what is the purpose of neuroscience research

What Is Neuroscience?

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Neuroscience examines the structure and function of the human brain and nervous system. Neuroscientists use cellular and molecular biology, anatomy and physiology, human behavior and cognition , and other disciplines, to map the brain at a mechanistic level.

Humans have an estimated hundred billion neurons, or brain cells, each with about a thousand connections to other cells. One of the great challenges of modern neuroscience is to map out all the networks of cell-to-cell communication—the brain circuits that process all thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. The resulting picture, emerging bit by bit, is known as "the connectome." The ability of the brain to elaborate new connections and neuronal circuits—neuroplasticity—underlies all learning.

Biology and psychology unite in the field of neuroscience, to tackle questions such as the brain’s role in pain perception or the underlying cause of Parkinson’s disease. Computer simulations, imaging, and other tools give researchers and medical experts new insight into the physical anatomy of the brain, its five million kilometers of wiring, and its relationship to the rest of the mind and body.

Just as computers are hard-wired with electrical connections, the brain is hard-wired with neural connections. These connections link together its various lobes and also link sensory input and motor output with the brain’s message centers, allowing information to come in and be sent back out.

One major aim of current neuroscience research, then, is to study how this wiring works and what happens when it's damaged. New developments in brain scanning allow researchers to see more detailed images and determine not only where there may be damage but also how that damage affects, for instance, motor skills and cognitive behavior in conditions like multiple sclerosis and dementia .

A rapidly expanding discipline, neuroscience findings have grown by leaps and bounds over the past half-century. More work, however, will always be needed to fully understand the neural roots of human behavior, consciousness, and memory .

Here is your chance to improve your child's outlook for the new school term by promoting motivation and perseverance for a bright start.

Election anxiety? If your brain is on fire from stress, step away from your devices, harness your attention, drop into your breath, and practice self-soothing.

Why is instant communication with virtually anyone on the planet so anxiety-provoking? Electronic communication fails our evolved social needs and triggers helplessness instead.

There are competing theories regarding the extent to which emotions are innate, hard-wired, and universal vs. constructed by high-level cognitive processes, experience, and culture.

Complications of hoarding disorder are explored, including cognitive dysfunction, emotional dysregulation, social isolation, physical health risks, and poor insight.

Motion aftereffects have been known since the time of Aristotle. New research sheds light on the role of attention in modulating the motion aftereffect.

After winning, both men and women experience a surge in testosterone and a spurt of happiness, as other vertebrates seem to do.

Understanding the role of glial cells in the formation of plaques and tangles in the brain may lead to therapies to slow or arrest AD.

Scientists disagree on whether the cerebral cortex—the more evolved part of the brain—is necessary for conscious emotional experience, and indeed for consciousness itself.

Meet Dr. Heather Hansen, a stand-out in misophonia research. Understand how she expanded what a trigger sound is, and found neural evidence to back up her results.

• Find a Therapist
• Find a Treatment Center
• Find a Psychiatrist
• Find a Support Group
• Find Online Therapy
• United States
• Brooklyn, NY
• Chicago, IL
• Houston, TX
• Los Angeles, CA
• New York, NY
• Portland, OR
• San Diego, CA
• San Francisco, CA
• Seattle, WA
• Washington, DC
• Asperger's
• Bipolar Disorder
• Chronic Pain
• Eating Disorders
• Passive Aggression
• Personality
• Goal Setting
• Positive Psychology
• Stopping Smoking
• Low Sexual Desire
• Relationships
• Child Development
• Self Tests NEW
• Therapy Center
• Diagnosis Dictionary
• Types of Therapy

It’s increasingly common for someone to be diagnosed with a condition such as ADHD or autism as an adult. A diagnosis often brings relief, but it can also come with as many questions as answers.

• Emotional Intelligence
• Gaslighting
• Affective Forecasting
• Neuroscience

Georgetown University Medical Center

About Neuroscience

What is neuroscience.

neu·ro·sci·ence ˌn(y)o͝orōˈsīəns/ noun

any or all of the sciences, such as neurochemistry and experimental psychology, which deal with the structure or function of the nervous system and brain.

Neuroscience , also known as Neural Science, is the study of how the nervous system develops, its structure, and what it does.

Neuroscientists focus on the brain and its impact on behavior and cognitive functions. Not only is neuroscience concerned with the normal functioning of the nervous system, but also what happens to the nervous system when people have neurological, psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders.

Neuroscience is often referred to in the plural, as neurosciences.

Neuroscience has traditionally been classed as a subdivision of biology. These days, it is an interdisciplinary science which liaises closely with other disciplines, such as mathematics, linguistics, engineering, computer science, chemistry, philosophy, psychology, and medicine.

Many researchers say that neuroscience means the same as neurobiology. However, neurobiology looks at the biology of the nervous system, while neuroscience refers to anything to do with the nervous system.

Neuroscientists are involved in a much wider scope of fields today than before. They study the cellular, functional, evolutionary, computational, molecular, cellular and medical aspects of the nervous system.

The major branches of modern neuroscience

The following branches of neuroscience, based on research areas and subjects of study can be broadly categorized in the following disciplines (neuroscientists usually cover several branches at the same time):

Affective neuroscience  – in most cases, research is carried out on laboratory animals and looks at how neurons behave in relation to emotions.

Behavioral neuroscience  – the study of the biological bases of behavior. Looking at how the brain affects behavior.

Cellular neuroscience  – the study of neurons, including their form and physiological properties at cellular level.

Clinical neuroscience  – looks at the disorders of the nervous system, while psychiatry, for example, looks at the disorders of the mind.

Cognitive neuroscience  – the study of higher cognitive functions that exist in humans, and their underlying neural bases. Cognitive neuroscience draws from linguistics, neuroscience, psychology and cognitive science. Cognitive neuroscientists can take two broad directions; behavioral/experimental or computational/modeling, the aim being to understand the nature of cognition from a neural point of view.

Computational neuroscience  – attempting to understand how brains compute, using computers to simulate and model brain functions, and applying techniques from mathematics, physics and other computational fields to study brain function.

Cultural neuroscience  – looks at how beliefs, practices and cultural values are shaped by and shape the brain, minds and genes over different periods.

Developmental neuroscience  – looks at how the nervous system develops on a cellular basis; what underlying mechanisms exist in neural development.

Molecular neuroscience  – the study of the role of individual molecules in the nervous system.

Neuroengineering  – using engineering techniques to better understand, replace, repair, or improve neural systems.

Neuroimaging  – a branch of medical imaging that concentrates on the brain. Neuroimaging is used to diagnose disease and assess the health of the brain. It can also be useful in the study of the brain, how it works, and how different activities affect the brain.

Neuroinformatics  – integrates data across all areas of neuroscience, to help understand the brain and treat diseases. Neuroinformatics involves acquiring data, sharing, publishing and storing information, analysis, modeling, and simulation.

Neurolinguistics  – studying what neural mechanisms in the brain control the acquisition, comprehension and utterance of language.

Neurophysiology – looks at the relationship of the brain and its functions, and the sum of the body’s parts and how they interrelate. The study of how the nervous system functions, typically using physiological techniques, such as stimulation with electrodes, light-sensitive channels, or ion- or voltage-sensitive dyes.

Paleoneurology  – the study of the brain using fossils.

Social neuroscience  – this is an interdisciplinary field dedicated to understanding how biological systems implement social processes and behavior. Social neuroscience gathers biological concepts and methods to inform and refine theories of social behavior. It uses social and behavioral concepts and data to refine neural organization and function theories.

Systems neuroscience  – follows the pathways of data flow within the CNS (central nervous system) and tries to define the kinds of processing going on there. It uses that information to explain behavioral functions.

Written by: Christian Nordqvist This article can be viewed in full at Medical News Today

Resources to Learn More About Neuroscience:

• Animal Facility
• Core Facilities
• Brain & Language Lab
• Center for Neural Injury and Recovery (CNIR)

Browser does not support script.

Go to…

What is neuroscience?

• Departments
• Undergraduate
• Postgraduate
• Research Themes

At its most basic, neuroscience is the study of the nervous system – from structure to function, development to degeneration, in health and in disease. It covers the whole nervous system, with a primary focus on the brain. Incredibly complex, our brains define who we are and what we do. They store our memories and allow us to learn from them. Our brain cells and their circuits create new thoughts, ideas and movements and reinforce old ones. Their individual connections (synapses) are responsible for a baby’s first steps and every record-breaking athletic performance, with each thought and movement requiring exquisitely precise timing and connections.

Human brains have 86 billion neurons (8.6 x 10 10 ); neuroscientists investigate how these connect with each other and with other parts of the nervous system and the rest of the body. King’s Neuroscience seeks to understand the brain in health and disease. We want to find out how our nervous systems develop, and what can go wrong. Combining different approaches with new technologies, we lead research into treatments for diseases and disorders affecting the nervous system. We focus on key conditions affecting the nervous system, from childhood epilepsy through to Alzheimer’s disease.

King’s Neuroscience also leads the world in pioneering imaging techniques – our researchers have access to facilities that can image from a single synapse to whole people. This neuroimaging supports our world-leading research as we investigate how our brains make us who we are.

Our key areas of neuroscience research:

• Genes, and how they are affected by our environment.
• Brain cells - how are different types of brain cells formed in the correct place at a specific time? How do different cells process the information they receive?
• Brain circuits – how do the brain cells connect with each other? What are the roles of neurons and glial cells (neuroglia) and how can they change function?
• Computational neuroscience – using mathematical models to understand the behaviour of individual neurons and whole networks within the brain.
• Healthy humans – how can we support people to stay healthy? What can we learn about the healthy brain that will improve treatment for patients?
• Clinical research – how are patients affected by diseases and disorders? What can we do to improve their treatment? How do we ensure discoveries in laboratories make a real difference to patients with brain and nervous system disorders?

Explore our research

Our research

Leading the world in understanding brain function and finding new treatments for patients

Facilities & Resources

World-class neuroscience facilities & resources, including MRI, neuroimaging equipment, and King's…

Specialist neuroscience centres, world-leading in understanding the brain at all stages of life

News and events

30 August 2024

Dulled emotional reactions in individuals with anhedonia linked with prolonged activity of the brain's attentional networks.

Anhedonia-related emotional blunting is linked with abnormally sustained activity in brain areas…

28 August 2024

King's researchers join £28.5 million Human Functional Genomics Initiative

Professor Oscar Marín and Professor Deepak Srivastava co-lead the research cluster Functional…

30 July 2024

Research into axonal dysfunction in neurodegeneration awarded £3.9 million by Medical Research Council and the Motor Neurone Disease Association

Researchers will systematically investigate and design therapeutic strategies to address diseases at…

25 July 2024

Professor Benedikt Berninger delivers inaugural lecture "The Art of Forging Neurons"

On 15 July 2024, Professor Berninger delivered his inaugural lecture as a Professor of Developmental…

What is Neuroscience: Overview, History, & Major Branches

Oliver Sussman

Neuroscience Researcher

Harvard University Undergraduate

Oliver Sussman is an undergraduate at Harvard University studying neuroscience within the interdisciplinary Mind, Brain, and Behavior program.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Neuroscience is the branch of science concerned with studying the nervous system. It is a multidisciplinary field integrating numerous perspectives from biology, psychology, and medicine. It consists of several sub-fields ranging from the study of neurochemicals to behavior and thought.

For example, cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes, done using brain scanning techniques such as fMRI.

What is Cognitive Neuroscience?

Cognitive neuroscience aims to discover how brain structures influence how we process information and map mental cognitive functions to specific areas of the brain. This is done using brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans.

The earliest historical roots of neuroscience can be traced to the ancient Egyptians, who practiced trephination — drilling a hole into the skull to treat brain and/or mental disorders — and possessed some knowledge about the symptoms of brain damage (Mohamed, 2008).

Much later, the invention of the microscope and the use of staining procedures led to the discovery of individual neurons (cells of the nervous system) by Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the late 1890s, setting the stage for the modern study of the nervous system (Guillery, 2004). The emergence of neuroscience as a distinct field began in the 20th century, pioneered by David Rioch, Francis O. Schmitt, and Stephen Kuffler (Cowan et al., 2000).

The branches of neuroscience are primarily defined by their scales of analysis — that is, the perspectives from which they analyze the nervous system. Molecules in the nervous system form the basis for neuronal function and communication, which is the focus of molecular neuroscience.

These molecular processes give rise to larger-scale cellular functions within neurons — such as those involved in neural signaling — which is the focus of cellular neuroscience. Such functions enable complex systems of communication between neurons, which is the focus of systems neuroscience.

Finally, these systems ultimately underlie thought and behavior, which is the focus of cognitive and behavioral neuroscience.

The scientific study of the nervous system provides crucial insights into the workings of the mind and brain, and is thus indispensable to psychology.

Neuroscience allows us to understand the many workings of the mind as operating through networks of neural connections, just as computers operate through electrical connections.

By studying how these neural connections work, we can better comprehend normal human cognition and disease—i.e., when these neural connections go awry.

The Society for Neuroscience (2015) lists the following as the field’s “core concepts”:

• The brain is the body’s most complex organ.
• Neurons communicate using both electrical and chemical signals.
• Genetically determined circuits are the foundation of the nervous system.
• Life experiences change the nervous system.
• Intelligence arises as the brain reasons, plans, and solves problems.
• The brain makes it possible to communicate knowledge through language.
• The human brain endows us with a natural curiosity to understand how the world works.
• Fundamental discoveries promote healthy living and the treatment of disease.

Neurons and Synapses

Neurons are the basic cellular units that constitute the nervous system. Humans possess approximately 100 billion neurons. An individual neuron generally consists of a soma (cell body), dendrites, and axons.

The soma contains the cell’s nucleus (where its DNA is stored) and produces proteins necessary for the neuron’s function.

Extending out from the soma are dendrites, which are branch-like structures that form connections with other neurons from which they receive and process electrical signals. Finally, an axon projects out from the other end of the soma, producing and carrying an electrical signal to other neurons.

Each neuron usually only contains one axon, although the structure may be branched following the initial projection from the soma (Woodruff, 2019).

The electrical signals carried by axons and transmitted to dendrites are called action potentials . Neurons are electrical devices — they contain channels that allow positive and negative ions to pass from outside to inside the cell or vice versa, which gives rise to an electrical potential concerning a cell’s membrane (the barrier around the outside of a cell).

By default (when neurons are “at rest”), there is a more negative charge on the inside of the cell than outside, giving rise to a resting membrane potential of -70 millivolts. However, this electrical potential constantly changes in response to inputs from other cells, which cause ions to flow in or out of the cell.

Some of these inputs are “excitatory,” meaning that they make the cell’s membrane potential less negative (for example, by causing positive ions to flow into the cell), while others are “inhibitory,” meaning that they make the cell’s membrane more negative.

If a neuron receives enough excitatory inputs and not too many inhibitory inputs, its membrane potential will go above what is known as the “action potential threshold” (approximately -50 millivolts), and an action potential will occur.

Electrically, action potentials are brief but dramatic spikes in a neuron’s membrane potential. Neuroscientists often refer to action potentials simply as “spikes.”

When a neuron’s membrane potential passes the action potential threshold, it triggers the opening of what is known as voltage-gated sodium channels, which allow positively charged sodium ions to pass into the cell.

This causes the cell’s membrane potential to rapidly become more positive, leading to a spike. This signal then rapidly travels down the length of the neuron’s axon, because the spike itself causes farther down voltage-gated sodium channels to open as well — and so on and so forth.

Finally, the action potential reaches the end of the axon, and the neuron passes this signal along to other neurons.

Neurons communicate with one another through structures called synapses . A single synapse consists of a presynaptic terminal, a synaptic cleft, and a postsynaptic terminal.

Once an action potential reaches the end of a neuron’s axon, it reaches the presynaptic terminal, which causes neurotransmitters to be released from the cell. These neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft , a small (20-40nm) gap between the pre-and postsynaptic terminals.

The neurotransmitters then travel across the synaptic cleft and activate neurotransmitter receptors on the postsynaptic terminal. When these receptors are activated, they cause positive or negative ions to flow into the postsynaptic neuron, resulting in excitation or inhibition, respectively.

When neurotransmitters act on receptors to cause positive ions to flow into the postsynaptic neuron, it is called excitation because the neuron is brought closer to its action potential threshold and therefore becomes more likely to fire.

Conversely, when neurotransmitters act on receptors to cause negative ions to flow into the postsynaptic neuron, it is called inhibition because the neuron is brought further away from its action potential threshold and therefore becomes less likely to fire.

As a result, some neurotransmitters are referred to as excitatory neurotransmitters (since their action on receptors causes excitation), while others are referred to as inhibitory neurotransmitters.

Common excitatory neurotransmitters include glutamate and dopamine; common inhibitory neurotransmitters include GABA and glycine. Some neurotransmitters, such as serotonin , can be either excitatory or inhibitory depending on the type of receptor it acts upon.

The Nervous System

Our nervous system comprises billions of neurons, all firing action potentials and communicating with each other through synapses.

These networks of neurons ultimately give rise to larger structures that perform specialized functions. By studying the anatomy of the nervous system, we can begin to understand how it divides up its many tasks.

The most important anatomical division of the nervous system is between the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves throughout the body that communicate with the central nervous system.

The central and peripheral nervous systems act together to interpret sense data and initiate movement (Sukel, 2019). Sensory information is sent from the peripheral nerves to the spinal cord and then relayed to the brain; motor information travels from the brain down to the spinal cord and then ultimately to the muscles via the peripheral nerves.

The brain itself consists of three parts: the brainstem, the cerebellum , and the cerebral cortex . The brainstem primarily controls so-called “autonomic” functions, meaning unconsciously regulated bodily functions, such as heart rate and breathing. The cerebellum is next to the brainstem and controls balance and movement coordination.

Finally, the cerebral cortex lies above the brainstem and cerebellum and is what most people think of when they think of the brain — it is responsible for the perceptual and cognitive functions that make up our mental lives (Sukel, 2019).

The cerebral cortex, in turn, is divided into two hemispheres and four lobes. A bridge of neural fibers connects the right and left hemispheres called the corpus callosum.

Contrary to popular belief, most cognitive processes are associated with both hemispheres of the cerebral cortex (i.e., the right side is not more “creative” and the left side more “analytical”). However, one exception is that most neural structures related to language reside in the left hemisphere (Sukel, 2019).

In addition to the two hemispheres, the cerebral cortex is also divided into four lobes: the occipital lobe , the temporal lobe, the parietal lobe, and the frontal lobe . The occipital lobe is located toward the back of the brain and is mostly responsible for processing visual information.

The temporal lobe is located behind the forehead temples and largely deals with sound information (including language) and some aspects of memory.

The parietal lobe is located above the ear and mainly processes sensory, touch, and spatial information. Lastly, the frontal lobe (the largest lobe) is located above the eyes in the front of the cortex. It is responsible for higher-level cognitive functions such as reasoning, decision-making, and planning.

It is thought that our highly developed frontal cortex separates humans from primate ancestors (Sukel, 2019).

Each lobe contains two distinct types of neural tissue: gray matter and white matter . Gray matter appears gray in color and comprises neurons’ somas, dendrites, and non-neuron supporting cells. White matter is white in color and comprises neurons’ axons, which serve to form connections between areas in the brain.

The white color results from myelin, a fatty substance wrapped around axons to enable them to send signals more efficiently (Sukel, 2019).

The brain also contains numerous smaller regions with more specific functions. Important regions include:

• Hypothalamus — the control center of autonomic functions such as body temperature and blood pressure, as well as behaviors like hunger, thirst, and sex drive.
• Pituitary gland — connected to the hypothalamus, regulates the endocrine system, secreting hormones involved in sexual development, bone and muscle growth, and stress.
• Thalamus — major “relay station” that regulates information coming and going from the cerebral cortex.
• Basal ganglia — in conjunction with the cerebellum, helps coordinate fine motor movements.
• Amygdala — plays a significant role in emotional response to stimuli.
• Hippocampus — responsible for long-term memory (“Anatomy,” 2018).

Neuroscience Psychology

The scientific study of the brain is indispensable to the scientific study of the mind. Although neuroscience and psychology focus on different domains, neuroscience deals with the realm of physical properties, while psychology deals with the more abstract realm of the mental.

Our ever-evolving ability to correlate brain states with mental states means that the two disciplines can engage in meaningful dialogue.

Scientists have sought to understand the relationship between the brain and mind in normal and abnormal human cognition. This is the main goal of cognitive neuroscience.

Much research in cognitive neuroscience is done through the use of neuroimaging (which refers to any technology that aids in the visualization of the brain) because it allows us to “look inside” living people’s skulls.

The most common form of neuroimaging used in cognitive neuroscience studies is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which uses responses from hydrogen ions in different settings to obtain information about the brain.

MRI can provide structural information about the brain— i.e., information about someone’s brain anatomy, such as the sizes of different regions—by differentiating different types of tissue in the skull and creating a physical brain map.

It can also provide functional information—i.e., information about the activity of different areas of the brain—by detecting regions with high levels of oxygenated blood, which is correlated with brain activity.

Through neuroimaging studies, cognitive neuroscientists can use structural and functional information to construct human cognition models and understand the roles of different brain systems and regions in thought and behavior (Kalra, 2012).

In addition to shedding light on the neural processes underlying the human mind in general, neuroscience has revolutionized clinical psychology by generating significant advances in our understanding of psychiatric illness.

By comparing the brains of healthy subjects to those of individuals with psychiatric disorders, neuroscientists have improved our knowledge of both the causes of these illnesses and their most effective treatments.

For example, neuroimaging studies have suggested that some depressed people may have a smaller hippocampus. This may be related to stress, which is thought to decrease neurogenesis (the production of new neurons) in the hippocampus.

This finding is also consistent with evidence that antidepressant medications serve to promote neurogenesis in the hippocampus—and since this process takes a long time, this may explain why patients typically do not notice the effects of antidepressants for several weeks.

Although antidepressants produce direct effects on the levels of neurotransmitters thought to be involved in mood, these findings suggest that neurogenesis is ultimately the more significant mechanism of action and that drugs should be developed that specifically target neurogenesis (“What causes,” 2019).

Another example is schizophrenia. Various neurochemical, neuroimaging, and animal model studies have pointed to a prominent role of the neurotransmitter dopamine in this disorder—in particular, abnormally high levels of dopamine in a part of the brain called the striatum. It is thought that one of the roles of dopamine is to signal the salience of external stimuli.

For example, food might be signaled as salient because it is necessary for survival. Scientists have thus hypothesized that abnormal dopamine activity in the striatum may cause innocuous stimuli to have aberrant salience in individuals with schizophrenia, giving rise to delusions and hallucinations about the stimuli in question.

As a result, a key mechanism of antipsychotic drugs is to block dopamine receptors (Winton-Brown et al., 2014).

Dopamine is also implicated in addiction. The neurotransmitter plays a key role in motivation and reward (a certain kind of salience), and when drugs that increase dopamine levels in the reward circuit are ingested, a conditioned response is evoked.

Typically, this reward circuit is kept in check by circuits in the prefrontal cortex that control executive functioning: the ability to resist short-term cravings in service of a longer-term goal.

However, in individuals with addiction, the drug’s conditioned response is so strong that reward circuits override prefrontal circuits, resulting in compulsive drug-seeking even in the face of negative consequences (Volkow and Boyle, 2018).

Contemporary research has shown that neuroscience and psychology can work together for mutual benefit. By learning about the mental and physical relationship, we can better understand both.

Cowan, W. M., Harter, D. H., & Kandel, E. R. (2000). The Emergence of Modern Neuroscience: Some Implications for Neurology and Psychiatry . Annual Review of Neuroscience, 23 (1), 343–391.

Dorland, W. A. N. (2011). Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary E-Book . Elsevier Health Sciences.

Guillery, R. W. (2004). Observations of synaptic structures: origins of the neuron doctrine and its current status. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 360 (1458), 1281–1307.

Harvard University. (2019, June 24). What causes depression? Harvard Health Publishing. https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/what-causes-depression.

Kalra, P. (2012, July 1). Cognitive neuroscience: Connecting neuroimaging and neural nets. Science in the News. http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2012/cognitive-neuroscience/

Mayfield Brain & Spine. (2018, April). Anatomy of the Brain. Mayfield Brain & Spine. https://mayfieldclinic.com/pe-anatbrain.htm

Mohamed, W. (2008). The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus: Neuroscience in Ancient Egypt. IBRO History of Neuroscience. https://archive.vn/20140706060915/http://www.ibro1.info/Pub/Pub_Main_Display.asp?LC_Docs_ID=3199#selection-437.0-437.28

Society for Neuroscience. (2015). Neuroscience Core Concepts: The Essential Principles of Neuroscience . Washington, DC.

Sukel, K. (2019, August 25). Neuroanatomy: The Basics. Dana Foundation. https://www.dana.org/article/neuroanatomy-the-basics

Sussex Publishers. What Is Neuroscience? Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/basics/neuroscience

The University of Queensland. (2017, November 9). Action potentials and synapses. Queensland Brain Institute. https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-basics/brain/brain-physiology/action-potentials-and-synapses

Volkow, N. D., & Boyle, M. (2018). Neuroscience of Addiction: Relevance to Prevention and Treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 175 (8), 729–740.

Winton-Brown, T. T., Fusar-Poli, P., Ungless, M. A., & Howes, O. D. (2014). Dopaminergic basis of salience dysregulation in psychosis. Trends in Neurosciences, 37 (2), 85–94.

Woodruff, A. (2019, August 13). What is a neuron? Queensland Brain Institute. https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/what-neuron.

Skip to main content

Log In or Become A Member

Member Login

About neuroscience.

• Our membership
• Our governance & people
• Policy and Advocacy
• Our history
• Our patrons
• Our Awards and Prizes
• BNA Scholars Programme
• Association policies
• Our communications
• Annual reports

BNA Welcomes CEO's Appointment to ELRIG UK Board, Strengthening Ties Across Life Sciences Sector

4th September 2024

View article

Reflections on attending FENS2024 by one of our BNA Scholars, Dipa Begum

23rd August 2024

LIMBIC BRAIN ANATOMY COURSE (2-day)

7th September 2024

7-8 September 2024, King’s College London, UK The neuroanatomy of emotion, memory, cognition and behaviour View Event

1st meeting of the UK Glia Network

9th September 2024

Join the BNA

BNA journal

Neuroscience is the study of the brain and nervous system in both humans and non-human animals, and in both health and disease.   

It is a relatively new field of science, only emerging as a distinct subject in its own right during the 20th century.  However, it has grown rapidly and now covers multiple areas including novel technologies, and research into many brain functions and disorders, as well as applications as diverse as education, artificial intelligence and the law.

The brain is responsible for our thoughts, mood, emotions and intelligence, as well as our physical movement, breathing, heart rate and sleep. In short, it makes us who we are and facilitates almost every aspect of what it means to be alive.  

Neuroscientists have the daunting task of trying to understand how all these billions of neurons in the brain and nervous system work.

Although there has been incredible progress, there is still much left to discover.  

What happens when we sleep that means it is essential to life? How does chronic pain develop - and how can we stop it doing so? What underlies neurodegenerative diseases such as dementia, motor neuron disease and Parkinson's and how can we treat them?  Why do some parts of the brain seem more susceptible to disease than others? How does autism develop? What is the neural basis of consciousness? How can neuroscience help improve treatments for mental health disorders? Can we enhance the brain's ability to learn; and should we?

To have any chance of answering these questions or finding new treatments, it is essential to carry out fundamental basic or 'discovery' neuroscience. Discovery neuroscience research could be characterising an ion channel, studying animal behaviour, tracing nerve pathways or finding out how the eye can detect movement. Establishing the fundamentals of the nervous system through discovery science paves the way for translational research, bringing better technologies, drugs, therapies and understanding of the nervous system.

It's a fascinating field where discoveries have huge impact for individuals and across society.  If you're interested in neuroscience, please join us or support us in our work.  

Learn more about neuroscience **  

• See our  YouTube channel for videos and talks  
• Check out information about the brain and nervous system
• See here for health information on disorders of the brain and nervous system
• If you're a teacher, don't miss our resources for delivering neuroscience in KS4 and KS5 in the national curriculum
• Or make use of our  neuroscientists in schools resources  to deliver classroom-ready sessions about aspects of the brain and nervous system

Or why not become a neuroscientist yourself?  Find out more in careers . 

* More information on the number of neurons and glia in the brain can be found in the following reference: 'von Bartheld, C., Bahney, J. and Herculano-Houzel, S. (2016). The search for true numbers of neurons and glial cells in the human brain: A review of 150 years of cell counting. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 524(18), pp.3865-3895'

** Please note that any information provided by the BNA via its website, publications, or its members is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice; it is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment.  Always seek the advice of a physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. 

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Published: 23 November 2020

Focus on neuroscience methods

Nature Neuroscience volume  23 ,  page 1455 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

14k Accesses

2 Citations

1 Altmetric

Metrics details

In this special issue, we present a series of reviews, perspectives and commentaries that highlight advances in methods and analytical approaches and provide guidelines and best practices in various areas of neuroscience.

Neuroscience is continuously evolving, as technologies and analytical approaches—from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and behavioral levels—open up previously inaccessible research questions and strategies. Understanding the transformative aspects of new approaches, as well as their limitations, is central to the progress that these techniques enable. Nature Neuroscience presents a special focus issue that highlights advances in methods, analyses and practices across scales of investigation and subfields of neuroscience.

Single-cell transcriptomics has enabled detailed profiling of cellular heterogeneity in the brain, but it is equally important to arrive at principled approaches to organize and interpret those data. Rafael Yuste, Michael Hawrylycz, Hongkui Zeng, Ed Lein and colleagues discuss the systematic classification of cortical cell types based on transcriptomics and the orthogonal modalities of morphology, physiology and connectivity, and they propose the implementation of a community platform for aggregating and updating the taxonomies in a standardized manner.

The analysis of cell types illustrates the complexity of brain organization. Three-dimensional tissue culture has propelled the modeling of human brain development in healthy and disease states. Ilaria Chiaradia and Madeline Lancaster provide an overview of brain organoids as a research tool and discuss their use in the study of brain development and disease. The authors further highlight technical innovations and advances in protocols used to generate brain organoids, as well as future avenues for modeling with organoids.

Human-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) have led to the development of improved models of brain disorders, but functionally characterizing disease-associated genomic loci remains a challenge. Kayla Townsley, Laura Huckins and Kristen Brennand discuss approaches for assessing the functional effects of psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disease candidate risk variants, including how they may be localized to specific cell types and how they may affect gene expression.

The analysis of brain function also calls for ways to probe neural activity in vivo. Extending the scales of measurement and types of questions that can be addressed in behaving animals has necessitated the development of new technologies. John Rogers and colleagues review advances in electrical, optical and microfluidic devices and sensors for recording and manipulating neural signals. The authors highlight cutting-edge engineering and novel systems that can be implemented wirelessly in freely moving animals.

An invaluable window through which to view the brain is the analysis of behavior. Recent developments have transformed the ways in which behavioral measurement can be achieved. Talmo Pereira, Joshua Shaevitz and Mala Murthy provide an overview of techniques for automated quantification of behavior in animals, including deep-learning-based pose estimation methods and approaches for extracting and classifying behavioral dynamics. The authors discuss ways to relate quantitative behavioral analyses to recordings of neural activity, a strategy that can provide insights into neural coding.

The noninvasive imaging of spontaneous neural activity has yielded insights into functional brain network organization. Janine Bijsterbosch, Eugene Duff and colleagues discuss analytical approaches to represent functional connectivity data and, importantly, consider how the choice of representation can shape the interpretation of functional brain organization. The authors provide guidelines aimed at improving generalizability and reproducibility in the field.

Data acquisition, analysis and reporting can all influence research reproducibility and replicability. In their perspective, Cyril Pernet, Aina Puce and their colleagues from the COBIDAS MEEG committee discuss issues related to electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) studies, and they provide best practice recommendations to promote interpretability, sharing and reuse of these data.

We assembled this special issue to highlight techniques and analytical approaches that facilitate research across diverse areas of neuroscience, together with recommendations and guidelines for best practices. This issue also contains several Technical Reports that describe novel methods and approaches, including genetic tools for selective labeling and manipulation of cells, imaging for neuronal circuit reconstruction, and analysis of electrophysiological recordings and network functional connectivity. With this, we aim to signal our continued interest in publishing transformative technologies and methods in neuroscience and our commitment to enhancing data and analytical reporting and reproducibility. This collection represents only a small sample of the broad array of approaches that are enabling new discoveries in neuroscience. Exciting advances in genetic strategies for targeting cell populations, optical methods for recording and manipulating neuronal ensembles in behaving animals, and computational and analytical approaches for interpreting large-scale brain activity are among the many types of developments that we anticipate will facilitate new insights in the near future. We look forward to hearing about these and other novel advances as they continue to push neuroscience into interesting new directions.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Focus on neuroscience methods. Nat Neurosci 23 , 1455 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-020-00750-z

Download citation

Published : 23 November 2020

Issue Date : December 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-020-00750-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

• Call: 301-363-4651
• Email: [email protected]

• Molecular Biology Product
• Small Molecule
• Exosome Isolation Kits
• ELISA Kits For Food Safety & Drug Residues
• Plasmid DNA Purification Maxiprep Kit
• Active Proteins *
• Native Proteins
• Recombinant Proteins
• Transmembrane Proteins
• Recombinant Antibodies
• Monoclonal Antibodies
• Polyclonal Antibodies
• Secondary Antibodies
• Tag/Control Antibodies
• Small Molecular Antibodies
• ChIP Antibodies
• Antibody Pairs
• Custom Antibodies
• Modified Histone Antibodies
• Food Safety Small Molecular Antigens
• Other Small Molecular Antigens
• mRNA Vaccine Research Solutions
• ADC Development Solutions
• CAR-T Therapy Development Solutions
• Monkeypox Virus Research Related Products
• Anti-payload Antibodies
• Immunohistochemistry (IHC) Antibodies
• Flow Cytometry Antibodies
• IS Series Cytokine Detection ELISA Kit
• Recombinant DT3C protein
• Chemokine Receptors
• G protein-Coupled Receptor
• Recombinant Antibodies for Drug Discovery
• Recombinant Proteins for ADCs
• New Products Launch
• Therapeutic Antibody Discovery Service *
• Stable Cell Line Development Service
• Custom Peptide Synthesis
• Transmembrane Protein Expression Service *
• E.coli Expression System
• Yeast Expression System
• In vitro E.coli Expression System
• Insect Baculovirus Expression System
• Mammalian Cell Expression System
• Single B Cell Antibody Discovery *
• HTP Recombinant Antibody Production
• Recombinant Ab Production
• Monoclonal Ab Production
• Polyclonal Ab Production
• Modified Ab Production
• Anti-idiotype Antibody Production *
• Custom Nanobody Service
• Mammalian Cell Display Service
• Phage Display Service
• Breast Cancer
• Hippo signaling pathway
• Jak-STAT signaling pathway
• MAPK signaling pathway
• mTOR signaling pathway
• Notch signaling pathway
• PI3K-Akt signaling pathway
• TGF-beta signaling pathway
• Wnt signaling pathway
• Drug Targets
• Cardiovascular
• Cell Markers
• Infectious Diseases

Neuroscience

• Cell Biology
• Nanoparticle
• Detergent Micelle
• Protein Tags
• Recombinant Protein Expression
• Applications of Recombinant Proteins
• Troubleshooting
• What Is an Antibody
• Overview of Tag Antibodies
• ELISA Types
• ELISA Protocol
• Tips for Choosing ELISA Kits
• Factors Affecting ELISA Results
• ELISA Operation Video and Data Analysis
• About CUSABIO
• Quality Control
• CUSABIO News
• Research Hotspots
• Conferences & Tradeshows
• CUSABIO Scholarships
• Distributors
• Ordering FAQs
• Research Area

Do you know how you feel the world around you and how you carry out your actions? Do you know how emotions cause people to change their minds? Why do diseases such as depression, mania, schizophrenia and Alzheimer's emerge when the regulation of emotions, thoughts and actions is distorted? Yes, all of this are in the scope of neuroscience research. So what is neuroscience? Why is neuroscience important?

1. What is Neuroscience?

2. why is neuroscience important, 3. cusabio featured products related to neuroscience.

Neuroscience is a multidisciplinary science that combines physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, developmental biology, chemistry, philosophy, computer science, mathematics, linguistics and medicine. The major branches of neuroscience include affective neuroscience, behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, developmental neuroscience, molecular and cellular neuroscience, neurophysiology, neurolinguistics and neuroinformatics. In a word, neuroscience is the scientific study of the structure and function of the human brain and nervous system. Neuroscientists study the cellular, functional, behavioral, evolutionary, computational, molecular, cellular, and medical aspects of the nervous system, which contains billions of cells called neurons, or nerve cells (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Structure of a Typical Neurron

*This diagram is derived from National Cancer Institute

Currently, one of the great challenges of modern neuroscience is to map out all the networks of cell-to-cell communication—the brain circuits that process all thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. The resulting picture, emerging bit by bit, is known as "the connectome." The ability of the brain to elaborate new connections and neuronal circuits—neuroplasticity—underlies all learning.

The nervous system not only works to produce thoughts, emotions, and behavior, but also controls important body functions, like breathing. Just as computers are hard-wired with electrical connections, the brain is hard-wired with neural connections. These connections link together its various lobes and also link sensory input and motor output with the brain's message centers, allowing information to come in and be sent back out. Actually, one major aim of neuroscience research is to study how this wiring works and what happens when it's damaged.

Moreover, neuroscience affects many human functions, but it also contributes to a better understanding of a wide range of common conditions, such as Down syndrome, autistic spectrum disorders, ADHD, addiction, schizophrenia, brain tumors, Parkinson's disease and immune system disorders.

With the advent of technologies such as membrane clamp electrophysiology, PCR and genome sequencing, there is a greater understanding of the cellular and molecular processes of thought, desire and behavior in the past 50 years. Scientists believes that there will be greater technological advances and more conceptual consensus in the next 50 years. These advances will help answer the question of how the brain's tens of billions of individual neurons work together to produce behavior? What kinds of intracerebral changes lead to disease? What makes the human brain unique?

● Protein Products

• CRBN Protein
• ELAVL4 Protein
• FSHR Protein
• GBA Protein
• Gba Protein
• GLP1R Protein
• Mapt Protein
• QPCT Protein
• RCVRN Protein
• SNCG Protein
• WNT5A Protein
• NRG1 Protein
• BDNF Protein

● Antibody Products

• AKT1 Antibody
• CA4 Antibody
• CRBN Antibody
• DDR2 Antibody
• KCNK13 Antibody
• KCNK3 Antibody
• MRGPRX2 Antibody
• NRP2 Antibody
• P2RX4 Antibody
• PALM Antibody
• ROBO2 Antibody
• S1PR2 Antibody
• SIRPA Antibody
• SLC38A2 Antibody
• TOX2 Antibody
• WNT5A Antibody
• DTNBP1 Antibody
• BDNF Antibody

Blood-brain Barrier Permeability

Neuroinflammation

Cell Type Marker

Neurotransmitter Receptors, Transporters, and Ion Channels

Neurotransmitter

Neurodegenerative Diseases

• Alzheimer's Disease
• Parkinson's Disease
• Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Relate Signaling Pathways

• Endocytosis
• Excitatory synapse pathway
• Glutamatergic synapse
• Inflammatory Pain
• Inhibitors of axonal regeneration
• Neurotrophin signaling pathway
• Secreted Extracellular Vesicles
• Synaptic vesicle cycle

Related Articles

• Do You Really Know Neurons and Glia Cells in Nerve System?
• Neuronal Markers and Neurodegenerative Diseases
• What You Should Know the Common Sense of Neurodegeneration

Subscribe newsletter

Leave a message

• Newsletters
• Best Industries
• Business Plans
• Home-Based Business
• The UPS Store
• Customer Service
• Black in Business
• Your Next Move
• Female Founders
• Best Workplaces
• Company Culture
• Public Speaking
• HR/Benefits
• Productivity
• All the Hats
• Digital Transformation
• Artificial Intelligence
• Bringing Innovation to Market
• Cloud Computing
• Social Media
• Data Detectives
• Exit Interview
• Bootstrapping
• Crowdfunding
• Venture Capital
• Business Models
• Personal Finance
• Founder-Friendly Investors
• Upcoming Events
• Inc. 5000 Vision Conference
• Become a Sponsor
• Cox Business
• Verizon Business
• Branded Content
• Apply Inc. 5000 US

Inc. Premium

5 Tips for Neuroscience Majors, According to a Leading Expert

Want a successful career in the booming field of neuroscience you may want to add a few business courses to your class schedule..

The neuroscience industry is undergoing a remarkable moment of growth that offers college students a dizzying array of career options. From pioneering work being done in research labs to recently approved drugs that seek to tackle the roots , rather than just the symptoms, of conditions like Alzheimer's, the field is ripe for innovative minds. The next generation of leaders in the field are unlocking the secrets of the brain and tackling the kinds of health issues that affect one in three people in the world and are the leading cause of disability and illness, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) . 

Recent advances have been stunning. For instance, experts from  the Allen Institute , a nonprofit neuroscience and cell-biology research behemoth created by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen in 2003 and key contributor to a milestone "brain atlas" mapping the inner workings of the brain that was published last year, tell Inc. that the field has turned a corner in a frustrating medical arena through decades of academic work that is just beginning to yield real-world results. This presents an exciting opportunity for students in the field--and also the challenge of figuring out exactly how they can best leverage their talents and passions for a successful career, whether they decide to stay in a laboratory setting running hands-on experiments, analyze data, or start their own business .

Inc. spoke with Kaitlyn Casimo, a doctor and neuroscientist who leads the education and engagement program at the Allen Institute with a special focus on society studies and neural computation and engineering. She also helps students and teachers use the Allen Institute's open data and tools. Casimo offered some helpful advice for students interested in entering a career in the growing field of neuroscience.

1. Try your hand at a lot of skills

Neuroscience is a field with many moving parts . So Casimo recommends testing out a lot of different real-world situations as a student--experimenting, if you will, with different kinds of environments you might see in different neuroscience-related careers.

Sign up for our weekly roundup on the latest in tech

Privacy Policy

• Copy/Paste Link Link Copied

About Neuroscience

Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system. The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, and networks of sensory and motor nerve cells, called neurons, throughout the body. Neuroscience aims to understand how the nervous system works to produce and regulate emotion, thought, behavior, and critical bodily functions, including breathing and keeping the heart beating.

Neuroscientists study the nervous system on many different levels. They examine molecules, nerve cells, nerve networks, and brain structure, individually and collectively, and how these components interact to perform different activities. These scientists study how a typical nervous system develops and functions, as well as disorders and diseases that cause problems with how the nervous system grows or works.

For example, when someone reads these words, his or her brain sends signals to the eye muscles to help track along this line of text. At the same time, eyes change the words into signals that travel along neurons to the brain. The brain decodes these signals to “read” the words. Then the brain reaches into its stored information—including memories—to give meaning to the words by themselves, and then to give meaning to what the words are saying together. The entire process happens almost instantly, which is just further proof that the nervous system is amazing.

July 26, 2011

The Science Behind Dreaming

New research sheds light on how and why we remember dreams--and what purpose they are likely to serve

By Sander van der Linden

Getty Images

For centuries people have pondered the meaning of dreams. Early civilizations thought of dreams as a medium between our earthly world and that of the gods. In fact, the Greeks and Romans were convinced that dreams had certain prophetic powers. While there has always been a great interest in the interpretation of human dreams, it wasn’t until the end of the nineteenth century that Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung put forth some of the most widely-known modern theories of dreaming. Freud’s theory centred around the notion of repressed longing -- the idea that dreaming allows us to sort through unresolved, repressed wishes. Carl Jung (who studied under Freud) also believed that dreams had psychological importance, but proposed different theories about their meaning.

Since then, technological advancements have allowed for the development of other theories. One prominent neurobiological theory of dreaming is the “activation-synthesis hypothesis,” which states that dreams don’t actually mean anything: they are merely electrical brain impulses that pull random thoughts and imagery from our memories. Humans, the theory goes, construct dream stories after they wake up, in a natural attempt to make sense of it all. Yet, given the vast documentation of realistic aspects to human dreaming as well as indirect experimental evidence that other mammals such as cats also dream, evolutionary psychologists have theorized that dreaming really does serve a purpose. In particular, the “threat simulation theory” suggests that dreaming should be seen as an ancient biological defence mechanism that provided an evolutionary advantage because of  its capacity to repeatedly simulate potential threatening events – enhancing the neuro-cognitive mechanisms required for efficient threat perception and avoidance.

So, over the years, numerous theories have been put forth in an attempt to illuminate the mystery behind human dreams, but, until recently, strong tangible evidence has remained largely elusive.

On supporting science journalism

If you're enjoying this article, consider supporting our award-winning journalism by subscribing . By purchasing a subscription you are helping to ensure the future of impactful stories about the discoveries and ideas shaping our world today.

Yet, new research published in the Journal of Neuroscience provides compelling insights into the mechanisms that underlie dreaming and the strong relationship our dreams have with our memories. Cristina Marzano and her colleagues at the University of Rome have succeeded, for the first time, in explaining how humans remember their dreams. The scientists predicted the likelihood of successful dream recall based on a signature pattern of brain waves. In order to do this, the Italian research team invited 65 students to spend two consecutive nights in their research laboratory.

During the first night, the students were left to sleep, allowing them to get used to the sound-proofed and temperature-controlled rooms. During the second night the researchers measured the student’s brain waves while they slept. Our brain experiences four types of electrical brain waves: “delta,” “theta,” “alpha,” and “beta.” Each represents a different speed of oscillating electrical voltages and together they form the electroencephalography (EEG). The Italian research team used this technology to measure the participant’s brain waves during various sleep-stages. (There are five stages of sleep; most dreaming and our most intense dreams occur during the REM stage.) The students were woken at various times and asked to fill out a diary detailing whether or not they dreamt, how often they dreamt and whether they could remember the content of their dreams.

While previous studies have already indicated that people are more likely to remember their dreams when woken directly after REM sleep, the current study explains why. Those participants who exhibited more low frequency theta waves in the frontal lobes were also more likely to remember their dreams.

This finding is interesting because the increased frontal theta activity the researchers observed looks just like the successful encoding and retrieval of autobiographical memories seen while we are awake. That is, it is the same electrical oscillations in the frontal cortex that make the recollection of episodic memories (e.g., things that happened to you) possible. Thus, these findings suggest that the neurophysiological mechanisms that we employ while dreaming (and recalling dreams) are the same as when we construct and retrieve memories while we are awake.

In another recent study conducted by the same research team, the authors used the latest MRI techniques to investigate the relation between dreaming and the role of deep-brain structures. In their study, the researchers found that vivid, bizarre and emotionally intense dreams (the dreams that people usually remember) are linked to parts of the amygdala and hippocampus. While the amygdala plays a primary role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions, the hippocampus has been implicated in important memory functions, such as the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory.

The proposed link between our dreams and emotions is also highlighted in another recent study published by Matthew Walker and colleagues at the Sleep and Neuroimaging Lab at UC Berkeley, who found that a reduction in REM sleep (or less “dreaming”) influences our ability to understand complex emotions in daily life – an essential feature of human social functioning.  Scientists have also recently identified where dreaming is likely to occur in the brain.  A very rare clinical condition known as “Charcot-Wilbrand Syndrome” has been known to cause (among other neurological symptoms) loss of the ability to dream.  However, it was not until a few years ago that a patient reported to have lost her ability to dream while having virtually no other permanent neurological symptoms. The patient suffered a lesion in a part of the brain known as the right inferior lingual gyrus (located in the visual cortex). Thus, we know that dreams are generated in, or transmitted through this particular area of the brain, which is associated with visual processing, emotion and visual memories.

Taken together, these recent findings tell an important story about the underlying mechanism and possible purpose of dreaming.

Dreams seem to help us process emotions by encoding and constructing memories of them. What we see and experience in our dreams might not necessarily be real, but the emotions attached to these experiences certainly are. Our dream stories essentially try to strip the emotion out of a certain experience by creating a memory of it. This way, the emotion itself is no longer active.  This mechanism fulfils an important role because when we don’t process our emotions, especially negative ones, this increases personal worry and anxiety. In fact, severe REM sleep-deprivation is increasingly correlated to the development of mental disorders. In short, dreams help regulate traffic on that fragile bridge which connects our experiences with our emotions and memories.

Are you a scientist who specializes in neuroscience, cognitive science, or psychology? And have you read a recent peer-reviewed paper that you would like to write about? Please send suggestions to Mind Matters editor Gareth Cook, a Pulitzer prize-winning journalist at the Boston Globe. He can be reached at garethideas AT gmail.com or Twitter @garethideas .

• Stanford University
• Tuesday, October 29

CBD 2024: Well-being is a Skill: Perspectives from Contemplative Neuroscience with Richard J. Davidson, PhD

• Contemplation by Design

Tuesday, October 29, 2024 12pm to 1:30pm PT

This event is open to: General Public Everyone

Request disability accommodations and access info

• Share CBD 2024: Well-being is a Skill: Perspectives from Contemplative Neuroscience with Richard J. Davidson, PhD on Facebook
• Share CBD 2024: Well-being is a Skill: Perspectives from Contemplative Neuroscience with Richard J. Davidson, PhD on Twitter
• Share CBD 2024: Well-being is a Skill: Perspectives from Contemplative Neuroscience with Richard J. Davidson, PhD on LinkedIn

Event Details:

Just like being physically in shape means regular exercise, supporting one’s emotional well-being begins with a training program—for the mind. In this talk, world-renowned neuroscientist, Dr. Richard J. Davidson discusses the scientific concept of neuroplasticity and how research in the lab confirms that well-being is a skill that can be taught. By learning and practicing the skills associated with awareness, connection, insight, and purpose—anyone can have a healthier mind, despite their external circumstances. Based on four decades of contemplative neuroscientific research, Dr. Davidson outlines a path to well-being for anyone in this highly relevant talk.

Richard J. Davidson, PhD , is the William James and Vilas Research Professor of Psychology and Psychiatry and Founder and Director of the Center for Healthy Minds at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He is also the Founder and Chief Visionary for Healthy Minds Innovations, Inc. Davidson received his Ph.D. from Harvard University in Psychology in 1976. Davidson’s research is broadly focused on the neural bases of emotion and emotional style and methods to promote human flourishing including meditation and related contemplative practices. He has published over 650 articles, numerous chapters and reviews and edited 17 books. He is the author (with Sharon Begley) of The Emotional Life of Your Brain published in 2012 and co-author with Daniel Goleman of Altered Traits published in 2017. He was named one of the 100 most influential people in the world by Time Magazine in 2006. He was elected to the National Academy of Medicine in 2017 and appointed to the Governing Board of UNESCO’s Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development (MGIEP) in 2018. In 2014, Davidson founded the non-profit, Healthy Minds Innovations, which translates science into tools to cultivate and measure well-being.

See Who Is Interested

The university of tulsa Online Blog

Trending topics in the tu online community

Nursing Research: What It Is and Why It Matters

When people think about medical research, they often think about cutting-edge surgical procedures and revolutionary new medications. As important as those advancements are, another type of research is just as vital: nursing research.

This type of research informs and improves nursing practice. In many cases, it’s focused on improving patient care. Experienced nurses who have advanced nursing degrees and training in research design typically conduct this research.

Nurse research can explore any number of topics, from symptomology to patient diet. However, no matter the focus of a research project, nurse research can improve health care in an impressive number of ways. As experts in their field, nurse researchers can pursue a wide range of unique career advancement opportunities .

Why Nursing Research Matters: Examples of Research in Action

Research drives innovation in every industry. Given that nurses are on the front line of the health care industry, the research they do can be particularly impactful for patient outcomes. 

It Can Improve Patients’ Quality of Life

Patients diagnosed with life-threatening chronic diseases often undergo intense treatments with sometimes debilitating side effects. Nursing research is vital to helping such patients maintain a high quality of life.

For example, a 2018 study led by a nurse scientist explored why cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy frequently experience severe nausea. While the physical toll of chemotherapy contributes to nausea, the study found that patients who have factors such as children to take care of, high psychological stress, and trouble performing day-to-day tasks are often much more likely to experience nausea.

By identifying the root causes of nausea and which patients are more likely to experience it, this research allows health care professionals to develop evidence-based care practices . This can include prescribing anti-nausea medications and connecting patients to mental health professionals.

It’s Central to Making Health Care More Equitabl

A Gallup survey reports that about 38% of Americans put off seeking medical treatment due to costs. Unfortunately, cost is only one factor that prevents people from seeking treatment. Many Americans don’t live close to medical providers that can meet their needs, aren’t educated about health, or encounter discrimination.

As complex as this issue is, the National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR) asserts that the country’s nurse researchers can lead the charge in tackling it. In its strategic plan for 2022 to 2026, the institute highlights the following:

• Nursing has long been one of the most trusted professions in the country.
• Nurses often interact with patients, patients’ families, and communities more frequently than other health care professionals.
• The care that nurses provide must often take environmental and social factors into account.

These traits put nurses in the position to not only research health inequity but also put their research to work in their organizations. To help make that happen, NINR often funds nurse-led research projects focused on equity and social determinants of health. With that kind of backing, the field may become more transformative than ever.

It Can Strengthen the Health Care Workforce

While nursing research can be used to improve patient care, it can also be leveraged to solve issues health care professionals face daily. Research about the state of the health care workforce during the COVID-19 pandemic is a perfect illustration.

In 2022, a team of nurse researchers published a report called Nursing Crisis: Challenges and Opportunities for Our Profession After COVID-19 in the International Journal of Nursing Practice . In it, the authors provided concrete statistics about the following:

• Mental and physical health issues many nurses encountered
• Effects of increased workloads and decreased nurse-to-patient ratios
• How many nurses were planning to leave the profession altogether

As nurses themselves, the authors also offer actionable, evidence-based solutions to these issues, such as streamlining patient documentation systems and implementing employee wellness programs.

However, this type of research isn’t just important to solving workforce issues stemming from specific emergencies, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. By publishing quantifiable data about the challenges they face, nurse researchers empower other nurses and professional nursing organizations to advocate for themselves. This can help employers enact effective policies, support their nursing staff, and draw more talented people into the profession.

Career Opportunities in Nursing Research

Nurse researchers can work in any number of administrative, direct care, and academic roles. However, because nurse research often requires clinical care and data analysis skills, jobs in this field typically require an advanced degree, such as a Master of Science in Nursing (MSN).

While many more nurse research career opportunities exist, here are four career paths nurses with research experience and advanced degrees can explore.

Nurse Researcher

Nurse researchers identify issues related to nursing practice, collect data about them, and conduct research projects designed to inform practice and policy. While they often work in academic medical centers and universities, they can work for any type of health care provider as well as health care advocacy agencies.

In addition to conducting research, these professionals typically provide direct patient care. Many also write papers for peer-reviewed journals and make presentations about their work at conferences.

Clinical Research Nurse

Despite having a similar title to nurse researchers, clinical research nurses have slightly different responsibilities. These professionals are usually in charge of providing care to patients participating in medical research projects, including clinical trials and nursing research initiatives. They also typically collect data about patient progress, coordinate care between different team members, and contribute to academic papers.

Occupational Health Nurse

Also referred to as environmental health nurses, occupational health nurses serve specific communities, such as professionals in a particular industry or people who live in a particular area. They often educate their communities about relevant health risks, advocate for stronger health and safety regulations, and run wellness programs.

To carry out their duties, occupational and environmental health nurses must typically research health trends about the people they serve, including living and working conditions that put them at risk for illness or injury. They can work for private companies and government agencies.

Nurse Educator

Nurse educators prepare new nurses to enter the workforce or train experienced nurses in more advanced techniques. This can include teaching classes and providing on-the-job training. They often work for colleges, universities, and large health care providers.

While their duties don’t always include research, nurse educators must keep up with the health care industry’s needs and new patient care practices. This is so they can provide relevant education themselves and help their organizations design up-to-date curricula.

Make Nursing Research a Part of Your Journey

Conducting and implementing nurse research is a collaborative effort. It takes a team of informed leaders, skilled analysts, and creative educators to create effective, evidence-based policies. Those interested in pursuing nurse research should consider The University of Tulsa’s online MSN program , which can prepare you to fill any one of those roles and more.

All of TU’s MSN students take classes on research and evidence-based practices. However, the program’s specialty tracks allow students to take their studies in multiple research-oriented directions. For instance, if you’re interested in collecting and interpreting clinical data, you can choose the Informatics and Analysis track. If you have a passion for public health policy, the Public Health and Global Vision track includes classes on population health and epidemiology.

Delivered in a flexible online format, this program can be a great option for working nurses and nontraditional students alike. To find out more, read about TU’s admission policies and request more information today.

Recommended Readings

A Nurse Educator’s Role in the Future of Nursing

How Global Health Nursing Supports Population Health

What Can You Do With an MSN?

Gallup, “Record High in U.S. Put Off Medical Care Due to Cost in 2022”

International Journal of Nursing Practice, “Nursing Crisis: Challenges and Opportunities for Our Profession After COVID‐19”

Journal of Pain Symptom Management , “Risk Factors Associated With Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea in the Week Prior to the Next Cycle and Impact of Nausea on Quality of Life Outcomes”

Mayo Clinic, Nursing

National Institute of Nursing Research, Scientific Strategy: NINR’s Research Framework

National Institute of Nursing Research, The National Institute of Nursing Research 2022-2026 Strategic Plan

Recent Articles

How Leaders Drive Quality Improvement in Nursing

University of Tulsa

Aug 23, 2024

Wellness Nurse: Career Definition and More

Types of Nursing Degrees

Aug 21, 2024

Learn more about the benefits of receiving your degree from The University of Tulsa

• Online Program Tuition
• AGACNP Certificate Online
• Online MSN Program
• Accelerated Online BSN
• RN to BSN Program
• RN to MSN Program
• MS in Cyber Security
• Meet the Team
• Nursing Student Practicum Requirements
• Disclosures for Professional Nursing Licensure
• On Campus Programs

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• v.2015; May-Jun 2015

New Movement in Neuroscience: A Purpose-Driven Life

Editor’s note:.

Purpose in Life (PIL) is a research area that focuses on the interactions between mind and body and the powerful ways in which emotional, mental, social, and spiritual factors can directly affect health. It links the belief that your life has meaning and purpose to a robust and persistently improved physiological health outcome—particularly as a way to treat dementia, spinal cord injuries, stroke, and immunological and cardiovascular issues that include but extend beyond the brain. While it has inspired significant research, the authors contend that PIL is underappreciated, given its potential importance and interest to both the clinical and lay communities .

“He who has a Why to live for can bear almost any How.” – Friedrich Nietzsche

Why are we here? What is the meaning of life? Existential questions such as these are captivating and considered fundamental to the human condition. Religions, philosophers, and scientists alike have sought answers for the human race as a whole, but the search for meaning also can be personal. People’s perception of their own purpose may have profound consequences not only for the legacy they leave behind for others, but for the quality and quantity of their own life. We’ve all heard anecdotes of people who have suffered tragedies only to persevere with newfound purpose and zest for life.

These stories are certainly inspirational, but what if meaning also could soothe inflammation or protect neurons? What if finding purpose in your life could reduce your risk of dementia or stroke? That’s the focus of research into what is now called Purpose in Life (PIL).

Interest in PIL, or the “mind-body axis,” has ancient roots, but the study of it in individuals has attracted medical researchers’ attention only recently. Current research reveals exciting correlations between PIL and positive health outcomes in a multitude of body systems. In the 1940s Viktor Frankl introduced PIL to psychiatry. That Frankl was able to share his theory at all is nothing short of miraculous. He was a Jewish physician trained in both psychiatry and neurology who practiced in Austria when it came to be occupied by Nazi Germany. He survived three brutal years in various concentration camps, among them Auschwitz. He writes about his experiences in his magnum opus, A Man’s Search for Meaning , where he also summarizes “logotherapy,” a set of ideas that sustained him during the Holocaust and crowned his professional career.

As Frankl writes, “Man’s main concern is not to gain pleasure or to avoid pain but rather to see a meaning in his life. That is why man is even ready to suffer, on the condition, to be sure, that his suffering has meaning.” 1 Frankl emphasizes that this meaning is individual rather than general—people have to determine for themselves their mission in life. Compared to other psychologic doctrines that focus on looking back to the impact of past events, or inwardly through introspection, logotherapy looks to the future and to a person’s will to do something meaningful with it.

As modern psychiatry began to evolve, the application of logotherapy to the treatment of psychiatric disorders, particularly those stemming from an “existential vacuum,” was met by some with skepticism. The main criticism was that a person’s perception of purpose had not yet been operationalized, measured quantitatively, or studied systematically. In an attempt to address this, two early investigators, James Crumbaugh and Leonard Maholick, created a psychometric scale in 1964 to assess PIL. 2 After scouring literature related to existentialism and logotherapy, they developed a twenty-question PIL scale. Their scale and its derivatives have since been used in various populations and studies as a metric for PIL.

Other researchers have sought to characterize the nuances of PIL. The general consensus is that PIL includes dimensions such as (1) believing that life has meaning or purpose, (2) upholding a personal value system, and (3) having the motivation and ability to achieve future goals and overcome future challenges. PIL is a philosophical concept, but that has not stopped scientists from exploring its practical, biological impact. In particular, it seems that having a sense that one’s life has purpose significantly supports the health of the central nervous system (CNS).

Protecting Cognitive Reserve

“Dementia” describes a global constellation of symptoms: memory, cognition, and communication problems. It commonly affects older people (most often age 60 and up), but it is not a normal part of aging. Dementia occurs when brain cells, or neurons, are damaged and no longer network properly. Different types of dementia are characterized by how and where the cell damage occurs.

The most common form of dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, accounts for 60 to 80 percent of cases, 3 and is the focus of much PIL research. Among the neurons most affected in Alzheimer’s are those found in the hippocampus, a seahorse-shaped region of the brain associated with short-term memory. Through mechanisms still being elucidated, proteins called beta-amyloid and tau accumulate in neurons and lead to cell death and improper functioning. The damage in Alzheimer’s primarily manifests as memory loss, starting with recent events and then more remote experiences.

The huge personal and public health implications of Alzheimer’s have generated significant interest into ways to halt or prevent this illness. Other than generic advice to eat healthy, exercise, and engage in intellectually stimulating activities, researchers cannot yet tout strategies to reduce Alzheimer’s risk significantly. However, new work by Patricia Boyle and colleagues at the Rush Alzheimer’s Disease Center suggests that PIL could be neuroprotective (brain-preserving). After following more than nine hundred older people at risk for dementia for seven years, they found that those with a high PIL were only half as likely to develop Alzheimer’s disease than those with a low PIL, 4 even after controlling for demographics, depressive symptoms, personality vulnerabilities, social network size, and number of chronic medical conditions. Those studied were also 30 percent less likely to develop mild cognitive impairment, a condition characterized by minor cognitive deficits that could (but doesn’t always) progress to Alzheimer’s. 4

Boyle’s group further explored the relationship between PIL and cognitive change over time. For people without Alzheimer’s disease, a high sense of purpose was associated with slower rates of age-related cognitive decline. 4 , 5 In another experiment, they looked at autopsy specimens of people who had been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s and examined the amount of beta-amyloid and tau deposits in their brains. People who had a high PIL before death demonstrated better cognitive function, even in the presence of higher burdens of Alzheimer’s-related protein accumulation. 5

These studies suggest that PIL may have a protective effect on what is known as cognitive reserve. Researchers believe that people with more cognitive resilience (“cognitive reserve”) at baseline are able to withstand more brain injury before developing neurologic symptoms. While the biological mechanism of this relationship is uncertain, it warrants more research.

The Heart of the Matter

Although the heart and blood vessels are not technically components of the nervous system, the brain and the CNS are inextricably linked to cardiovascular function. The heart’s activity is intimately monitored and regulated by the brain, such as when your heart races when you are anxious or excited. When you experience these emotions, the brain initiates a series of events that lead to the secretion of adrenaline, causing the heart to beat faster. As William Harvey, the great pathophysiologist and father of investigations into the cardiovascular system, once said, “Every affectation of the mind that is attended with either pain or pleasure, hope or fear, is the cause of an agitation whose influence extends to the heart.” 6

Nor can the brain function without the heart delivering a reliable and timely supply of oxygen-rich blood. This delivery depends on vascular health. A stroke occurs when blood vessels fail to oxygenate brain tissue, whether because of hemorrhage or obstruction. Strokes may range from brief, reversible transient ischemic attacks to massive, deadly infarcts (brain tissue death stemming from a prolonged lack of oxygen and blood). Survivors can experience physical disability such as paralysis, stiffness, dizziness, and fatigue, and/or higher cognitive disability, such as changes in mood, judgment, personality, or speech. Strokes are the fifth leading cause of death across the lifespan and a major cause of disability in the United States. 7

While a healthy diet and regular physical activity are ways to reduce the risk of stroke, research suggests that having a sense of purpose also may play a role in prevention and prognosis. In one study, Eric Kim and his team assessed the level of PIL at baseline in almost seven thousand older adults who had never had a stroke and followed them over a four-year period to determine stroke incidence. 8 They found that for each standard-deviation increase in PIL score, these adults reduced their stroke risk by 22 percent. 8 The association held even after they controlled for behavioral, biological, psychological, and sociodemographic factors.

Other studies have looked at PIL and the risk of heart attacks. After following 1,500 individuals with cardiovascular disease for two years, researchers found that a higher baseline PIL was linked to a lower risk of heart attack. Each unit increase of baseline PIL (on a six-point scale) was associated with a 27 percent decreased risk of having a heart attack within two years. 9 Once again, these findings were still statistically significant after the researchers controlled for behavioral, biological, psychologic, and sociodemographic factors.

Researchers also have looked at the association between PIL and mortality, particularly from cerebrovascular causes. One study found that a strong sense of purpose was associated with a 72 percent lower rate of death from stroke, a 44 percent lower rate of death from cardiovascular disease, and a 48 percent lower rate of death from any cause in a population of men after an average of thirteen years of follow-up. 10 This relationship held even after researchers controlled for perceived stress and cerebrovascular risk factors.

Reducing Inflammation

Inflammation has been implicated in many diseases that afflict the brain and nerves: from autoimmune CNS diseases (such as multiple sclerosis) to neurodegenerative diseases that share high rates of cognitive impairment and depression (such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s). Inflammation is caused by activity of the immune system, which is made up of many cells and chemical mediators (called cytokines) that allow for communication between immune cells. Although inflammation is critical for clearing infection and healing wounds, excessive or persistent inflammation can lead to tissue damage and disease. Inappropriate immune system activity is thought to contribute to serious CNS maladies such as stroke, epilepsy, traumatic brain injury, Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer’s disease. 11

A less obvious contributor to inappropriate immune system activity is psychosocial stress. Our body’s response to stress is controlled, in part, by what is called the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Psychosocial distress is communicated by the brain (specifically the hypothalamus and pituitary) to the adrenal glands, which are located on top of the kidneys. The adrenal glands respond by secreting a stress hormone called cortisol. In the short term, cortisol actually depresses the immune system. However, when we experience stress for prolonged periods of time, the immune system stops responding as sensitively to cortisol. The result: more immune system activity instead of less. Although the evolutionary basis for this phenomenon remains to be fully elucidated, scientists believe that it is the body’s way of gearing up for potential injury or infection related to the stressor. 12 This leads to sustained low-grade inflammation and higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which paradoxically can aggravate or cause disease.

One example of PIL and a link to positive, objective changes in inflammatory response is interleukin-6 (IL-6), a cytokine that is important in the proinflammatory initial response of the immune system to a host of general stimuli, including bacterial and viral exposure. IL-6 is one of the mediators that lead to the activation of the HPA axis and subsequent cortisol release. Dysregulation of IL-6 has been implicated in multiple CNS diseases, including cerebrovascular and Alzheimer’s diseases. In an experiment that looked at the blood levels of IL-6 and its receptor in a population of women, researchers found that higher PIL scores were associated with lower levels of the IL-6 receptor, which implies less IL-6 activity. 13 This relationship held when researchers controlled for sociodemographic and health factors, and it suggests that PIL may be associated with a chronic calming effect on immune system activity.

Other studies have examined the impact of PIL on the inflammatory stress response. Lower levels of PIL are associated with increased sensitivity of the immune system, specifically IL-6, with repeated stress. 12 In other words, higher levels of IL-6 were detected in the bloodstream of participants with low PIL scores in each subsequent stressful exposure. Another study looked more generally at stress-related “transcriptomes.” A transcriptome is essentially a collection of all of the genes that are expressed in a specific system. In this case, the researchers explored which genes were active in immune cells in people with hedonic or eudaimonic well-being. As defined by philosophers, “hedonic” well-being represents the sum of the positive emotional experiences that an individual has experienced, and “eudaimonic” well-being results from an individual’s striving toward meaning and a purpose beyond self-gratification. Immune cells in people with hedonic well-being expressed more pro-inflammatory genes than did those in people with eudaimonic well-being. 14 This correlation implies that seeking purpose helps avoid a pro-inflammatory state, a positive step in fighting neurological diseases.

The Pursuit of Happiness

It’s much easier to understand something tangible like a physical disease or medical treatment than something conceptual like purpose in life, and only in the past decade have researchers explored the connection between PIL and neurologic disease. Indeed, the pursuit of happiness receives a lot more attention in our culture than the pursuit of meaning or purpose. People strive for happiness, which is even considered a fundamental, inalienable human right according to the Declaration of Independence, and who could blame them? We feel happy when things go our way, and lower levels of stress and worry often accompany that feeling, at least briefly. It’s a feeling rooted in nature: Even animals experience a sort of happiness when their needs are satisfied. 15

But to derive meaning and thus identify a purpose in life is uniquely human and requires self-reflection and evaluation. Although both happiness and meaning play into overall life satisfaction, it may be possible to have a happy life without meaning or a meaningful life without happiness. A purely happy person is primarily concerned with the present and instant gratification of their own needs. 15 A person who pursues a chiefly meaningful life is more likely to contemplate the past or future and be concerned about others’ well-being. 15 Meaningfulness is more enduring than happiness and can sustain people through periods of stress and suffering, as Frankl observed in the concentration camps. 15 Man’s desire to find a purpose in life may even have played a crucial role in our development as a species, when we needed to band together against predators and the elements to survive.

The antithesis of happiness is depression. Depression is a disorder of mood characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, guilt, and apathy. Even Crumbaugh and Maholick’s original paper commented on the apparent overlap between PIL and depression: “The tendency of highly depressed patients to show a loss of life purpose and meaning is clearly observable in the clinic.” 2 People who are depressed have transiently lower PIL scores than people who are not, though it may be difficult to untangle whether depression decreases PIL or low PIL leads to depression. 16 But this difficulty does not muddy the correlation between PIL and health outcomes, as all of the studies that controlled for depressive symptoms still saw significant relationships. Depression is not the reason that people with low PIL have worse outcomes compared to those with high PIL.

What do we know about the relationship between high PIL and depression? Unfortunately, it seems that a strong PIL does not protect the very old from developing depression over a five-year period. 16 However, another group of researchers looked at teenagers, who, like the very old, are prone to depression. Instead of specifically looking at PIL, this research group explored the impact of hedonic vs. eudaimonic well-being on the development of depression. Research has shown that teens who were more eudaimonic (striving toward meaning and a purpose beyond self-gratification) had lower rates of depression one year later compared to those with hedonic well-being. 17 So in addition to improving nervous system disease outcomes in older people, meaningful and purposeful activities may improve the mental health of younger populations.

Additionally, we can draw some parallels between meaningfulness and peaceful feelings that religion can bring. Many people experiencing a tragedy or crisis turn to faith to find comfort, support, and answers. It is possible to endure almost anything as long as we can identify a greater purpose, and for some, religious doctrines and beliefs provide reasons and reassurances for suffering. However, research suggests a complicated relationship between one’s religious beliefs and PIL, one that differs depending on how clearly and confidently an individual holds to their self-concepts of the world and their place in it. Researchers have shown that if a person has a low self-concept (for example, “My beliefs about myself often conflict with one another”), religion can return their PIL to baseline. 18 For those with a relatively high level of self-concept (for example, who endorse statements such as “I have a clear sense of who I am and what I am”), their level of PIL was unaffected by their degree of religiosity, demonstrating that PIL and religion are separate and independent phenomena. 18 This is consistent with the fact that PIL is self-defined and therefore subjective, and that the PIL metrics do not ask any specific questions about religiosity.

The Millennial Generation and Beyond

Our current societal climate is particularly primed to embrace PIL. The Millennial generation is just coming into its own, and its members may not be as entitled and narcissistic as they are commonly portrayed. A study by the career advisory board at DeVry University looked at Millennials’ attitudes about employment issues, based on input from hiring managers. The study found that 71 percent of Millennials ranked finding work that is meaningful as one of the top three factors determining their career success, and 30 percent of Millennials ranked it as the most important factor. 19 Millennials are willing to make less money and work longer, nontraditional hours, as long as their work is personally meaningful.

This newfound cultural emphasis on meaning should revitalize research into PIL. While research has suggested significant relationships between PIL and positive health outcomes, we cannot yet make any sweeping declarations about PIL being responsible for those outcomes. This is primarily because PIL studies that prove causation are difficult to design. But scientists can explore other aspects of PIL, such as its natural history. Is PIL a constantly shifting quality that changes throughout life? On what time scale? One recent study in a very old population demonstrated that PIL decreases over a five-year period, especially in women and/or people with depression. 16 But the researchers looked at PIL only at the beginning and the end of the study period. It could be insightful to see how PIL changes on a more regular basis and how that relates to health outcomes. Another interesting avenue is to identify specific interventions to increase someone’s purpose in life. A high PIL has been linked to the pursuit of community-oriented goals, as well as to higher levels of physical activity. 20 , 21 Although the directionality of these relationships cannot be determined from studies thus far, they are important jumping off points for future research.

Pharmaceutical treatments for any ailment that affects our minds and bodies absolutely have their place in healing, but they also can include significant potential side effects. Physicians should consider whether they are too quick to be pill pushers when they could be PIL promoters. Identifying a purpose to life can have profound implications in overall life satisfaction and health, as it motivates and drives us even in the face of difficulties and hardships. PIL appears to be biologically wired into our thinking and necessary for optimal health, a feature of our brain that defines each of us individually and simultaneously is a unique characteristic of the human condition.

Adam Kaplin, M.D., Ph.D. is the chief psychiatric consultant to the Johns Hopkins Multiple Sclerosis and Transverse Myelitis centers and has a joint appointment as a clinician-researcher in the departments of psychiatry and neurology at Johns Hopkins, where his research focuses on immune-mediated mechanisms of depression and cognitive impairment in CNS autoimmune diseases. Kaplin is on the board of medical advisors to the Montel Williams MS Foundation and is a medical advisor to the Cody Unser First Step Foundation, the Transverse Myelitis Association, Johns Hopkins Project RESTORE, and Race to Erase MS (formerly the Nancy Davis Foundation for MS). He is the inventor and co-developer of Mood 24/7 , a site that employs mood-tracking technology, and also the CEO and president of Altammune, a startup biotechnology company specializing in developing aggressive new therapies to put autoimmune diseases into long-term remission. Kaplin graduated from Yale University before receiving his M.D. and Ph.D. from the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.

Laura Anzaldi is a rising third-year medical student at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. She graduated as the salutatorian from the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, in 2013, majoring in computer science, biology, and bioinformatics. She has not yet decided on a medical specialty, but her research interests focus on the intersection of technology and medicine. Anzaldi is particularly interested in developing software applications to enhance clinical workflow, facilitate research, and improve patient care and education.

• Back Issues
• Letters Policy

Projects selected for dB-SERC Course Transformation Awards

The Discipline-Based Science Education Research Center (dB-SERC) has awarded 12 Course Transformation Awards to faculty in natural sciences.

Since 2014, dB-SERC has supported natural sciences faculty members in developing projects to transform the way classes are taught by adopting evidence-based teaching practice to improve student learning outcomes.

Award recipients receive funds for equipment, student support or summer salary for faculty. Two mentor-mentee awards also were given out to support classroom innovation projects conducted by students and faculty working together.

Course Transformation Awards

Young Ahn, Department of Biological Sciences: Designing a high-structure course combining frequent low-stakes assessments with inclusive teaching for a large-enrollment introductory biology class

This proposal aims to test the “heads and hearts” hypothesis which suggests that both students’ cognitive (heads) and affective (hearts) learning experiences must be purposefully constructed in classroom environments. This project will investigate whether a course structure that combines frequent low-stakes assessments (heads) and inclusive teaching (hearts) can improve student performance and reduce achievement gaps in a large-enrollment introductory biology course thereby promoting retention in STEM.

Anusha Balangoda, Department of Geology and Environmental Science : Use of a Collaborative Online Reading Platform for Pre-class Reading Assignments in a Large Enrollment First-Year Undergraduate Class

The proposed work seeks funding to implement pre-class reading assignments through a social annotation platform allowing active reading on assigned course materials outside the class. A free social platform, Perusall, provides an interactive experience for students to engage with peers asynchronously and facilitates a space to teach and learn from peers. This collaborative social platform allows students to work on assignments outside the classroom to promote productive discussions and produce high-quality peer interactions.

Seth Childers, Department of Chemistry: Development of Interdisciplinary Courses for a New Chemical Biology Major

In the Department of Chemistry, the PI is proposing a chemical biology major, including two new lecture courses and one laboratory course, proposed to launch in Fall 2025 or 2026. This timeline allows them to craft a curriculum while deploying evidence-based learning practices to enhance job readiness. Based on student surveys, the program aims to accommodate approximately 48 majors annually and engage non-majors as a desirable scientific elective campus wide.

Russell Clark and Aidan Payton, Department of Physics & Astronomy: Gender Equity in Introductory Physics Lab Group Roles

This is a continuation of a dB-SERC award from 2020 (Development of Teacher Guides and Rubrics for Introductory Physics Labs). The original plan for that award was to develop better rubrics and other materials to help the TA graders provide more valuable feedback to the students. However, the University was forced into quarantine midway through the first semester of the project, and so the character of it changed.  They know from a previous study that student groups tend to have gender bias in which men tend to work with the experimental apparatus and women are relegated to secretarial roles (recording data, writing the report, etc.). They attempted to mitigate this by asking the students to cycle through the roles week to week so that each student would get to participate in each role multiple times.

Erika Fanselow, Department of Neuroscience: Incorporating digital and physical 3D brain models into interactive online and in-class activities to enhance student engagement and mastery in neuroanatomy courses

The goal of this course transformation is to develop interactive, online and in-class exercises that incorporate digital and printed 3D models of nervous system structures. These 3D model-based exercises and in-class activities are intended to enhance students’ visualization and conceptualization of neuroanatomical structures. The rationale for this course transformation proposal is based on the fact that neuroanatomy students are commonly overwhelmed by the complexity of the nervous system, resulting in a condition Jozefowicz (1994) referred to as “neurophobia,” which he concluded actually keeps students from choosing fields such as neurology.

Sean Garrett-Roe, Department of Chemistry: Activity redesign and mindset intervention based on growth-oriented testing in Chem-0110 General Chemistry I

“Grading for Growth” is a movement to encourage students to embrace deeper intellectual engagement with their studies by revolutionizing the way that their learning is assessed. Student-focused active learning pedagogies, such as Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL), are well-established; student-focused assessments, on the other hand, are a new frontier. The PIs have formulated, implemented and assessed a student-focused assessment system that they call “Growth-Oriented Testing.” As successful as the system has been, the assessment results have illuminated ways in which their in-class materials have not optimally supported students, and the student opinion surveys suggest ways in which they have not optimally framed the learning process. As a result, students may not get the full benefits of the learning environment. A long-range goal of their teaching is to help students embrace a life of growth and learning; they want the students to learn both Chemistry and the metacognitive and metaemotional skills they need to succeed beyond the Chemistry classroom.

Sean Gess, Department of Biological Sciences: Supporting richer class-wide discussion and promoting the use of scientific argumentation in Foundations of Biology laboratory courses

This project focuses on class-wide discussion in a guided, authentic research lab. In this course students engage in science education by performing authentic research science to address active research questions being investigated within the department. The course is designed to mimic the research process, including discussions of data to try and understand it better. These discussion-based activities often struggle to support the learning objectives due to low participation from students or students not really listening and engaging with others during the discussions. To improve these discussions, they have previously introduced an explicit framing to attempt to help students understand the norms around this activity, normalize it as a professional practice, and encourage engagement and participation. This approach to science learning has shown gains in critical thinking skills and supports epistemic learning of STEM content.

Burhan Gharaibeh, Natasha Baker and Bridget Deasy, Department of Biological Sciences: Enhancing student engagement in anatomy and physiology courses through regenerative medicine primary science literature

Students of anatomy and physiology in different majors often report difficulty in these courses due to the need for memorizing lists of structures and comprehending complex physiological processes. They have preliminary data demonstrating that adding discussions of current, clinically relevant therapies and biotechnology articles related to regenerative medicine studies were effective in enhancing the biology student’s engagement during anatomy lectures. More importantly, the addition of these discussions to the curriculum appeared to improve exam grades.

Melanie Good and Eric Swanson, Department of Physics & Astronomy: The Use of Comprehensive PACE (Pseudoscience and Conspiracy-theory Education) in Physics and Society

Phys0087: Physics and Society was a course developed by Eric Swanson to help students examine the conceptual foundations of modern science with the goal of understanding how science affects our daily lives and our impact on the environment. At the intersection of science and society lies the issue of popular belief in the claims of pseudoscience and conspiracy theories. These beliefs are fairly common and often can be difficult to dislodge with education in science alone. However, past work has shown that explicit instruction on topics related to pseudoscience and conspiracy theory beliefs may be effective in reducing endorsement of these beliefs. The PIs have seen this among their own students, based on pilot data and data from a previous dB-SERC Course Transformation Award. The success of their earlier work has captured the attention not only of our university media, but also the Lilienfeld Alliance, a group of higher education professionals across the nation that is committed to promoting critical thinking skills in the face of the claims of pseudoscience, who invited them to join their cause. With the momentum they have built, they are inspired to more comprehensively overhaul Phys0087: Physics and Society to expand upon their original transformation. Their new proposed course transformation would extend the pseudoscience module into a comprehensive PACE (Pseudoscience and Conspiracy-theory Education) curriculum in Phys0087–Physics and Society during the 2024-2025 school year.

Edison Hauptman and Jeffrey Wheeler, Department of Mathematics: Contract Grading in Calculus 2

In summer 2024, Edison Hauptman’s section of Analytic Geometry & Calculus 2 (Math 0230) was taught with a different set of assignments and grading structure. The grading structure for the class resembled a contract between the instructor and their students: the instructor provided many different assignments, and for a student to earn a desired grade, they had to score enough points on various assignments of their choice to reach that grade’s point threshold. This course structure can have many variations and is called a “grading contract.” Compared to the current (default) course structure for Calculus courses at the University of Pittsburgh, a grading contract is a more equitable way to evaluate a diverse set of students, allows the instructor to be more accommodating to students without sacrificing the course’s rigor, and encourages more student buy-in. This project develops and evaluates a set of assignments offered to students in  Hauptman’s Summer 2024 12-week section of Math 0230 and focuses on mathematical skills emphasized in each assignment.

Zuzana Swigonova, Department of Biological Sciences: Combining computer visualizations with 3D printed models to engage students in active study of molecular structure and function

All biological processes in a living system depend on proper functioning of molecules. Understanding the principles of molecular structure, the three-dimensional spatial arrangements of atoms and functional groups that allow for intra- and intermolecular interactions, is crucial for grasping the fundamentals of structure-function relationships. Despite the many benefits of physical 3D models, printing intricate biological molecules has several limitations, such as low level of atomic detail in complex structures, depiction of a single static molecular representation, and labor-intensive post-printing processing. Computer visualization allows for the development of abundant resources that complement physical models with no added material cost. They propose to develop teaching resources using computer visualization to supplement the physical 3D models.

Margaret Vines, Department of Chemistry: Learning to learn chemistry

The purpose of this project is to help students learn. Most students come to college with the desire to learn. They want to be successful and learn the material presented to them in their classes. Unfortunately, many of them engage in activities that do not help with their learning. The PI’s goal is to help students begin to learn how to learn. They will do this as part of their regular lecture and recitation in general Chemistry. They will educate them about learning techniques and explain why they will aid in their learning. They will then demonstrate these techniques in class, and the students will be given opportunities to use these techniques inside and outside the lecture and recitation. Finally, they will encourage their students to develop those techniques for use in their other classes.

Mentor/Mentee Award

Mentor: Anusha Balangoda / Mentee: Beth Ann Eberle. Department of Geology and Environmental Science: Use of Cooperative Learning Approach in Recitations to Untangle Pressing Environmental Issues in Introductory Environmental Science Class

Cooperative learning is a student-centered active learning strategy in which a small group of students is responsible for their own success and that of their team by holding themselves accountable for the process and outcomes of the activities. In this project, they propose to use a cooperative learning strategy in the GEOL 0840 Introductory Environmental Science course, which is a large enrollment three-credit class, and both lectures and recitations are required.

Mentor: Ben Rottman / Mentee: Rebecca McGregor. Department of Psychology; Learning Research and Development Center: Using a Consulting Model and Project-Based Learning to Teach Psychology Research Methods

In the field of psychology, research methods form the foundation of students’ knowledge during the remainder of their undergraduate degree and beyond. Students in PSY 0036: Research Methods Lecture at the University of Pittsburgh have three course objectives: learn how to read, interpret and discuss research design and conclusions, learn how to critique research, and learn how to design valid research. There are currently few opportunities for students to apply this knowledge to real-world experiences, as this is an introductory course in which students have not yet developed the skills to analyze and interpret their own data. Thus, this course design through the dB-SERC would provide a semester-long collaborative assignment in which students would develop a project proposal to investigate a real-world research problem for a fictional client.