leadership and management theories assignment

Module 1: Introduction to Organizational Behavior

Different management theories, learning outcomes.

• Differentiate among Scientific, Administrative, and Bureaucratic Management Theories
• Differentiate among Human Relations, General, and X&Y Management Theories

During the Industrial Revolution, it became obvious that the ways companies operated their businesses had to drastically change. While many people were in agreement that change was inevitable, pioneers in management theory differed in how they believed things should change and operate. In this page, we are going to explore six different management theories, all of which helped to form the base of management as it is known today. Keep in mind as you read about each one, that while some parts of the theories may be common sense to us today, at the time they were developed, they were groundbreaking. While the Industrial Revolution sparked these new theories, even more innovation came in the decades that followed as companies changed to adapt to business needs.

Scientific Management Theory

Frederick Winslow Taylor developed and published his Scientific Management Theory in 1909. At its core, scientific management theory believes that it is vital to find the most effective way to complete each and every task, no matter how small. In the early 1900s, managers would give orders to their workers with no guidance on how to accomplish them. Managers and employees rarely, if ever, had interaction with one another. Taylor believed this was an inefficient way to operate a business and recommended some key changes.

Taylor argued each task should be completed as efficiently as possible. In addition, everyone should be assigned a particular job based on their skills and abilities and must be evaluated based on the quantity and quality of their work. Taylor did not think it was fair or cost effective to pay every employee the same amount, regardless of their output. While this may sound like common sense today, this was a groundbreaking idea in the early 1900s. Another big component of scientific management theory is the idea of training and development. Taylor argued it was extremely important to monitor and train your employees on the tasks they are assigned to. By ensuring your employees are efficient at their work, the output will be larger and of a higher quality.

One part of the scientific management theory that is not common today is the idea that managers strictly manage and employees simply work. Nowadays, most companies offer room for growth and advancement for their employees as opposed to keeping a distinct barrier between management and employees. This theory had a huge impact on the way companies operated and how they were able to create a more balanced pay system, better training, and a more efficient workforce.

Administrative Management Theory

Administrative management theory was developed by Henri Fayol in the early 1900s and is considered to be highly relevant even today. Fayol created fourteen principles which he believed outlined the basis for strong and successful companies. It is important to know that Fayol agreed with many of Taylor’s ideas and ideologies, however, the main difference is that Taylor focused on the process of completing the work most effectively, and Fayol focuses on the organizational structure of a company as a whole.

Some of Fayol’s principles included a clear division of labor, ensuring each employee had only one direct manager to report to, and a healthy manager-employee relationship. Another important part of Fayol’s administrative management theory is the idea that everyone in a company should be aligned by organizational goals. Fayol believed that organizational structure was vital to the success and productivity of a company.

Bureaucratic Management Theory

The word bureaucracy tends to sound pejorative, or negative, by implying that a bureaucratic organization is an impersonal machine that focuses more on numbers and output than on the wellbeing of its employees. However, its intended meaning is actually quite different. At the end of the 19th century, Max Weber created the bureaucratic management theory. Unlike today’s interpretation of the word, Weber believed that bureaucracy meant carefully developing and spelling out company objectives and divisions of labor. While this included developing a hierarchy of command within the company, it also included supporting and developing employees.

Weber built onto Taylor’s theory by adding a few key ideas of his own. Like Taylor, Weber believed efficiency in completing tasks was a key component to success and recommended detailed record keeping at all levels to monitor efficiency as well as areas of opportunity. He agreed that all employees need to have clear job expectations and each job should be standardized to allow for maximum productivity. The greatest difference between the scientific theory and the bureaucratic theory is that Weber believed in the importance of human emotion.

Emotion in business? This was absolutely unheard of during the Industrial Revolution. However, Weber believed the two words were closely associated. Weber argued that the increased use of technology could have a negative impact on a company’s culture. Too much change can be harmful to company morale and create long lasting negative effects on company success. In addition, Weber argued it was extremely important to hire based on skill and, just as importantly, personality. To ensure the safety and longevity of a company’s culture, Weber believed hiring employees based on their personality was critical.

Even in today’s business world, there is an anti-bureaucratic tone. For example, the term management is often replaced with leadership. The argument for this is that management is a mundane and structured task while leadership is a unique and heroic act. With this thought process, managers are viewed in a negative light while leaders are appreciated and recognized. Although in many places managers and leaders may appear to perform their job the same way, the focus on eliminating bureaucratic tone and perceived terminology from today’s workplace is evident [1] .

Practice Question

Now that you have read about three management theories, do any of them seem familiar? Maybe you have experienced certain aspects of each of these theories first hand. During an interview process, onboarding process, or the day-to-day work environment, some parts of these theories are still active today. Try connecting some of these theories to your personal experiences as we move onto the next three theories we are going to discuss in this module: Human Relations Management Theory, General Management Theory, and X&Y Management Theory.

Human Relations Management Theory

As the title implies, Human Relations Management Theory is centered around human interactions and relationships. Elton Mayo believed that all early management theories only focused on how money affects employee performance. He believed there were more factors that influenced how employees behaved and performed at work. To test his theory, he began a study at Chicago’s Western Electric Hawthorne Plant in the 1920s and 1930s and created his own management theory based on his findings which are more commonly known today as The Hawthorne Effect.

The initial goal of the The Hawthorne Study was to determine how changing the lighting would or would not affect employee productivity. They began the study with a small group of employees who they interacted with throughout the process. The study found that regardless of how they changed the lighting, productivity increased. When they were unable to make a connection as to why productivity improved, they began branching out to other departments to see if the results were similar. They realized that the lighting changes did not affect productivity but instead the daily interactions with the employees throughout the process motivated them to work more efficiently and increase their output. They allowed employees to voice their opinions, frustrations, and successes which in turn helped the employees feel more valuable. In addition, since they knew they were being monitored, they were more motivated to perform on a higher level. This was a revolutionary discovery that put the spotlight on human relations and highlighted the importance of individual and group dynamics.

General Systems Theory

In the 1940s, biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy created his General Systems Theory. You might be wondering why a biologist would have any impact on management. Keep reading to see if you can connect the dots.

Ludwig von Bertalanffy believed that your body is the sum of all parts. For example, your nervous system works together with your digestive system, which work with each organ and muscle group to allow a person to function. If one function of the body fails to work, the body as a whole cannot effectively operate. Humans are most healthy and functional when all aspects of their being are working together effectively. He also argued that the environment can have an effect on each of the parts. A broken leg can prevent you from walking or the flu can have you bedridden for days. Each of these issues can damage the overall productivity of a person.

Ludwig von Bertalanffy’s theory is still found today in many management styles and theories. His work shows that external factors can prove to be toxic to an environment. Although he was referring to the human body, the same can be said for the workplace. Negativity and other toxic outlooks can have a harmful effect on motivation and performance at all levels in an organization. And, like his theory states, even when only one component of the organization isn’t executing properly, it will have an undesirable effect on the rest of the organization.

X&Y Management Theory

Based on his observations in the 1950s and 1960s, Douglas McGregor developed the X&Y Management Theory, by arguing that all managers can be grouped into two categories. The first category known as Theory X explains that managers have a negative view of their employees and believe that employees need to be forced or coaxed into working. Theory X Managers tend to micromanage with the belief that employees will not motivate themselves to complete their work. This theory can be linked back to the scientific management theory and its focus on output above employee development and input.

On the opposite side of the spectrum, Theory Y Managers believe that employees are inherently motivated to work. Theory Y managers value the importance of helping their employees to thrive by providing opportunities for learning and development. Theory Y is focused on the idea of team versus independent work. McGregor argued that a team environment paired with an emphasis on individual professional development produces better results and a healthier work environment. Theory Y continues to prove its relevance and is still present in today’s business world.

Now that we’ve discussed six different management theories, where do we go next? I’m so glad you asked! There is a very important link between management theory and organizational behavior. Although the concepts are different, these six management theories helped develop organizational behavior into its own unique field. Let’s move on to learn more about how the two are connected!

• McCann, Leo. “From Management to Leadership.” The SAGE Sociology of Work and Employment , edited by S Edgell, E Granter, and H Gottfried, SAGE, 2015. ↵
• Different Management Theories. Authored by : Freedom Learning Group. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution

You are using an outdated browser. Please upgrade your browser to improve your experience.

Health & Nursing

Courses and certificates.

• Bachelor's Degrees
• View all Business Bachelor's Degrees
• Business Management – B.S. Business Administration
• Healthcare Administration – B.S.
• Human Resource Management – B.S. Business Administration
• Information Technology Management – B.S. Business Administration
• Marketing – B.S. Business Administration
• Accounting – B.S. Business Administration
• Finance – B.S.
• Supply Chain and Operations Management – B.S.
• Accelerated Information Technology Bachelor's and Master's Degree (from the School of Technology)
• Health Information Management – B.S. (from the Leavitt School of Health)

Master's Degrees

• View all Business Master's Degrees
• Master of Business Administration (MBA)
• MBA Information Technology Management
• MBA Healthcare Management
• Management and Leadership – M.S.
• Accounting – M.S.
• Marketing – M.S.
• Human Resource Management – M.S.
• Master of Healthcare Administration (from the Leavitt School of Health)
• Data Analytics – M.S. (from the School of Technology)
• Information Technology Management – M.S. (from the School of Technology)
• Education Technology and Instructional Design – M.Ed. (from the School of Education)

Certificates

• Supply Chain
• Accounting Fundamentals
• View all Business Degrees

Bachelor's Preparing For Licensure

• View all Education Bachelor's Degrees
• Elementary Education – B.A.
• Special Education and Elementary Education (Dual Licensure) – B.A.
• Special Education (Mild-to-Moderate) – B.A.
• Mathematics Education (Middle Grades) – B.S.
• Mathematics Education (Secondary)– B.S.
• Science Education (Middle Grades) – B.S.
• Science Education (Secondary Chemistry) – B.S.
• Science Education (Secondary Physics) – B.S.
• Science Education (Secondary Biological Sciences) – B.S.
• Science Education (Secondary Earth Science)– B.S.
• View all Education Degrees

Bachelor of Arts in Education Degrees

• Educational Studies – B.A.

Master of Science in Education Degrees

• View all Education Master's Degrees
• Curriculum and Instruction – M.S.
• Educational Leadership – M.S.
• Education Technology and Instructional Design – M.Ed.

Master's Preparing for Licensure

• Teaching, Elementary Education – M.A.
• Teaching, English Education (Secondary) – M.A.
• Teaching, Mathematics Education (Middle Grades) – M.A.
• Teaching, Mathematics Education (Secondary) – M.A.
• Teaching, Science Education (Secondary) – M.A.
• Teaching, Special Education (K-12) – M.A.

Licensure Information

• State Teaching Licensure Information

Master's Degrees for Teachers

• Mathematics Education (K-6) – M.A.
• Mathematics Education (Middle Grade) – M.A.
• Mathematics Education (Secondary) – M.A.
• English Language Learning (PreK-12) – M.A.
• Endorsement Preparation Program, English Language Learning (PreK-12)
• Science Education (Middle Grades) – M.A.
• Science Education (Secondary Chemistry) – M.A.
• Science Education (Secondary Physics) – M.A.
• Science Education (Secondary Biological Sciences) – M.A.
• Science Education (Secondary Earth Science)– M.A.
• View all Technology Bachelor's Degrees
• Cloud Computing – B.S.
• Computer Science – B.S.
• Cybersecurity and Information Assurance – B.S.
• Data Analytics – B.S.
• Information Technology – B.S.
• Network Engineering and Security – B.S.
• Software Engineering – B.S.
• Accelerated Information Technology Bachelor's and Master's Degree
• Information Technology Management – B.S. Business Administration (from the School of Business)
• View all Technology Master's Degrees
• Cybersecurity and Information Assurance – M.S.
• Data Analytics – M.S.
• Information Technology Management – M.S.
• MBA Information Technology Management (from the School of Business)
• Full Stack Engineering
• Web Application Deployment and Support
• Front End Web Development
• Back End Web Development

3rd Party Certifications

• IT Certifications Included in WGU Degrees
• View all Technology Degrees
• View all Health & Nursing Bachelor's Degrees
• Nursing (RN-to-BSN online) – B.S.
• Nursing (Prelicensure) – B.S. (Available in select states)
• Health Information Management – B.S.
• Health and Human Services – B.S.
• Psychology – B.S.
• Health Science – B.S.
• Healthcare Administration – B.S. (from the School of Business)
• View all Nursing Post-Master's Certificates
• Nursing Education—Post-Master's Certificate
• Nursing Leadership and Management—Post-Master's Certificate
• Family Nurse Practitioner—Post-Master's Certificate
• Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner —Post-Master's Certificate
• View all Health & Nursing Degrees
• View all Nursing & Health Master's Degrees
• Nursing – Education (BSN-to-MSN Program) – M.S.
• Nursing – Leadership and Management (BSN-to-MSN Program) – M.S.
• Nursing – Nursing Informatics (BSN-to-MSN Program) – M.S.
• Nursing – Family Nurse Practitioner (BSN-to-MSN Program) – M.S. (Available in select states)
• Nursing – Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner (BSN-to-MSN Program) – M.S. (Available in select states)
• Nursing – Education (RN-to-MSN Program) – M.S.
• Nursing – Leadership and Management (RN-to-MSN Program) – M.S.
• Nursing – Nursing Informatics (RN-to-MSN Program) – M.S.
• Master of Healthcare Administration
• MBA Healthcare Management (from the School of Business)
• Business Leadership (with the School of Business)
• Supply Chain (with the School of Business)
• Accounting Fundamentals (with the School of Business)
• Back End Web Development (with the School of Technology)
• Front End Web Development (with the School of Technology)
• Web Application Deployment and Support (with the School of Technology)
• Full Stack Engineering (with the School of Technology)
• Single Courses
• Course Bundles

Apply for Admission

Admission requirements.

• New Students
• WGU Returning Graduates
• WGU Readmission
• Enrollment Checklist
• Accessibility
• Accommodation Request
• School of Education Admission Requirements
• School of Business Admission Requirements
• School of Technology Admission Requirements
• Leavitt School of Health Admission Requirements

Additional Requirements

• Computer Requirements
• No Standardized Testing
• Clinical and Student Teaching Information

Transferring

• FAQs about Transferring
• Transfer to WGU
• Transferrable Certifications
• Request WGU Transcripts
• International Transfer Credit
• Tuition and Fees
• Financial Aid
• Scholarships

Other Ways to Pay for School

• Tuition—School of Business
• Tuition—School of Education
• Tuition—School of Technology
• Tuition—Leavitt School of Health
• Your Financial Obligations
• Tuition Comparison
• Applying for Financial Aid
• State Grants
• Consumer Information Guide
• Responsible Borrowing Initiative
• Higher Education Relief Fund

FAFSA Support

• Net Price Calculator
• FAFSA Simplification
• See All Scholarships
• Military Scholarships
• State Scholarships
• Scholarship FAQs

Payment Options

• Payment Plans
• Corporate Reimbursement
• Current Student Hardship Assistance
• Military Tuition Assistance

WGU Experience

• How You'll Learn
• Scheduling/Assessments
• Accreditation
• Student Support/Faculty
• Military Students
• Part-Time Options
• Virtual Military Education Resource Center
• Student Outcomes
• Return on Investment
• Students and Gradutes
• Career Growth
• Student Resources
• Communities
• Testimonials
• Career Guides
• Skills Guides
• Online Degrees
• All Degrees
• Explore Your Options

Admissions & Transfers

• Admissions Overview

Tuition & Financial Aid

Student Success

• Prospective Students
• Current Students
• Military and Veterans
• Commencement
• Careers at WGU
• Advancement & Giving
• Partnering with WGU

Leadership Theories and Styles

• See More Tags

Every company, no matter what industry they’re a part of or how big they are, needs good leadership to be successful. Good leaders are a vital part of effective business practices. And for most, being a good leader doesn’t come inherently. That’s why there are entire degree programs dedicated to management and helping students become great leaders in their business.

In the world of leadership there are many theories about how leadership works, what makes good leaders, and how to be effective. There are many leadership styles that managers can employ and their impact varies based on the group they are leading and the industry they are in. These leadership theories explain how leadership styles work within a company to bring success. If you are studying to become a business leader or manager, it’s important to understand these different leadership theories and how they impact your leadership and management style.

What is a leadership theory?

Leadership theories are the explanations of how and why certain people become leaders. They focus on the traits and behaviors that people can adopt to increase their leadership capabilities. Some of the top traits that leaders say are vital to good leadership include :

Strong ethics and high moral standards

Great self-organizational skills

Efficient learner

Nurtures growth in employees

Fosters connection and belonging

Research shows that these traits are considered the most important to leaders around the world. And leadership theories help explain how leaders harness and develop these traits. Recently leadership theories have been more formalized, making them easier to understand, discuss, and analyze in action. 

Ralph Nader says “The function of leadership is to produce more leaders, not followers.” This is considered transformational leadership—a leader can alter the perspective or psychology of a follower and shift them to want to become a leader too. This suggests that at the end of the day, leadership should be elevating and inspiring. Leaders should push the people they lead to new heights, helping them to grow into what they know they can become. Transformational leadership is an important psychological perspective for leaders to study and understand if they want to really influence and impact others. Different leadership theories address to create stronger and more effective leadership, helping followers become encouraged to be leaders themselves. 

Like This Article?

Subscribe to get more articles like this one sent to your inbox.

Major leadership theories.

While there are dozens of leadership theories and psychology, there are a few that are more well-known. These more common leadership theories are important to understand and recognize, especially if you currently are, or are studying to be business leader in the future. Understanding psychological and social impacts of effective leadership will help you determine the kind of leader you want to be.

--Behavioral theory. The behavioral leadership theory focuses on how leaders behave, and assumes that these traits can be copied by other leaders. Sometimes called the style theory, it suggests that leaders aren’t born successful, but can be created based on learnable behavior. Behavioral theories of leadership focus heavily on the actions of a leader—this theory suggests that the best predictor of leadership success is viewing how a leader acts. Action rather than qualities are the focal points of behavioral learning theory. Patterns of behavior are observed and categorized as “styles of leadership” in this theory. Some of the styles of leadership include task-oriented leaders, people-oriented leaders, country club leaders, status-quo leaders, dictatorial leaders, and more. At the end of the day, the actions and actual behaviors of a leader are what defines success in this theory.

The behavioral theory has many advantages, primarily that leaders can learn and decide what actions they want to implement to become the kind of leader they want to be. It allows leaders to be flexible and adapt based on their circumstances. Another great benefit of this leadership style is that it suggests anyone is capable of becoming a leader. Some disadvantages of the behavioral theory are that while it allows flexibility, it doesn’t directly suggest how to behave in certain circumstances. There are dozens of leadership styles that stem from the behavioral theory, but there isn’t a right one for every circumstance. 

A great example of the behavioral theory is looking at a task-oriented leader vs. a people-oriented leader. If there’s a problem with a team, a task-oriented leader will look at the process to see if something needs to be adjusted with the workflow. A people-oriented leader will look at the individuals and go right to them, asking what the issue is. Whatever behaviors you choose, the behavioral leadership theory helps leaders focus on their actions and utilize their decisions to be a great leader.

--Contingency theory. The contingency leadership theory, sometimes called situational theory, focuses on the context of a leader. These theories look at the situational effects of the success or failure or a leader. A leader’s effectiveness is directly determined by the situational context. While a leader’s personality is a small factor in their success, the most important factor is the context and situation of the leader. This theory takes the specific leadership styles and suggests that good leaders can adjust their leadership style situationally. It also suggests that it may be best to find the right kind of leader for a specific situation. Types of contingency theories include the Hershey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory, the Evans and House Path-Goal Theory, and Fiedler’s Contingency Theory.

The contingency theory has great advantages, including that leaders are able to be effective no matter their situational context. However, this theory does have criticism suggesting that there isn’t enough detail that goes into the context of any situation. Contingency theory focuses on the importance of a situation, but may not focus enough on the psychology of the employees or the company itself. It also may not focus enough on how leadership styles can change over time. 

There are internal and external factors that impact a leader and their situation. The type of company, the size of the team, and the innate leadership style of an individual are internal factors. External factors may include the customer feelings and the marketplace. All of these situations play a factor into the contingency theory. 

--Great Man theory. The great man theory of leadership, sometimes called the trait theory, suggests that good leaders are born. They have innate traits and skills that make them great, and these are things that can’t be taught or learned. The trait theory suggests that leaders deserve to be in their position because of their special traits. 

There is a great amount of criticism for the trait theory, mainly that leaders are either born or not, that there isn’t work or effort that is needed to be put in so you can become a leader. This suggests that social or psychological leaders are predetermined and that leaders are unable to come from the shadows—they are either chosen or not. There is also criticism that most of the traits associated with this theory are inherently masculine, and don't match the real psychology of good leaders. 

People cite Abraham Lincoln, Alexander the Great, Queen Elizabeth I, and many others as their examples of the great man theory. These social giants utilized their skills to lead nations. High levels of ambition and determination are usually seen in leaders that appear to bring this theory to life. Today, leaders that climb to the top may view their traits and abilities as part of the “great man” theory. So it may appear that leaders get to their position based on their inherit gifts. 

--Management theory. The management theory is sometimes called transactional leadership, and focuses on supervision, organization, and group performance. Transactional leadership is a system of rewards and punishments, and transactional leadership is regularly used in business. When employees do something successful, managers reward them. When they fail, they may get punished. Transactional rewards and punishments are given based on the idea that people really only do things for the reward. Their psychology doesn't allow human beings to do things out of goodness, but rather out of the promise of a reward.

The management leadership style can be extremely effective. Positive reinforcement is known for working wonders with employees, encouraging and motivating them to succeed. But there is lots of criticism around leadership that is strictly transactional as well. Consequences and punishments can decrease morale in an organization, negatively impacting employees. It can also be seen as a lazy leadership style—rewards and punishments are a relatively simple way to lead employees.

A common example of this management style is a leader that offers a cash bonus for employees who meet a goal. Or a leader who makes employees do extra paperwork if they miss a deadline. 

--Participative theory. Participative leadership isn’t as common in the corporate world. Sometimes called democratic leadership, this leadership theory suggests that employees be directly involved in decision making in their organization. The leader simply facilitates a conversation and then takes all the suggestions, and comes up with the best possible action. In this theory, everyone is very involved with decisions for the team and organization, with the leader simply helping direct the charge.

There are many advantages to this theory. Employees feel more engaged and motivated when they are directly involved in decisions and outcomes for their company. This theory is not without criticism however—some suggest that this type of style makes leaders appear weak or unnecessary. It is also a criticism that leaders in this theory don’t actually get the best outcomes, because they are too engaged in what people want more than what the company needs. 

Bill Gates is a well known example of participative theory. While this theory is still hotly debated, there are many examples of companies that work to incorporate employees more in the decision making process. In this theory, a leader may have a meeting to ask employees how to solve a particular problem. They encourage employees to be open and honest about their thoughts. They take all the suggestions, and meet with other leaders to discuss them. Leaders then make a decision based on the input from employees and their own decision making. Employees tend to appreciate this style, though it can be less effective overall. 

--Power theory. This theory looks at the way a leader utilizes their power and influence to get things accomplished. French and Raven's Five Forms of Power is a commonly known power theory of leadership. It looks at positional power and personal power and how they impact leaders choices and outcomes. 

This theory may appear to be highly effective—leaders with great power may seem highly efficient and get things done quickly. However, most employees don’t appreciate power leadership. They want a leader who doesn’t wield power over them, but works with them and encourages them. Thus the greatest criticism of this theory is that it doesn’t reach the end goal of inspiring and encouraging employees, but rather makes them feel dominated.

The power theory can be seen in organizations where hierarchy and promotion is key to success. Employees in power theory companies see that their only way to influence change or impact the company is to gain power of their own. This can result in low morale, political, and cliquey climates in the office. 

--Relationship theory. The relationship theory of leadership focuses on leaders who are mainly concerned about their interactions with others. They are often mentors for employees, scheduling time to talk to them and working to meet their needs. These kinds of leaders are focused on making work enjoyable for as many people as possible, and they want to foster a positive work environment. Studies show that this kind of leadership behavior can be the most effective for many employees. Relationship-oriented managers often get better results from their employees.

There are many advantages to this kind of leadership. Employees feel confident in their leader and want to follow them. They are also inspired to be good leaders to others. Mentorship provides great opportunities to foster growth in employees, and encourages them to stay at the organization for a longer period of time. There are some critics for this kind of leadership however, including thoughts that relationship driven leaders may be unwilling to view employees who are causing problems at face value, they can let relationships get in the way of work, and they can be guided to favor people over productivity. However, most experts agree that relationship driven leaders are actually more effective at the end of the day.

An example of relationship theory would be a manager who takes a newer employee under her wing. She works to help this employee understand how they fit within the organization, encourage them to be open about questions and problems, and create a positive working relationship. This employee then is encouraged to work hard, point out issues, and help solve problems for the company.

If you’re an aspiring business leader attending school, it’s important to understand leadership theories and how they impact you and your leadership style. Recognizing what leadership style you gravitate toward, or what leadership theory you’d like to employ, can help you determine how to be the most effective leader possible. It’s valuable to recognize leadership theories and styles in the company you work for, and understand what you can do to carry on that leadership theory or improve on it.

Ready to Start Your Journey?

HEALTH & NURSING

Recommended Articles

Take a look at other articles from WGU. Our articles feature information on a wide variety of subjects, written with the help of subject matter experts and researchers who are well-versed in their industries. This allows us to provide articles with interesting, relevant, and accurate information. 

{{item.date}}

{{item.preTitleTag}}

{{item.title}}

The university, for students.

• Student Portal
• Alumni Services

Most Visited Links

• Business Programs
• Student Experience
• Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion
• Student Communities

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

The Major Leadership Theories

The 8 Major Theories of Leadership

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Karen Cilli is a fact-checker for Verywell Mind. She has an extensive background in research, with 33 years of experience as a reference librarian and educator.

Verywell / Brianna Gilmartin 

• "Great Man"

Contingency

• Situational
• Participative
• Relationship

What Kind of Leader Are You?

What is it that makes some people excel in leadership roles? Leadership theories seek to explain how and why certain people become leaders. Such theories often focus on the characteristics of leaders, but some attempt to identify the behaviors that people can adopt to improve their own leadership abilities in different situations.

Early debates on the psychology of leadership often suggested that such skills were simply abilities that people were born with. In other words, these theories proposed that certain people were simply "born leaders." Some more recent theories propose that possessing certain traits may help make people nature leaders, but that experience and situational variables also play a critical role.

A Closer Look at Leadership Theories

As interest in the psychology of leadership has increased over the last 100 years, a number of different leadership theories have been introduced to explain exactly how and why certain people become great leaders.

What exactly makes a great leader? Do certain personality traits make people better suited to leadership roles, or do characteristics of the situation make it more likely that certain people will take charge? When we look at the leaders around us—be it our employer or the President—we might find ourselves wondering exactly why these individuals excel in such positions.

People have long been interested in leadership throughout human history, but it has only been relatively recently that a number of formal leadership theories have emerged. Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century.

Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types.

"Great Man" Theories

Have you ever heard someone described as "born to lead?" According to this point of view, great leaders are simply born with the necessary internal characteristics such as charisma, confidence, intelligence, and social skills that make them natural-born leaders.

Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent—that great leaders are born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic, and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

Such theories suggest that people cannot really learn how to become strong leaders. It's either something you are born with or born without. It is very much a nature ( as opposed to nurture ) approach to explaining leadership.

Trait Theories

Similar in some ways to Great Man theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify a particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. For example, traits like extroversion , self-confidence, and courage are all traits that could potentially be linked to great leaders.

If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.

There are plenty of people who possess the personality traits associated with leadership, yet many of these people never seek out positions of leadership. There are also people who lack some of the key traits often associated with effective leadership yet still excel at leading groups.

Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations.

Leadership researchers White and Hodgson suggest that truly effective leadership is not just about the qualities of the leader, it is about striking the right balance between behaviors, needs, and context.

Good leaders are able to assess the needs of their followers, take stock of the situation, and then adjust their behaviors accordingly. Success depends on a number of variables including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.

Situational Theories

Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.

For example, in a situation where the leader is the most knowledgeable and experienced member of a group, an authoritarian style might be most appropriate. In other instances where group members are skilled experts, a democratic style would be more effective.

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Consider it the flip-side of the Great Man theories. Rooted in behaviorism , this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.

Participative Theories

Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.

Management Theories

Management theories, also known as transactional theories , focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded and when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

Relationship Theories

Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task.

These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want every person to fulfill their potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.  

Try our fast and free quiz to find out your usual leadership style.

There are many different ways of thinking about leadership, ranging from focusing on the personality traits of great leadership to emphasizing aspects of the situation that help determine how people lead.

Like most things, leadership is a highly multi-faceted subject and it is a mixture of many factors that help determine why some people become great leaders. Learn more about some of the things that make people strong leaders is one way of potentially improving your own skills.

Benmira S, Agboola M. Evolution of leadership theory . BMJ Leader . Published online January 8, 2021:leader-2020-000296. doi:10.1136/leader-2020-000296

Malakyan PG. Followership in leadership studies: A case of leader-follower trade approach . Journal of Leadership Studies . 2014;7(4):6-22. doi:10.1002/jls.21306

Mango E. Rethinking leadership theories . Open Journal of Leadership . 2018;07(01):57-88. doi:10.4236/ojl.2018.71005

Grant AM, Gino F, Hofmann DA. Reversing the extraverted leadership advantage: The role of employee proactivity . Academy of Management Journal. 2011;54(3):528-550. doi:10.5465/amj.2011.61968043

Khan ZA, Nawaz A, Khan IU. Leadership theories and styles: A literature review . Journal of Resources Development and Management . 2016;16:1-7.

Hodgson P, White R.  Leadership, learning, ambiguity and uncertainty and their significance to dynamic organizations . In: Peterson R, Mannix E, eds.  Leading and Managing People in the Dynamic Organization.  Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 2003.

Cote R. A comparison of leadership theories in an organizational environment . International Journal of Business Administration . 2017;8(5):28. doi:10.5430/ijba.v8n5p28

Amanchukwu R, Stanley G, Ololube N. A review of leadership theories, principles and styles and their relevance to educational management . Management . 2015;5(1)(2162-8416):6-14. doi:10.5923/j.mm.20150501.02

Groves KS, LaRocca MA. An empirical study of leader ethical values, transformational and transactional leadership, and follower attitudes toward corporate social responsibility . J Bus Ethics. 2011;103: 511. doi:10.1007/s10551-011-0877-y

• Gill, R. (2011). Theory and practice of leadership. London: SAGE Publications.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

2.3 Contemporary Management Theories

Now that there is a grasp on classical management theory, do these theories still fit in a contemporary marketplace? Perhaps, adhering to strict theoretical concepts, the classical theories will always be a base, but they need to be associated with many contemporary factors. Some of the current factors influencing the management landscape are:

Globalization

We will be diving into these topics at greater depth throughout the book, for now let us preview technology, diversity, and globalization.

Today, many organizations are being reformed where a host of technological concepts are rising to the top [6] . In a modern market, computerized technology has been the biggest advancement to work in the sense of making work easier and more effective. Globally, it has had a huge impact, considering that modern technology extends to everywhere on Earth. Focusing on the learning organization, much has changed since the advancement of technology. For example, take this book.  A healthy prediction would be that about 99% of students reading this on some form of personal computer, handheld laptop, tablet, or even a smartphone. This leads to the question that in this world of expanding technology, are classical theories obsolete in this new age of contemporary technological management? The answer relies on the comparison and contrast of the classical and the contemporary.

Take the bureaucratic model.  Of course, the systems of hierarchy will remain with the division of labour. However, a manager who uses expert power in the form of knowledge to a subordinate can be equalized with the advancement of technology. Essentially, the employee with the smartphone or tablet can find answers to certain organizational questions just as quickly and effectively as the boss or manager. With this concept at its most extreme, what is the difference between a manager and an employee at this point other than a title? Technology has the opportunity to change the bureaucratic model into more of a bureaucratic matrix that focuses on specialization in a more decentralized organization. As an example, the president of a university is the head of the institution, but has to delegate, and at times defer, to the heads in the areas of other administrations (i.e. information technology, human resources , student affairs etc.).

Technology has moved society into rethinking and expanding on the theories of bureaucratic and scientific management, and into an advanced version of behavioral and human relations theory.  The form of decentralization and human coordination will be effective attributes in a modern organization. Professor Jay Conger, of McGill University, claims that the advancement of new technologies will require managers to be capable of coordinating in a highly decentralized organization, and that the changes will demand not only more leadership and management, but newer forms of leadership and management [7] . Ultimately, a more expanded thinking approach, compared to a methodological approach, may be needed.   Given the advancement of technology that is currently here, and does not seem to be slowing down at any rate. Technology within education will be discussed more in-depth with Communication in Chapter 10.

Diversity has become a widely used term in recent years.  The fact is that the workplace in the 21st century is more diverse now than it has ever been. People are living longer, different genders are engaged in the workplace, and different members of society are actively involved together. This demands a knowledge of diversity, whether or not a classical theory can adapt to the changing notion of diversity.

Diversity in management focuses on people, with their backgrounds and needs within an organization. For example, a university can have  a specific department (faculty of social sciences) with members from different generations (millennials, generation x, and baby boomers) [8] . This idea has been replicated many times throughout case studies, with the pre-determined idea that an organization without diversity will produce differing views and challenges between the generations. However, to have an effective organization, all groups need to be treated fairly, and seen as valued within the organization [9].   This is referred to as managing diversity . In many ways, managing diversity relates to behavioural management by doing what is best to really pay attention to the workers needs within the organization.

Ultimately, what is needed is to rethink what diversity is and how it is present in the many facets within the organization. In order for a modern organization to run effectively, it must use a more advanced approach of a behavioural model that embraces the diverse contrasts within institutions. Essentially, it goes beyond just listening to the employee.  It attempts to listen to the employee based on her or his specific needs. Diversity will be discussed further in Chapter 11: Multicultural Leadership.

The term globalization became more common after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. With an increase in open borders and advancement in technology, bu sinesses  and corporations decided to expand in the new global marketplace. However, as the world moves steadfast through the 21st century, there are some trou bling trends emerging within the global economy. In 2018, the Global Risk Perception Survey (GRPS) conducted a study which listed four trends in the global, external environment [10] :

• Persistent inequality and unfairness
• Domestic and international policy tensions
• Environmental dangers
• Cyber vulnerabilities

There is a bleak outlook by the authors of this survey, and they further state that rigid, hierarchical structures will find no place in a modern high impact environment [9] . Perhaps this is a challenge to the bureaucratic and scientific models.  However, maybe this outlook can be solidified. If the idea of a hierarchical structure that works top down is no longer needed in the globalized marketplace, what about the hierarchy that moves outwards rather than top down? When discussing the organizational environment, it would be remiss to neglect all the outside dynamic forces that effect organizations in a global marketplace. These dynamic forces are listed as follows [11] :

• Economic Environment
• Legal-Political Environment
• Technological Environment
• Socio-Cultural Environment
• Natural Environment

These dynamic forces are outside of the central organization, and thus outside of organizational control. Although the forces are external to the control of the institution, it can effectively change policies to stay ahead of the curve of dynamic forces. For example, a large fast food chain may introduce a ‘beyond meat’ hamburger to meet the needs of a changing natural and socio-cultural environment. Challenges can emerge with this format. however.  For example, that fast food company may bring in order kiosk, which would benefit the technological environment, but may be a deterrent to the economic environment. It remains a constant tug-of-war to ensure a company in a global marketplace does its duty to maintain these dynamic forces in order to foster a positive organizational and social outlook.

The dynamic forces, in many ways, can act as a solution to the troubles in the GRPS survey. Acknowledging the risk that is present and putting systems in place to combat the risks is the main idea behind a globalized organization.

How does this fit within the learning organization? The idea of moving outward may be a beneficial and necessary outcome to keep up in a globalized educational marketplace. With more and more colleges and universities having off-site and web campuses in other cities and countries (technological), a new generation entering post-secondary education (socio-cultural), a growing population (economic), political polarization (legal-political), and green initiatives (natural), learning organizations, much like the large fast food company will need to effectively manage these dynamic forces to maintain an advantage in a globalized marketplace. Within maintaining an advantage, a manager must have specific competencies such as communication, teamwork, self-management, leadership, critical thinking, and professionalism. These competencies allow managers to craft and create their management style to adjust in a modern workplace.

Activity: Management Factors

• Match one of the scenarios to one of the five factors below

The different forces that can affect organizations in a global marketplace (economic, legal-political, technological, socio-cultural, and natural)

Leadership and Management in Learning Organizations Copyright © by Clayton Smith; Carson Babich; and Mark Lubrick is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

• Business Essentials
• Leadership & Management
• Credential of Leadership, Impact, and Management in Business (CLIMB)
• Entrepreneurship & Innovation
• Digital Transformation
• Finance & Accounting
• Business in Society
• For Organizations
• Support Portal
• Media Coverage
• Founding Donors
• Leadership Team

• Harvard Business School →
• HBS Online →
• Business Insights →

Business Insights

Harvard Business School Online's Business Insights Blog provides the career insights you need to achieve your goals and gain confidence in your business skills.

• Career Development
• Communication
• Decision-Making
• Earning Your MBA
• Negotiation
• News & Events
• Productivity
• Staff Spotlight
• Student Profiles
• Work-Life Balance
• AI Essentials for Business
• Alternative Investments
• Business Analytics
• Business Strategy
• Business and Climate Change
• Design Thinking and Innovation
• Digital Marketing Strategy
• Disruptive Strategy
• Economics for Managers
• Entrepreneurship Essentials
• Financial Accounting
• Global Business
• Launching Tech Ventures
• Leadership Principles
• Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability
• Leading Change and Organizational Renewal
• Leading with Finance
• Management Essentials
• Negotiation Mastery
• Organizational Leadership
• Power and Influence for Positive Impact
• Strategy Execution
• Sustainable Business Strategy
• Sustainable Investing
• Winning with Digital Platforms

Leadership vs. Management: What’s the Difference?

• 31 Oct 2019

The terms “leadership” and “management” are often used interchangeably. While there is some overlap between the work that leaders and managers do, there are also significant differences.

In a keynote discussion at Harvard Business School Online’s annual conference, Connext , HBS Professors Nancy Koehn and Joe Fuller explored the interplay between leadership and management and shared how they define the two disciplines.

Koehn referenced the work of HBS Professor John Kotter, who she said aptly defined the “activity of leadership.”

Leadership vs Management: What's the difference?

“ Leadership , he wrote, is the creation of positive, non-incremental change, including the creation of a vision to guide that change—a strategy—the empowerment of people to make the vision happen despite obstacles, and the creation of a coalition of energy and momentum that can move that change forward,” Koehn said.

Fuller, who teaches the online course Management Essentials , relayed his thoughts on how management compares.

“ Management is getting the confused, misguided, unmotivated, and misdirected to accomplish a common purpose on a regular, recurring basis,” Fuller said. “I think the ultimate intersection between leadership and management is an appreciation for what motivates and causes individuals to behave the way they do, and the ability to draw out the best of them with a purpose in mind.”

Watch the full keynote discussion between Nancy Koehn and Joe Fuller below:

While these definitions draw parallels between the roles of leaders and managers, they also allude to some key contrasts. Here are three differences between leadership and management.

Access your free e-book today.

How Is Leadership Different from Management?

1. process vs. vision.

Effective leadership is centered on a vision to guide change.

Whereas managers set out to achieve organizational goals through implementing processes, such as budgeting, organizational structuring, and staffing, leaders are more intent on thinking ahead and capitalizing on opportunities.

“I think of management as working with other people to make sure the goals an organization has articulated are executed,” says HBS Dean Nitin Nohria in an interview for the online course Management Essentials . “It’s the process of working with others to ensure the effective execution of a chosen set of goals. Leadership is about developing what the goals should be. It’s more about driving change.”

2. Organizing vs. Aligning

In the book, On Becoming a Leader , scholar Warren Bennis presents a list of key differences between managers and leaders , including:

• The manager administers; the leader innovates
• The manager maintains; the leader develops
• The manager focuses on systems and structure; the leader focuses on people

Managers pursue goals through coordinated actions and tactical processes, or tasks and activities that unfold over stages to reach a certain outcome. For example, they may implement a decision-making process when leading a critical meeting , or when devising a plan for communicating organizational change .

Leaders, on the other hand, are less focused on how to organize people to get work done and more on finding ways to align and influence them.

“Your central function in a position of leadership is to mobilize others so they can execute a set of individual and collective tasks,” says HBS Professor Anthony Mayo in the online course Leadership Principles .

By developing a personal leadership style through self-reflection and honest feedback , leaders can learn how to empower their employees and inspire them to both believe in and pursue important organizational initiatives.

3. Position vs. Quality

The title “manager” often denotes a specific role within an organization’s hierarchy, while referring to someone as a “leader” has a more fluid meaning.

“Manager is a title. It’s a role and set of responsibilities,” says leadership coach Doc Norton in Forbes . “Having the position of manager does not make you a leader. The best managers are leaders, but the two are not synonymous. Leadership is the result of action. If you act in a way that inspires, encourages, or engages others, you are a leader. It doesn't matter your title or position.”

Leadership is a quality that needs to be shaped. Through developing emotional intelligence and learning how to influence others , professionals of all levels can build greater self-awareness and understand how to bring out the best in themselves and others.

For seasoned and aspiring managers alike, possessing strong leadership skills can not only lead to better job performance , but an improved knowledge of how to influence the context and environment in which decisions get made.

Related: How to Be an Effective Leader at Any Stage of Your Career

Unleashing Your Leadership Potential

Leadership skills can be developed at any stage of your career. By understanding the characteristics of effective leaders and how leadership differs from management, you can develop techniques for coaching colleagues, delivering feedback, and overcoming specific organizational challenges.

Do you want to become a more effective leader and manager? Download our free leadership and management e-book to find out how. Also, explore our online leadership and management courses to learn how you can take charge of your professional development and accelerate your career. To find the right course for you, download the free flowchart .

About the Author

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

BS4S16 Leadership & Management Theories Assignment Brief

You are required to complete one assignment to test the following module learning outcomes: 1. Critically evaluate the development of leadership and managementtheories; 2. Critically appreciate the nature of leadership and management theories and their application in a range of leadership and management settings.

Related Papers

Vimala Sathiasilan

David Gadyan

Truong Huu Xuan Truong

zain kapadia

syllabus for IGCSE ,o level Art and Design

Focusing on the developmental needs of early career postdoctoral fellows–the lifeblood of an internationally competitive researchintensive university–this paper suggests an inextricably linked, two pronged approach to improving research performance at Australian universities.

glenda crosling

Eileen Cruz

Robbayani Shoghiro

Changing English

Ann Hewings , Mary Jane Curry

Khairil Fiqri

RELATED PAPERS

7th International Conference on University Learning and Teaching (InCULT 2014) Proceedings Educate to Innovate

Nabilah Abdullah

Jaime Alfredo Cabrera

Zhuoyuan Li

Muhamad Furkan Mat Salleh , Nabilah Abdullah

Alasdair White PhD FHEA FINS

Penny Wheeler

The Acpet Journal For Private Higher Education

Nabilah Abdullah , Mohamad Hisyam Ismail

Rajib Chowdhury

Eva Parvanova

mylene encinares

Linda Galligan

Md Ariful Islam

Muhammad Rifky Mubarok

Agne Jurciukonyte

CETL-MSOR Conference 2008

Paul Hewson

Shikha Vyas-Doorgapersad

Eddy White, Ph.D.

Francisco C. De La Cruz, Jr.

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons

Margin Size

• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

13.8: Assignment- Leadership and Management

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 48765

\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

When you joined Workplace Solutions Consulting three years ago, you were required to participate in an intensive interview process. After going through preliminary interviews with individuals of the same rank/title and a manager-level person in your division, you then met with the Director of the Consulting division. Everyone you met thus far from the organization seemed smart, outgoing, and friendly.

Apparently the interview process had gone well as you were then scheduled to meet with company executives and officers. First, the VP of Customer Service, then the CFO, and finally the CEO of Workplace Solutions Consulting. The VP of Customer Service seemed highly meticulous in her interview questions, asking for detail behind every answer to her questions. She posed scenario questions to you regarding situations in which she was involved with tasks assigned on a daily basis.

Then you met with the CFO. He was a graduate of one of the nation’s military academies (it was apparent from the office decorations and diplomas). His questions carried implication regarding your self-organization. Do you make daily lists? How do you prioritize your lists? How do you keep your calendar? He even asked to see your daily planner.

Finally it was time to meet with the CEO. After the interviews with the VP and the CFO, you could only imagine what you were getting into with the company’s top leader. When you sat down with the person who had built this incredible company, imagine your surprise when he turned out to be the most pleasant, genuine, thoughtful, and enthusiastic individual you had ever met. He explained that his job as CEO was to ensure that every employee had what they needed to succeed. He told me that if you were hired, he would be working for you. You could not sign up fast enough to join his company!

What a variety of leadership styles, roles, and traits—and all in one interview process! Which interviewer do you think you would work best with? Why do you prefer the leadership styles, roles, and traits they demonstrated?

What combination of leadership style, role, and trait would be best for the following business situations:

• A company with routine and unskilled job functions.
• A company with dangerous job functions (toxic waste handling or heavy equipment operation).
• A company preparing to disrupt an existing market with ground-breaking technology.
• A company preparing for an IPO.

Please explain your thoughts for each situation.

Grading Rubric

Contributors and attributions.

• Assignment: Leadership and Management. Authored by : Robert Danielson. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it's official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings
• Browse Titles

NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

Open Resources for Nursing (Open RN); Ernstmeyer K, Christman E, editors. Nursing Management and Professional Concepts [Internet]. Eau Claire (WI): Chippewa Valley Technical College; 2022.

Nursing Management and Professional Concepts [Internet].

• About Open RN

Chapter 4 - Leadership and Management

4.1. leadership & management introduction, learning objectives.

• Compare and contrast the role of a leader and a manager

• Examine the roles of team members

• Identify the activities managers perform

• Describe the role of the RN as a leader and change agent

• Evaluate the effects of power, empowerment, and motivation in leading and managing a nursing team

• Recognize limitations of self and others and utilize resources

As a nursing student preparing to graduate, you have spent countless hours on developing clinical skills, analyzing disease processes, creating care plans, and cultivating clinical judgment. In comparison, you have likely spent much less time on developing management and leadership skills. Yet, soon after beginning your first job as a registered nurse, you will become involved in numerous situations requiring nursing leadership and management skills. Some of these situations include the following:

• Prioritizing care for a group of assigned clients
• Collaborating with interprofessional team members regarding client care
• Participating in an interdisciplinary team conference
• Acting as a liaison when establishing community resources for a patient being discharged home
• Serving on a unit committee
• Investigating and implementing a new evidence-based best practice
• Mentoring nursing students

Delivering safe, quality client care often requires registered nurses (RN) to manage care provided by the nursing team. Making assignments, delegating tasks, and supervising nursing team members are essential managerial components of an entry-level staff RN role. As previously discussed, nursing team members include RNs, licensed practical/vocational nurses (LPN/VN), and assistive personnel (AP).[ 1 ]

Read more about assigning, delegating, and supervising in the “ Delegation and Supervision ” chapter.

An RN is expected to demonstrate leadership and management skills in many facets of the role. Nurses manage care for high-acuity patients as they are admitted, transferred, and discharged; coordinate care among a variety of diverse health professionals; advocate for clients’ needs; and manage limited resources with shrinking budgets.[ 2 ]

Read more about collaborating and communicating with the interprofessional team; advocating for clients; and admitting, transferring, and discharging clients in the “ Collaboration Within the Interprofessional Team ” chapter.

An article published in the  Online Journal of Issues in Nursing  states, “With the growing complexity of healthcare practice environments and pending nurse leader retirements, the development of future nurse leaders is increasingly important.”[ 3 ] This chapter will explore leadership and management responsibilities of an RN. Leadership styles are introduced, and change theories are discussed as a means for implementing change in the health care system.

4.2. BASIC CONCEPTS

Organizational culture.

The formal leaders of an organization provide a sense of direction and overall guidance for their employees by establishing organizational vision, mission, and values statements. An organization’s  vision statement  defines why the organization exists, describes how the organization is unique from similar organizations, and specifies what the organization is striving to be. The  mission statement  describes how the organization will fulfill its vision and establishes a common course of action for future endeavors. See Figure 4.1 [ 1 ] for an illustration of a mission statement. A  values statement  establishes the values of an organization that assist with the achievement of its vision and mission. A values statement also provides strategic guidelines for decision-making, both internally and externally, by members of the organization. The vision, mission, and values statements are expressed in a concise and clear manner that is easily understood by members of the organization and the public.[ 2 ]

Mission Statement

Organizational culture  refers to the implicit values and beliefs that reflect the norms and traditions of an organization. An organization’s vision, mission, and values statements are the foundation of organizational culture. Because individual organizations have their own vision, mission, and values statements, each organization has a different culture.[ 3 ]

As health care continues to evolve and new models of care are introduced, nursing managers must develop innovative approaches that address change while aligning with that organization’s vision, mission, and values. Leaders embrace the organization’s mission, identify how individuals’ work contributes to it, and ensure that outcomes advance the organization’s mission and purpose. Leaders use vision, mission, and values statements for guidance when determining appropriate responses to critical events and unforeseen challenges that are common in a complex health care system. Successful organizations require employees to be committed to following these strategic guidelines during the course of their work activities. Employees who understand the relationship between their own work and the mission and purpose of the organization will contribute to a stronger health care system that excels in providing first-class patient care. The vision, mission, and values provide a common organization-wide frame of reference for decision-making for both leaders and staff.[ 4 ]

Learning Activity

Investigate the mission, vision, and values of a potential employer, as you would do prior to an interview for a job position.

Reflective Questions

1. How well do the organization’s vision and values align with your personal values regarding health care?

2. How well does the organization’s mission align with your professional objective in your resume?

Followership

Followership  is described as the upward influence of individuals on their leaders and their teams. The actions of followers have an important influence on staff performance and patient outcomes. Being an effective follower requires individuals to contribute to the team not only by doing as they are told, but also by being aware and raising relevant concerns. Effective followers realize that they can initiate change and disagree or challenge their leaders if they feel their organization or unit is failing to promote wellness and deliver safe, value-driven, and compassionate care. Leaders who gain the trust and dedication of followers are more effective in their leadership role. Everybody has a voice and a responsibility to take ownership of the workplace culture, and good followership contributes to the establishment of high-functioning and safety-conscious teams.[ 5 ]

Team members impact patient safety by following teamwork guidelines for good followership. For example, strategies such as closed-loop communication are important tools to promote patient safety.

Read more about communication and teamwork strategies in the “ Collaboration Within the Interprofessional Team ” chapter.

Leadership and Management Characteristics

Leadership and management are terms often used interchangeably, but they are two different concepts with many overlapping characteristics.  Leadership  is the art of establishing direction and influencing and motivating others to achieve their maximum potential to accomplish tasks, objectives, or projects.[ 6 ],[ 7 ] See Figure 4.2 [ 8 ] for an illustration of team leadership. There is no universally accepted definition or theory of nursing leadership, but there is increasing clarity about how it differs from management.[ 9 ]  Management  refers to roles that focus on tasks such as planning, organizing, prioritizing, budgeting, staffing, coordinating, and reporting.[ 10 ] The overriding function of management has been described as providing order and consistency to organizations, whereas the primary function of leadership is to produce change and movement.[ 11 ] View a comparison of the characteristics of management and leadership in Table 4.2a .

Management and Leadership Characteristics[ 12 ]

View in own window

Not all nurses are managers, but all nurses are leaders because they encourage individuals to achieve their goals. The American Nurses Association (ANA) established  Leadership  as a Standard of Professional Performance for all registered nurses. Standards of Professional Performance are “authoritative statements of action and behaviors that all registered nurses, regardless of role, population, specialty, and setting, are expected to perform competently.”[ 13 ] See the competencies of the ANA  Leadership  standard in the following box and additional content in other chapters of this book.

Competencies of ANA’s Leadership Standard of Professional Performance

• Promotes effective relationships to achieve quality outcomes and a culture of safety

• Leads decision-making groups

• Engages in creating an interprofessional environment that promotes respect, trust, and integrity

• Embraces practice innovations and role performance to achieve lifelong personal and professional goals

• Communicates to lead change, influence others, and resolve conflict

• Implements evidence-based practices for safe, quality health care and health care consumer satisfaction

• Demonstrates authority, ownership, accountability, and responsibility for appropriate delegation of nursing care

• Mentors colleagues and others to embrace their knowledge, skills, and abilities

• Participates in professional activities and organizations for professional growth and influence

• Advocates for all aspects of human and environmental health in practice and policy

Read additional content related to leadership and management activities in corresponding chapters of this book:

• Read about the culture of safety in the “ Legal Implications ” chapter.

• Read about effective interprofessional teamwork and resolving conflict in the “ Collaboration Within the Interprofessional Team ” chapter.

• Read about quality improvement and implementing evidence-based practices in the “ Quality and Evidence-Based Practice ” chapter.

• Read more about delegation, supervision, and accountability in the “ Delegation and Supervision ” chapter.

• Read about professional organizations and advocating for patients, communities, and their environments in the “ Advocacy ” chapter.

• Read about budgets and staffing in the “ Health Care Economics ” chapter.

• Read about prioritization in the “ Prioritization ” chapter.

Leadership Theories and Styles

In the 1930s Kurt Lewin, the father of social psychology, originally identified three leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.[ 14 ],[ 15 ]

Authoritarian leadership  means the leader has full power. Authoritarian leaders tell team members what to do and expect team members to execute their plans. When fast decisions must be made in emergency situations, such as when a patient “codes,” the authoritarian leader makes quick decisions and provides the group with direct instructions. However, there are disadvantages to authoritarian leadership. Authoritarian leaders are more likely to disregard creative ideas of other team members, causing resentment and stress.[ 16 ]

Democratic leadership  balances decision-making responsibility between team members and the leader. Democratic leaders actively participate in discussions, but also make sure to listen to the views of others. For example, a nurse supervisor may hold a meeting regarding an increased incidence of patient falls on the unit and ask team members to share their observations regarding causes and potential solutions. The democratic leadership style often leads to positive, inclusive, and collaborative work environments that encourage team members’ creativity. Under this style, the leader still retains responsibility for the final decision.[ 17 ]

Laissez-faire  is a French word that translates to English as, “leave alone.” Laissez-faire leadership gives team members total freedom to perform as they please. Laissez-faire leaders do not participate in decision-making processes and rarely offer opinions. The laissez-faire leadership style can work well if team members are highly skilled and highly motivated to perform quality work. However, without the leader’s input, conflict and a culture of blame may occur as team members disagree on roles, responsibilities, and policies. By not contributing to the decision-making process, the leader forfeits control of team performance.[ 18 ]

Over the decades, Lewin’s original leadership styles have evolved into many styles of leadership in health care, such as passive-avoidant, transactional, transformational, servant, resonant, and authentic.[ 19 ],[ 20 ] Many of these leadership styles have overlapping characteristics. See Figure 4.3 [ 21 ] for a comparison of various leadership styles in terms of engagement.

Leadership Styles

Passive-avoidant leadership  is similar to laissez-faire leadership and is characterized by a leader who avoids taking responsibility and confronting others. Employees perceive the lack of control over the environment resulting from the absence of clear directives. Organizations with this type of leader have high staff turnover and low retention of employees. These types of leaders tend to react and take corrective action only after problems have become serious and often avoid making any decisions at all.[ 22 ]

Transactional leadership  involves both the leader and the follower receiving something for their efforts; the leader gets the job done and the follower receives pay, recognition, rewards, or punishment based on how well they perform the tasks assigned to them.[ 23 ] Staff generally work independently with no focus on cooperation among employees or commitment to the organization.[ 24 ]

Transformational leadership  involves leaders motivating followers to perform beyond expectations by creating a sense of ownership in reaching a shared vision.[ 25 ] It is characterized by a leader’s charismatic influence over team members and includes effective communication, valued relationships, and consideration of team member input. Transformational leaders know how to convey a sense of loyalty through shared goals, resulting in increased productivity, improved morale, and increased employees’ job satisfaction.[ 26 ] They often motivate others to do more than originally intended by inspiring them to look past individual self-interest and perform to promote team and organizational interests.[ 27 ]

Servant leadership  focuses on the professional growth of employees while simultaneously promoting improved quality care through a combination of interprofessional teamwork and shared decision-making. Servant leaders assist team members to achieve their personal goals by listening with empathy and committing to individual growth and community-building. They share power, put the needs of others first, and help individuals optimize performance while forsaking their own personal advancement and rewards.[ 28 ]

Visit the Greenleaf Center site to learn more about  What is Servant Leadership ?

Resonant leaders  are in tune with the emotions of those around them, use empathy, and manage their own emotions effectively. Resonant leaders build strong, trusting relationships and create a climate of optimism that inspires commitment even in the face of adversity. They create an environment where employees are highly engaged, making them willing and able to contribute with their full potential.[ 29 ]

Authentic leaders  have an honest and direct approach with employees, demonstrating self-awareness, internalized moral perspective, and relationship transparency. They strive for trusting, symmetrical, and close leader–follower relationships; promote the open sharing of information; and consider others’ viewpoints.[ 30 ]

Characteristics of Leadership Styles

Outcomes of Various Leadership Styles

Leadership styles affect team members, patient outcomes, and the organization. A systematic review of the literature published in 2021 showed significant correlations between leadership styles and nurses’ job satisfaction. Transformational leadership style had the greatest positive correlation with nurses’ job satisfaction, followed by authentic, resonant, and servant leadership styles. Passive-avoidant and laissez-faire leadership styles showed a negative correlation with nurses’ job satisfaction.[ 31 ] In this challenging health care environment, managers and nurse leaders must promote technical and professional competencies of their staff, but they must also act to improve staff satisfaction and morale by using appropriate leadership styles with their team.[ 32 ]

Systems Theory

Systems theory  is based on the concept that systems do not function in isolation but rather there is an interdependence that exists between their parts. Systems theory assumes that most individuals strive to do good work, but are affected by diverse influences within the system. Efficient and functional systems account for these diverse influences and improve outcomes by studying patterns and behaviors across the system.[ 33 ]

Many health care agencies have adopted a culture of safety based on systems theory. A  culture of safety  is an organizational culture that embraces error reporting by employees with the goal of identifying systemic causes of problems that can be addressed to improve patient safety. According to The Joint Commission, a culture of safety includes the following components[ 34 ]:

• Just Culture:  A culture where people feel safe raising questions and concerns and report safety events in an environment that emphasizes a nonpunitive response to errors and near misses. Clear lines are drawn by managers between human error, at-risk, and reckless employee behaviors. See Figure 4.4 [ 35 ] for an illustration of Just Culture.
• Reporting Culture:  People realize errors are inevitable and are encouraged to speak up for patient safety by reporting errors and near misses. For example, nurses complete an “incident report” according to agency policy when a medication error occurs or a client falls. Error reporting helps the agency manage risk and reduce potential liability.
• Learning Culture:  People regularly collect information and learn from errors and successes while openly sharing data and information and applying best evidence to improve work processes and patient outcomes.

“Just Culture Infographic.png” by Valeria Palarski 2020. Used with permission.

The Just Culture model categorizes human behavior into three categories of errors. Consequences of errors are based on whether the error is a simple human error or caused by at-risk or reckless behavior[ 36 ]:

• Simple human error:  A simple human error occurs when an individual inadvertently does something other than what should have been done. Most medical errors are the result of human error due to poor processes, programs, education, environmental issues, or situations. These errors are managed by correcting the cause, looking at the process, and fixing the deviation. For example, a nurse appropriately checks the rights of medication administration three times, but due to the similar appearance and names of two different medications stored next to each other in the medication dispensing system, administers the incorrect medication to a patient. In this example, a root cause analysis reveals a system issue that must be modified to prevent future patient errors (e.g., change the labelling and storage of look alike-sound alike medications).[ 37 ]
• At-risk behavior:  An error due to at-risk behavior occurs when a behavioral choice is made that increases risk where the risk is not recognized or is mistakenly believed to be justified. For example, a nurse scans a patient’s medication with a barcode scanner prior to administration, but an error message appears on the scanner. The nurse mistakenly interprets the error to be a technology problem and proceeds to administer the medication instead of stopping the process and further investigating the error message, resulting in the wrong dosage of a medication being administered to the patient. In this case, ignoring the error message on the scanner can be considered “at-risk behavior” because the behavioral choice was considered justified by the nurse at the time.[ 38 ]
• Reckless behavior:  Reckless behavior is an error that occurs when an action is taken with conscious disregard for a substantial and unjustifiable risk. For example, a nurse arrives at work intoxicated and administers the wrong medication to the wrong patient. This error is considered due to reckless behavior because the decision to arrive intoxicated was made with conscious disregard for substantial risk.[ 39 ]

These categories of errors result in different consequences to the employee based on the Just Culture model:

• If an individual commits a simple human error, managers console the individual and consider changes in training, procedures, and processes.[ 40 ] In the “simple human error” example above, system-wide changes would be made to change the label and location of the medications to prevent future errors from occurring with the same medications.
• Individuals committing at-risk behavior are held accountable for their behavioral choices and often require coaching with incentives for less risky behaviors and situational awareness.[ 41 ]In the “at-risk behavior” example above, when the nurse chose to ignore an error message on the barcode scanner, mandatory training on using barcode scanners and responding to errors would likely be implemented, and the manager would track the employee’s correct usage of the barcode scanner for several months following training.
• If an individual demonstrates reckless behavior, remedial action and/or punitive action is taken.[ 42 ] In the “reckless behavior” example above, the manager would report the nurse’s behavior to the State Board of Nursing for disciplinary action. The SBON would likely mandate substance abuse counseling for the nurse to maintain their nursing license. However, employment may be terminated and/or the nursing license revoked if continued patterns of reckless behavior occur.

See Table 4.2c describing classifications of errors using the Just Culture model.

Classification of Errors Using the Just Culture Model

Systems leadership  refers to a set of skills used to catalyze, enable, and support the process of systems-level change that is encouraged by the Just Culture Model. Systems leadership is comprised of three interconnected elements:[ 43 ]

• The Individual:  The skills of collaborative leadership to enable learning, trust-building, and empowered action among stakeholders who share a common goal
• The Community:  The tactics of coalition building and advocacy to develop alignment and mobilize action among stakeholders in the system, both within and between organizations
• The System:  An understanding of the complex systems shaping the challenge to be addressed

4.3. IMPLEMENTING CHANGE

Change is constant in the health care environment.  Change  is defined as the process of altering or replacing existing knowledge, skills, attitudes, systems, policies, or procedures.[ 1 ] The outcomes of change must be consistent with an organization’s mission, vision, and values. Although change is a dynamic process that requires alterations in behavior and can cause conflict and resistance, change can also stimulate positive behaviors and attitudes and improve organizational outcomes and employee performance. Change can result from identified problems or from the incorporation of new knowledge, technology, management, or leadership. Problems may be identified from many sources, such as quality improvement initiatives, employee performance evaluations, or accreditation survey results.[ 2 ]

Nurse managers must deal with the fears and concerns triggered by change. They should recognize that change may not be easy and may be met with enthusiasm by some and resistance by others. Leaders should identify individuals who will be enthusiastic about the change (referred to as “early adopters”), as well as those who will be resisters (referred to as “laggers”). Early adopters should be involved to build momentum, and the concerns of resisters should be considered to identify barriers. Data should be collected, analyzed, and communicated so the need for change (and its projected consequences) can be clearly articulated. Managers should articulate the reasons for change, the way(s) the change will affect employees, the way(s) the change will benefit the organization, and the desired outcomes of the change process.[ 3 ] See Figure 4.5 [ 4 ] for an illustration of communicating upcoming change.

Identifying Upcoming Change

Change Theories

There are several change theories that nurse leaders may adopt when implementing change. Two traditional change theories are known as Lewin’s Unfreeze-Change-Refreeze Model and Lippitt’s Seven-Step Change Theory.[ 5 ]

Lewin’s Change Model

Kurt Lewin, the father of social psychology, introduced the classic three-step model of change known as Unfreeze-Change-Refreeze Model that requires prior learning to be rejected and replaced. Lewin’s model has three major concepts: driving forces, restraining forces, and equilibrium. Driving forces are those that push in a direction and cause change to occur. They facilitate change because they push the person in a desired direction. They cause a shift in the equilibrium towards change. Restraining forces are those forces that counter the driving forces. They hinder change because they push the person in the opposite direction. They cause a shift in the equilibrium that opposes change. Equilibrium is a state of being where driving forces equal restraining forces, and no change occurs. It can be raised or lowered by changes that occur between the driving and restraining forces.[ 6 ],[ 7 ]

• Step 1: Unfreeze the status quo.  Unfreezing is the process of altering behavior to agitate the equilibrium of the current state. This step is necessary if resistance is to be overcome and conformity achieved. Unfreezing can be achieved by increasing the driving forces that direct behavior away from the existing situation or status quo while decreasing the restraining forces that negatively affect the movement from the existing equilibrium. Nurse leaders can initiate activities that can assist in the unfreezing step, such as motivating participants by preparing them for change, building trust and recognition for the need to change, and encouraging active participation in recognizing problems and brainstorming solutions within a group.[ 8 ]
• Step 2: Change.  Change is the process of moving to a new equilibrium. Nurse leaders can implement actions that assist in movement to a new equilibrium by persuading employees to agree that the status quo is not beneficial to them; encouraging them to view the problem from a fresh perspective; working together to search for new, relevant information; and connecting the views of the group to well-respected, powerful leaders who also support the change.[ 9 ]
• Step 3: Refreeze.  Refreezing refers to attaining equilibrium with the newly desired behaviors. This step must take place after the change has been implemented for it to be sustained over time. If this step does not occur, it is very likely the change will be short-lived and employees will revert to the old equilibrium. Refreezing integrates new values into community values and traditions. Nursing leaders can reinforce new patterns of behavior and institutionalize them by adopting new policies and procedures.[ 10 ]

Example Using Lewin’s Change Theory

A new nurse working in a rural medical-surgical unit identifies that bedside handoff reports are not currently being used during shift reports.

Step 1: Unfreeze:  The new nurse recognizes a change is needed for improved patient safety and discusses the concern with the nurse manager. Current evidence-based practice is shared regarding bedside handoff reports between shifts for patient safety.[ 11 ] The nurse manager initiates activities such as scheduling unit meetings to discuss evidence-based practice and the need to incorporate bedside handoff reports.

Step 2: Change:  The nurse manager gains support from the Director of Nursing to implement organizational change and plans staff education about bedside report checklists and the manner in which they are performed.

Step 3: Refreeze:  The nurse manager adopts bedside handoff reports in a new unit policy and monitors staff for effectiveness.

Lippitt’s Seven-Step Change Theory

Lippitt’s Seven-Step Change Theory expands on Lewin’s change theory by focusing on the role of the change agent. A  change agent  is anyone who has the skill and power to stimulate, facilitate, and coordinate the change effort. Change agents can be internal, such as nurse managers or employees appointed to oversee the change process, or external, such as an outside consulting firm. External change agents are not bound by organizational culture, politics, or traditions, so they bring a different perspective to the situation and challenge the status quo. However, this can also be a disadvantage because external change agents lack an understanding of the agency’s history, operating procedures, and personnel.[ 12 ] The seven-step model includes the following steps[ 13 ]:

• Step 1: Diagnose the problem.  Examine possible consequences, determine who will be affected by the change, identify essential management personnel who will be responsible for fixing the problem, collect data from those who will be affected by the change, and ensure those affected by the change will be committed to its success.
• Step 2: Evaluate motivation and capability for change.  Identify financial and human resources capacity and organizational structure.
• Step 3: Assess the change agent’s motivation and resources, experience, stamina, and dedication.
• Step 4: Select progressive change objectives.  Define the change process and develop action plans and accompanying strategies.
• Step 5: Explain the role of the change agent to all employees and ensure the expectations are clear.
• Step 6: Maintain change.  Facilitate feedback, enhance communication, and coordinate the effects of change.
• Step 7: Gradually terminate the helping relationship of the change agent.

Example Using Lippitt’s Seven-Step Change Theory

Refer to the previous example of using Lewin’s change theory on a medical-surgical unit to implement bedside handoff reporting. The nurse manager expands on the Unfreeze-Change-Refreeze Model by implementing additional steps based on Lippitt’s Seven-Step Change Theory:

• The nurse manager collects data from team members affected by the changes and ensures their commitment to success.
• Early adopters are identified as change agents on the unit who are committed to improving patient safety by implementing evidence-based practices such as bedside handoff reporting.
• Action plans (including staff education and mentoring), timelines, and expectations are clearly communicated to team members as progressive change objectives. Early adopters are trained as “super-users” to provide staff education and mentor other nurses in using bedside handoff checklists across all shifts.
• The nurse manager facilitates feedback and encourages two-way communication about challenges as change is implemented on the unit. Positive reinforcement is provided as team members effectively incorporate change.
• Bedside handoff reporting is implemented as a unit policy, and all team members are held accountable for performing accurate bedside handoff reporting.

Read more about additional change theories in the  Current Theories of Change Management pdf .

Change Management

Change management  is the process of making changes in a deliberate, planned, and systematic manner.[ 14 ] It is important for nurse leaders and nurse managers to remember a few key points about change management[ 15 ]:

• Employees will react differently to change, no matter how important or advantageous the change is purported to be.
• Basic needs will influence reaction to change, such as the need to be part of the change process, the need to be able to express oneself openly and honestly, and the need to feel that one has some control over the impact of change.
• Change often results in a feeling of loss due to changes in established routines. Employees may react with shock, anger, and resistance, but ideally will eventually accept and adopt change.
• Change must be managed realistically, without false hopes and expectations, yet with enthusiasm for the future. Employees should be provided information honestly and allowed to ask questions and express concerns.

4.4. SPOTLIGHT APPLICATION

Jamie has recently completed his orientation to the emergency department at a busy Level 1 trauma center. The environment is fast-paced and there are typically a multitude of patients who require care. Jamie appreciates his colleagues and the collaboration that is reflected among members of the health care team, especially in times of stress. Jamie is providing care for an 8-year-old patient who has broken her arm when there is a call that there are three Level 1 trauma patients approximately 5 minutes from the ER. The trauma surgeon reports to the ER, and multiple members of the trauma team report to the ER intake bays. If you were Jamie, what leadership style would you hope the trauma surgeon uses with the team?

In a stressful clinical care situation, where rapid action and direction are needed, an autocratic leadership style is most effective. There is no time for debating different approaches to care in a situation where immediate intervention may be required. Concise commands, direction, and responsive action from the team are needed to ensure that patient care interventions are delivered quickly to enhance chance of survival and recovery.

4.5. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Learning activities.

(Answers to “Learning Activities” can be found in the “Answer Key” at the end of the book. Answers to interactive activities are provided as immediate feedback.)

Sample Scenario

An 89-year-old female resident with Alzheimer’s disease has been living at the nursing home for many years. The family decides they no longer want aggressive measures taken and request to the RN on duty that the resident’s code status be changed to Do Not Resuscitate (DNR). The evening shift RN documents a progress note that the family (and designated health care agent) requested that the resident’s status be made DNR. Due to numerous other responsibilities and needs during the evening shift, the RN does not notify the attending physician or relay the information during shift change or on the 24-hour report. The day shift RN does not read the night shift’s notes because of several immediate urgent situations. The family, who had been keeping vigil at the resident’s bedside throughout the night, leaves to go home to shower and eat. Upon return the next morning, they find the room full of staff and discover the staff performed CPR after their loved one coded. The resident was successfully resuscitated but now lies in a vegetative state. The family is unhappy and is considering legal action. They approach you, the current nurse assigned to the resident’s care, and state, “We followed your procedures to make sure this would not happen! Why was this not managed as we discussed?”[ 1 ]

1. As the current nurse providing patient care, explain how you would therapeutically address this family’s concerns and use one or more leadership styles.

2. As the charge nurse, explain how you would address the staff involved using one or more leadership styles.

3. Explain how change theory can be implemented to ensure this type of situation does not recur.

IV. GLOSSARY

The process of altering or replacing existing knowledge, skills, attitudes, systems, policies, or procedures.[ 1 ]

Anyone who has the skill and power to stimulate, facilitate, and coordinate the change effort.

Organizational culture that embraces error reporting by employees with the goal of identifying systemic causes of problems that can be addressed to improve patient safety. Just Culture is a component of a culture of safety.

The upward influence of individuals on their leaders and their teams.

A culture where people feel safe raising questions and concerns and report safety events in an environment that emphasizes a nonpunitive response to errors and near misses. Clear lines are drawn between human error, at-risk, and reckless employee behaviors.

The art of establishing direction and influencing and motivating others to achieve their maximum potential to accomplish tasks, objectives, or projects.[ 2 ],[ 3 ]

Roles that focus on tasks such as planning, organizing, prioritizing, budgeting, staffing, coordinating, and reporting.[ 4 ]

An organization’s statement that describes how the organization will fulfill its vision and establishes a common course of action for future endeavors.

The implicit values and beliefs that reflect the norms and traditions of an organization. An organization’s vision, mission, and values statements are the foundation of organizational culture.

A set of skills used to catalyze, enable, and support the process of systems-level change that focuses on the individual, the community, and the system.

The concept that systems do not function in isolation but rather there is an interdependence that exists between their parts. Systems theory assumes that most individuals strive to do good work, but are affected by diverse influences within the system.

The organization’s established values that support its vision and mission and provide strategic guidelines for decision-making, both internally and externally, by members of the organization.

An organization’s statement that defines why the organization exists, describes how the organization is unique and different from similar organizations, and specifies what the organization is striving to be.

Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

• Cite this Page Open Resources for Nursing (Open RN); Ernstmeyer K, Christman E, editors. Nursing Management and Professional Concepts [Internet]. Eau Claire (WI): Chippewa Valley Technical College; 2022. Chapter 4 - Leadership and Management.
• PDF version of this title (18M)

In this Page

• LEADERSHIP & MANAGEMENT INTRODUCTION
• BASIC CONCEPTS
• IMPLEMENTING CHANGE
• SPOTLIGHT APPLICATION
• LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Other titles in this collection

• Open RN OER Textbooks

Related Items in Bookshelf

• All Textbooks

Related information

• PMC PubMed Central citations
• PubMed Links to PubMed

Recent Activity

• Chapter 4 - Leadership and Management - Nursing Management and Professional Conc... Chapter 4 - Leadership and Management - Nursing Management and Professional Concepts

Your browsing activity is empty.

Activity recording is turned off.

Turn recording back on

Connect with NLM

National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894

Web Policies FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure

Help Accessibility Careers