self-management education (DSME) among urban and rural adults in North Carolina from 2012 to 2017. The results were self-reported by residents. According to the conclusion, there were persistent rural-urban disparities in DSME participation, with rural residents showing lower rates and the gaps widening. The exact rates between rural and urban communities were 52.3% versus 57.8% in 2012, 54.0% versus 56.5% in 2013, 48.8% versus 62.0% in 2015, and 46.7% versus 56.1% in 2017. 15 While the restrictions of self-reported data from subjects must be considered, the results from this study suggest a significant difference between rural and urban participation in diabetes self-management programs within a single U.S. state. Regional/geographic confounders are not applicable in this study, which makes a powerful case for residential disparities on this issue.

Rural populations in the United States are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes than urban populations due to a combination of factors. An individual’s area of residence can be closely connected to their health outcomes due to the various elements that are experienced in their lived environment. There are connections to be made between the residential disparities in socioeconomic status and the residential disparities in the ability to utilize health information and services. The first connection deals with the geographic nature of rural settings. These communities are generally further away from the big metropolitans that are home to corporations, large health centers, and government buildings. Proximity (or lack thereof) to a revenue-generating city or district influences the “value” of the neighborhood as well as the level of federal investment in that area. Rural areas are also “out of the way” of public transit systems that allow all people in urban areas to travel to facilities without the use of a personal vehicle. That alone can influence someone’s willingness to seek care or healthier food options or available healthcare providers , whether they have the funds or not. The other connection between socioeconomic status and health utilization is rural education. While education is not a direct determinant of type 2 diabetes, it is heavily associated with income level, health literacy, and the availability of medical specialists in the area. The USDA reports that in 2017–21, the share of working-age adults (ages 25–64) with at least a bachelor’s degree was 37% in urban areas and 21% in rural areas, while the share of younger adults ages 25–44 with at least a bachelor’s degree was 40% in urban areas and 22% in rural areas. 16 These statistics represent a drastic disparity between rural and urban communities, which indicates that while low income is an established determinant of high type 2 diabetes, it is just the tip of the iceberg. There are fundamental issues with the rural education system that are possibly contributing to the persistence of poverty as well as the shortage of local medical specialists. In a 2001 paper presented at the Appalachian Rural Systemic Initiative (ARSI) Conference on Understanding Achievement in Science and Mathematics in Rural School Settings, Hobart L. Harmon, a leading expert in public education in rural America outlined the inhibitors of educational advancement in rural areas. Harmon points to a cultural climate of modern education that is better suited for urban schooling. Modern America rewards personal ambition and self-determination 17 and encourages young people to venture out of their parent’s homes and make their own societal contributions. Harmon suggests that this concept of individual mobility is less feasible in rural communities because rural school districts cannot generate sufficient local resources to adequately supplement the state school finance programs the way more affluent localities can. 17 His paper further claims that rural schools experience inadequacy of facilities. According to data that was pulled from research done in 1996, 30% of rural and small-town schools have inadequate buildings and 50% of schools have at least one inadequate building feature. 17 Harmon’s paper denotes inadequate investment in rural school systems to go along with an educational structure that does not align with rural community values. This suboptimal learning experience can not only lead to lower levels of educational achievement, but it can also cause poor teacher retention, which is supported by a recent article published by Dr. Richard M. Ingersoll in 2023. Using the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) and the National Teacher Principal Survey (NTPS) collected by the Census Bureau for the National Center for Education Statistics, nine cycles of data collection from 1987 to 2018 were recorded. Their results yielded that from two time periods: 1999-2004 and 2007-2018, the number of schools in urban areas increased by 26%, the number of students by 25%, and the number of teachers by almost a third. The number of schools in rural communities has decreased by over 28%, the number of students by 24% and the number of teachers by 19%. The study also found that rural schools have had more difficulties filling vacancies. 18 Lack of teacher retention in these communities will only worsen the outcomes of educational attainment, income, health literacy, and professional development in healthcare, which will certainly worsen the outcomes of type 2 diabetes.

In the discussion of type 2 diabetes in rural populations, the impact of rural geography and the rural education system cannot be overlooked because they are so closely associated with socioeconomic status and the ability to utilize health resources. Residential disparities in type 2 diabetes may not have much to do with differences in physical activity. Poorer facilities in rural schools may have an impact on physical education courses for children, but that doesn’t indicate that they are inactive outside of school. Overall, the disparate burden of type 2 diabetes is driven by general differences in income, education, and spatial barriers.

Conclusion & Future Considerations

To conclude, the evidence presented in this systematic review not only indicated that there may be significant differences in the proportion of type 2 diabetes outcomes between rural and urban populations in the U.S., but it also referenced potential factors contributing to the disparity, including differences in socioeconomic status, physical activity, and access to health services and information. Of the 19 references utilized in this review, eight were cross-sectional studies, seven were findings derived from facts taken directly from a website or database, one was a paper presented at a conference, one was a mixed methods approach, and two were evidence-based systematic reviews. The limitations of each study were briefly explained throughout the results section. Randomized controlled trials and case-control studies were not found for this topic because this paper required studies in which urban and rural populations were surveyed and their area of permanent residence was an independent variable. No tests needed to be run and observational studies were more intuitive to answering my research question.

A multilevel and tailored approach needs to be considered to address type 2 diabetes in rural areas. If transportation and telecommunication are immediate barriers to the reception of care or participation in diabetes self-management education, then it should be addressed at the local level. Complex transportation systems may be impractical in rural areas, but telehealth interventions should continue to be a priority within communities. Leveraging community values, such as faith can also be instrumental. Focus groups and DSME training can be held at local churches and schools to garner engagement. Fresh food initiatives such as Meals on Wheels should continue to expand in rural communities as well. Agricultural programs for residents should be encouraged wherever applicable, as there is evidence that they can be an effective alternative when grocery stores are not available or affordable. 19 At the federal level, there needs to be dialogue regarding the inequitable funding of rural areas compared to urban areas, as well as the standardization of public schooling. Rural kids live almost entirely different lives than urban kids, and that needs to be reflected in the style of education they receive throughout their formative years. If the standard public education system is to be maintained, rural districts will require more subsidies to be better equipped to prepare their students. Efforts to improve diabetes care and staff retention in hospitals and schools should also be funded and supported politically.

IDF Diabetes Atlas | Tenth Edition . https://diabetesatlas.org/.
Saeedi, Pouya, et al. “Mortality Attributable to Diabetes in 20–79 Years Old Adults, 2019 Estimates: Results from the International Diabetes Federation Diabetes Atlas, 9th Edition.”
How Type 2 Diabetes Affects Your Workforce | National Diabetes Prevention Program | Diabetes | CDC . 12 Nov. 2023
CDC. “The Insulin Resistance–Diabetes Connection.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , 20 June 2022
Excess weight and type 2 diabetes. https://www.honorhealth.com/medical-services/bariatric-weight-loss-surgery/patient-education-and-support/comorbidities-type-2-diabetes
Wu Y, Ding Y, Tanaka Y, Zhang W. Risk Factors Contributing to Type 2 Diabetes and Recent Advances in the Treatment and Prevention. Int J Med Sci 2014
Hale N, Bennett K, Probst J. Diabetes care and outcomes: disparities across rural america. Journal of Community Health .
Families with low incomes – rural services integration toolkit. https://www.ruralhealthinfo.org/toolkits/services-integration/1/high-needs-populations/families-with-low-incomes
Piontak, Joy Rayanne, and Michael D. Schulman. “Food Insecurity in Rural America.” Contexts
Kyzyma, Iryna “Rural-Urban Disparities in Poverty Persistence.” IRP Focus. 2018
Parks, S. E., et al. “Differential Correlates of Physical Activity in Urban and Rural Adults of Various Socioeconomic Backgrounds in the United States.” Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health
Liu, Jihong, et al. “Urban‐Rural Differences in Overweight Status and Physical Inactivity Among US Children Aged 10‐17 Years.” The Journal of Rural Health , vol. 24, no. 4, Sept. 2008
Douthit, N., et al. “Exposing Some Important Barriers to HealthCare Access in the Rural USA.”
Chen, Xuewei, et al. “Differences in Rural and Urban Health Information Access and Use.” The Journal of Rural Health
Luo, Huabin, et al. “Trends and Rural-Urban Differences in Participation in Diabetes Self-Management Education Among Adults in North Carolina: 2012-2017.” Journal of Public Health Management and Practice
Educational Attainment Improved in Rural America but Educational Gap with Urban Areas Grew for Bachelor’s Degrees and Higher .
Harmon, Hobart L. Education Issues in Rural Schools of America . May 2001
Ingersoll, Richard M., and Henry Tran. “Teacher Shortages and Turnover in Rural Schools in the US: An Organizational Analysis.” Educational Administration Quarterly
Valdez, Zulema. “Community Perspectives on Access to and Availability of Healthy Food in Rural, Low-Resource, Latino Communities.”

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Poverty as a Social Problem

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How Poverty is Measured?

Causes of Poverty

Ill Effects of Poverty

Government Schemes to Remove Poverty

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5 Essays About Poverty Everyone Should Know

“We need an economic bill of rights” – Martin Luther King Jr.

“How Poverty Can Follow Children Into Adulthood” – Priyanka Boghani

“5 Reasons COVID-19 Will Impact the Fight to End Extreme Poverty” – Leah Rodriguez

“Climate apartheid”: World’s poor to suffer most from disasters” – Al Jazeera and news Agencies

“Nickel and Dimed: On (not) getting by in America” – Barbara Ehrenreich

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