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A systematic review of social media as a teaching and learning tool in higher education: A theoretical grounding perspective

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• Published: 01 March 2023
• Volume 28 , pages 11921–11950, ( 2023 )

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• Eva Perez   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4476-899X 1 ,
• Stefania Manca 2 ,
• Rosaura Fernández-Pascual 3 &
• Conor Mc Guckin 1  

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The use of social media in higher education has been demonstrated in a number of studies to be an attractive and contemporary method of teaching and learning. However, further research and investigation are required in order to align social media's pedagogical benefits with the theoretical perspectives that inform educational practices. It is the objective of this study to provide a systematic literature review using bibliometric analysis techniques and content analysis to provide a map of research produced between 2009 and 2021. This study aims to identify theoretical frameworks, current research trends, and patterns in this field. A total of 772 publications were analysed using bibliometric methodology, while a subset of 55 publications were analysed using content analysis. As indicated by the results, there is still a growing interest in this area of research, with recent studies still focusing on attitudes towards the use of social media in teaching and learning. According to the content analysis, technology acceptance theories and learning theories are the most commonly used reference theories. This field has yet to elaborate on pedagogical theory, and there is a tendency to rely primarily on technology acceptance models rather than pedagogical models. A discussion of future practice and research implications is also provided.

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1 Introduction

The popularity of social media, among students, has increased dramatically in recent years because of technological advances in Web 2.0 tools (Eid & Al-Jabri, 2016 ; Tess, 2013 ). Indeed, social media has attracted over three billion active users across the globe (Statista, 2022 ). Such technologies have demonstrated their potential for learning and teaching due to its functions for document exchange, virtual communication and knowledge information (Hosen et al., 2021 ; Manca & Ranieri, 2017 ). Social networking sites (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Instagram), and online games have been widely used for information gathering and dissemination, collaborative learning, and online social and professional connections (Cao et al., 2013 ). Most recently, Manca’s ( 2020 ) review of Instagram, Pinterest, Snapchat and WhatsApp revealed that the two most common activities used for learning by students were content development and discussion for peer learning/assessment. The potential use of social media for teaching and learning activities has received an increased amount of interest and attention from the scholarly community (Barrot, 2021a ). A number of studies have presented evidence regarding the use of social media by academics for personal, professional, and teaching purposes (Johnson & Veletsianos, 2021 ; Manca & Ranieri, 2016a , 2016b ). In terms of specific social media platforms, some researchers have found that Facebook groups are an effective tool to support learning, affording benefits not offered by traditional online Learning Management Systems (LMS) (Barrot, 2018 ; Chugh & Ruhi, 2018 ; Hew, 2011 ; Niu, 2019 ). Similarly, Tang and Hew ( 2017 ) noted the potential of promoting positive learning using Twitter to access and create digital content and collaboration between learners. Recently, studies have extended towards the utility of social media platforms such as Pinterest, Instagram, and Snapchat. Manca ( 2020 ) notes that whilst these platforms have been gaining considerable attention among young people, they have been largely overlooked in the scholarly literature.

Social media, however, has also been shown to challenge traditional beliefs about education and pedagogy in schools and universities. According to some scholars (Manca & Ranieri, 2017 ), educators should pay particular attention to the following themes, primarily communication between students and teachers and professional conduct, as well as the integration of social networking practices into academic and teaching practices from a technological and educational perspective. Besides, other challenges included cultural and social factors that resulted in the erosion of teachers' traditional roles, the management of relationships with students, and privacy threats. Other factors included psychological resistance, traditional visions of instruction, a lack of technical support, perceived risks, institutional issues, pedagogical views, pragmatic reasons, and values.

Despite the increasing level of interest and the growing body of empirical research on specific uses of social media (Alshalawi, 2022 ; Manca & Ranieri, 2016c ; Sobaih et al., 2016 ), very few studies have been conducted to systematically examine how academics are utilizing social media within their teaching engagements and have mapped the use of social media in education across the various disciplinary fields (Barrot, 2021a ; Rehm et al., 2019 ).

Although social media use in higher education has become relatively common (Barrot, 2021a ), there is still much to be researched in order to develop a better understanding of its use as a teaching and learning tool (Sutherland et al., 2020 ). In fact, research has demonstrated that evidence-based pedagogical approaches informed by relevant empirical research are weak (Chugh et al., 2021 ). Thus, there is a necessity for further empirical work, grounded in teaching, learning, and educational technology theories, that can advance this growing field of education (Valtonen et al., 2022 ). The challenge for the development of a pedagogy for social media integration is to encourage robust and theoretically driven research that can explore the application of established learning theories and the facilitation of social media in teaching and learning (Churcher et al., 2014 ). Our belief is that focusing on the need for theoretical integration can help mitigate some of the shortcomings associated with the challenges described above.

The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review of the use of social media for teaching and learning purposes in higher education (2009–2021) utilizing bibliometric methods and content analysis. A primary objective of the study is to assess the degree of theoretical soundness of the studies published to date and to map the current state of the art in regard to the use of social media in teaching and learning.

This study focuses on two aspects of value: on the one hand, it examines the theoretical robustness of studies regarding teaching and learning processes based on the use of social media in higher education that have been published to date; on the other hand, it employs a mixed-method approach combining bibliometric analysis with qualitative analysis to examine the teaching and learning processes. It is our understanding that this is the first study that attempts to accomplish these objectives.

2 Theoretical background

2.1 learning benefits of social media in higher education.

Various studies have demonstrated the use of social media as a supportive and interactive tool for learning in higher education (Everson et al., 2013 ; Greenhow & Galvin, 2020 ; Manca, 2020 ; Manca & Ranieri, 2013 ). Some studies have focused on social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube (Everson et al., 2013 ) or Instagram, Pinterest, Snapchat, and WhatsApp (Manca, 2020 ). The benefits of using social media in higher education has been shown to promote student-centred pedagogies (Camas Garrido et al, 2021 ). For example, the most commonly reported positive effect of Facebook is its capacity as a learning tool for enhanced communication, collaboration, and sharing of information (Niu, 2019 ). Indeed, Facebook groups are the most reliable feature to conduct learning activities (Manca & Ranieri, 2016c ), whereas Twitter has most commonly been used for communication and assessment purposes (Tang & Hew, 2017 ). In general, the use of social media has a positive impact on student learning. However, this is not necessarily attributed to the technologies per se, but to how the technologies are used, and how certain pedagogy and/or instructional strategy is developed (Hew & Cheung, 2013 ). As argued by Greenhow et al. ( 2019 ), educators should show clarity in studying evidence-based pedagogical approaches to teaching.

Some researchers (e.g., Churcher et al., 2014 ) have reported upon how the application of learning theories can facilitate social media integration in order to create virtual communities of practice and generate positive learning outcomes. The main focus of social constructivist learning theories is on learning as a process of active discovery and the construction of knowledge in a social and cultural context (Aubrey & Riley, 2016 ). In this line, social media support social constructivism theory (Dron & Anderson, 2014 ) as it is perceived by educators to provide direction for social constructivist teaching styles (Rambe & Nel, 2015 ). In addition, the connectivist approach views learning as a network phenomenon influenced by technology and socialization (Siemens, 2006 ), as learners are encouraged to engage in peer-to-peer dialogue, sharing resources and promote communication skills (Siemens & Weller, 2011 ). From this perspective, social media can provide a platform for mixing learning and social activities (Manca, 2020 ).

In general, while students at all levels seem to harbour positive views on academic uses and applications of social media, educators appear to be somewhat more cautious than students (Piotrowski, 2015 ). Academics are most likely to use social media for research and career development than to support learning and teaching activities (Chugh et al., 2021 ; Manca & Ranieri, 2016b ). This is likely due to the fact that it can be difficult for educators to maintain best practice of pedagogy while continuously learning how to incorporate emerging technologies (Churcher et al., 2014 ). Existing research on the use of social media in higher education has been mostly about the effectiveness of social media as a teaching and learning tool (Manca & Ranieri, 2013 , 2016b ; Tess, 2013 ), but there has been a lack of empirical data (Mnkandla & Minnaar, 2017 ) and support from theory (Al-Qaysi et al., 2020 ).

Ngai et al. ( 2015 ) argue that the development of a theoretical framework for work in this area can be supported by a combination of both technology and educational theories. Al-Qaysi et al. ( 2020 ) found that whereas the Uses and Gratification Theory (UGT: Katz, 1959 ) and the social constructivism theory (Wertsch, 1985 ) are the most widely used educational theories in social media, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM: Davis, 1989 ) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT: Venkatesh & Davis, 2000 ) are the most extensively used technology theories in studying social media adoption in education.

Indeed, there is a lack of theoretically based research that could lead to a coherent set of practices regarding the use of social media use in higher education. This shortcoming of theoretical development in pedagogical approaches to the use of social media in higher education has important implications also for social media literacies. Manca et al. ( 2021 ) remind us that educators who do not integrate learning theory into their teaching practices run the risk of having a superficial understanding of the construction and development of meaning in favour of centring technology.

This review of the literature purposely focuses upon research that is theoretically grounded and examines the most recurrent models and theories adopted to support pedagogical use of social media in higher education.

2.2 Systematic reviews on social media in education

The increasing number of systematic reviews related to the use of social media in education highlights the importance of these reviews in shaping educational research, identifying future research directions, and bridging the research-practice divide (Chong et al., 2022 ). Scholars have adopted several approaches to systematic reviews of scientific literature: (1) qualitative synthesis (e.g., Manca, 2020 ; Niu, 2019 ); (ii) meta-analysis (also known as quantitative synthesis) (e.g., Al-Qaysi et al., 2020 ; Mnkandla & Minnaar, 2017 ); (iii) qualitative and quantitative synthesis (e.g., Greenhow & Askari, 2017 ; Manca & Ranieri, 2013 , 2016b ; Manca et al., 2021 ; Tang & Hew, 2017 ); (iv) bibliometric analysis (e.g., Barrot, 2021a ; Lopes et al., 2017 ; Rehm et al., 2019 ); and most recently (v) mixed methods approach using bibliometric analysis and qualitative analysis (e.g., Barrot, 2021b ).

Most recent systematic reviews have utilised bibliometrics—a quantitative analysis of the bibliographic characteristics of a growing body of literature (Lopes et al., 2017 ). Although there has been an increase in the use of this approach across various academic fields, the method is relatively new to educational research (Arici et al, 2019 ; Chen, Zhou & Xie, 2020 ; Gumus et al., 2018 ; Song et al, 2019 ). In the area of our interest, there has been a paucity of research that has used the bibliographic method, even in conjunction with more traditional approaches, such as qualitative ones.

In their bibliometric analyses, Lopes et al. ( 2017 ) explored the use of Facebook in educational research, used Web of Science as the database to generate 260 articles from multiples levels of screening. The study found that most articles focused on social media, student’s learning, and case study research designs. It validated the versatility of Facebook as a platform for teaching and learning across different countries and disciples, however it did not study theories or models that can best examine Facebook acceptance.

In their bibliometric analysis, Rehm and colleagues ( 2019 ) focused on multiple social media platforms. Their findings showed that five out of the top 20 cited papers across all journals on instructional design and technology scholarship between 2007 and 2017 were on social media, indicating the growing interest in this topic within educational research.

Barrot ( 2021a ) examined the scientific literature related to the use of social media for education. They found that, out of the 15 examined social media platforms, Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube attracted the greatest attention. The data also revealed that studies on Facebook (9 out of 10) stand out in terms of citation. These findings suggest a growing interest in the use of Facebook for educational purposes. The authors suggested two possible reasons for this. Firstly, as the number of social media platforms and active users increases, so too does the number of research projects that explore their pedagogical use. Secondly, the more sophisticated the platform, the more likely it is to be used for teaching and learning.

From this review, it can be seen that only a few studies so far have mapped the scientific literature of social media in higher education using a mixed method approach – more precisely, content and bibliometric analyses. To complement and extend these earlier reviews, the current systematic review mapped the scientific literature of social media as a teaching and learning tool, giving a wider coverage to determine which theoretical frameworks can best examine the acceptance and pedagogical use of social media in higher education. Thus, the current study was undertaken to understand the landscape of scholarly work in social media as a teaching and learning tool in higher education, particularly its growth, geographical and publication distribution, speech patterns, referring to most commonly used terms or dominant terms, regarding the evolution of the term “social media”, and the analysis of theories / models that are used to examine social media acceptance and adoption in higher education.

3 Rationale and research question

In this study, social media is examined from a theoretical perspective, with a focus on studies which have used theory to help explain social media integration as a teaching and learning tool in higher education. A body of literature has developed recently that links theory with the use of social media in terms of pedagogical best practice. For example, the TAM model (Davis, 1989 ) was utilised to examine the educational outcomes of social media use in teaching (Cao et al., 2013 ), whereas social constructivism theory was used to investigate the potential of Facebook and wikis as collaborative learning tools (Churcher et al., 2014 ). Advancing previous traditional and single method approaches to reviewing literatures, this study advances a mixed-methods approach to explore connections among research articles published between 2009 and 2021. Specifically, this study addresses the following research questions:

What are the main characteristics of the scientific literature in terms of (a) year of publication, (b) publication outlets, (c) leading countries, and (d) affiliations and core authors?

What are the most frequent speech patterns and research trends within the studies?

What theoretical frameworks / models were employed in the studies to guide social media integration in education? And, which study aims are most commonly aligned with such frameworks / models?

A mixed methods approach combining quantitative (bibliometric analysis) and qualitative (content analysis) methods was used to develop a complementary picture of the research area in terms of context for trends (Plano Clark, 2010 ) and to triangulate findings in order that they may be mutually corroborated (Bryman, 2006 ). Qualitative content analysis is useful for “... the subjective interpretation of the content of text data through the systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns” (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005 ; p 1278). Bibliometric analysis is a rigorous, systematic, and innovative method for analysing publication productions and research trends (de Oliveira et al., 2019 ; Erfanmanesh & Abrizah, 2018 ). It enables the identification of relationships among different aspects of the scientific literature through the analysis of publications and documents according to specific characteristics, such as authors, journals, institutions and countries (Esen et al., 2020 ).

The analysed studies were sourced from ERIC and Web of Science and those published from 2009 to June 2021 were included. 2009 was the first recorded fit for the criteria of concern to this study, which is in line with recent studies that have highlighted that social media started to gain attention in 2010 (Valtonen et al., 2022 ). The Web of Science (WoS) was used as a search database in this study since it is the most important bibliometric database (Pranckutė, 2021 ), whereas ERIC on EBSCO databases was used as a subject specific database in education research (ERIC,  https://eric.ed.gov/?faq ).

To increase the accuracy of the current analysis, books, book chapters, and book reviews were excluded, with a focus on peer-reviewed articles, proceedings papers, and literature reviews (Leong et al., 2021 ).

The two databases were searched using the following search string:

(TS = (("social media" OR "social networking site*" OR facebook OR twitter OR Instagram)) AND TS = (("higher education" OR "third level" OR universit* OR college OR academic*)) AND TS = ((teaching OR learning OR "educational tool*"))) AND ((LA == ("ENGLISH")) NOT (DT == ("BOOK" OR "BOOK REVIEW" OR "BOOK CHAPTER"))

This study methodology is based on PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines (Moher et al., 2009 ). PRISMA supports a transparent approach for systematic reviews and ensures a replicable procedure (e.g., review protocol, search strategy, article selection criteria). When considering the criteria for inclusion and exclusion of literature the emphasis was upon studies assessing the use of social media as a teaching and learning tool and not, for instance, as a marketing / communication too. In addition, studies focused on English as a second language were excluded as these are often seen as courses that provide support to leaners, rather than leading to a defined exit award per se. Table 1 presents the screening criteria.

The first screening of sourced articles ( N  = 4,277) involved analyses of titles and abstracts. This process resulted in 812 records. Some reasons for exclusion included: studies related to studying English language; use of social media for communication purposes; studies focused on cyberbullying; social media addiction; social media marketing.

The second level of screening involved checking the full paper, classifying the study in terms of sources and to identify theoretical frameworks or models—hence selecting them for the content analysis. This resulted in 772 records, which were all eligible for bibliometric analysis. The following four characteristics were most predominant: (i) studies presenting a theoretical framework / model ( n  = 55), (ii) empirical studies about teaching and learning without theory ( n  = 221), (iii) studies about perceptions and attitudes without theory ( n  = 424), and (iv) conceptual studies ( n  = 72). For the content analysis, only the 55 studies that utilised a theoretical framework / model were included (Fig.  1 ).

The PRISMA flowchart

4.1 Procedure

Analyses commenced with bibliometric analysis of the 772 articles obtained through the second screening, identifying the main characteristics of the selected publications (year of publication, publication venues, authors, institutions, countries, and most frequent used terms).

Network visualization displaying the relationships among the main words used in abstracts were created using the VOS clustering technique (Van Eck & Waltman, 2010 ). VOSViewer software provides distance-based maps and identifies the clusters of co-occurring words, enabling identification of most used terms and the relationships between them (Van Raan, 2019 ; Waltman et al., 2010 ).

To display the dominant terms, full counting method has been considered (Leydesdorff & Park, 2016 ). Thus, each publication has the overall weight equal to Ni (Ni being the total number of terms in the “i”-publication) and each term has a weight of 1. The size of the circle and the label in the map is associated with the weight of a term. In general, the stronger the relationship between two terms, the closer they are located on the map. We have considered the “total link strength attribute”, which indicates the total strength of a term’s links with other terms (Gutiérrez-Salcedo et al., 2018 ). Whilst curved lines on the maps represent the links between terms, colours are used to indicate the cluster to which each term belongs.

Finally, the evolution of “social media” and other main terms used in abstracts were analysed and presented with the overlay visualization in Vosviewer (terms are coloured based on their year of publication). We used the viridis colour scheme obtained from Matplotlib, where by default, colours range from blue-green to yellow scheme.

For the second analytic component of the study, qualitative content analysis methods were applied to the 55 studies resulting from the second screening. The objectives were to gain an in-depth understanding of the theories/models employed in the studies and to identify the main research aims linked to the employed theories/models. Content analysis was based on a number of categories which were adapted from Manca and Ranieri ( 2013 ) and derived from analysis by author 1 and author 2. This process resulted in the following categories: (i) attitudes of social media as learning tool (studies which main aim was to investigate students’ or instructors’ attitudes towards the use of social media); (ii) social media as a supportive learning tool (studies that supported active collaborative learning, student engagement, effective communication, enhancing group task performance); (iii) efficacy of social media as learning tool (studies that focused on the impact of social media on different aspects of teaching and learning, such as: community building and informal learning). For the purpose of ensuring a level of reliability, an iterative process of analysis was carried by author 1 and author 2, and the individually derived codes were double-checked by comparing results. Once the set of codes had been recognised, dataset coding reliability was calculated (Cohen’s k = 0.85). The disagreement was resolved with discussion and subsequent consensus.

5.1 Study characteristics

Figure  2 provides the time evolution of the annual scientific production for the period analysed. The number of publications shows an upward trend until 2018, with two relatively higher values in 2015 and 2018. A slight decline is observed from 2019 onwards. The sharp drop during 2021 is due to the fact that the study covered the period between January and June of that year. We have applied a segmented linear regression (Liu et al., 1997 ), with two break points, in 2015 and 2018 (Liu & Qian, 2009 ). The segmented least squares forecast for the year 2021, provides an estimated annual value of 74 publications with a high reliability (R 2  = 0.94).

Number of papers on social media as a teaching and learning tool (2009–2021). *estimated value in 2021

Table 2 shows the number of publications by journal (conferences proceedings were not included). This represents the distribution of the journals with a production of seven or more records involving 91 publications (11.7% of the corpus). It was found that Computers & Education and Education and Information Technologies have published the most articles on social media as a teaching and learning tool, with a total of 18 articles each. The Australasian Journal of Educational Technology , Computers in Human Behaviour , and Internet and Higher Education had 13, 12, and 9 related articles, respectively.

The scholars who published the most articles are presented in Table 3 . Overall, the data set containing the 772 articles comprises a total of 2,754 authors. For the purpose of this particular set of analyses, details about professional profile and number of publications are focused on journals only. The average number of co-authors was 3.56. Therefore, authors with more than four relevant published articles were considered core authors in the aforementioned field. The list is a combination of nine leading and emerging scholars from wide geographical areas. As shown, three scholars are from universities in Malaysia, three from Romania, one from Hong Kong, one from Italy, and one from South Africa. The disciplinary areas of the core authors represent a variety of disciplines, with many of these related to the education and technological fields.

5.2 Dominant terms and research trends

The final part of the bibliometric analysed the most frequently represented words in abstracts to identify most used terms and research trends (Han & Ellis, 2019 ; Leung et al., 2017 ). Firstly, the empty words (e.g., connectors, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, adjectives) were omitted. Secondly, words whose frequency was less than 20 occurrences in abstracts were considered not relevant to the research and were excluded. Synonyms and acronyms were associated. Finally, 305 terms with the largest levels of occurrence in the abstracts were included in the analysis from a total of 22,079 words. The analysis of these terms is illustrated in Fig.  3 and Fig.  4 by means of five clusters, each represented by a different colour. The distribution of the number of keywords by year of publication is presented in Fig.  4 .

Most used words found in abstracts

Evolution over time of terms in abstracts

The word student was the most commonly used word in the abstracts ( n  = 2,156), followed by social media ( n  = 1,077), use ( n  = 1,043), Facebook ( n  = 858), and learning ( n  = 667) (see Table 6 in Appendix A for terms with more than 120 occurrences). These results indicate that the articles mostly focused on Facebook use as a social media for learning. Furthermore, the platforms that attracted the greatest attention were Facebook ( n  = 858) and Twitter ( n  = 274). Figure  3 shows the most used word in abstract. As can be seen, the high impact term “student” presents strong connections with use, social media, learning, technology, tool, social network, group, Facebook, and Twitter. Five clusters of terms were discovered as part of the visualization. Each cluster was constituted from a set of terms that are clearly delimited by their location in the map. These clusters reveal the presence of five thematic strands in the literature that focus on: (i) “student-education-platform-process-communication” (colour red); (ii) “Facebook-Twitter-participation-interaction” (green); (iii) “Learning-Use-Technology” (blue); (iv) “social media-university-social media use-social media platform-educational use” (yellow); and (v) “academic attitude-performance-intention-usefulness-satisfaction” (purple).

When the distribution of these words is shown on a year-by-year basis (Fig.  4 ), it is revealed that studies focused on the study of Facebook page, Facebook use, informal learning, and peripheral terms such as blog, community, video, or web, is located in the initial years under study. High impact terms such as Facebook, student, learning, use, education, or social network are published on average in studies between 2014 and 2016. The term “social media” is introduced from 2016, in papers between 2017–2018, linking it to terms such as “data”, “educational use”, and “educational tool”. From 2018 onwards, the focus of the studies is towards “attitudes”, “influence”, “intention”, “performance”, or “satisfaction”.

Four research trends are identifiable throughout the period of study (Table 4 ). From 2010–2014, studies were mainly focused on Facebook as a community of practice, blog, and for informal learning. From 2014–2016, Facebook was still relevant, but studies had more emphasis on the educational learning process of the use of Facebook by students. During the period of 2016–2018, the term “social media” peaked and studies were focused on social media for education and as an educational tool. From 2018 onwards, the focus of the studies was towards “attitudes”, “influence”, “intention”, “performance”, or “satisfaction”.

5.3 Theoretical frameworks/models

The findings show that only 55 studies out of 772 cited a theoretical framework or model, this is only 7% of total number of studies. Content analysis was used to analyse more in-depth information about the 55 selected papers. A total of 16 frameworks/models were identified. They were grouped into six categories of similarity. These are shown in Table 5 in relation to the number of citing studies per category. The number of citing studies is higher than the sample size ( n  = 55) because there are some studies that uses more than one framework/model. The most cited theoretical framework/model was technology acceptance models which were cited in 41 studies. This is followed by learning theories cited in 11 studies. Social capital theory/innovation diffusion theory is cited in 5 studies; uses and gratification theory/social gratification theory cited in 3 studies; lastly, Information systems success model/communication theory and theory of reasoned action/theory of planned behaviour are only cited in 2 studies, respectively.

Figure  5 shows the use of the main framework(s)/model(s) categories from 2013 to 2021. Figure  5 highlights that studies began citing theory in 2013, with further significant increases identifiable in 2017 and 2020. It also indicates that technology acceptance theories are predominantly the most employed theories in all years, 2020 having the highest publications.

Theoretical frameworks/models over time

The 55 studies were further analysed by study aims which were categorised using the following classification: (1) attitudes of social media as learning tool ( n  = 32); (2) social media as a supportive learning tool ( n  = 16); (3) efficacy of social media as learning tool ( n  = 7). The study aims over time are revealed in Fig.  6 . The results indicate that publications with the aim of investigating attitudes of social media as a learning tool are the most common with 2017 being the most popular year of publication.

Research aims over time

Finally, to represent the empirical relationships among the aims and the theoretical frameworks/models, a word co-occurrence analysis providing a similarity matrix was carried out (Hu et al., 2013 ). A measure of similarity is obtained by counting the co-occurrences (Yang et al., 2012 ), which makes it possible to represent the relationships (conceptual clustering) that exist among the aims and frameworks/models (Chen et al., 2019 ). Direct lines represent connections between the theoretical frameworks/models. Figure  7 indicates that the strongest relationship is presented by studies with the aim to explore attitudes of social media as learning tool by integrating a technology acceptance model. This is followed by information and communication theories being used to explain the efficacy of social media as learning tool. Learning theories are mostly related to studies that are aimed at exploring social media as a supportive learning tool.

Research aims & theoretical frameworks/models network

6 Discussion

The current study has mapped the scientific literature regarding the use of social media in higher education teaching and learning (2009 to 2021). The central aim was to document research trends, dominant terms, and the main characteristics of studies, with a focus on providing a new perspective on the theoretical groundings that may explain the pedagogical integration of social media within higher education teaching and learning.

These results extend the findings of other systematic literature reviews regarding social media use in education-conducted on single or multiple platforms (Lopes et al., 2017 ; Manca, 2020 ; Tang & Hew, 2017 )-and across various disciplinary fields (Barrot, 2021a ; Rehm et al., 2019 ). The main finding indicates a shift from studies focused on Facebook, as the most researched social media platform and its use by students for informal learning, to a more recent trend from 2018 onwards showing studies still focused on attitudes, intentions, and satisfaction of social media as a teaching and learning tool. This is aligned with results from the content analysis which showed that only a minority of studies report the use of theory, and those that do report research aims based on the investigation of attitudes towards social media as a learning tool by integrating a technology acceptance model.

The following sections discuss the three research questions of this study in relation to results concerning both the use of social media as a teaching and learning tool and its pedagogical integration.

6.1 Characteristics of the scientific literature

Overall, the data show a constant growing trend in the number of publications concerned with social media use in teaching and learning, with an increase in two different years (2015 and 2018). This trend confirms a growing interest in the research community regarding the use of social media as a teaching and learning tool (Bodily et al., 2019 ; Valtonen et al., 2022 ). One of the reasons for the rapid growth of research in this field may be related to the relevance of social media platforms in students’ daily lives. We anticipate that further studies will be conducted as new social media uses and applications increases. For example, since its launch in 2017, TikTok has become the fastest growing social media platform worldwide, reaching nearly 83 million monthly active users as of February 2021 (Statista, 2021 ). From an educational perspective, TikTok has proven to be an effective pedagogical tool in corporal expression courses (Escamilla-Fajardo et al., 2021 ) and for political participation and civic engagement (Literat & Kligler-Vilenchik, 2021 ).

In terms of publication venues, Computers & Education , which is an international peer reviewed journal and one of the most prominent journals on the use of technology in education (Arici et al., 2019 ), has published the highest number of papers. The majority of the publications are also international, implying that educational research in social media is pedagogically used in local, regional, or international learning contexts (Barrot, 2021a ).

Geographically, results showed widespread interest across different countries, with more than half of the studies conducted outside of Europe. Whilst Barrot ( 2021a ) has reported that the US was by far the leading country in this field, Manca ( 2020 ) found that most of the research was from the Middle East.

6.2 Dominant terms and research trends

Based on the clusters of terms identified from the analysis of the most used words in abstracts, the platforms that attracted the greatest attention were Facebook and Twitter. In her review, Barrot ( 2021a ) also found that these platforms were the most popular, and suggested that Facebook and Twitter are more likely to be used for teaching and learning as they offer multiple affordances when compared to other less developed/newer platforms.

While the phenomenon of social media remains relatively new to academia research, it has grown in popularity throughout the analysed period. In the initial years, the literature showed evidence of research on the use of social media for informal learning (e.g., Forkosh-Baruch & Hershkovitz, 2012 ) through Facebook (e.g., Hew, 2011 ), and blogs (e.g., Zinger & Sinclair, 2013 ).

In our corpus of literature, the term “social media” starts to flourish from 2016. Many studies with a focus on the use of social media as an educational tool started to be published in that timeframe (e.g., Balakrishnan, 2017 ; Manca & Ranieri, 2016a , 2016b ; Sobaih et al., 2016 ). From 2018 to 2021, research trends were more focused on studies about attitudes and satisfaction, confirming trends from earlier studies on attitudes regarding Facebook (e.g., Manca & Ranieri, 2013 , 2016a , 2016b ). Manca and Ranieri ( 2016c ) argued that whilst there was a favourable attitude towards social media use for education, many academics would express a preference for using social media for personal and professional use, rather than for teaching and learning purposes.

6.3 Theoretical frameworks/models and study aims

The third research question examined the studies which had included a theoretical framework/model to explain the integration of social media in learning and teaching. The findings show that only 55 studies out of 772 cited a theoretical framework or model. This result demonstrates a general lack of theoretically based research. This concurs with the findings of Manca et al. ( 2021 ) who concluded that studies that do not integrate learning theory run the risk of superficial understanding of the pedagogical advantages of social media for learning and teaching.

Our findings show that 16 theoretical frameworks/models guided the 55 studies, with the technology acceptance models being the most frequently used. These theoretical frameworks/models were present in 41 studies. Thus, with the overwhelming presence of technology acceptance models, future research should endeavour to adopt other theoretical frameworks/models to verify the results obtained from TAM and its variants. For example, Al-Qaysi et al. ( 2020 ) argued that the development of a theoretical framework that can best examine the integration of social media for learning and teaching can be justified by the use of the uses and gratification theory (Katz, 1959 ) and the social constructivism theory (Wertsch, 1985 ). Furthermore, the use of social media for teaching and learning should be a pedagogical decision and not a technology one (Everson et al., 2013 ). Considering that educational technology research to date has aimed to understand the integration of, and factors affecting, technology use, mainly by employing theories from psychology and information systems, it was found in a recent study by Valtonen et al. ( 2022 ) that the largest amount of educational research targeted how technology can support learning processes based on different learning theories. This is in contrast with our findings which have shown that technology acceptance theories are the most studied frameworks/models in social media for teaching and learning. The reason for this contradiction is that Valtonen et al.’s ( 2022 ) review identified studies with an educational technology focus and not on social media specifically. Indeed, technology research’s history is long, rich and broad (Weller, 2020 ). However, this indicates that the use of socially oriented theories of learning and constructionist tradition within various technology-enhanced contexts and environments is the most common fit to understand technology integration.

Aligned with our findings is the work of Ngai et al. ( 2015 ) and of Chintalapati and Daruri ( 2017 ) who declared that the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is widely used in social media research to explain the acceptance of social media and to measure the factors that influence its adoption.

Our findings also show that the second most employed theoretical framework/models were those related to learning theories. In particular, social constructivism theory was the second most cited approach. These publications peaked from 2017, indicating that the use of learning theories is still in its infancy. Greenhow and Askari ( 2017 ), who assessed the state of social media research in education, found that the major gap in studies was concerned with the link to concrete measures of learning. This finding aligns with an earlier review study that noted increasing interest for social media use, but insufficient empirical support for claims that such technology can be an effective learning tool (Tess, 2013 ). Reflecting on these findings, Greenhow et al. ( 2019 ) suggested that research should focus on practices, outcomes, and learning across different contexts.

As social media is an emerging technology, it is important to continually understand attitudes towards it. Hence, it is not surprising that most of the studies in our analysis were designed to investigate the perceptions and attitudes of students and academics towards the use of social media as a learning and teaching tool. In theory, this is best explained by using an information systems theory such as the TAM (Ngai et al., 2015 ). However, this does not explain best practice when introducing social media as a learning and teaching tool. Many studies in the analysis which cited learning theories used TAM with social constructivism theory to examine collaborative learning and engagement through social media use (Alalwan et al., 2019 ; Alamri et al., 2020b ; Al-Rahmi, et al., 2018 ).

Since Technology acceptance theories are designed to examine teachers’ and students’ readiness to incorporate social media into teaching and learning practices, it is not surprising that they are aligned with attitudes towards social media as a teaching and learning tool. However, it appears that academic research has not much progressed in terms of providing better theoretical strength to pedagogical models and teaching practices.

The second most commonly found research aim in the studies was related to active collaborative learning, student engagement, effective communication and enhancing group performance. This research aim was supported by learning theories. For example, Yu et al. ( 2010 ) investigated student engagement on Facebook from a pedagogical standpoint based on social learning theory. Al-Rahmi et al. ( 2015 ) explored the factors that contribute to the enhancement of collaborative learning and engagement through social media based on the theory of social constructivist learning. This is in line with Churcher et al. ( 2014 ) study who argued that using social constructivist theory has the ability to develop a community of practice, and maximize learning potential.

Lastly, only 7 studies focused on the efficacy of social media as a learning tool which are supported by information and communication theories. For example, Chaka and Govender ( 2020 ) tested the implementation of mobile learning using Facebook as a medium of communication using a combination of the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) model, Information Systems (IS) success model and the educational use of Facebook theory. Al-Rahmi et al. ( 2018 ) investigated the use of social media to encourage sharing knowledge, information, and discussion based on constructivism theory, technology acceptance model, and communication theory.

7 Conclusion and implications

The purpose of this study was twofold. First, we aimed to reveal research trends and most commonly used terms of social media for teaching and learning in higher education. The journals that published the most related papers, core scholars working on this field, and the countries in which the related research was based by employing a bibliometric analysis of the research. This analysis suggested that this research field is growing rapidly and evolving. This may be explained by the fact that social media have revolutionized the life of many people and thus attracting much attention.

Second, we employed content analysis to provide a new perspective on the theoretical groundings of the articles in the field. The results showed a lack of theoretical based research in this field, with some evidence of technology acceptance models and learning models as key theories that best explains the integration of social media as a teaching and learning tool.

Although the current study has provided useful insights regarding social media use in teaching and learning, some limitations need to be acknowledged. First, this study was not intended to report, discuss and analyse the findings of each study included in this review. Instead, it aimed to provide some numerical evidence that show the evolving research trends of social media for teaching and learning, as well as the frameworks/models studied and purpose of those focal studies. Second, this study analyses only the articles indexed in the WoS and ERIC database. Therefore, future studies could include articles from Scopus database, book chapters, book reviews, or other publications outside the chosen database. Thirdly, social media research is in its early stages, therefore new studies will continue to surface and continued proliferation of new social media technologies (Ngai et al., 2015 ). More recent social media in education research should be considered in future studies. Finally, future research could explore other research perspectives like research methods and contexts/disciplines.

This paper provides a new perspective on the theoretical groundings in the field of social media as a teaching and learning tool. Several implications can be drawn from this. Firstly, most studies are focused on investigating students and/or instructors’ attitudes towards the use of social media by integrating technology acceptance models. Future studies should focus on “best practice” for integrating social media into pedagogy, tied to student learning outcomes by integrating learning theories. Such studies may also help shape future research on social media integration in formal education, resulting potentially in solutions to educational problems rather than technological ones. Secondly, it was noted that studies employing technology acceptance models may be overwhelming the greater body of literate at present, and therefore any future research should look at post-acceptance studies, such as the impact of usage on learning and/or issues relating to it (such as privacy, security, and trust) (Manca & Ranieri, 2016b ). Finally, this study provided a review of the research landscape on the use of social media as a teaching and learning tool which can be used as a baseline in further advancing the field towards its full maturity.

As interest among scholars increases in using social media for teaching and learning, questions to consider for further research include the following: Can social media that are designed commercial purposes support learners in an educational environment? What does the adoption of social media mean from a theoretical perspective? In this regard, future work should address the pedagogical practices which are suitable for use with social media based on sound theoretical groundings.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Perez, E., Manca, S., Fernández-Pascual, R. et al. A systematic review of social media as a teaching and learning tool in higher education: A theoretical grounding perspective. Educ Inf Technol 28 , 11921–11950 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11647-2

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Research Article

Social media research: We are publishing more but with weak influence

Roles Methodology

Affiliation Department of Marketing, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore

Roles Resources, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Department of Business Administration, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, Jounieh, Lebanon

• Samer Elhajjar, 
• Laurent Yacoub

• Published: February 8, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297241
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The purpose of this paper is to address the chasm between academic research on social media as an expanding academic discipline and at the same time a growing marketing function. A bibliometric analysis indicated the evolution of academic research on social media. The results of a survey of 280 social media practitioners shed the light on the gap between academic social media research and the practice of professionals. A qualitative study also offered novel insights and recommendations for future developments in academic research on social media. The findings of this paper showed that academic research on social media is growing in terms of the number of publications but is struggling in three areas: visibility, relevance, and influence on practitioners. This study contributes to the body of knowledge on social media. The implications of our study are derived from the importance of our findings on the directions to publish more relevant and timely academic research on social media. While extensive studies exist on social media, their influence on practitioners is still limited.

Citation: Elhajjar S, Yacoub L (2024) Social media research: We are publishing more but with weak influence. PLoS ONE 19(2): e0297241. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297241

Editor: Alhamzah F. Abbas, UTM Skudai: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, MALAYSIA

Received: July 27, 2023; Accepted: January 1, 2024; Published: February 8, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Elhajjar, Yacoub. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files. The data underlying the results presented in the study are from Scopus ( http://www.scopus.com/ ).

Funding: The author received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

In the early 1960s, academics began to advocate that marketing should gain rigor by relying on a scientific approach that respects requirements in terms of the state of knowledge, the hypotheses development, the methodology, and the analysis and interpretation of results [ 1 – 5 ]. This traditional conception of rigor has, over the years, fuelled the need to acquire tools to better evaluate, recognise and promote it. Thus, first in the United States, and now in almost all countries, various stakeholders use rankings of scientific journals, mainly Anglo-Saxon, which often consider their impact factors according to the Journal Citation Report (JCR) of the Science Citation Index or the Social Science Citation Index. Quality accreditation bodies for higher education management institutions have also followed suit by offering journal ranking lists.

However, since the early 1980s, the debate between rigor and relevance in the production and dissemination of marketing knowledge has been prominent in the literature. There is a serious concern about how academics are evaluating the impact of their research. As if the focus of marketing researchers is to improve their citation records rather than developing practical implications for practitioners. Shouldn’t marketing scholarship, when applied to practical issues, aim to harmonize rigor and relevance right from the start? How did we arrive at this risk of divorce and the need to reconcile thoroughness and applicability?

In fact, in some fields, such as pharmacy, where breakthroughs in medical procedures and the discovery of new pharmaceuticals result in societal benefits, the influence of research is simple to grasp. This effect is more difficult to detect in social media. In the discipline of marketing, for example, there have been allegations that research has strayed too far from the interests of practitioners. In turn, researchers point out the flaws in present professional methods [ 6 ]. Indeed, some in the marketing research community believe that many practical concerns that worry professional marketers are unworthy of researchers’ attention. This is mainly because of a long-standing misguidance of business schools [ 7 ] since their research is less and less influential [ 8 – 11 ]. Several studies confirm that the impact of academic research on business practices has been disappointing and that innovations have come from the consulting community, the business press, and professional associations [ 12 – 15 ].

This article aimed to identify whether there is a gap between rigor and relevance in academic research on social media. It also proposed ways for marketing researchers to foster relevance. In general, this article responded to two research questions: Is there a chasm between academic social media research and social media practitioners? How to reconcile the rigor and relevance of social media research?

The originality of this research lies in its specific focus on bridging the potential gap between rigor and relevance within the realm of academic research on social media. While social media has become an integral part of contemporary society and communication [ 16 ], there is a growing concern that academic investigations in this domain may sometimes prioritize theoretical rigor at the expense of practical applicability [ 17 ]. By addressing this issue, the research seeks to contribute significantly to the field by shedding light on the balance between rigorous methodologies and the real-world applicability of social media research findings. This unique perspective not only emphasizes the importance of ensuring academic work remains pertinent and useful in a rapidly evolving digital landscape but also offers valuable insights for researchers, educators, and policymakers striving to navigate the intricate intersection of academia and social media’s dynamic environment.

To answer our research questions, the paper was structured as follows. First, we examined the theoretical foundations of academic marketing research. Second, the research design and methodology of our three investigations were then described. Our first study involved a social media research bibliometric analysis with the goal of describing the evolution and development of academic social media research. Our second study gathered feedback and information from social media practitioners. Our third study listed suggestions for academic researchers. The three studies worked in tandem to create a comprehensive picture of academic research on social media. They offered historical context, practical insights, and actionable recommendations, collectively contributing to a holistic understanding of how researchers can bridge the gap between rigor and relevance in the dynamic realm of social media. Lastly, we listed the contributions of our study and their implications for future research.

Literature review

Academic marketing research has two purposes: first, to advance marketing theory, and second, to improve marketing practice [ 18 ]. On the one hand, theory ought to give academics fresh ideas, conceptual frameworks, and resources to aid in their understanding of marketing phenomena. On the other side, research should give marketers direction for making better decisions. As a result, marketing academics should address issues with the development of marketing theory’s rigor and its applicability to marketing practice [ 19 ]. Nevertheless, leading academic voices have expressed worry about the gap between marketing theory and practice. Reibstein et al. [ 20 ], for example, have questioned if marketing academia has lost its way, while Sheth and Sisodia [ 21 ] have urged for a reform. In a similar vein, Hunt [ 22 ] advised revising both marketing’s discipline and practice, while McCole [ 23 ] proposed strategies to refocus marketing theory on changing practice. Rust et al. [ 24 ] argue for reorienting marketing in firms to become more customer-centric, and Kotler [ 25 ] advocates for marketing theory and practice to conform to environmental imperatives. Also, because the business landscape is dynamic, Webster Jr. and Lusch [ 26 ] believe that marketing’s goal, premises, and models should be rethought. Finding answers to these problems keeps marketing from becoming obsolete [ 27 ] and marginalised [ 20 ], both as a discipline and as an organizational function [ 28 ].

According to the literature [ 29 , 30 ], marketing scholars have lost sight of both rigor and relevance. As a result, many scholarly journals have made it normal practice to provide implications and suggestions [ 31 ], their actual influence has been insignificant [ 20 ]. Many marketing academics have failed to address substantive topics [ 18 ], resulting in a loss of relevance [ 30 , 20 ] and a drop in marketing expertise [ 32 ].

The efforts of certain institutions (e.g., Marketing Science Institute), conferences (e.g., Theory + Practice in Marketing–TPM), and leading journals’ special issues on marketing theory and practice to bridge this gap are well recognised, with the goal of fostering dialogue and collaboration between marketing scholars and practitioners. Several solutions for bridging the marketing theory–practice gap have also emerged from existing literature: adopting the perspective of rigor–and–relevance in research [ 27 , 33 ]; focusing on emerging phenomena [ 34 , 35 ]; positioning research implications to the higher business level rather than the narrow level of the marketing department [ 36 ]; running role-relevant research driven by a deep understanding of the core tasks of the marketing department; translating research results into actionable recommendations [ 23 , 37 ].

In sum, marketing research has been criticised for not having an impact on practice since it is primarily focused on writing for other scholars and not for practitioners who might benefit from marketing research to address practical issues. Equivalently, publishing marketing research that is more useful for practitioners implies that there should be a well-functioning nexus between the theory and the marketing tools and techniques that practitioners need to deal with practical issues. In the context of social media, we still don’t know whether academic publications have an impact on practitioners. In other terms, one may ask whether social media practitioners read academic articles or refer to these publications in their practices.

Our paper considered the gaps between the theory and practice of social media and identifies where they exist. Some possible explanations for the gaps can be explored which may be of interest to both academics working in the field.

We conducted a bibliometric study, consisting of the collection, summarizing, assessing, and monitoring of published research, to create an up-to-date overview of the current marketing research on social media and statistically assess the associated literature [ 38 , 39 ]. Scopus, one of the most complete databases of academic articles, served as our data source. It indexes 12,850 periodicals in various categories and contains articles published since 1966. Scopus was chosen over Web of Science for two reasons. First, as researchers faced a trade‐off between data coverage and cleanliness, Scopus has been discovered to have a larger coverage (60% larger) than Web of Science [ 40 ]. Second, bibliometric studies in marketing research often employ only one database to avoid data homogeneity problems that could arise when using numerous databases [ 41 ].

To search the database, we first identified two keywords related to our study: “social media”, and “social media marketing”, we ran a query using a combination of these keywords (adopting the Boolean operator “OR”) in the fields related to “title,” “abstract,” and “keywords.” We considered works published only in business journals until October 2022. Proceedings, book chapters, and books were excluded from further consideration. To filter this data, we relied on a screening process. Documents were excluded based on whether they are not published in English and/or not available for the project team.

We placed the highest priority on maintaining the reliability of our dataset, which we accomplished by adhering to protocol. This protocol was carried out in four distinct phases: identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion, as elaborated in Fig 1 . Using Mendeley’s robust features, we structured all identified studies in an organized format consisting of author names, titles, and publication years. Additionally, we conducted a thorough check to detect and remove any duplicate studies, ensuring the dataset’s cleanliness and integrity.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297241.g001

After applying our selection criteria rigorously, our initial search of the Scopus database produced a substantial dataset comprising 5345 research works. This dataset encompassed a wide range of information, including author names, article titles, the countries of corresponding authors, publication counts, comprehensive citation statistics (total citations, average article citations, and the number of citing articles, both with and without self-citations), journal sources, keywords, geographical distribution by countries, and author-level metrics. A detailed workflow outlining our selection process is depicted in Fig 1 , providing a comprehensive overview of our systematic approach.

To further enhance the comprehensiveness of our research, we implemented a backward search strategy. In this phase, we scrutinized the reference lists of the retained studies for our final review but did not identify any additional studies relevant to our research objectives.

Once we finalized our ultimate dataset, we examined the complete text of each article. We extracted and organized all pertinent information essential for our review. To streamline this process, we developed a structured data extraction tool specifically designed to record and concisely summarize the crucial details necessary to address our research inquiries. This approach aimed to minimize potential human errors and enhance procedural transparency.

The data coding phase unfolded in two distinct steps. Initially, we subjected the data extraction form to a rigorous pilot evaluation using a select sample of the finalized articles. Two of our co-authors independently conducted data extractions from this sample, allowing for a meticulous cross-check to identify and rectify any technical issues, including completeness and the form’s usability. In the second step of data coding, each article received a unique identifier. One co-author examined the complete text of each article, coding the data into specific categories, such as article title, publication year, geographic market focus, and research theme. To ensure the utmost accuracy and reliability, a second co-author rigorously reviewed the extraction form and conducted a random sample check for cross-validation. Any discrepancies or disagreements that arose during this process were thoroughly discussed and resolved to maintain the integrity of our data coding efforts.

Then, we proceeded to conduct a comprehensive performance analysis. Within this evaluation, we scrutinized various metrics to gauge the scholarly contributions. Among the myriad measures assessed, two stood out as particularly prominent indicators of research impact. The first criterion was the number of publications produced per year or per research constituent, serving as a robust proxy for productivity and output. The second metric revolved around citations, a paramount gauge of the work’s influence and impact within the academic community. As mentioned by Donthu et al. [ 42 ], these dual facets—publication and citation—equally underscore the multifaceted nature of scholarly contributions.

Fig 2 shows the evolution of publications on social media research. Academic research was keeping up with the growth of social media platforms. In fact, since 2010, the number of social media users has significantly increased, the number of social media networks has grown, and the social media platforms evolved from direct electronic information exchange to virtual gathering place.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297241.g002

These publications have collectively accumulated a total of 2,351 citations. Further dissecting this data, we found that the average citation per document stands at 0.43. Moreover, the h-index, a key indicator gauging both the productivity and influence of a researcher’s body of work, stands at 16. This signifies that a minimum of 16 citations have been garnered by these publications.

Overall, the studies have been conducted in 52 countries. The greatest share of research has been carried out in the United States, followed by the United Kingdom, Australia, and China. Business journals publishing on social media were also listed in our findings. They included a range of marketing journals (e.g., Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science; International Journal of Research in Marketing; Journal of Marketing; Marketing Intelligence and Planning; Journal of Interactive Marketing; Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing; Psychology and Marketing), business research journals (Journal of Business Research; EuroMed Journal of Business; Business Horizons; Journal of Business Media studies), and management journals (e.g., European Management Review). In general, the Marketing journals and business research journals dominated this list. The most cited paper was the classical article on the challenges and opportunities of social media published by Kaplan and Haeinlein in Business Horizons, which has received more than 27000 citations. Next, we found three papers with more than 5000 citations and 10 additional ones with over 2000 citations.

In our study, the abstracts were assessed for the keywords "theory" and "model" to identify theories and models that the social media study added to, and to explore the many theoretical lenses used to guide the research. In total, 321 papers had an abstract that included a theory or model. There were 19 different theories initiated from those works. Theory of gratification, the theory of technology acceptance, and the theory of planned behavior are the most used theories in social media research.

Next, we conducted a keyword co‐occurrence analysis aimed at identifying the main keywords i.e., academic research on social media. By investigating the relationships between keywords, keyword co-occurrence analyses helped us to represent and comprehend the literature of a scientific topic. VOSviewer package of Van Eck and Waltman [ 43 ] was used to generate bibliometric analysis which has been widely adopted in the literature [ 44 ]. VOS is superior to multidimensional scaling for constructing bibliometric analyses and maps [ 43 ], so we did not involve multidimensional scaling. The results of our keyword analysis are shown in Fig 3 . The size of the circles in the graphic representation indicates which keywords had the highest levels of co-occurrence throughout the examination of keyword co-occurrence. Social networking platforms, consume behaviour, marketing, sustainability, and economic and social effects are among the most important keywords used by social media researchers.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297241.g003

Social media research has identified several prominent topics that have garnered significant attention in recent years. One of these is the impact of social media on mental health [ 45 ]. Researchers have been exploring how various aspects of social media use, such as the quantity and quality of online interactions, content consumption, and platform design, influence individuals’ mental well-being. This includes investigations into the links between social media use and consumer well-being [ 46 ].

Another critical area of focus in social media research is the spread of misinformation and fake news [ 47 ]. The mechanisms behind the dissemination of false information on social media platforms have been extensively examined, along with their effects on public opinion, trust, and political polarization. Researchers have sought to understand how the algorithms, echo chambers, and filter bubbles on these platforms contribute to the propagation of misinformation [ 47 ].

Influencer marketing is another hot topic in social media research [ 48 ]. The effectiveness of influencer partnerships, issues related to authenticity, and the ethical considerations surrounding sponsored content have all come under scrutiny. Researchers are also exploring how influencers shape consumer behavior, affecting choices and preferences [ 49 ].

Political communication on social media has attracted significant attention, particularly regarding its impact on election campaigns, policy-making, and public discourse. Scholars have examined how algorithms, the presence of filter bubbles, and the formation of echo chambers can influence political opinions and contribute to polarization [ 50 ].

Privacy and data security issues are ongoing concerns in the realm of social media research. These studies investigate user privacy, data breaches, and the effects of privacy settings on various social media platforms [ 51 ].

Research into user behavior and engagement on social media platforms is fundamental for understanding trends, virality, and the factors that drive user interactions. Numerous research studies have delved into the impact of social media on consumer behavior, offering valuable insights into this dynamic relationship [ 52 ]. The concept of social proof, where people tend to follow the actions and preferences of others, is well-established in social media research [ 53 ]. The fear of missing out (FOMO) also drives consumer behavior, as limited time offers and exclusive deals on social media can prompt quick purchasing decisions [ 54 ].

Several emerging trends in social media research are shaping the field’s future direction. One of these is the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning into research methodologies [ 55 ]. AI is being used for sentiment analysis, content recommendation, and identifying trends within large datasets [ 56 ].

Blockchain technology is also gaining traction as a means to enhance trust and transparency in social media interactions. Researchers are exploring its potential in content authentication and combating fake news [ 57 ].

Ethical considerations surrounding AI algorithms on social media platforms are a growing concern. Research in this area focuses on issues of bias, fairness, and the ethical responsibility of tech companies in algorithm design and implementation [ 58 ].

Cross-cultural and global perspectives in social media research are becoming more prevalent, with studies investigating how social media usage varies across cultures and regions and the global impact of social media trends [ 59 – 61 ].

Looking ahead, future research in social media could consider the long-term effects of social media usage on individuals and societies, including potential generational attitudes and behaviors. Advocacy for increased algorithmic transparency on social media platforms and the study of its impact on user experiences and content distribution is another important direction for future research. Research into how humans and AI can collaborate to enhance content moderation, fact-checking, and information verification on social media platforms will become increasingly relevant. Finally, as concerns about environmental sustainability grow, future research could investigate the environmental impact of data centres and the carbon footprint associated with social media platforms.

Building upon the insights garnered from our initial study, our research journey continued with two subsequent investigations. The second study delved into the world of social media practitioners, extracting valuable feedback and information. In parallel, our third study synthesized a comprehensive list of suggestions tailored specifically for academic researchers. These two complementary endeavors, while distinct in focus, formed integral components of our overarching quest to bridge the gap between theory and practice in the realm of social media.

Numerous academics and commentators have recently claimed that marketing scholarship has stopped being sufficiently creative and has grown more disassociated from actual practice. A rush of recent special journal issues, editors’ forums, and studies on the seeming research/practice gap in marketing have been linked to such worries. While some contend that the goal of marketing research should be to enhance rather than merely describe, understand, or criticise marketing activity, a possible divide between practitioners’ and academics’ concerns appears to have formed.

Academic research, characterized by its systematic inquiry, rigor, and peer-reviewed dissemination, represents a cornerstone of knowledge production and dissemination across various fields and disciplines. Yet, the extent to which social media practitioners engage with, trust, and value academic research remains a subject of limited empirical inquiry. This gap in our understanding is particularly pertinent given the increasingly complex and intertwined relationship between social media and academia.

While a growing body of literature has explored the impact of social media on academic research dissemination and public engagement [ 62 , 63 ], relatively few studies have focused on the reverse perspective—how social media practitioners perceive and interact with academic research. In response to this gap, Study 2 aims to delve deeper into this important facet of the digital age information ecosystem.

The sample frame for this study consisted of 280 social media practitioners. Emails were sent to 441 marketers explaining the project and posing their participation. To improve response rates, a cover letter and a survey instruction letter were sent to all potential respondents [ 64 ]. The overall response rate from the participating companies was 63.5 percent. Table 1 displays the characteristics of the participants. To facilitate the process of reaching social media professionals, we collaborated with a local professional marketing body. This collaboration provided us with access to their membership database and allowed us to leverage their network to identify and contact potential participants. Our data collection initiative unfolded over the course of three months, spanning from November 2022 to January 2023.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297241.t001

The selection of a sample frame comprising 280 social media practitioners for this study was well-justified on several grounds. Firstly, this choice was rooted in the research’s primary objective, which seeks to gain valuable insights into the perspectives of professionals actively engaged in the field of social media. Moreover, the sample size of 280 was both practical and feasible, considering the available resources and the capacity for efficient data collection and analysis. This size also ensured the statistical significance of the study’s findings, reducing the likelihood that results are simply due to random chance. Ultimately, this choice of sample frame aligned with the study’s research goals, methodological considerations, and ethical principles, strengthening the validity and reliability of the study’s outcomes.

Results showed that only 2% read an academic paper every quarter. Less than 1% of our respondents believed that academic research had an impact on their decisions and activities. Participants of our survey indicated that social media platforms, practical eBooks, specialised websites, and newspapers and magazines are their main sources of knowledge. Fig 4 shows the responses of the participants to the following question: What media or tools do you use to acquire knowledge in social media?

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297241.g004

Participants mentioned that they use the previously mentioned tools to mainly gain more information about the latest trends in the fields of social media and technology. Others read market analysis reports and practical reports, while the rest use the templates developed by marketing institutes and digital marketing agencies (See Table 2 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297241.t002

Respondents shared their perceptions of marketing academics. Academics were regarded as being elitist because they use their own jargon, speak in convoluted scientific terms, strive to publish at all costs, and do little to advance practice. Moreover, most of our participants raised negative criticisms towards the academic research on social media. For them, academic research lacks usefulness, relevance, and visibility (see Table 3 ). Respondents were also asked what the ideal focus of an academic journal should be on. Results show that the most important areas of focus are: (1) practical cases, (2) best practice sharing and (3) dissemination of new ideas. According to the respondents, the least focus should be placed on theoretical models.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297241.t003

Building upon the insights gained in our second study, we transition into our third investigation, which, like the second, continues to focus on social media practitioners. This continuity underscores the importance of deepening our understanding of their experiences, challenges, and expertise within the ever-evolving social media landscape. In this manner, our research endeavors maintain a cohesive narrative, as we gather comprehensive feedback from practitioners to inform our ongoing quest for practical solutions and academic contributions.

11 online focus groups were held with 69 social media practitioners between March and June 2023. Focus groups are a popular qualitative research method for producing cutting-edge findings. This approach was designed and justified to ensure the rigor and comprehensiveness of our research. By opting for a series of focus groups, we aimed to capture a diverse range of perspectives within the field of social media, considering its dynamic nature and the variety of roles practitioners may hold. Smaller groups can lead to more in-depth discussions and allow each participant to contribute meaningfully [ 65 ]. Furthermore, conducting these sessions during a specific time frame ensured that our data remained relevant and reflective of contemporary practices. The approach also provided opportunities for data validation and triangulation, enhancing the trustworthiness of our findings. Overall, the methodology aligned with the study’s objectives, maximizes data richness, and accounts for practical constraints, ultimately enhancing the robustness and credibility of our research.

The moderator and participants must be chosen for the online focus group to grow well. For the role of moderator, the focus group was facilitated by one of the researchers with experience in conducting online focus groups, whose main role was to encourage an open and relaxed discussion, keep the discussion relevant and probe into areas that needed clarification. A relaxed atmosphere was created to improve interaction and the free flow of ideas and opinions. ‘Starter’ questions were used at the focus group sessions to seed the discussions about the role of academic research.

We did not predetermine the number of focus groups, but we did adhere to the principles of saturation and ceased gathering data when there was no more material to add. The focus groups lasted between 62 and 91 min, with an average length of 73 min. We purposively selected information-rich participants [ 66 ] by using the authors’ networks and snowball sampling. All the participants had a strong understanding of social media, having more than three years of experience in digital marketing. An emailing list of marketing professionals was already developed by the researchers. Those professionals already participated in a previous survey or engaged in an academic activity (example: guest talk, judging a case competition, industry speech to the students). The sample frame for this study consisted of 69 marketing professionals in Singapore, France, and Lebanon. Emails were sent to 130 marketing professionals explaining the project and posing their participation. All potential respondents received a cover letter and a letter outlining the survey’s requirements to increase response rates. The overall response rate from the participating companies was 53 percent. Industries included high-tech, investment, banking, media, logistics, retailing, and healthcare. 55.07% of the sample salespeople were males with a mean age of 33 years.

Each focus group was transcribed and reviewed by an independent researcher. Using computer-based qualitative analysis software, the authors created the initial codes (QSR NVivo 12 Plus). To work methodically through the complete focus group data set and give each data item its full and equal attention, the authors scheduled frequent follow-up meetings. Then, the authors used a data-driven thematic analysis approach to look for themes that were strongly connected with the data but unrelated to the topics posed during the focus groups. To ensure that the themes formed a logical structure, the authors revised and improved the topics. To make sure that each theme appropriately reflected the meanings visible in the entire data set, the authors specifically went back to the transcripts. The final thematic categories underwent numerous rounds of editing to verify that they accurately translated the empirical data and were free of overlapping meanings. They also established connections between the detected themes and previously published works of literature. The trustworthiness of the authors’ later findings, which were demonstrated and backed by a comprehensive collection of data quotations, required such iterative analysis to be improved. Finally, the authors created a report by summarizing the results and highlighting how the new research has added to the body of knowledge. Reports were sent to all the study participants to obtain their feedback. The feedback validated the findings.

Before conducting a thematic analysis, textual data were analyzed using VOSviewer software. The software can automatically and precisely identify the keywords that frequently exist in a large text. VOSviewer analysis needs data files in.txt or.csv format for analysis. As such, all data files were converted from.docx to.txt format and uploaded to the software. The research generated many keywords, each of which was represented by a circle based on how frequently it appeared in the transcripts. The higher the frequency of occurrence of a theme in the textual data or transcripts, the larger the size of the circle (See Fig 5 ). We identified 10 topical keywords: 1) relevance; 2) automation; 3) artificial intelligence; 4) technology; 5) exposure; 6) partnership; 7) big data; 8) innovation; 9) analytics; and 10) trends. These keywords are intelligible with the importance of publishing relevant and visible academic research to practitioners. This analysis also shows that technology, automation, and artificial intelligence are among the main interests of our participants.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297241.g005

In this section, we present the findings of our thematic analysis. To answer our research questions, our findings shed the light on 1) the problems of academic research on social media; and (2) the participants’ recommendations to improve the managerial and practical impact of academic research on social media.

A primary finding of this research was related to the current challenges the academic research on social media. All our participants thought that the lack of visibility of academic articles is the main problem of academic research. All of them mentioned that they are not aware of the academic journals in the field of social media and are not exposed to the academic articles. Participants believed that academic institutions and researchers don’t promote research works to practitioners, as described in the following paragraph:

I think academic research is not visible for professionals like us [ … ] I believe that academics need to invest more time with practitioners and present the results of their research . As things stand like this , we are not even aware of what researchers are doing .

(Participant 13, Digital Marketing Manager, 10 years of experience).

The participants also mentioned that the lack of relevance for research in social media—is overwhelming: the gap between social media research and its practice looks abysmal, even irreconcilable, and practitioners’ interest in the research produced by researchers is very limited. The relevance dimension relates to the originality of the results. However, according to the participants, the nature of originality differs between researchers and social media managers. The originality expected by social media practitioners is established in reference to their daily practice (there is originality when the results question the practices in use) whereas the originality for researchers has as reference the universe of theories (there is originality when the results question existing knowledge). And this has implications for the researcher concerned with relevance. If he or she evolves in the world of theories and is, therefore, able to detect what constitutes original results, as quotes of participant 24 depict:

We are looking for new and original contributions [ … ] We expect to read something that we don’t know and can help us in our job .

(Participant 24, Social Media Coordinator, 5 years of experience).

The participants felt that there is an obvious time gap between researchers and practitioners: Thus, the researcher took liberties with research time which, in the eyes of the marketers, sometimes made the results obsolete. This perspective of a two-speed world (always slow for research, very fast for marketers) brought with it the idea that researchers are disconnected from business constraints and realities, as depicted in the following quote:

We don’t work much with marketing researchers because there is too much of a time gap.

(Participant 43, Marketing Manager, 13 years of experience).

Another problem noticed by our participants concerns editorial style and the dissemination of the writings. On the one hand, practitioners knew that vocabulary is an element of a researcher’s scientific capital. It is a proof of legitimacy and a mark of identity. On the other hand, they also considered the scientific writing style complex and difficult. In fact, according to our participants, the latter do not read academic articles because they are not trained to understand their content, which is often too specific, abstract, written in specialised jargon, and peppered with references and methodological details. Social media practitioners look for easy-to-understand texts that address the real world and offer cutting-edge ideas, digital marketing trends, or advice that help prevent or solve crises, address challenges, or stay competitive in the digital world.

For our participants, the questions addressed in the research work must be in phase with the concerns of social media practitioners and the challenges facing companies. They must therefore deal with current, and even future, topics, as these are the ones that interest practitioners and can help digital marketers make a difference, stand out and progress in their practices. Therefore, many of our participants said that the topics that social media researchers tackle may neither be important nor interesting for them. In this sense, participant 3 expressed the following:

Research is not at all intriguing . It is very difficult for me to understand and covers subjects that I don’t find interesting .

(Participant 3, Social Media Specialist, 5 years of experience)

The participants listed several recommendations to improve the practical impact of academic research on social media. First, there is a need to improve the visibility and exposure of the academic articles to the practitioners. Academics can think about organizing conferences and seminars to present their results to practitioners. Joint seminars involving academics and practitioners might be planned in this order to increase the practical value of academic research. Also, academics, according to our participants, can publish the results of their results in practice websites. Researchers should also be more active on social networks and try to use less scientific and more practical language in their blogs to explain the importance of their results to social media practitioners. Participants think that researchers should share specific recommendations for practitioners through YouTube. For instance, they can practically explain how to increase social media engagement and how to improve the online reputation of a company. Moreover, professional associations and professional institutes can play an important role in transmitting academic research findings to practitioners.

In addition to presenting at practitioner conferences, writing in traditional crossover journals for practitioners as well as in shorter pieces like op-eds and blogs, and attracting the attention of those who publish columns, blogs, and articles about research for practitioners, participants discussed other ways that scholars can share pertinent research insights with practitioners. Second, participants suggested involving practitioners in research, conducting research in partnership with companies. Implementing collaborative research is not easy, however. It assumes that researchers and social media managers can navigate both worlds and comply with the rules of the game specific to each universe. Participants emphasised the importance of developing ecosystems that bring together researchers and companies to pool resources from both sides to tackle shared issues. Offering a place to share problems and solutions is relevant and improves the efficiency of efforts, whether through knowledge sharing, financial support mechanisms (sponsorship), or—the implementation of joint field studies. Social media practitioners should play an important part in the co-production of research and so shape how new social media plans and ideas are developed. Participant 19 said:

I think researchers need to bridge the gap with professionals [ … ] A key element here is : collaboration . The collaboration will help both parties . The researchers will be able to co-create knowledge with the practitioners , and the latter will get new perspectives from the researchers .

(Participant 19, Marketing Executive, 20 years of experience)

Additionally, social media practitioners can collaborate with researchers to co-produce research, as shown by examples where they have served as data sources, recipients, commissioners, endorsers, and co-researchers on collaborative projects. For two crucial reasons, it is uncommon for practitioners to write on discipline-based research. The first is that academic journals have historically been less likely to publish articles on topics that are of interest to both academics and practitioners and on which they may collaborate in research. If any such research is done, it might be published in journals geared toward practitioners, but these publications don’t seem to get the attention or credit required to improve an academic’s reputation or career. Second, because practitioners lack training in the vocabulary, tools, and processes of research analysis, co-production is uncommon. To promote the generation and dissemination of information, business schools might suggest research training for practitioners and can create networks between practitioners and academics.

Third, practitioners recommended research to tackle specific, relevant, and “real-world” topics. Practitioners look for research that can provide new insight and information, which goes beyond intuition. This relevance non-obviousness test determines whether research meets or exceeds a practitioner’s intuition. So, the research topic must evoke a real marketing problem and the focus should be directed toward helping practitioners with new insights or knowledge. Then, researchers should convert this info into practice and communicate the same in jargon-free language. Social media research should concentrate on know-how rather than know-what and need to mainly rely less on theory to the virtual exclusion of practitioner utility. It is also suggested that researchers consider the results of surveys that some academic or professional organizations periodically conduct to identify practitioner needs and challenges.

Making social media research more relevant does not mean neglecting its rigor, but rather reconciling these two qualities. This "research/teaching/transfer" synergy implies changes in thinking, acting, and managing on the part of all stakeholders: faculty, policymakers, and the management of educational institutions. Participants proposed recommendations for promoting relevance at each stage of this process. Thus, according to them, research must: 1) focus on marketing problems that face practitioners and on variables that practitioners can influence; 2) analyze the interactions between, people, organizations, and the industry and their impact on marketing performance indicators deemed important by practitioners; 3) generate results that cannot be deduced intuitively and that are quickly transferred to practitioners.

Furthermore, participants thought that there is a need to investigate the effect of media on consumers, value formation and their interplay with purchase decisions, and optimization of social media marketing tools that marketing practitioners can use in their everyday jobs. Table 4 presents examples of suggested topics by our participants.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297241.t004

Fourth, social media research needs to provide recommendations that motivate practitioners to act on the results. Therefore, when possible, researchers should use examples to illustrate how their findings should affect social media practitioners’ actions while also defining the context in which those findings are most likely to be applicable. This entails including—and treating seriously—a part in papers titled "implications for practice" and, ideally, having relevant practitioners review versions of this section. In the eyes of practitioners, it appears necessary for researchers to adopt a forward-looking posture and look to the future rather than simply explaining what has happened or is happening today, as described by participant 58:

I expect recommendations from the part of researchers on how to prepare for the future of digital marketing . (Participant 58, Digital Marketing Manager, 15 years of experience)

Fifth, participants called for new thinking on research analysis methods:

We , the marketing directors , need models to help us make decisions and make judgments , and this is a strong expectation from researchers .

(Participant 40, Social Media Specialist, 7 years of experience)

As far as data mining and retargeting are concerned, social media practitioners are waiting for models to better manage data flows. Quantitative approaches are therefore not excluded, but they must be combined with interpretative approaches, backed by psychology, ethnography, or anthropology, to better understand and anticipate consumers’ choices and decisions.

Sixth, the skills needed to thrive in the field of digital marketing are numerous and diverse because it mixes traditional marketing, web design, SEO, analytics, content management, and much more. Tech-savvy digital marketers are always trying to learn more. For instance, digital marketers need to be familiar with data analytics. To make wise decisions, it is advised to regularly update the database and remove irrelevant information. Additionally, having a basic understanding of HTML and CSS can help digital marketers if they will use WordPress. So, there is an emergence in the required technical knowledge and skills. Our participants advocated for more technical academic research where marketing researchers collaborate with researchers from computer science and data analytics backgrounds. Such research would contribute to the multidisciplinary character and hybrid task structure of the digital marketing profession, which uses technology, analytics, and marketing.

Finally, participants indicated five areas where researchers can help digital marketers to be more knowledgeable and acquainted: 1) the use of big data in the social media field; 2) the AI-powered technology in digital marketing; 3) the characteristics of emerging markets; 4) the features of metaverse marketing; and 5) the use of blockchain technology in digital marketing and social media.

The study has several key implications for future social media investigations. First, a direct correlation exists between academic research and the evolution of social media in terms of users, platforms, and medium. Nevertheless, there is a gap between social media studies and their influence on the marketing function. The problem can be attributed to laxity on the part of digital marketing institutes and centers linking practitioners and researchers [ 67 ]. The onus is on digital marketing institutes to assume the intermediary role between academic researchers and social marketing professionals.

Today, much social media research is invisible to practitioners because the system is primarily self-referential. Authors are forced to decide whether to undertake socially impactful research or write publications that are only academically impactful [ 68 ]. The various participants in the focus groups provide potentially practical solutions to the issue. A close relationship between academic researchers and practitioners increases the chances of implementation. Collaborations help researchers play the role of participant-observer in practitioners’ responsibilities and decision-making. Therefore, social media investigations can consider academic and informal aspects to enhance readability and generate a significant audience.

Another reason that could explain the gap between practitioners and researchers is that the former focus on publishing instead of engaging their target audience. Thus, a disparity exists between the expectations of the marketing professionals trying to transform their work for industry consumption and the researchers’ interests. Additionally, social media marketers work in an exciting field, but academic researchers continue to ignore this vital fact [ 69 ]. Cadotte et al. [ 70 ] support the perspective and contend that practitioners feel that academics consider themselves elitists who speak their jargon and write in complex scientific language. The issue explains why 69% of our respondents stated that they do not find academic articles interesting. Although theoretical models are critical in research studies, authors should focus more on practical cases, best practice sharing, and disseminating new ideas. The fast-paced and dynamic nature of social media marketing [ 71 ] requires companies and marketers to rely on scientific studies to make informed decisions [ 69 ]. However, academic journals are characterised by the slowness of their review process. Managerial fads are often gone by the time the articles that dissect them are published.

Our research also focuses on academic research challenges regarding social media and implementing participants’ recommendations to enhance practicality. The lack of originality in academic papers means that marketing practitioners do not find the articles relevant to their practice. According to Roberts et al. [ 19 ], professionals want researchers to publish studies that value practical relevance, but academics favour journals with a high impact factor. Young and Freytag [ 72 ] indicate that the only approach to bridge the gap between research studies and their influence function is through successful collaborations between academic researchers and professional practitioners.

The findings of this paper show that academic research on social media is growing in terms of the number of publications but is struggling in three areas: visibility, relevance, and influence on practitioners. Our findings outlined some difficulties in bridging academic research and social media usage. We offered some recommendations for improving the interaction between research and practice after focusing on the viewpoints of the practitioners. Thus, we discussed why research relevance is important and how scholars might raise the relevance of their research in an effort to inspire academics to produce research that is more pertinent to social media practitioners.

Our findings should be of interest to marketing researchers and academic institutions. We presented a detailed snapshot of guidelines to publish more impactful research works. Collaboration between scholars and practitioners is an important area where the gap could be closed. Collaboration with professional organisations and businesses should already be under progress. In order to advance toward positive developments in the interaction between the academy and practice, collaboration will result in stronger links between social media research and the instruments used in professional practice. Another position consists in asserting that the lack of relevance of the knowledge produced by social media research is the direct consequence of its mode of production. By raising to the rank of dogma a paradigm inherited from the hard sciences, the scientific community has, so to speak, dried up the marketing discipline. As a result, the findings of the social media research conducted by the researchers have lost interest. To make social media research more relevant, it would be necessary to change the way research is conducted. An initiative such as the creation of the d.school at Stanford University, a program that fundamentally changes the way of thinking about teaching and research based on the design sciences paradigm, is part of this conception, but other approaches such as critical digital marketing studies, critical realism or constructivism are also proposed by the advocates of a paradigmatic renewal. Even if the solutions advocated differ, these approaches have the common characteristic of advocating a greater openness in marketing research by proposing new research methods, new forms of results, and, above all, new criteria for evaluating scientific productions.

Some limitations should be acknowledged. First, books, theses, and conference proceedings were not included in the review because it only looked at and evaluated items that were published in peer-reviewed academic journals. Future research should take this restriction into account and may decide to broaden the area of their investigations. Second, our review comprised journals identified in Scopus; upcoming studies may contemplate examining other databases. Third, the perceptions of social media practitioners may also vary by country, along with the nature of jobs and the competencies they require. To advance this research, it is advised that our data be combined with information from various geographic contexts. Finally, the results of future research can be bed on larger sample size, as the sample in our second study was comprised of only 280 practitioners.

Supporting information

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Analysing the Impact of Social Media on Students’ Academic Performance: A Comparative Study of Extraversion and Introversion Personality

Sourabh sharma.

International Management Institute (IMI), Bhubaneswar, India

Ramesh Behl

Associated data.

Complete data and material is available to support transparency.

The advent of technology in education has seen a revolutionary change in the teaching–learning process. Social media is one such invention which has a major impact on students’ academic performance. This research analyzed the impact of social media on the academic performance of extraversion and introversion personality students. Further, the comparative study between these two personalities will be analysed on education level (postgraduate and undergraduate) and gender (male and female). The research was initiated by identifying the factors of social media impacting students’ academic performance. Thereafter, the scale was developed, validated and tested for reliability in the Indian context. Data were collected from 408 students segregated into 202 males and 206 females. Two hundred and thirty-four students are enrolled in postgraduation courses, whereas 174 are registered in the undergraduate programme. One-way ANOVA has been employed to compare the extraversion and introversion students of different education levels and gender. A significant difference is identified between extraversion and introversion students for the impact of social media on their academic performance.

Introduction

Social Networking Sites (SNS) gained instant popularity just after the invention and expansion of the Internet. Today, these sites are used the most to communicate and spread the message. The population on these social networking sites (SNS) has increased exponentially. Social networking sites (SNS) in general are called social media (Boyd & Ellison, 2008 ). Social media (SM) is used extensively to share content, initiate discussion, promote businesses and gain advantages over traditional media. Technology plays a vital role to make SM more robust by reducing security threats and increasing reliability (Stergiou et al., 2018 ).

As of January 2022, more than 4.95 billion people are using the Internet worldwide, and around 4.62 billion are active SM users (Johnson, 2022 ). In India, the number of Internet users was 680 million by January 2022, and there were 487 million active social media users (Basuray, 2022 ). According to Statista Research Department ( 2022 ), in India, SM is dominated by two social media sites, i.e. YouTube and Facebook. YouTube has 467 million users followed by Facebook with 329 million users.

Although almost all age groups are using SM platforms to interact and communicate with their known community (Whiting & Williams, 2013 ), it has been found that social media sites are more popular among youngsters and specifically among students. They use SM for personal as well as academic activities extensively (Laura et al., 2017 ). Other than SM, from the last two years, several online platforms such as Microsoft Teams, Zoom and Google Meet are preferred to organize any kind of virtual meetings, webinars and online classes. These platforms were used worldwide to share and disseminate knowledge across the defined user community during the pandemic. Social media sites such as Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, WhatsApp and blogs are comparatively more open and used to communicate with public and/or private groups. Earlier these social media platforms were used only to connect with friends and family, but gradually these platforms became one of the essential learning tools for students (Park et al., 2009 ). To enhance the teaching–learning process, these social media sites are explored by all types of learning communities (Dzogbenuku et al., 2019 ). SM when used in academics has both advantages and disadvantages. Social media helps to improve academic performance, but it may also distract the students from studies and indulge them in other non-academic activities (Alshuaibi et al., 2018 ).

Here, it is important to understand that the personality traits of students, their education level and gender are critical constructs to determine academic performance. There are different personality traits of an individual such as openness, conscientiousness, extraversion and introversion, agreeableness and neuroticism (McCrae & Costa, 1987 ). This cross-functional research is an attempt to study the impact of social media on the academic performance of students while using extraversion and introversion personality traits, education levels and gender as moderating variables.

Literature Review

There has been a drastic change in the internet world due to the invention of social media sites in the last ten years. People of all age groups now share their stories, feelings, videos, pictures and all kinds of public stuff on social media platforms exponentially (Asur & Huberman, 2010 ). Youth, particularly from the age group of 16–24, embraced social media sites to connect with their friends and family, exchange information and showcase their social status (Boyd & Ellison, 2008 ). Social media sites have many advantages when used in academics. The fun element of social media sites always helps students to be connected with peers and teachers to gain knowledge (Amin et al., 2016 ). Social media also enhances the communication between teachers and students as this are no ambiguity and miscommunication from social media which eventually improves the academic performance of the students (Oueder & Abousaber, 2018 ).

When social media is used for educational purposes, it may improve academic performance, but some associated challenges also come along with it (Rithika & Selvaraj, 2013 ). If social media is incorporated into academics, students try to also use it for non-academic discussions (Arnold & Paulus, 2010 ). The primary reason for such distraction is its design as it is designed to be a social networking tool (Qiu et al., 2013 ). According to Englander et al. ( 2010 ), the usage of social media in academics has more disadvantages than advantages. Social media severely impacts the academic performance of a student. The addiction to social media is found more among the students of higher studies which ruins the academic excellence of an individual (Nalwa & Anand, 2003 ). Among the social media users, Facebook users’ academic performance was worse than the nonusers or users of any other social media network. Facebook was found to be the major distraction among students (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010 ). However, other studies report contrary findings and argued that students benefited from chatting (Jain et al., 2012 ), as it improves their vocabulary and writing skills (Yunus & Salehi, 2012 ). Social media can be used either to excel in academics or to devastate academics. It all depends on the way it is used by the students. The good or bad use of social media in academics is the users’ decision because both the options are open to the students (Landry, 2014 ).

Kaplan and Haenlein ( 2010 ) defined social media as user-generated content shared on web 2.0. They have also classified social media into six categories:

• Social Networking Sites: Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and Instagram are the social networking sites where a user may create their profile and invite their friends to join. Users may communicate with each other by sharing common content.
• Blogging Sites: Blogging sites are individual web pages where users may communicate and share their knowledge with the audience.
• Content Communities and Groups: YouTube and Slideshare are examples of content communities where people may share media files such as pictures, audio and video and PPT presentations.
• Gaming Sites: Users may virtually participate and enjoy the virtual games.
• Virtual Worlds: During COVID-19, this type of social media was used the most. In the virtual world, users meet with each other at some decided virtual place and can do the pre-decided things together. For example, the teacher may decide on a virtual place of meeting, and students may connect there and continue their learning.
• Collaborative Content Sites: Wikipedia is an example of a collaborative content site. It permits many users to work on the same project. Users have all rights to edit and add the new content to the published project.

Massive open online courses (MOOCs) are in trend since 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Raja & Kallarakal, 2020 ). MOOCs courses are generally free, and anyone may enrol for them online. Many renowned institutions have their online courses on MOOCs platform which provides a flexible learning opportunity to the students. Students find them useful to enhance their knowledge base and also in career development. Many standalone universities have collaborated with the MOOCs platform and included these courses in their curriculum (Chen, 2013 ).

Security and privacy are the two major concerns associated with social media. Teachers are quite apprehensive in using social media for knowledge sharing due to the same concerns (Fedock et al., 2019 ). It was found that around 72% teachers were reluctant to use social media platforms due to integrity issues and around 63% teachers confirmed that security needs to be tightened before using social media in the classroom (Surface et al., 2014 ). Proper training on security and privacy, to use social media platforms in academics, is needed for  students and teachers (Bhatnagar & Pry, 2020 ).

The personality traits of a student also play a significant role in deciding the impact of social media on students’ academic performance. Personality is a dynamic organization which simplifies the way a person behaves in a situation (Phares, 1991 ). Human behaviour has further been described by many renowned researchers. According to Lubinski ( 2000 ), human behaviour may be divided into five factors, i.e. cognitive abilities, personality, social attitudes, psychological interests and psychopathology. These personality traits are very important characteristics of a human being and play a substantial role in work commitment (Macey & Schneider, 2008 ). Goldberg ( 1993 ) elaborated on five dimensions of personality which are commonly known as the Big Five personality traits. The traits are “openness vs. cautious”; “extraversion vs. introversion”; “agreeableness vs. rational”; “conscientiousness vs. careless”; and “neuroticism vs. resilient”.

It has been found that among all personality traits, the “extraversion vs. introversion” personality trait has a greater impact on students’ academic performance (Costa & McCrae, 1999 ). Extrovert students are outgoing, talkative and assertive (Chamorro et al., 2003 ). They are positive thinkers and comfortable working in a crowd. Introvert students are reserved and quiet. They prefer to be isolated and work in silos (Bidjerano & Dai, 2007 ). So, in the present study, we have considered only the “extraversion vs. introversion” personality trait. This study is going to analyse the impact of social media platforms on students’ academic performance by taking the personality trait of extraversion and introversion as moderating variables along with their education level and gender.

Research Gap

Past research by Choney ( 2010 ), Karpinski and Duberstein ( 2009 ), Khan ( 2009 ) and Kubey et al. ( 2001 ) was done mostly in developed countries to analyse the impact of social media on the students’ academic performance, effect of social media on adolescence, and addictiveness of social media in students. There are no published research studies where the impact of social media was studied on students’ academic performance by taking their personality traits, education level and gender all three together into consideration. So, in the present study, the impact of social media will be evaluated on students’ academic performance by taking their personality traits (extraversion and introversion), education level (undergraduate and postgraduate) and gender (male and female) as moderating variables.

Objectives of the Study

Based on the literature review and research gap, the following research objectives have been defined:

• To identify the elements of social media impacting student's academic performance and to develop a suitable scale
• To test the  validity and reliability of the scale
• To analyse the impact of social media on students’ academic performance using extraversion and introversion personality trait, education level and gender as moderating variables

Research Methodology

Sampling technique.

Convenience sampling was used for data collection. An online google form was floated to collect the responses from 408 male and female university students of undergraduation and postgraduation streams.

Objective 1 To identify the elements of social media impacting student's academic performance and to develop a suitable scale.

A structured questionnaire was employed to collect the responses from 408 students of undergraduate and postgraduate streams. The questionnaire was segregated into three sections. In section one, demographic details such as gender, age and education stream were defined. Section two contained the author’s self-developed 16-item scale related to the impact of social media on the academic performance of students. The third section had a standardized scale developed by John and Srivastava ( 1999 ) of the Big Five personality model.

Demographics

There were 408 respondents (students) of different education levels consisting of 202 males (49.5%) and 206 females (50.5%). Most of the respondents (87%) were from the age group of 17–25 years. 234 respondents (57.4) were enrolled on postgraduation courses, whereas 174 respondents (42.6) were registered in the undergraduate programme. The result further elaborates that WhatsApp with 88.6% and YouTube with 82.9% are the top two commonly used platforms followed by Instagram with 76.7% and Facebook with 62.3% of students. 65% of students stated that Google doc is a quite useful and important application in academics for document creation and information dissemination.

Validity and Reliability of Scale

Objective 2 Scale validity and reliability.

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and Cronbach’s alpha test were used to investigate construct validity and reliability, respectively.

The author’s self-designed scale of ‘social media impacting students’ academic performance’ consisting of 16 items was validated using exploratory factor analysis. The principle component method with varimax rotation was applied to decrease the multicollinearity within the items. The initial eigenvalue was set to be greater than 1.0 (Field, 2005 ). Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) with 0.795 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity having significant values of 0.000 demonstrated the appropriateness of using exploratory factor analysis.

The result of exploratory factor analysis and Cronbach’s alpha is shown in Table ​ Table1. 1 . According to Sharma and Behl ( 2020 ), “High loading on the same factor and no substantial cross-loading confirms convergent and discriminant validity respectively”.

Exploratory factor analysis and Cronbach’s alpha for the self-developed scale of “Social media impact on academic performance”

The self-developed scale was segregated into four factors, namely “Accelerating Impact”, “Deteriorating Impact”, “Social Media Prospects” and “Social Media Challenges”.

The first factor, i.e. “Accelerating Impact”, contains items related to positive impact of social media on students’ academic performance. Items in this construct determine the social media contribution in the grade improvement, communication and knowledge sharing. The second factor “Deteriorating Impact” describes the items which have a negative influence of social media on students’ academic performance. Items such as addiction to social media and distraction from studies are an integral part of this factor. “Social Media Prospects” talk about the opportunities created by social media for students’ communities. The last factor “Social Media Challenges” deals with security and privacy issues created by social media sites and the threat of cyberbullying which is rampant in academics.

The personality trait of an individual always influences the social media usage pattern. Therefore, the impact of social media on the academic performance of students may also change with their personality traits. To measure the personality traits, the Big Five personality model was used. This model consists of five personality traits, i.e. “openness vs. cautious”; “extraversion vs. introversion”; “agreeableness vs. rational”; “conscientiousness vs. careless”; and “neuroticism vs. resilient”. To remain focussed on the scope of the study, only a single personality trait, i.e. “extraversion vs. introversion” with 6 items was considered for analysis. A reliability test of this existing scale using Cronbach’s alpha was conducted. Prior to the reliability test, reverse scoring applicable to the associated items was also calculated. Table ​ Table2 2 shows the reliability score, i.e. 0.829.

Cronbach’s alpha test for the scale of extraversion vs. introversion personality traits

Objective 3 To analyse the impact of social media on students’ academic performance using extraversion and introversion personality traits, education level and gender as moderating variables.

The research model shown in Fig.  1 helps in addressing the above objective.

Social media factors impacting academic performances of extraversion and introversion personality traits of students at different education levels and gender

As mentioned in Fig.  1 , four dependent factors (Accelerating Impact, Deteriorating Impact, Social Media Prospects and Social Media Challenges) were derived from EFA and used for analysing the impact of social media on the academic performance of students having extraversion and introversion personality traits at different education levels and gender.

Students having a greater average score (more than three on a scale of five) for all personality items mentioned in Table ​ Table2 2 are considered to be having extraversion personality or else introversion personality. From the valid dataset of 408 students, 226 students (55.4%) had extraversion personality trait and 182 (44.6%) had introversion personality trait. The one-way ANOVA analysis was employed to determine the impact of social media on academic performance for all three moderators, i.e. personality traits (Extraversion vs. Introversion), education levels (Undergraduate and Postgraduate) and gender (Male and Female). If the sig. value for the result is >  = 0.05, we may accept the null hypothesis, i.e. there is no significant difference between extraversion and introversion personality students for the moderators; otherwise, null hypothesis is rejected which means there is a significant difference for the moderators.

Table ​ Table3 3 shows the comparison of the accelerating impact of social media on the academic performance of all students having extraversion and introversion personality traits. It also shows a comparative analysis on education level and gender for these two personality traits of students. In the first comparison of extraversion and introversion students, the sig. value is 0.001, which indicates that there is a significant difference among extraversion and introversion students for the “Accelerating Impact” of social media on academic performance. Here, 3.781 is the mean value for introversion students which is higher than the mean value 3.495 of extraversion students. It clearly specifies that the accelerating impact of social media is more prominent in the students having introversion personality traits. Introversion students experienced social media as the best tool to express thoughts and improve academic grades. The result is also consistent with the previous studies where introvert students are perceived to use social media to improve their academic performance (Amichai-Hamburger et al., 2002 ; Voorn & Kommers, 2013 ). Further at the education level, there was a significant difference in postgraduate as well as undergraduate students for the accelerating impact of social media on the academic performance among students with extraversion and introversion, and introverts seem to get better use of social media. The gender-wise significant difference was also analysed between extraversion and introversion personalities. Female introversion students were found to gain more of an accelerating impact of social media on their academic performance.

One-way ANOVA: determining “Accelerating Impact” among extraversion and introversion personality traits students at different education levels and genders

Significant at the 0.05 level

Like Table ​ Table3, 3 , the first section of Table ​ Table4 4 compares the deteriorating impact of social media on the academic performance of all students having extraversion and introversion personality traits. Here, the sig. value 0.383 indicates no significant difference among extraversion and introversion students for the “Deteriorating Impact” of social media on academic performance. The mean values show the moderating deteriorating impact of social media on the academic performance of extraversion and introversion personality students. Unlimited use of social media due to the addiction is causing a distraction in academic performance, but the overall impact is not on the higher side. Further, at the education level, the sig. values 0.423 and 0.682 of postgraduate and undergraduate students, respectively, show no significant difference between extraversion and introversion students with respect to “Deteriorating Impact of Social Media Sites”. The mean values again represent the moderate impact. Gender-wise, male students have no difference between the two personality traits, but at the same time, female students have a significant difference in the deteriorating impact, and it is more on extroverted female students.

One-way ANOVA: Examining “Deteriorating Impact” among extraversion and introversion personality traits students at different education levels and genders

The significant value, i.e. 0.82, in Table ​ Table5 5 represents no significant difference between extraversion and introversion personality students for the social media prospects. The higher mean value of both personality students indicates that they are utilizing the opportunities of social media in the most appropriate manner. It seems that all the students are using social media for possible employment prospects, gaining knowledge by attending MOOCs courses and transferring knowledge among other classmates. At the education level, postgraduation students have no significant difference between extraversion and introversion for the social media prospects, but at the undergraduate level, there is a significant difference among both the personalities, and by looking at mean values, extroverted students gain more from the social media prospects. Gender-wise comparison of extraversion and introversion personality students found no significant difference in the social media prospects for male as well as female students.

One-way ANOVA: Examining “Social Media Prospects” among extraversion and introversion personality traits students at different education levels and genders

Table ​ Table6 6 shows the comparison of the social media challenges of all students having extraversion and introversion personality traits. It is also doing a comparative analysis on education level and gender for these two personality traits of students. All sig. values in Table ​ Table6 6 represent no significant difference between extraversion and introversion personality students for social media challenges. Even at the education level and gender-wise comparison of the two personalities, no significant difference is derived. The higher mean values indicate that the threat of cyberbullying, security and privacy is the main concern areas for extraversion and introversion personality students. Cyberbullying is seen to be more particularly among female students (Snell & Englander, 2010 ).

One-way ANOVA: Examining “Social Media Challenges” among extraversion and introversion personality traits students at different education levels and genders

The use of social media sites in academics is becoming popular among students and teachers. The improvement or deterioration in academic performance is influenced by the personality traits of an individual. This study has tried to analyse the impact of social media on the academic performance of extraversion and introversion personality students. This study has identified four factors of social media which have an impact on academic performance. These factors are: accelerating impact of social media; deteriorating impact of social media; social media prospects; and social media challenges.

Each of these factors has been used for comparative analysis of students having extraversion and introversion personality traits. Their education level and gender have also been used to understand the detailed impact between these two personality types. In the overall comparison, it has been discovered that both personalities (extraversion and introversion) have a significant difference for only one factor, i.e. “Accelerating Impact of Social Media Sites” where students with introversion benefited the most. At the education level, i.e. postgraduate and undergraduate, there was a significant difference between extraversion and introversion personalities for the first factor which is the accelerating impact of social media. Here, the introversion students were found to benefit in postgraduate as well as undergraduate courses. For the factors of deteriorating impact and social media challenges, there was no significant difference between extraversion and introversion personality type at the different education levels.

Surprisingly, for the first factor, i.e. the accelerating impact of social media, in gender-wise comparison, no significant difference was found between extraversion and introversion male students. Whereas a significant difference was found in female students. The same was the result for the second factor, i.e. deteriorating impact of social media of male and female students. For social media prospects and social media challenges, no significant difference was identified between extraversion and introversion students of any gender.

Findings and Implications

The personality trait of a student plays a vital role in analysing the impact of social media on their academic performance. The present study was designed to find the difference between extraversion and introversion personality types in students for four identified factors of social media and their impact on students’ academic performance. The education level and gender were also added to make it more comprehensive. The implications of this study are useful for institutions, students, teachers and policymakers.

This study will help the institutions to identify the right mix of social media based on the personality, education level and gender of the students. For example, technological challenges are faced by all students. It is important for the institutions to identify the challenges such as cyberbullying, security and privacy issues and accordingly frame the training sessions for all undergraduate and postgraduate students. These training sessions will help students with extraversion and introversion to come out from possible technological hassles and will create a healthy ecosystem (Okereke & Oghenetega, 2014 ).

Students will also benefit from this study as they will be conscious of the possible pros and cons that exist because of social media usage and its association with students’ academic performance. This learning may help students to enhance their academic performance with the right use of social media sites. The in-depth knowledge of all social media platforms and their association with academics should be elucidated to the students so that they may explore the social media opportunities in an optimum manner. Social media challenges also need to be made known to the students to improve upon and overcome with time (Boateng & Amankwaa, 2016 ).

Teachers are required to design the curriculum by understanding the learning style of students with extraversion and introversion personality type. Innovation and customization in teaching style are important for the holistic development of students and to satisfy the urge for academic requirements. Teachers should also guide the students about the adverse impacts of each social media platform, so that these can be minimized. Students should also be guided to reduce the time limit of using social media (Owusu-Acheaw & Larson, 2015 ).

Policymakers are also required to understand the challenges faced by the students while using social media in academics. All possible threats can be managed by defining and implementing transparent and proactive policies. As social media sites are open in nature, security and privacy are the two major concerns. The Government of India should take a strong stand to control all big social media companies so that they may fulfil the necessary compliances related to students’ security and privacy (Kumar & Pradhan, 2018 ).

The overall result of these comparisons gives a better insight and deep understanding of the significant differences between students with extraversion and introversion personality type towards different social media factors and their impact on students’ academic performance. Students’ behaviour according to their education level and gender for extraversion and introversion personalities has also been explored.

Limitation and Future Scope of Research

Due to COVID restrictions, a convenient sampling technique was used for data collection which may create some response biases where the students of introversion personality traits may have intentionally described themselves as extroversion personalities and vice versa. This study also creates scope for future research. In the Big Five personality model, there are four other personality traits which are not considered in the present study. There is an opportunity to also use cross-personality comparisons for the different social media parameters. The other demographic variables such as age and place may also be explored in future research.

Author contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Dr. SS and Prof. RB. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Dr. SS, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

No funds, grants, or other support was received.

Availability of data and material

Declarations.

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Verbal informed consent was obtained from the participants.

Verbal consent is obtained for publication

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Sourabh Sharma, Email: ni.ude.hbimi@hbaruos .

Ramesh Behl, Email: ude.imi@lhebr .

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The use of social media and its impact for research

Social media is an omnipresent part of everyday life. It provides users with an easy way to engage and connect with others without meeting face-to-face. This form of communication provides a lot of opportunity for companies and individuals to reach a massive audience. What is the purpose of social media, and how does it tie into science? Well, you see, it all depends on who you know and how active your social media presence is. Is there a benefit for sharing research across social media? The benefits of social media stem from active participation and the generation of new attractive content from an individual. Research is about producing new information, and social media offers unique opportunities to present new content.

Full Article

The Use of Social Media and its Impact for Research

Jessica Rogers

Keywords: Social media; Research; Engagement

Contact information: BioResources Process Editor, Department of Forest Biomaterials, North Carolina State University, Campus Box 8005, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA; e-mail: [email protected]

What is Social Media?

In today’s world social media is an ever-present facet of life that surrounds us. Almost every advertisement, whether television, radio, magazine, movie preview, podcast, newspaper, or elsewhere, will mention its social media presence in some way. ‘You can like us on Facebook, Check us out on Instagram,’ or perhaps ‘Watch our channel on YouTube’, are just some of the hooks that companies will provide to further build their brand and increase their visibility. As of January 2019, there were around 7.7 billion people in the world, of which 3.397 billion were active social media users (Smith 2019). Moreover, there are almost one million new users to some form of social media each day, or a new user every 10 seconds; 300 hours of video are uploaded to YouTube alone every minute (Smith 2019). To summarize, if you have found yourself boycotting the idea of social media, I hate to break it to you but it is here to stay.

The Underlying Purpose of Social Media

For those who do not know, a key theme of social media is ‘engagement’. Have you ever reached out to a company on their social media for any reason? The different social media outlets are simply interactive pathways on the internet that companies and businesses use to form relationships and network with others without leaving one’s desk. As a scientist, it is essential to attend conferences, give lectures, and lead panel discussions to network with others about common science interests. Today, there are an endless amount of resources accessible on the internet at your fingertips that allow you to do the same thing. Twitter first surfaced as a news and social networking site in which users post content and interact with each other through messages called ‘tweets’. The use of hashtags (a type of metadata tag) across all social media platforms allows people to search for certain interests and see all content related to that particular hashtag. This is a quick way to find and engage with people through common interests. Of course, you should still actively participate in your community by attending conventions and conferences, but if you truly seek to engage with more people, then you should not simply ignore the outlet of social media until you try it, as it can connect you with an even larger audience. Think of it this way, your lecture or discussion is most likely already being recorded, so what will you do with that recording?

Social media has a clear and direct purpose for businesses that sell a product or service and are searching for ways to advertise their brand. Of course, there other ways to use social media. Most people use social media to be, well, social, and communicate with family, former colleagues, or keep in touch with old classmates. The idea of a technological way of staying in touch with people is how Facebook was created. Facebook adds 500,000 new accounts each day, which equates to 6 new profiles every second (Smith 2019). So who exactly is in your friends list on Facebook? Who is subscribing to your channel on YouTube? Who is retweeting your tweets? If you want to broaden your impact beyond your discipline, you need to have a strong base of connections in your network.

The average person has 5.54 social media accounts (Smith 2019). Of those accounts, whatever one’s goal is, is it being projected across multiple platforms? Exactly who is engaged? These are all important questions that deal with your potential reach as an individual. The bottom line is if you seek community engagement in what you are doing, you must first be active in that particular community.

Social Media and Research

Now let us change course and focus on a different path of social media, that is where scientists use it to promote their research. The same rule applies. While all social media outlets have the potential for massive reach, it all comes back to a matter of whom you connect with or engage. However, the fast-paced and live aspect of social media can drive skeptical researchers not to publish, but successful reactions and quick responses can increase a researcher’s credibility. Research is about producing new information, and social media offers unique opportunities to present new content.

As a scientist, once you publish your research, you want to share it with as many colleagues and people so that they may read your novel findings. You want to share your hard work with many individuals. Almost all researchers send an email to their colleagues and individuals within their institution, which essentially is the first step in promoting their work. What if you took that one-step further and reached out to the scientific community on social media? You probably already have some form of a social media account and possibly one that relates to the scientific community; ResearchGate is a popular academic social media outlet. ResearchGate is a website that provides scientists with a forum to share and discuss their research as well as find collaborators. If you share your research on your personal account, then the only people that will see it are those whom you connect with. However, if you were active on different community or special interest pages that relate to your area of study and participate in regular discussions with other researchers on these sites, then you may find yourself having a much wider reach. Again, it all stems back to what you wish to accomplish with your research.

What Does that Mean for you?

Before getting started, you must ask yourself what exactly you want to gain from social media. If an increased reach is primarily what you seek, then you must be active in multiple communities related to your specialty. You already stay current on industry news and new research on your own, which is what others may be doing when they discover your research. However, if engagement and stimulated discussions are what you seek, then your active presence is required. Participating and driving discussions and posting content is what ultimately increases your visibility. Sharing and reposting others’ work, and being an active member on social media brings more attention to your profile and can enhance your reputation. A good place to start is with the professional social networking site LinkedIn that allows you to make connections with people based on job interests.

You can always go the old fashioned, tried and true route and send an email about your research, but how many new people reach out to you regarding your work? Maybe next time, try posting your research on a couple of industry pages, tag a few people in the community, and see if you make any new connections or spark any intriguing conversations. Because social media allows you to interact instantly with people across the globe, you may be surprised at who or how many people engage with you.

References Cited

Jaring, P., and Bäck, A. (2017). “How researchers use social media to promote their research and network with industry,”  Technology Information Management Review  7(8), 32-39. DOI: 10.22215/timreview/1098

Smith, K. (2019). “123 Amazing social media statistics and facts,”  brandwatch , (https://www.brandwatch.com/blog/amazing-social-media-statistics-and-facts/), Accessed 26 March 2019.

The Significance of Social Media in Shaping Students’ Academic Performance: Challenges, Benefits, and Quality Assurance Outlook

Najeem olawale adelakun matthew babatunde olajide mariam adenike shomoye kehinde lateef adebisi.

This study explores the tremendous influence of social media on students’ academic performance in an era dominated by digital globalisation. It looks into the intricate collaboration of challenges and benefits that comes with integrating social media into educational settings. As students surf platforms more frequently, a pertinent issue emerges: the potential for distraction and misinformation, both of which impede effective learning. This study stresses the importance of resolving privacy concerns associated with the use of these platforms, which may endanger the security of students’ data. At the same time, the study acknowledges the significance of social media in encouraging involvement, cooperation, and access to a massive store of educational resources. The dynamic impact of these platforms on academic endeavours is clear, necessitating a thorough examination of their implications. The study uses qualitative analysis and survey data from relevant literature to provide detailed insights into the elaborate procedures at work. The findings highlight the importance of balanced usage, suggesting the deliberate integration of social media while addressing its possible drawbacks. The study advocates for educational institutions to incorporate digital literacy training and privacy education on a proactive basis. Also, it stresses the importance of ongoing monitoring and evaluation to ensure that the benefits outweigh the challenges. Finally, the wise and appropriate use of social media may reframe and elevate students’ academic journeys.

Introduction

Social media has emerged as an innovative tool in modern education, impacting students’ academic achievement to a large extent. Platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube, on the other hand, have evolved beyond their initial purpose as communication tools, becoming conduits for learning and collaboration (Abbas et al., 2019; Adelakun & Omolola, 2020; Adelakun, 2023). This transition is fueled by students’ knowledge and comfort with these platforms, eroding the lines between formal education and informal digital connections.

—the wise and appropriate use of social media may reframe and elevate students' academic journeys—

As of January 2020, over 4.54 billion people were active internet users, accounting for roughly 59 percent of the global population, with 3.8 billion active social media users (Adelakun et al., 2020), whereas in April 2023, there were 5.18 billion internet users worldwide, accounting for roughly 64.6 percent of the global population, with 4.8 billion, or 59.9 percent of the world’s population, being social media users (Petrosyan, 2023; Sharma & Behl, 2022).

The overlapping of challenges, benefits, and prospects for quality assurance highlights the magnitude of this influence. As digital platforms dominate educational landscapes, it is essential to investigate how social media influences student performance, discuss the challenges it poses, leverage its benefits, and maintain thorough quality assurance processes. According to research conducted by Boahene et al. (2019) and Wakefield & Frawley (2020), students who frequently use Facebook perform worse academically. Ansari and Khan (2020) found that some types of social media engagement can improve learning outcomes, particularly when used for academic discussions and resource sharing.

The convergence of social media and academic performance raises interesting concerns concerning the relationship between these two seemingly unrelated phenomena. Is social media beneficial or detrimental to academic progress? How do students overcome the hurdles that these platforms present while reaping the benefits? What quality assurance measures are required to guarantee that the potential of social media corresponds with educational goals? These inquiries emphasise the complexities of the interaction between social media and students’ academic journeys.

Challenges of Social Media Usage on Academic Outcomes

Despite its potential, social media poses an array of challenges that can impede students’ academic growth. Among the major challenges are:

• Distraction and Time Management: Constant notifications, updates, and the appeal of irrelevant content can divert students’ attention away from academic duties, resulting in decreased focus and productivity.
• Information Overload: The vast amount of information available on social media can lead to information overload. Students may struggle to filter out relevant and accurate information from the noise, affecting their ability to discern credible sources and engage in critical thinking.
• Reduced Face-to-Face Interactions: Over-reliance on social media for communication can result in fewer face-to-face contacts among students. This can impede the development of interpersonal skills, which are essential in both situations.
• Privacy Concerns: Students are not always aware of the potential implications of sharing sensitive data, which can lead to data security and privacy issues.
• Negative Impact on Mental Health: Social media addiction can lead to feelings of loneliness, melancholy, anxiety, and a fear of missing out (FOMO).
• Misinformation and Fake News: Students may come across incorrect information, which may lead to errors or misinterpretations of academic content (Al-Sharqi & Hashim, 2016).
• Academic Integrity Concerns: Collaboration on social media platforms can occasionally blur the borders between ethical collaboration and academic dishonesty. Sharing answers or plagiarising content from online sources can jeopardise academic integrity.
• Multitasking and Cognitive Overload: Performing many things at the same time, such as studying while using social media, can result in cognitive overload. This can have an impact on learning quality, information retention, and overall academic success.
• Disruption of Sleep Patterns: Late-night social media use can disturb students’ sleep patterns, compromising their overall well-being and cognitive functioning during courses and tests.
• Addiction and Time Management: Excessive usage of social media may result in addiction-like behaviours, causing students to spend considerable amounts of time on these platforms at the detriment of academics.
• Equity and Access: Not all students have equal access to technology and reliable internet connections. This digital divide may result in differences in student learning experiences and opportunities.
• Boundary Between Personal and Academic Use: The incorporation of social media can sometimes obscure the distinction between personal and academic use. Students may struggle to categorise their online activities, making maintaining a healthy balance difficult (Dyson et al, 2015).

Benefits of Social Media Usage on Academic Outcomes:

The benefits of social networking in academic settings are compelling. It facilitates peer-to-peer contact and knowledge exchange, which promotes collaborative learning (Adelakun et al., 2022). Platforms like Twitter and discussion forums allow students to engage in asynchronous dialogues, clarifying doubts and collectively improving their comprehension. This active engagement corresponds to constructivist learning theories, which promote deeper knowledge (Al-Rahmi et al., 2021). Furthermore, social media allows students to communicate with educators outside of the classroom.

Students can seek quick explanations and engage in significant academic exchanges by participating in interactive sessions, Q&A sessions, and live discussions using platforms such as Instagram Live or Facebook Live. Such connections make learning easier and foster a sense of community (Chugh et al., 2020). Some of the key benefits include:

• Engagement and Collaboration: Online discussion boards, group chats, and collaborative projects allow students to communicate outside of the classroom, encouraging active participation and information sharing.
• Resource Sharing: It is easier to share educational resources, research findings, and timely publications. Platforms such as Twitter and LinkedIn allow students to follow experts in their industries, improving access to current information and various perspectives (Al-Adwan et al., 2020).
• Personalised Learning: It can be used to adapt learning experiences to individual interests. Algorithms and user data analysis enable the distribution of information that matches students’ interests and learning styles, supporting personalised learning pathways.
• Global Connections: It allows students to connect across geographic boundaries.

Quality Assurance Outlook

As social media becomes more interwoven into educational practices, quality assurance becomes increasingly important. Institutions require strong strategies to guarantee that social media use complies with educational aims and standards. A potential approach is to develop rules for safe social media use in academic settings. Educators can set a context for student participation by modelling appropriate behaviour and communication (Adelakun, 2022). Furthermore, universities can use learning analytics to track students’ social media participation patterns. Data-driven insights can assist instructors in identifying and intervening on potential concerns, such as excessive procrastination or disengagement. This proactive approach helps to retain academic rigour while also leveraging the benefits of social media.

Balancing the Equation

The relationship between social media usage and academic outcomes emphasises the significance of a balanced strategy. The benefits of using social media for education are enormous, but they must be used with caution. Educators and institutions have a vital role in leading students towards responsible social media usage and digital citizenship. Teaching digital literacy skills, critical thinking abilities, and time management tactics can all help to avoid potential traps. The use of social media to influence students’ academic performance poses both opportunities and challenges for educational quality assurance. Efforts to provide quality assurance attempt to ensure that educational standards are met and that students have a meaningful and valuable learning experience. Here, we explore the quality assurance outlook in relation to social media’s impact on students’ academic performance:

Challenges for Quality Assurance:

Figure 1: Challenges for Quality Assurance

• Ensuring Credible Sources: Quality assurance necessitates ensuring that the material published and discussed on social media platforms is correct and genuine. It is difficult to help students distinguish between genuine and false sources.
• Maintaining Academic Integrity: The collaborative aspect of social media might make maintaining academic honesty difficult. To ensure that student collaboration stays within ethical norms, proactive monitoring and rules are required.
• Managing Data Privacy: Integrating social media while preserving students’ data privacy is a major challenge. Institutions must guarantee that any student information disclosed on social media platforms complies with data protection laws.
• Balancing Engagement and Academic Rigour: Quality assurance initiatives must ensure that social media interaction matches the academic rigour of the curriculum.
• Addressing Equity and Access: The digital divide can impact the quality of the learning experience. Quality assurance efforts must consider strategies to ensure equitable access to social media-based learning for all students.

Opportunities for Quality Assurance

Figure 2: Opportunities for Quality Assurance

• Enhanced Engagement Monitoring: The digital gap can have an impact on the quality of learning. Quality assurance efforts must incorporate ways to guarantee that all students have equitable access to social media-based learning.
• Immediate Feedback: It allows educators to track students’ involvement and participation in online discussions and collaborative activities. These exchanges can be used by educators as signs of active learning and engagement.
• Peer Review and Assessment: It allows students and instructors to connect in real time. This allows for fast responses to inquiries, clarification of uncertainties, and ongoing assessment of student comprehension.
• Resource Sharing and Diversity: Sharing educational resources on social media can expand students’ learning experiences by exposing them to a variety of opinions, research findings, and learning materials. Educators’ sharing of high-quality resources contributes to higher-quality learning materials.
• Transparency and Accountability: It facilitates communication transparency. Because interactions and discussions are visible to students, classmates, and administrators, public platforms can increase accountability for delivering great education.

Strategies for Effective Quality Assurance

Figure 3: Strategies for Effective Quality Assurance

• Digital Literacy Education: Integrate digital literacy education to teach students how to critically evaluate material, engage responsibly online, and comprehend the implications of their online presence.
• Guidelines and Policies: Establish clear standards and policies for the use of social media in education, outlining expectations for both students and educators to guarantee responsible and ethical usage.
• Faculty Training: Provide educators with training on how to effectively integrate social media into the curriculum, assess student involvement, and use social media for quality improvement.
• Regular Assessment: Assess the impact of social media integration on students’ academic performance and general learning experience on a regular basis to discover areas for improvement.
• Privacy and Security Measures: Implement stringent privacy and security safeguards to protect students’ data and personal information.
• Feedback Mechanisms: Create systems for students to submit feedback on how social media is used in education, enabling continual development based on their experiences.

The dynamic interaction between social media and academic performance has significant consequences for modern education. Balancing the benefits and drawbacks of social media integration necessitates a planned approach that maximises collaboration potential while avoiding potential challenges. As education evolves in the digital age, it is essential to recognise that social media does not directly harm academic performance. Instead, it is a potent instrument that, when used wisely, can promote engagement, cooperation, and personalised learning experiences. As a result, the quality assurance perspective for incorporating social media into influencing students’ academic performance necessitates a proactive and balanced strategy. Educators may help students harness the promise of social media while accomplishing academic goals by understanding the dynamics at work and supporting ethical usage.

Recommendations for the Future

These recommendations serve as guiding beacons as we discuss the future consequences of social media integration in education. We can harness the innovative potential of technology to create meaningful, dynamic, and successful learning experiences for future generations by embracing the possibilities of social media while keeping strong in our commitment to quality, equity, and ethical considerations.

• Institutions should build an adaptation culture in order to keep up with the ever-changing social media world. This includes staying current on new platforms and trends.
• Improve digital literacy teaching so that students can access social media responsibly, critically evaluate content, and engage in courteous online interactions.
• Provide continual professional development for educators to improve their ability to properly integrate social media into the classroom.
• Promote research into the effects of social media integration on learning outcomes and engagement. The findings of the research will guide best practices and inform decisions.
• Address the digital divide by providing fair access to technology and stable internet connections for all students, allowing them to fully participate in social media-integrated learning.
• Investigate and implement collaborative platforms that correspond with educational objectives. Make certain that the platforms you choose prioritise privacy, security, and educational efficiency.
• Constantly design novel engagement techniques that take advantage of social media capabilities to retain student interest and participation.
• Create open avenues of communication for students and educators to share input on social media integration. Make informed modifications and improvements based on this feedback.
• Form alliances with social media firms and technology professionals to keep ahead of technological advances and harness their experience.
• Create and explain explicit ethical principles for educational social media use, emphasising responsible behaviour, privacy, and academic integrity.

Abbas , J.; Aman, J.; Nurunnabi, M.; Bano, S. (2019). The Impact of Social Media on Learning Behavior for Sustainable Education: Evidence of Students from Selected Universities in Pakistan. Sustainability, 11, 1683. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11061683

Adelakun, N. O. (2023, March 15). Impact of information and communication technology on students’ academic performance. Information Matters, Vol. 3, Issue 3. https://informationmatters.org/2023/03/impact-of-information-and-communication-technology-on-students-academic-performance. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4513208

Adelakun, N. O., Omolola, S. A., Mosaku, A. O. & Adebola, M. S. (2022). Empirical Study on Electronic Learning System: Benefits, Challenges and Prospects. International Journal of Science Education and Cultural Studies, Vol. 1, Issue 2, 109–199. https://doi.org/10.58291/ijsecs.v1i2.58

Adelakun , N. O. (2022), Impact of Digital Technology and The Need for Periodical Review of Educational Curriculum in Nigeria Tertiary Institutions, iKSP Journal of Computer Science and Engineering, Vol. 2, Issue 1, Pp 14-19. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6028709

Adelakun, N. O. & Omolola S. A. (2020), A Pragmatic Study on E-Learning System for Higher Education in Developing Countries, Proceedings of the 1st National Conference Nigerian Society of Engineer, Ilaro Branch, November 2020. Pp 14-20 https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.14702739.v1

Adelakun, N. O., Olanipekun, B. A. & Bakinde, S. A. (2020) Easy Approach to A Responsive Website Design Using Artisteer Application Software, International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science, Vol. 2, Issue 3. Pp 1-6, http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3930473 .

Al-Adwan , A., Albelbisi, N., Aladwan, S., Horani, O., Al-Madadha, A., & Khasawneh, M. (2020). Investigating the Impact of Social Media Use on Student’s Perception of Academic Performance in Higher Education: Evidence from Jordan.  J. Inf. Technol. Educ. Res. , 19, 953-975.  https://doi.org/10.28945/4661 .

Al-Rahmi, A., Shamsuddin, A., Alturki, U., Aldraiweesh, A., Yusof, F., Al-rahmi, W., & Aljeraiwi, A. (2021). The Influence of Information System Success and Technology Acceptance Model on Social Media Factors in Education. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13147770

Al-Sharqi, L., & Hashim, K. (2016). University Students’ Perceptions of Social Media as a Learning Tool.  Social media and society , 5, 65-88.

Ansari, J.A.N., Khan, N.A. (2020). Exploring the role of social media in collaborative learning the new domain of learning. Smart Learn. Environ. 7, 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-020-00118-7

Boahene, K., Fang, J., & Sampong, F. (2019). Social Media Usage and Tertiary Students’ Academic Performance: Examining the Influences of Academic Self-Efficacy and Innovation Characteristics.  Sustainability .  https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11082431 .

Chugh, R., Grose, R., & Macht, S. (2020). Social media usage by higher education academics: A scoping review of the literature.  Education and Information Technologies , 26, 983-999.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10288-z .

Dyson, B., Vickers, K., Turtle, J., Cowan, S., & Tassone, A. (2015). Evaluating the use of Facebook to increase student engagement and understanding in lecture-based classes.  Higher Education , 69, 303-313.  https://doi.org/10.1007/S10734-014-9776-3 .

Khan, T., Kend, M., & Robertson, S. (2016). Use of social media by university accounting students and its impact on learning outcomes.  Accounting Education , 25, 534 – 567.  https://doi.org/10.1080/09639284.2016.1230880 .

Petrosyan, A. (May 22, 2023).  Number of internet and social media users worldwide as of April 2023. https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide

Sharma, S., Behl, R. (2022). Analysing the Impact of Social Media on Students’ Academic Performance: A Comparative Study of Extraversion and Introversion Personality. Psychol Stud (Mysore). 67(4), 549-559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12646-022-00675-6 . 

Wakefield, J., & Frawley, J. (2020). How does students’ general academic achievement moderate the implications of social networking on specific levels of learning performance?. Comput. Educ. , 144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103694 .

Cite this article in APA as: Adelakun, N. O., Olajide, M. B., Shomoye, M. A., & Adebisi, K. L. The significance of social media in shaping students’ academic performance: challenges, benefits, and quality assurance outlook . (2023, August 22). Information Matters, Vol. 3, Issue 8. https://informationmatters.org/2023/08/the-significance-of-social-media-in-shaping-students-academic-performance-challenges-benefits-and-quality-assurance-outlook/

Engr. Najeem Olawale ADELAKUN is a career driven achiever with over Fifteen (15) years working experience in both industry and academic. He has served as a Craftsman, Technician, Electrical Engineer, Design Engineer, Lecturer, Reviewer, Editor, Facilitator, Instructor, Mentor, Website Designer, ICT Coordinator at various times in different organisations. He currently works at Federal College of Education Iwo, Osun State as an Engineer in the department of Works and Services. Engr. Adelakun current research interest are in various aspects of Electrical power system Engineering and information technology. He has authored and co-authored over fifty (50) publications in both local and international journals and conferences. Some of his published works are highly cited in both Scopus, Google scholar and in other academic field. He is serving as a member of editorial or reviewer board to over 40 Scopus/WOS/Elsevier journals, and also as a member of the technical, program, scientific and steering committee members at different times to over 10 international conferences. He is a COREN registered engineer, a fellow member of International Organization for Academic and Scientific Development (IOASD), and a member of several professional societies such as the Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE), Nigerian Institution of Electrical Electronics Engineering (NIEEE), The Nigerian Institution of Facility Engineering & Management (NIFEngM), Nigerian Institution of Professional Engineers and Scientists (NIPES), National Society of Black Engineers (NSBE), International Association of Educators and Researchers (IAER), Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), International Association of Electrical, Electronic and Energy Engineering (IAEEEE), International Society for Applied Computing (ISAC), Institute of Research Engineers and Doctors (IRED), Asian Council of Science Editors (ASCE), among others. He is currently the National Publicity Secretary to Nigerian Institution of Facility Engineering and Management (NIFEngM), an active member of Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE) Ilaro Branch, and has contributed immensely in different capacities such as: The collation/uploading of NSE Ilaro Branch 1st National conference proceeding on the branch website in 2020, he single-handedly designed E-Voting system for Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE) Ilaro Branch in 2020 which he also served as a member of the Electoral Committee of the Branch during the AGM/branch election, in 2022 he also designed E-Voting system and also served as the secretary to the Electoral Committee during the AGM/branch election, also designed NSE Ilaro Branch e-data collation form for the newly inductee corporate members just to mention a few.

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Home » Significance of the Study – Examples and Writing Guide

Significance of the Study – Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Significance of the Study

Definition:

Significance of the study in research refers to the potential importance, relevance, or impact of the research findings. It outlines how the research contributes to the existing body of knowledge, what gaps it fills, or what new understanding it brings to a particular field of study.

In general, the significance of a study can be assessed based on several factors, including:

• Originality : The extent to which the study advances existing knowledge or introduces new ideas and perspectives.
• Practical relevance: The potential implications of the study for real-world situations, such as improving policy or practice.
• Theoretical contribution: The extent to which the study provides new insights or perspectives on theoretical concepts or frameworks.
• Methodological rigor : The extent to which the study employs appropriate and robust methods and techniques to generate reliable and valid data.
• Social or cultural impact : The potential impact of the study on society, culture, or public perception of a particular issue.

Types of Significance of the Study

The significance of the Study can be divided into the following types:

Theoretical Significance

Theoretical significance refers to the contribution that a study makes to the existing body of theories in a specific field. This could be by confirming, refuting, or adding nuance to a currently accepted theory, or by proposing an entirely new theory.

Practical Significance

Practical significance refers to the direct applicability and usefulness of the research findings in real-world contexts. Studies with practical significance often address real-life problems and offer potential solutions or strategies. For example, a study in the field of public health might identify a new intervention that significantly reduces the spread of a certain disease.

Significance for Future Research

This pertains to the potential of a study to inspire further research. A study might open up new areas of investigation, provide new research methodologies, or propose new hypotheses that need to be tested.

How to Write Significance of the Study

Here’s a guide to writing an effective “Significance of the Study” section in research paper, thesis, or dissertation:

• Background : Begin by giving some context about your study. This could include a brief introduction to your subject area, the current state of research in the field, and the specific problem or question your study addresses.
• Identify the Gap : Demonstrate that there’s a gap in the existing literature or knowledge that needs to be filled, which is where your study comes in. The gap could be a lack of research on a particular topic, differing results in existing studies, or a new problem that has arisen and hasn’t yet been studied.
• State the Purpose of Your Study : Clearly state the main objective of your research. You may want to state the purpose as a solution to the problem or gap you’ve previously identified.
• Contributes to the existing body of knowledge.
• Addresses a significant research gap.
• Offers a new or better solution to a problem.
• Impacts policy or practice.
• Leads to improvements in a particular field or sector.
• Identify Beneficiaries : Identify who will benefit from your study. This could include other researchers, practitioners in your field, policy-makers, communities, businesses, or others. Explain how your findings could be used and by whom.
• Future Implications : Discuss the implications of your study for future research. This could involve questions that are left open, new questions that have been raised, or potential future methodologies suggested by your study.

Significance of the Study in Research Paper

The Significance of the Study in a research paper refers to the importance or relevance of the research topic being investigated. It answers the question “Why is this research important?” and highlights the potential contributions and impacts of the study.

The significance of the study can be presented in the introduction or background section of a research paper. It typically includes the following components:

• Importance of the research problem: This describes why the research problem is worth investigating and how it relates to existing knowledge and theories.
• Potential benefits and implications: This explains the potential contributions and impacts of the research on theory, practice, policy, or society.
• Originality and novelty: This highlights how the research adds new insights, approaches, or methods to the existing body of knowledge.
• Scope and limitations: This outlines the boundaries and constraints of the research and clarifies what the study will and will not address.

Suppose a researcher is conducting a study on the “Effects of social media use on the mental health of adolescents”.

The significance of the study may be:

“The present study is significant because it addresses a pressing public health issue of the negative impact of social media use on adolescent mental health. Given the widespread use of social media among this age group, understanding the effects of social media on mental health is critical for developing effective prevention and intervention strategies. This study will contribute to the existing literature by examining the moderating factors that may affect the relationship between social media use and mental health outcomes. It will also shed light on the potential benefits and risks of social media use for adolescents and inform the development of evidence-based guidelines for promoting healthy social media use among this population. The limitations of this study include the use of self-reported measures and the cross-sectional design, which precludes causal inference.”

Significance of the Study In Thesis

The significance of the study in a thesis refers to the importance or relevance of the research topic and the potential impact of the study on the field of study or society as a whole. It explains why the research is worth doing and what contribution it will make to existing knowledge.

For example, the significance of a thesis on “Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare” could be:

• With the increasing availability of healthcare data and the development of advanced machine learning algorithms, AI has the potential to revolutionize the healthcare industry by improving diagnosis, treatment, and patient outcomes. Therefore, this thesis can contribute to the understanding of how AI can be applied in healthcare and how it can benefit patients and healthcare providers.
• AI in healthcare also raises ethical and social issues, such as privacy concerns, bias in algorithms, and the impact on healthcare jobs. By exploring these issues in the thesis, it can provide insights into the potential risks and benefits of AI in healthcare and inform policy decisions.
• Finally, the thesis can also advance the field of computer science by developing new AI algorithms or techniques that can be applied to healthcare data, which can have broader applications in other industries or fields of research.

Significance of the Study in Research Proposal

The significance of a study in a research proposal refers to the importance or relevance of the research question, problem, or objective that the study aims to address. It explains why the research is valuable, relevant, and important to the academic or scientific community, policymakers, or society at large. A strong statement of significance can help to persuade the reviewers or funders of the research proposal that the study is worth funding and conducting.

Here is an example of a significance statement in a research proposal:

Title : The Effects of Gamification on Learning Programming: A Comparative Study

Significance Statement:

This proposed study aims to investigate the effects of gamification on learning programming. With the increasing demand for computer science professionals, programming has become a fundamental skill in the computer field. However, learning programming can be challenging, and students may struggle with motivation and engagement. Gamification has emerged as a promising approach to improve students’ engagement and motivation in learning, but its effects on programming education are not yet fully understood. This study is significant because it can provide valuable insights into the potential benefits of gamification in programming education and inform the development of effective teaching strategies to enhance students’ learning outcomes and interest in programming.

Examples of Significance of the Study

Here are some examples of the significance of a study that indicates how you can write this into your research paper according to your research topic:

Research on an Improved Water Filtration System : This study has the potential to impact millions of people living in water-scarce regions or those with limited access to clean water. A more efficient and affordable water filtration system can reduce water-borne diseases and improve the overall health of communities, enabling them to lead healthier, more productive lives.

Study on the Impact of Remote Work on Employee Productivity : Given the shift towards remote work due to recent events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, this study is of considerable significance. Findings could help organizations better structure their remote work policies and offer insights on how to maximize employee productivity, wellbeing, and job satisfaction.

Investigation into the Use of Solar Power in Developing Countries : With the world increasingly moving towards renewable energy, this study could provide important data on the feasibility and benefits of implementing solar power solutions in developing countries. This could potentially stimulate economic growth, reduce reliance on non-renewable resources, and contribute to global efforts to combat climate change.

Research on New Learning Strategies in Special Education : This study has the potential to greatly impact the field of special education. By understanding the effectiveness of new learning strategies, educators can improve their curriculum to provide better support for students with learning disabilities, fostering their academic growth and social development.

Examination of Mental Health Support in the Workplace : This study could highlight the impact of mental health initiatives on employee wellbeing and productivity. It could influence organizational policies across industries, promoting the implementation of mental health programs in the workplace, ultimately leading to healthier work environments.

Evaluation of a New Cancer Treatment Method : The significance of this study could be lifesaving. The research could lead to the development of more effective cancer treatments, increasing the survival rate and quality of life for patients worldwide.

When to Write Significance of the Study

The Significance of the Study section is an integral part of a research proposal or a thesis. This section is typically written after the introduction and the literature review. In the research process, the structure typically follows this order:

• Title – The name of your research.
• Abstract – A brief summary of the entire research.
• Introduction – A presentation of the problem your research aims to solve.
• Literature Review – A review of existing research on the topic to establish what is already known and where gaps exist.
• Significance of the Study – An explanation of why the research matters and its potential impact.

In the Significance of the Study section, you will discuss why your study is important, who it benefits, and how it adds to existing knowledge or practice in your field. This section is your opportunity to convince readers, and potentially funders or supervisors, that your research is valuable and worth undertaking.

Advantages of Significance of the Study

The Significance of the Study section in a research paper has multiple advantages:

• Establishes Relevance: This section helps to articulate the importance of your research to your field of study, as well as the wider society, by explicitly stating its relevance. This makes it easier for other researchers, funders, and policymakers to understand why your work is necessary and worth supporting.
• Guides the Research: Writing the significance can help you refine your research questions and objectives. This happens as you critically think about why your research is important and how it contributes to your field.
• Attracts Funding: If you are seeking funding or support for your research, having a well-written significance of the study section can be key. It helps to convince potential funders of the value of your work.
• Opens up Further Research: By stating the significance of the study, you’re also indicating what further research could be carried out in the future, based on your work. This helps to pave the way for future studies and demonstrates that your research is a valuable addition to the field.
• Provides Practical Applications: The significance of the study section often outlines how the research can be applied in real-world situations. This can be particularly important in applied sciences, where the practical implications of research are crucial.
• Enhances Understanding: This section can help readers understand how your study fits into the broader context of your field, adding value to the existing literature and contributing new knowledge or insights.

Limitations of Significance of the Study

The Significance of the Study section plays an essential role in any research. However, it is not without potential limitations. Here are some that you should be aware of:

• Subjectivity: The importance and implications of a study can be subjective and may vary from person to person. What one researcher considers significant might be seen as less critical by others. The assessment of significance often depends on personal judgement, biases, and perspectives.
• Predictability of Impact: While you can outline the potential implications of your research in the Significance of the Study section, the actual impact can be unpredictable. Research doesn’t always yield the expected results or have the predicted impact on the field or society.
• Difficulty in Measuring: The significance of a study is often qualitative and can be challenging to measure or quantify. You can explain how you think your research will contribute to your field or society, but measuring these outcomes can be complex.
• Possibility of Overstatement: Researchers may feel pressured to amplify the potential significance of their study to attract funding or interest. This can lead to overstating the potential benefits or implications, which can harm the credibility of the study if these results are not achieved.
• Overshadowing of Limitations: Sometimes, the significance of the study may overshadow the limitations of the research. It is important to balance the potential significance with a thorough discussion of the study’s limitations.
• Dependence on Successful Implementation: The significance of the study relies on the successful implementation of the research. If the research process has flaws or unexpected issues arise, the anticipated significance might not be realized.

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• Social Media Use in 2021

A majority of Americans say they use YouTube and Facebook, while use of Instagram, Snapchat and TikTok is especially common among adults under 30.

Table of contents.

• Acknowledgments
• Methodology

To better understand Americans’ use of social media, online platforms and messaging apps, Pew Research Center surveyed 1,502 U.S. adults from Jan. 25 to Feb. 8, 2021, by cellphone and landline phone. The survey was conducted by interviewers under the direction of Abt Associates and is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, education and other categories. Here are the  questions used for this report , along with responses, and  its methodology .

Despite a string of controversies and the public’s relatively negative sentiments about aspects of social media, roughly seven-in-ten Americans say they ever use any kind of social media site – a share that has remained relatively stable over the past five years, according to a new Pew Research Center survey of U.S. adults.

Beyond the general question of overall social media use, the survey also covers use of individual sites and apps. YouTube and Facebook continue to dominate the online landscape, with 81% and 69%, respectively, reporting ever using these sites. And YouTube and Reddit were the only two platforms measured that saw statistically significant growth since 2019 , when the Center last polled on this topic via a phone survey.

When it comes to the other platforms in the survey, 40% of adults say they ever use Instagram and about three-in-ten report using Pinterest or LinkedIn. One-quarter say they use Snapchat, and similar shares report being users of Twitter or WhatsApp. TikTok – an app for sharing short videos – is used by 21% of Americans, while 13% say they use the neighborhood-focused platform Nextdoor.

Even as other platforms do not nearly match the overall reach of YouTube or Facebook, there are certain sites or apps, most notably Instagram, Snapchat and TikTok, that have an especially strong following among young adults. In fact, a majority of 18- to 29-year-olds say they use Instagram (71%) or Snapchat (65%), while roughly half say the same for TikTok.

These findings come from a nationally representative survey of 1,502 U.S. adults conducted via telephone Jan. 25-Feb.8, 2021.

With the exception of YouTube and Reddit, most platforms show little growth since 2019

YouTube is the most commonly used online platform asked about in this survey, and there’s evidence that its reach is growing. Fully 81% of Americans say they ever use the video-sharing site, up from 73% in 2019. Reddit was the only other platform polled about that experienced statistically significant growth during this time period – increasing from 11% in 2019 to 18% today. 

Facebook’s growth has leveled off over the last five years, but it remains one of the most widely used social media sites among adults in the United States: 69% of adults today say they ever use the site, equaling the share who said this two years prior.  

Similarly, the respective shares of Americans who report using Instagram, Pinterest, LinkedIn, Snapchat, Twitter and WhatsApp are statistically unchanged since 2019 . This represents a broader trend that extends beyond the past two years in which the rapid adoption of most of these sites and apps seen in the last decade has slowed. (This was the first year the Center asked about TikTok via a phone poll and the first time it has surveyed about Nextdoor.)

Adults under 30 stand out for their use of Instagram, Snapchat and TikTok

When asked about their social media use more broadly – rather than their use of specific platforms – 72% of Americans say they ever use social media sites.

In a pattern consistent with past Center studies on social media use, there are some stark age differences. Some 84% of adults ages 18 to 29 say they ever use any social media sites, which is similar to the share of those ages 30 to 49 who say this (81%). By comparison, a somewhat smaller share of those ages 50 to 64 (73%) say they use social media sites, while fewer than half of those 65 and older (45%) report doing this.

These age differences generally extend to use of specific platforms, with younger Americans being more likely than their older counterparts to use these sites – though the gaps between younger and older Americans vary across platforms.

Majorities of 18- to 29-year-olds say they use Instagram or Snapchat and about half say they use TikTok, with those on the younger end of this cohort – ages 18 to 24 – being especially likely to report using Instagram (76%), Snapchat (75%) or TikTok (55%). 1 These shares stand in stark contrast to those in older age groups. For instance, while 65% of adults ages 18 to 29 say they use Snapchat, just 2% of those 65 and older report using the app – a difference of 63 percentage points.

Additionally, a vast majority of adults under the age of 65 say they use YouTube. Fully 95% of those 18 to 29 say they use the platform, along with 91% of those 30 to 49 and 83% of adults 50 to 64. However, this share drops substantially – to 49% – among those 65 and older.

By comparison, age gaps between the youngest and oldest Americans are narrower for Facebook. Fully 70% of those ages 18 to 29 say they use the platform, and those shares are statistically the same for those ages 30 to 49 (77%) or ages 50 to 64 (73%). Half of those 65 and older say they use the site – making Facebook and YouTube the two most used platforms among this older population.

Other sites and apps stand out for their demographic differences:

• Instagram: About half of Hispanic (52%) and Black Americans (49%) say they use the platform, compared with smaller shares of White Americans (35%) who say the same. 2
• WhatsApp: Hispanic Americans (46%) are far more likely to say they use WhatsApp than Black (23%) or White Americans (16%). Hispanics also stood out for their WhatsApp use in the Center’s previous surveys on this topic.
• LinkedIn: Those with higher levels of education are again more likely than those with lower levels of educational attainment to report being LinkedIn users. Roughly half of adults who have a bachelor’s or advanced degree (51%) say they use LinkedIn, compared with smaller shares of those with some college experience (28%) and those with a high school diploma or less (10%).
• Pinterest: Women continue to be far more likely than men to say they use Pinterest when compared with male counterparts, by a difference of 30 points (46% vs. 16%).
• Nextdoor: There are large differences in use of this platform by community type. Adults living in urban (17%) or suburban (14%) areas are more likely to say they use Nextdoor. Just 2% of rural Americans report using the site.

A majority of Facebook, Snapchat and Instagram users say they visit these platforms on a daily basis

While there has been much written about Americans’ changing relationship with Facebook , its users remain quite active on the platform. Seven-in-ten Facebook users say they use the site daily, including 49% who say they use the site several times a day. (These figures are statistically unchanged from those reported in the Center’s 2019 survey about social media use.)  

Smaller shares – though still a majority – of Snapchat or Instagram users report visiting these respective platforms daily (59% for both). And being active on these sites is especially common for younger users. For instance, 71% of Snapchat users ages 18 to 29 say they use the app daily, including six-in-ten who say they do this multiple times a day. The pattern is similar for Instagram: 73% of 18- to 29-year-old Instagram users say they visit the site every day, with roughly half (53%) reporting they do so several times per day.

YouTube is used daily by 54% if its users, with 36% saying they visit the site several times a day. By comparison, Twitter is used less frequently, with fewer than half of its users (46%) saying they visit the site daily.

• Due to a limited sample size, figures for those ages 25 to 29 cannot be reported on separately. ↩
• There were not enough Asian American respondents in the sample to be broken out into a separate analysis. As always, their responses are incorporated into the general population figures throughout this report. ↩

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Home / 2024 / May / Researchers explain social media’s role in rapidly shifting social norms on gender and sexuality

Researchers explain social media’s role in rapidly shifting social norms on gender and sexuality

May 29, 2024

By Allison Arteaga Soergel

A new paper summarizing decades of research demonstrates how social media has supported an explosion of diversity in gender and sexuality in America during the 21st Century, and also how these technologies have equally enabled a cultural backlash. 

The paper’s authors, UC Santa Cruz Psychology Department faculty members Phil Hammack and Adriana Manago, identified five main narratives about gender and sexuality that they believe emerged through social media as people have strived to be “authentic” on these platforms. The findings, along with resulting recommendations for psychology researchers and practitioners, were published in American Psychologist , the flagship research journal of the American Psychological Association.

Since its inception, social media has essentially reversed the flow of information in American society, challenging traditional sources of authority and empowering individuals to create and share information for themselves, the paper says. The formats and customs of social media especially encourage self-expression and “authenticity,” or sharing your inner experience. Online connectivity also removes geographic barriers to finding other like-minded individuals. 

Together, these conditions set the stage perfectly for new cultural norms to emerge, the paper’s authors argue. Manago, an associate professor of psychology who studies how communication technology shapes human development, explained that the team’s theory runs directly counter to “social contagion theory.”

“We’ve seen so much change so quickly in things like pronouns and sexual orientation that people have been hungry for an explanation, and as a result, social contagion theory is this very harmful idea that has become popular, despite not being backed by good evidence,” she said. 

“Social contagion theory argues that adolescents are going online and seeing that expressing yourself as having an LGBTQ+ identity is cool and popular, so they are conforming to a popular notion outside of themselves,” Manago continued. “Our paper argues the opposite. The diversity that we’re seeing now was always there, but the dominant cultural paradigms previously masked it. Now, new communications tools are bringing it to light by promoting and enabling authenticity.”

New cultural narratives of gender and sexuality  

Among the new cultural narratives that researchers say have emerged from online authenticity is the concept of gender as self-constructed, meaning that there can be a difference between sex assigned at birth and a person’s gender identity or expression. For example, research shows that Tumblr blogs have helped transgender people navigate the gender affirmation process, and TikTok has become a central resource for youth who are questioning their own gender or sexuality to explore identities and connect with others.

Hammack, a psychology professor and expert on generational differences in gender and sexuality, emphasizes that people are using social media as a tool to better understand complexities around gender identity that they already feel within themselves. 

“We have to remember that, with social media, an algorithm responds to the person,” he said. “So if you’re starting to question your gender, you’re going to look for related content, and then the algorithm affirms that, but you are still the active agent who is on social media liking things. That agency sometimes gets downplayed when we talk about the influence of social media.”

Another narrative that has gained traction on social media is the idea that sexuality is plural, playful, flexible, and fluid. One aspect of this is the possibility for attraction to multiple genders. For example, research that used the Craigslist personals section to recruit participants has bolstered new understandings of bisexuality among men and has also shown that some people who identify as straight still seek same-sex contact. Meanwhile, Tumblr helped to popularize the pansexual identity. And new social networking websites for people with fetishes have increased acceptance of a wider variety of sexual practices.  

Some modern online narratives also present sexuality and monogamy as cultural compulsions, rather than biological ones. For example, asexuality has become an accepted identity for those who feel little or no sexual attraction, with help from a website that challenged traditional pathologizing views. And new dating apps have been developed specifically to support forms of consensual nonmonogamy that are gaining public visibility. 

Intersectionality has become a key part of many online narratives too, such as the #SayHerName campaign on Twitter, which sought to draw attention to state-sanctioned violence against Black cisgender and transgender women alike. New terminologies and forms of identity have also developed on Tumblr that increasingly recognize how gender and sexuality intersect with each other, and these concepts have spilled over onto platforms like Twitter, now called X, and TikTok.

But not all online narratives that seek to convey authenticity in gender and sexuality promote diversity. A transphobic, homophobic, and misogynistic backlash has also spread through social media technology, sometimes resulting in real-world violence. One example is how Reddit and TikTok have spread “incel” or “involuntary celibate” ideology that views both women’s equality and sexual and gender diversity as threats to masculinity.  

“These reactionary forces that are being destabilized from their dominant position in society are also using authenticity narratives about being a ‘real man’ to spread their views, and they’re claiming that all of these other narratives are false,” Manago explained. “So authenticity is a central concept in all of the narratives on gender and sexuality that we see emerge through these platforms, regardless of whether they’re progressive or regressive.”

Recommendations for psychologists

Based on their findings, the paper’s authors offer several recommendations. Psychology researchers and practitioners should start by grounding their work in people’s lived experiences, the paper says. That could include counselors making sure they stay up to date on new popular terminology around gender and sexuality and researchers asking more open-ended questions and offering write-in options for collecting information about gender and sexuality.  

The team also recommends approaching emerging forms of identity with affirmation, rather than suspicion and focusing on the phenomena of sexual and gender diversity more so than individual identity labels, which inevitably always leave someone out. The paper advises that social change on these issues is fluid and nonlinear, and the current context is not necessarily one of “achievement” for rights and recognition, as evidenced by regressive authenticity narratives that have spread alongside progressive ones. 

Hammack and Manago ultimately encourage psychologists to continue challenging normative thinking, both around sexuality and gender and around social media’s role in identity formation. They say social media is neither a source of youth corruption nor a cure-all for advancing acceptance and equity. Instead, meaningful cultural change that starts on social media should result in new resources and support in our geographic communities. 

“If community spaces and educational spaces don’t keep pace with these changes, that can become dangerous, because young people will continue to turn to social media, and they may lose confidence in other sources of authority, like teachers and parents, who they see as being socially behind the times,” Hammack said. “As adults, the responsible thing is for us to acknowledge that we live in a time of great change on gender and sexuality and to find ways to integrate new perspectives into education, our communities, and our families, so that young people don’t experience isolation and don’t lose confidence in us.” 

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Last modified: May 29, 2024 128.114.113.82

More than just social media use may be causing depression in young adults, study shows

Over the past few decades, there has been a significant increase in the prevalence of depression in adolescents and young adults -- and a simultaneous uptick in the inclusion of technology and social media in everyday life. However, it is unclear how exactly social media use and depression are associated and relate to other behaviors, such as physical activity, green space exposure, cannabis use and eveningness (the tendency to stay up late).

In a study published May 15 in the International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction , a team of researchers, led by experts at Johns Hopkins Children's Center, investigated the association among social media use, depression and other health-related behaviors of young adults over time.

"Research shows that when social media use is high, depression is also high. But the question is -- is that because social media caused that person to be depressed? Or is it because people who are depressed tend to also use social media more, and spend less time exercising and being in green spaces? That is what we wanted to understand," says Carol Vidal, M.D., Ph.D., M.P.H., the first author of the study, a child and adolescent psychiatrist at Johns Hopkins Children's Center and an assistant professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.

In their study, 376 young adults in Canada (82.4% women) were asked to complete three online questionnaires between May 2021 and January 2022. At each point, participants self-reported depressive symptoms based on the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) -- a nine-item scale that is commonly used to measure depression -- as well as social media use, greenspace exposure, physical activity and cannabis use.

The researchers found that most study participants had at least mild depressive symptoms. Findings showed that participants who had higher social media use tended to be more depressed, and people who were more depressed also tended to use social media more. However, researchers found that social media use did not cause an increase or decrease in depressive symptom levels over time.

"We found that if you tended to be a person who was depressed, you were a person also spending more time on social media," explains Vidal.

Researchers also found that higher levels of social media use and higher levels of depressive symptoms were associated with lower levels of green space exposure. In addition, cannabis use and higher eveningness were also associated with higher depressive levels.

The study authors say these results show social media use and depression are associated, but do not provide evidence that greater social media use predicts an increase in depressive symptoms over time. The team also says these findings indicate people who suffer from depression should be cautious about the amount of time they spend on social media and should be encouraged to incorporate other healthy habits into their lifestyle.

"Being indoors and not exercising, staying up late and using cannabis has its risks," says Vidal. "It is important for providers to educate patients and for parents to instill healthy habits in their kids -- having a balance of moderate social media use and other outdoor activities and exercise is what people should strive for in today's digital age."

Vidal and other investigators believe there are many aspects to social media, and there are important next steps to learn more about its impact on the mental health of people of all ages, including younger children and adolescents.

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Story Source:

Materials provided by Johns Hopkins Medicine . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Carol Vidal, Frederick L. Philippe, Marie-Claude Geoffroy, Vincent Paquin. The Role of Social Media Use and Associated Risk and Protective Behaviors on Depression in Youth Adults: A Longitudinal and Network Perspective . International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction , 2024; DOI: 10.1007/s11469-024-01313-0

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Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

 Famous Case Studies

• Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
• Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
• Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
• Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
• Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

• Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
• Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
• Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

• Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
• Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
• Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

• Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
• Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
• Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
• Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
• Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
• Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

• Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
• Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
• Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

• News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
• Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
• Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
• Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

• Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
• Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
• School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

• Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
• Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

• Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
• Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
• Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
• Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
• Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
• Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

• Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
• Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
• For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

• Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
• Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
• Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
• Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

• Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
• References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
• Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895).  Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head.  Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868).  Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head .  Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2  (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972).  Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

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Screen time not the main factor making parent-child interactions worse, study finds.

Which is worse for parent-child interaction, if parents use their phones, or if they are distracted otherwise? A team of researchers investigated if the common perception that screens are bad for parent-child interactions holds. They found it does, but also that screens are no worse than other forms of distraction. Instead, it might be distraction in itself that has detrimental effects on parents’ communication with their toddlers.

Technology use is at an all-time high and understanding how this impacts daily life is crucial. When it comes to parent-child interactions, scientists have coined the term ‘technoference,’ meaning technology interference. It occurs when parent-child interaction and communication are disrupted by the use of digital devices.

But is distraction caused by digital devices more detrimental to parent-child interaction than when parental distraction comes from different sources? Researchers in Switzerland have investigated.

“In this study, we show that when parents are distracted, the quality and quantity of parent-child interaction is impaired compared to when parents are not being distracted,” said Prof Nevena Dimitrova, a researcher at the University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland and principal investigator of the study published in Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry . “This was regardless of if that distraction came from a digital or a non-digital activity.”

Screening distraction

Although the negative impact of parents being distracted by their phones while around their children has been established, less is known about whether these negative effects come from the fact that the parent uses a screen or from the fact that the parent is distracted in general.

To fill this gap, the team around Dimitrova tasked 50 parent-child pairs, in which children were 22 months old on average, to play together for 10 minutes. Participant pairs were divided in three groups. In the first group, there was no disruption. In the second group, after five minutes of play, the parent was given a questionnaire to fill out on paper, whereas in the third group, also after five minutes, the parent was instructed to fill out the same questionnaire using a tablet. Parents that filled out the questionnaire were instructed to continue interacting with their children.

The researchers found that parents who filled out the questionnaire were less sensitive to children’s communication signals, and that children showed lower levels of social involvement towards their parents.

Technoference, however, did not affect parent-child interactions more negatively than non-digital distractions. Instead, all distraction, regardless of whether it was caused by screens or pen and paper, had negative effects on parents, children, and pairs. “We interpret this finding—that was equally surprising for us—as the possibility that screens are so ubiquitous nowadays that young children might be becoming used to the reality of seeing their parents use screens,” said Dimitrova.

Regardless of their findings, the researchers stressed that parent-child interaction is at its best when parents are not distracted at all. This might be especially important for parents who find it difficult to bond with their children.

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Curbing a ‘moral panic’

In the media, mostly alarmistic messages about the risks of screen use are discussed, said the researchers. However, research does not support the thesis that screen use by or in the presence of children is exclusively bad. For example, positive effects of screens on child psychological development have been shown in previous research.

“This study shows how important it is to rely on scientific evidence rather that public opinion about screen use. We see that it’s not screens per se that are detrimental to the quality of parent-child interaction,” concluded Dimitrova. “Instead, it seems to be the fact that the parent is not fully engaged in the interaction that negatively impacts parent-child communication.”

The researchers, however, also pointed out that it is difficult to make definitive statements about parental screen use based on one study alone. This is partly because everyday parent-child interaction differs from the experimental set-up. For example, the ways in which parents use screen while around their children cannot always be replicated fully. Studies in naturalistic context are needed and might lead to different results, the scientists noted.

REPUBLISHING GUIDELINES: Open access and sharing research is part of Frontiers’ mission . Unless otherwise noted, you can republish articles posted in the Frontiers news site — as long as you include a link back to the original research. Selling the articles is not allowed.

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May 21, 2024

Deborah Pirchner

Post categories, featured news, related subjects, social sciences, frontiers in child and adolescent psychiatry, related content.

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