the difference between research paper and term paper

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Term Paper vs. Research Paper: What are the Differences?

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As a college student, you’re most probably familiar with a research paper. But have you heard of its lesser-known cousin, the term paper?

Not sure what the differences are or if there is a difference at all? Though most students are skeptical, there’s a significant difference between a term paper and a research paper.

This post will discuss term paper vs. research paper and help you distinguish between the two. We’ll help you understand what makes each type of these papers unique so you can be confident when handling both.

What is a term paper?

A term paper is a form of academic writing that requires extensive research and focus on a particular subject. It’s an assignment that college students are expected to complete at the end of an academic term.

A term paper typically requires extensive research and strong analytical skills. It demonstrates a student's understanding of the topics studied and allows them to form arguments based on the information collected throughout the term.

Depending on the course and professor, term papers can take many forms, including reports, essays, or reviews but must always meet high academic standards.

Does a term paper need a thesis?

No. Unlike research papers, term papers don’t always need a thesis. While some instructors may require you to include a thesis in your term paper, others may be more flexible. If you're unsure whether your assignment requires a thesis, always ask your professor before you start writing.

What is a research paper?

A research paper is an academic document that involves the systematic investigation of a specific research topic. It requires comprehensive research to collect and analyze relevant data, form a hypothesis, and draw meaningful conclusions.

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A research paper may include primary research, such as experiments and surveys, or secondary sources, like published works and peer-reviewed journal articles. The structure and format of a research paper vary depending on the topic and the type of research undertaken.

Research papers are effective tools for establishing, discussing, and expanding upon current knowledge within the given field.

What is the difference between a research thesis and a term paper?

A research thesis is usually present in research papers and outlines the central argument or the claim the paper is trying to make, supported by evidence. A term paper may or may not have a thesis, depending on the assignment. It may also present an original argument or claim, but it will be shorter and based primarily on primary sources.

Term paper vs. research paper: 8 key differences

Let’s discuss the key components that set the two papers apart so you won’t confuse one for the other when writing.

One of the main differences between the two is in the purpose they serve.

The main purpose of a term paper is, to sum up the course material learned during the semester. It’s typically assigned at the end of a semester to evaluate what a student has known and understood throughout the semester.

On the other hand, the purpose of a research paper is to assess your understanding of a particular topic through original research. It requires you to conduct research and draw your own conclusions about the topic at hand. A research paper can be assigned as part of a larger project or as an independent assignment.

Term papers tend to be more general in nature, while research papers are more specific. Term papers require you to synthesize information from multiple sources, but they will generally not require you to conduct original research.

Research papers will require you to conduct your own original research on a specific topic. They may also require you to find and synthesize information from published research studies. Research papers are often longer and more comprehensive.

Topic selection

The topics for term papers are usually assigned by professors, while for a research paper, students choose the topics themselves. This can sometimes make it easier to write a term paper because you’re not responsible for researching and coming up with the topic. However, it also means you may have less control over the direction of your paper.

For a research paper, you can choose the topic you want to research and write about. The topic of a term paper may be broad, for instance, "the effects of social media on college students."

On the other hand, the topic of a research paper should be more specific, for instance, "the effects of social media on the mental health of college students."

Level of research

As mentioned, research papers require more in-depth research than term papers. This means you’ll have to spend more time gathering sources and evidence to support your claims in a research paper.

Since term papers are generally broad in nature, they require less research than a research paper. However, both papers require you to find and use outside sources to support your claims and arguments.

References and sources

A research paper relies heavily on primary sources and first-hand accounts of an event or phenomenon. Primary sources include interviews, surveys, or field research.

A term paper may only require secondary sources, which are second-hand accounts written about an event or phenomenon. It typically relies on information from lecture notes, texts, and class discussions.

You may also need to get more information to support your points from journal articles, dissertations, textbooks, political commentary, and biographies.

In order to write a successful research paper, you must have an in-depth understanding of the topic and be able to synthesize information from multiple sources. On the other hand, writing a term paper focuses on summarizing the materials already presented to you in class.

Paper length

Term papers are usually shorter than research papers. They often range from 1-3 pages in length, while research papers tend to be longer .

Research papers are often 5-10 pages or more, depending on the instructions of the assignment and the subject matter. This makes sense considering research papers require more effort, more in-depth research, and more content than a term paper.

Some research papers can go as long as 15 pages if the topic under investigation is broad and requires a lot of written content.

Structure and organization

A term paper typically follows one main structure with few variations. It involves an introduction containing your thesis statement , the body paragraphs which support your thesis statement, and a conclusion that summarizes your main points.

The number of body paragraphs may vary depending on the number of points you want to discuss in the paper. However, 3-4 paragraphs are usually enough.

A research paper may also follow the same structure but often has additional sections like the literature review, the methodology, data collection, data analysis, and the discussion.

Since you need to draw conclusions from different sources of information, an organization is a key factor to consider when writing a research paper.

Time of assignment

Another key factor that differentiates a term paper from a research paper is that they are written at different times during the semester.

Term papers are often assigned near the end of the semester or trimester. This is because they require students to demonstrate what they have learned throughout their coursework.

However, research papers can be assigned at any point during the semester since they focus on any particular topic or issue related to your coursework, regardless of the timing. That said, don’t be surprised when your professor assigns you a research paper towards the end of the semester.

Key takeaway

In the end, understanding the difference between a term paper and a research paper is vital to completing a successful academic paper.

While both a term paper and a research paper require research and analysis, each aims to uniquely contribute to a student's writing competency and understanding of a topic. You should always be aware of the expectations from your professor when writing both types of papers.

Even though they’re both different types of academic papers, our team of professional paper writers can help you with both. They are well aware of the requirements of these two assignments and can research, write, proofread, edit, and cite a high-quality, custom-written term paper and research paper for high school and college.

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Term papers versus research papers and how to write them, rachel r.n..

• November 30, 2023
• How to Guides

College and university students often have to do writing assignments that involve a lot of research, planning, and writing. While many students know about research papers, only a few really understand what a term paper is and how to write one.

If you’re confused about the differences or wondering if there’s any distinction between the two, you’re not alone. Many students can’t tell a research paper apart from a term paper and end up not doing as well as they could.

In this short guide about term papers versus research papers, we’ll break down the differences and similarities of these common assignments in college and university. This will help clear up any confusion and get you ready for the work ahead.

Why is it important to know the difference between a research paper and a term paper?

Well, first things first, these two papers serve different purposes and have different structures. When you compare an essay to a research paper, you’ll notice that an essay is simpler. It usually involves discussing a specific problem based on personal observations.

On the other hand, a research paper is a more serious task. It requires a thorough analysis of a topic from various perspectives, and the writer needs to study credible and relevant sources.

Now, once you grasp the essential difference between an essay and a research paper, let’s look at how to understand the distinction between a term paper and a research paper. Knowing the nature of these papers is crucial for figuring out how to organize your writing and meet your professor’s requirements.

Now that we have a solid overview, let’s explore the nuances of term papers and research papers in more detail.

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What You'll Learn

What is a Term Paper?

A term paper is an important academic writing assignment that students undertake at the end of an academic term . It involves extensive research and analysis of a particular subject, demonstrating a student’s knowledge and understanding of the course material. Term papers can take various forms, such as reports, essays, or reviews, but they all require adherence to high academic standards.

Unlike research papers, term papers may not always require a thesis statement. Instead, they focus on summarizing and synthesizing the concepts and information learned throughout the term. Term papers provide an opportunity for students to showcase their comprehension of the course material and their ability to apply critical thinking skills to analyze and discuss the topics covered.

Completing a term paper successfully requires thorough research, organization, and clear writing. It is important to gather relevant sources, cite them properly, and present the findings in a coherent manner. Term papers are typically assigned towards the end of the term, giving students enough time to delve into the subject matter and produce a well-researched and well-structured paper.

What is a Research Paper?

A research paper is an academic document that involves the systematic investigation of a specific research topic . It requires comprehensive research, data analysis, and the formation of meaningful conclusions. Research papers can include primary research through experiments, surveys, or interviews, or rely on secondary sources such as books, scholarly articles, or online databases.

Research papers are typically longer and more in-depth than term papers, and they often require a thesis statement to guide the research process. The structure and format of a research paper can vary based on the discipline and the specific requirements set by the instructor or academic institution. However, research papers generally include sections such as an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion .

When writing a research paper, it is important to choose a specific research topic that aligns with your academic interests and goals. Conducting thorough research and critically analyzing the collected data are crucial steps in the research process. The findings and conclusions drawn from the research should contribute to the existing knowledge within the field and provide valuable insights for further study

Related blog article: A Comprehensive Guide to Writing a Nursing Research Paper

Key Characteristics of a Research Paper:

• Systematic investigation of a specific research topic
• Comprehensive research and data analysis
• Inclusion of primary or secondary sources
• Potentially longer and more in-depth than term papers
• Structured with sections such as introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion
• Contribution to existing knowledge within the field

By understanding the purpose and characteristics of research papers, students can effectively conduct research, analyze data, and contribute to their chosen academic field.

Key Differences Between Term Papers and Research Papers

When it comes to academic assignments, term papers and research papers are often mentioned interchangeably. However, there are distinct differences between the two in terms of purpose , approach , topic selection , level of research , references and sources , paper length , structure and organization , and time of assignment .

A term paper aims to summarize course material and evaluate a student’s understanding of the topics studied. On the other hand, a research paper requires original research and analysis of a specific topic to contribute to existing knowledge within a field.

Approach and Topic Selection

Term papers tend to have a more general approach, focusing on summarizing the material learned throughout a semester, while research papers require a more specific and in-depth analysis of a chosen topic. Term papers are often assigned by professors, while research papers allow students to select their own topics.

Level of Research

Term papers mostly rely on secondary sources, such as textbooks and scholarly articles, to support arguments and provide evidence. In contrast, research papers require more extensive research , often relying on a combination of primary sources and secondary sources.

References and Sources

Term papers typically use a limited number of sources for referencing, while research papers require a comprehensive list of sources and citations. Research papers also commonly include a literature review section to provide a context for the research topic.

Paper Length and Structure

Term papers are generally shorter in length compared to research papers. They usually follow a traditional essay structure with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Research papers, on the other hand, can be more extensive and often include additional sections such as an abstract, literature review, methodology, results, and discussion.

Time of Assignment

Term papers are often assigned at the end of a semester, serving as a comprehensive assessment of what students have learned. Research papers, however, can be assigned at any point during an academic term, depending on the course requirements and objectives.

Understanding these key differences is crucial for students to meet the specific requirements of term papers and research papers. It allows them to approach the assignments with the appropriate level of research , structure their papers effectively, and deliver a successful academic output.

The Purpose of Term Papers

Term papers serve a specific purpose in academia, as they are designed to summarize the course material learned during a semester and evaluate a student’s knowledge and understanding of the topics studied. They are a way for students to demonstrate their comprehension of the subject matter through written analysis and arguments. Term papers play a crucial role in assessing what students have learned and serve as a culmination and reflection of the knowledge acquired throughout the term.

When writing a term paper, the primary goal is to summarize the course material accurately. This requires a thorough understanding of the topics covered, as well as the ability to condense and synthesize the information into a coherent and concise written document. Term papers allow students to showcase their ability to analyze, evaluate, and draw connections between different concepts discussed in class.

Furthermore, term papers also serve as an opportunity for students to express their own thoughts and insights on the subject matter. While summarizing the course material is essential, term papers also provide an avenue for students to critically engage with the content, offering their own perspectives, interpretations, and arguments based on their understanding of the material.

Key Components of a Term Paper

When writing a term paper, there are key components that should be included to effectively fulfill its purpose. These components include:

• A clear introduction that provides an overview of the topic and sets the context for the paper.
• A well-structured body that presents and analyzes the course material, drawing connections between different concepts.
• Evidence-based arguments that support the student’s understanding and interpretation of the material.
• Proper citation and referencing of sources used to avoid plagiarism.
• A conclusion that summarizes the main points and demonstrates the student’s mastery of the course material.

Benefits of Writing Term Papers

While writing term papers may seem like a daunting task, they offer several benefits to students. Firstly, term papers provide an opportunity for students to develop and enhance their research, analysis, and writing skills. By engaging in extensive research and synthesizing information, students strengthen their ability to critically evaluate sources and draw meaningful conclusions.

In addition, term papers also foster independent thinking and intellectual growth. They allow students to explore topics of interest in greater depth, encouraging curiosity and a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Term papers also cultivate effective communication skills, as students must articulate their ideas clearly and persuasively through written expression.

Overall, the purpose of term papers is to challenge students to engage with the course material, apply critical thinking skills, and effectively communicate their understanding. Through this process, students develop essential academic skills and gain a deeper appreciation for the subject matter.

The Purpose of Research Papers

Research papers serve a distinct purpose in academia: to conduct original research and analyze a specific topic. Through in-depth investigation and critical analysis, researchers aim to contribute to the existing body of knowledge within a given field. By delving into their chosen subject matter, researchers generate new insights, ideas, and arguments that can shape and advance their field of study.

Unlike term papers, which focus on summarizing course material , research papers require researchers to embark on their own intellectual journey. They formulate research questions, gather relevant data, and analyze findings to draw meaningful conclusions. This process often involves reviewing existing literature, designing and conducting experiments, or studying real-world phenomena. By engaging in original research, researchers contribute valuable knowledge that expands the understanding of their chosen topic and fosters academic growth.

The analysis and interpretation of research findings are essential components of a research paper. Researchers critically evaluate their data, draw connections between different pieces of information, and explore the implications of their findings. This rigorous examination allows for the development of new theories, the validation of existing hypotheses, and the exploration of alternative perspectives. Through their work, researchers contribute to the ongoing dialogue in their field and inspire future studies and discoveries.

Research papers provide a platform for researchers to share their discoveries, insights, and theories. Through the analysis and interpretation of original research findings, researchers contribute valuable knowledge to their field and advance the collective understanding of a specific topic.

Tips for Writing Term Papers and Research Papers

Writing term papers and research papers can be challenging tasks, but with the right approach and techniques, you can successfully complete these academic assignments. Here are some tips to help you write your term papers and research papers effectively:

1. Develop a clear outline:

Before you start writing your paper, it’s essential to create a well-structured outline. This will serve as a roadmap for your writing and help you organize your thoughts and arguments. Your outline should include the main sections and subheadings that you plan to cover in your paper.

2. Conduct thorough research:

Both term papers and research papers require extensive research to support your arguments and provide evidence. Make sure to gather relevant sources from reputable academic journals, books, and credible websites. Take detailed notes and keep track of your sources for proper citation.

3. Analyze and synthesize your findings:

Once you have gathered all the necessary research materials, analyze and synthesize the information. Identify key findings, arguments, and supporting evidence. Look for patterns and connections between different sources to develop a comprehensive understanding of your topic.

4. Follow proper structure and organization:

Ensure that your paper follows the appropriate structure and organization . Use clear and concise paragraphs to present your ideas and provide smooth transitions between different sections. Introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion should be well-defined and logically connected.

Remember to cite all your sources properly to avoid plagiarism and maintain academic integrity. By following these tips, you can improve your writing skills and produce high-quality term papers and research papers.

What is the difference between term papers and research papers?

Term papers focus on summarizing course material and evaluating a student’s understanding, while research papers require original research and analysis of a specific topic.

What is a term paper?

A term paper is an assignment completed by college students at the  end of an academic term . It involves extensive research and focuses on a particular subject.

What is a research paper?

A research paper is an  academic document  that involves the  systematic investigation  of a specific research topic. It requires comprehensive research, data analysis, and the formation of meaningful conclusions.

What are the key differences between term papers and research papers?

Term papers are more general in approach and summarize course material, while research papers require more specific research and analysis. Term papers are often assigned at the end of a semester, while research papers can be assigned at any point. Term papers typically use secondary sources, while research papers require original research and often rely on primary sources. Additionally, the structure and organization of term papers and research papers can differ.

What is the purpose of a term paper?

The purpose of a term paper is to summarize the course material learned during the semester and evaluate a student’s knowledge and understanding of the topics studied.

What is the purpose of a research paper?

The purpose of a research paper is to conduct original research and analyze a specific topic. Research papers aim to contribute to the existing knowledge within a given field by conducting thorough research, analyzing data, and drawing meaningful conclusions.

What are some tips for writing term papers and research papers?

Some tips for  writing term papers  and research papers include developing an outline, conducting in-depth research, gathering and analyzing relevant sources, developing a thesis statement (if required), ensuring proper structure and organization, and citing all sources properly to avoid plagiarism.

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Term Paper vs Research Paper: What’s the Difference?

by  Antony W

June 27, 2024

It’s easy to confuse term and research paper for the same thing because they have a number of elements that easily overlap. However, there are features that set them apart. In this term paper versus research paper guide, we look at the similarities and differences so you never confuse the two assignments for the same thing ever again.

What is a Research Paper?

We can define a research paper as an academic piece of assignment that requires a student to investigate subject methodically and theoretically and present their findings on the topic. Notably, research papers focus on analyzing issues (or problems) within a specific course.

In other words, when your professor asks you to write a research paper, they expect you to study a specific problem. More often than not, the problem under investigation is one that either has had questionable results in the past or hasn’t had an extensive coverage in the already existing studies.

What is a Term Paper?

A term paper , on the other hand, is an assignment issued to test student’s knowledge on a given subject or themes after a given duration of studies.

The type of assignment you write in the case of a term paper will vary depending on your instructor’s preference. They may ask you to write an essay , complete a test, or do some school work linked to the theme you’ve explored in a classroom setting.

You will write a term paper near the end of a class, and what you score for the assignment will count in that specific subject’s final grades.

Term Paper vs Research Paper: What Are The Key Differences?

Many elements easily overlap between a term paper and a research paper, but that doesn’t mean they’re 100% similar to one another. You need to learn the differences so that you never confuse between these two types of assignments.

The table below indicates the apparent differences between a term paper and a research paper.

These differences may not be clear at a first glance, so it often helps to do a lookup when in doubt.

Let’s take this even further by explaining these similarities and differences in more details so that you have more insights on the same.

Term Paper Vs Research Paper: Similarities

Topic selection.

The criterion for topic selection is the same for term and research paper. Your instructor can either assign you a topic to work on or ask you to choose one yourself, with the option to identify your own topic being the most common option.

If your instructor has given you the freedom to choose a topic yourself, make sure the subject you pick relates to the discussion had and study material issued in class.

Requirements

Both term and research paper need to adhere to academic formatting and referencing style. You’ll find these requirements clearly indicated in the assignments’ instructions. If your instructor doesn’t give you a formatting and referencing style to use, stick to MLA or APA.

A Term Paper Can Be a Research Assignment

We understand that this can bring a lot of confusion, but it’s important to note that a term paper can also be a research assignment. If your instructor has asked you to investigate a topic based on existing evidence by using a methodological approach in a 10-page term paper, they’re most likely asking you to write a research assignment.

Term Paper vs Research Paper: Understanding the Differences

Structural differences.

One clear difference between term paper and a research paper is the components that go into the assignment.

A research paper should have an introduction, literature review, methodology, results (or findings), discussion (or analysis), conclusion, and reflection (optional).

You won’t have a question to explore in a term paper and it doesn’t include a hypothesis either. The assignment doesn’t require appendices, but your instructor may ask you to include an annotated bibliography in the term paper.

Differences in Goals

The goal of a research paper assignment is to solve a specific problem. Often, you’ll have to study existing literature to find gaps or contradictions and then suggest solutions based on your findings. 

A term paper, on the other hand, seeks to test your knowledge on a topic. The emphasis is on testing your understanding of a given subject or theme discussed in classroom.

Differences in Length

A term paper is longer than a typical essay, but it won’t be as voluminous as a research paper. In fact, term papers hardly ever go beyond 20 pages, and the shortest ones that Help for Assessment writers have worked on are as short as 1,000 words.

A research paper is longer than a term paper, with the number of pages ranging between 10 and 40 give or take, if not more at least.

Term papers tend to be shorter because, in part, they’re a bridge between essays and research works, and mostly because they don’t presuppose serious data collection and detailed analysis.

Differences in Deadlines and Grades

The word term, in respect to academic assignments, refers to a finite period within which a task should be complete. Therefore, in essence, a term paper is an assessment given at the very end of a course, and it often determines a student’s final grades.

A research paper may or may not influence your final grade depending on the instructions given – or your professor’s preference.

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

Difference Between a Term Paper and a Research Paper

As a college student, you are largely conversant with writing a research paper. It is a prerequisite requirement most instructors enforce on their students. But what about its less-known relative, the term paper?

What Is a Term Paper?

Moreover, depending on the instructor’s instructions, it can come in different forms. For example, your instructor might decide whether it’s peer-reviewed, a report, or an essay.

Types of Term Papers

Argumentative.

These analytical tasks refer to assignments that involve thorough examination, evaluation, and interpretation of a specific topic or subject matter. The essence of this analysis is breaking down topics into individualized parts while drawing meaningful conclusions based on the analysis.

Compare and contrast

Term paper outline, what is a research paper, breakdown of different types, comparative, descriptive, research paper outline, bottom line.

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Differences between term papers and research papers

While you might think they are the same, the term paper and the research paper are really two different things. The two share similar features. They may even be related. But there are differences to consider.

Generally speaking, one writes a term paper to indicate that he or she has learned or acquired the knowledge of a particular subject. The term paper is given at the end of the term and counts as a significant percentage of the final exam. A term paper typically runs between 3,000 and 5,000 words. Term papers allow for a critical examination of current topics and usually allow for the writer’s opinion. The term paper contains arguments and/or persuasions that must be supported with facts taken from a variety of reliable sources, such as academic papers, scholarly magazines or textbooks.

On the other hand, a research paper is typically an academic study carried out with regards to answering theoretical questions. The student is required to interpret the information given and turn it into a significant, noteworthy paper. A research paper can consist of up to 5,000 words. It is up to your instructor to indicate the length of the research paper…

In each instance, topics are chosen by the instructor and/or the student. In each instance, research and reference materials are required. In each instance, it is helpful to develop an outline before attempting to write the final drafts. In fact, the term paper and the research paper share a lot of the same qualities.

The real difference between a term paper and a research paper is that a research paper can be assigned at any time, whereas, a term paper is typically assigned at the end of the term...

Writing term papers or research papers may seem like a waste of good time; yet, both are designed to help you better communicate your knowledge and understanding of a specific topic. Both are designed to help you understand the methodologies involved in note-taking, referencing and research.

One final note: As you endeavor to write each of these papers respectively, acknowledge and incorporate what you have learned from previous writing assignments. And, always utilize your writing as an opportunity to communicate in interesting and creative ways. Make an argument. State your case. And be sure to back up what you say with sound, reliable evidence. The best writers will give one-hundred percent, regardless of what the assignment entails.

We are proud of our team consisting of professional academic freelance writers, dissertation and thesis writing experts and top notch editors and proofreaders. Our editorial team works day and night to create easy-to-follow and helpful college guides and manuals.

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What Is the Difference between Research Paper and Term Paper?

Attending a college, you are sure to write a number of essays and other types of papers. Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between the types of the papers. This differentiation is required when one is asked to write a specific type of the paper (either a research paper or a term paper), but it appears a problem for him/her. Why do students need to know the particular type of the paper before writing it? The reason is obvious: each paper type has a specific structure and the purpose. Everything’s clear with an essay, which is defined as a paper devoted to a particular problem and written in accordance with a specific structure: the introduction, the main body, and the conclusion. When speaking about a term paper and a research paper, understanding the differences is important in order to understand what should be written in a paper to meet the instructions. Trying to get the main distinguishing features between a research paper and a term paper, it is important to identify the basic common aspects. Both these types of the papers are aimed at showing students’ knowledge and understanding of a particular problem under analysis. The differences are presented below.

Research Paper

“Research is what I’m doing when I don’t know what I’m doing” Wernher von Braun

Here is a list of the points, which make a research paper different from other paper types

• A research paper is devoted to a problem within a specific course. Research papers are usually written to study some specific problem, which has not been covered effectively, which has some little research, or which results are doubtful. A research paper has a specific structure despite the subject. The title page, the table of contents, the introduction / background, the literature review, the methodology, the results, the discussion and the conclusions / recommendations. Each of these sections has specific guidelines for writing. No matter which problem is under research , the structure is the same.
• This type of paper writing requires some time for conducting a research and writing it. There are a lot of different types of research, interview, observation, questionnaire, survey, experiment, etc. Depending on the hypothesis and the purpose of the study, the research may take from a day to even the years.
• A research paper is usually a lengthy piece of writing. Usually research papers start from 10 pages and may be even 100 pages and more. One can rarely meet a research paper less than 10 pages as in this case it is impossible to explain the major points, to discuss the results and to prove the hypothesis.
• A research paper can cover the material studied during different years and laid out in various courses. Writing a research paper on a particular problem may require turning to the particular problems discussed in the past. The materials learned in the past may help in explaining some processes, discussing the background information and analyzing the literature on the issue.
• A term paper, being a part of a course, is usually completed after a specific period of studying. The course is usually divided into terms and themes. Having come to an end of a term, students are usually asked to take a test or to complete another task, which will show how well students have learnt the course material during the discussed time period. The grades for this task usually have a special value in the overall student’s grade.
• A term paper is aimed at checking students’ knowledge after some themes studied. Having completed a specific theme, students may also be asked to take a test, to write an essay, or to complete some task devoted to this particular theme.
• A term paper can be of any nature and structure. Opposing to a research paper with a specific structure, a term paper may be written in a form of an essay, it can have a questions-answers structure, it can be an article, a review, an annotated bibliography, a test, and even a research paper.
• A term paper can be of any length. It can be one page and 20 pages, no matter which topic is used and what type of the task is requested. Overall, each professor should select what kind of task fits better the specific topic which has been studied.
• A term paper involves the material studied during the course. Usually, a term paper covers the theme or the themes studied during the particular time period. The main purpose of such task is to show how well students have understood the material.

To the word, a task in a term paper can be to write a research paper, while it is impossible to have a task in a research paper to write a term paper. These two types of writing are different despite the fact that each student’s task is aimed at checking their knowledge. Educational process is very complicated and requires constant motivation and encouragement from the side of the professors. Students do want to receive new knowledge, but they need to know that this new knowledge is needed in the future. Moreover, some students may need the appreciation of their skills or some additional punishment, which may stimulate them for working harder.

Being aware of the differences between the term papers and the research papers, one may become a better student, improve his/her grades and enlarge the scope of knowledge and skills. Overall, the difference is usually explained by the teacher, but being in the process of studying new information one may miss these points and become frustrated. A term paper and a dissertation have different focus and display various experience of students. Only being aware of the purpose and the structure of the particular task one is sure to complete it successfully. Each student want to receive the highest grades and this article may be in use for those, who strive for higher grades and better knowledge.

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Term Paper vs Research Paper vs an Essay: Differences & Tips

a Term Paper, a Research Paper, and an Essay

Depending on the academic level in which a student is in, they will be tasked with writing different types of academic writings to demonstrate their proficiency as learners.

Academic writings come in the form of term papers, research papers, and essays. As a learner, you will be tasked with writing exercises. You should be aware of their differences so that you can deliver what is required.

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Difference between a Term Paper, a Research Paper, and an Essay

Now, what is the difference between the three major forms of academic writing? Well, first of all, a term paper can be regarded as written work or academic composition.

It is meant to indicate a student’s progress during school term/semester.

What this means is that a term paper covers the entire course, making it a comparatively large project.

Students are required to write term papers throughout the semester. The reason is to ensure that they cover all the concepts presented during the term.

In addition to ensuring that they are not overwhelmed by too much work at the end of the semester. 

A research paper is an academic piece of work written by students concerning a particular topic. It is not like a term paper that may cover more things since it covers a term’s work.

The instructor provides a particular topic in which students are required to apply their research and writing skills. They come up with a complete paper in response to the topic.

Essays can be regarded as interpretive or analytic literary compositions. Alongside they are written by students to test their knowledge of simple concepts. Essays are shorter than research papers and term papers because they are meant to interpret or analyze particular topics.

In simple, a research paper is an academic writing that tests a student’s ability to apply knowledge learned in class or a course. A term paper on the contrary is a written assignment to test a learner’s knowledge of a specific topic or chapter.

On the other hand, an essay is an interpretive or analytic literary composition where a student makes an argument about a topic.

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Comprehensive Definitions of the Three

1. term paper.

A term paper can be regarded as written work or academic composition that is meant to indicate a student’s progress during school term/semester.

A term paper covers the entire course, making it a comparatively large project. Students are required to write term papers throughout the semester.

This is to ensure that they cover all the concepts presented during the term. Besides ensure that they are not overwhelmed by too much work at the end of the semester. 

For example, let us imagine that you are studying environmental science in college. You have started the semester or term by defining the key concepts.

Finally, you are gradually getting into more details as the semester goes on.

To ensure that you understand the concepts of environmental science and give the instructor an opportunity to determine your progress as a learner, they will give you a term paper to complete by the end of the semester.

You should note that it should be completed by the end of the semester. Not at the end of the semester like other papers. Term papers are a continuous writing process that students should do throughout the semester.

In most cases, instructors will notify their students at the beginning of the semester that they are required to complete a term paper by the end of the semester.

This allows students to start the writing process early enough to avoid being overwhelmed at the end of the semester.

2. Research paper

A research paper, can be defined as an academic piece of work written by students concerning a particular topic.

It is not like a term paper that may cover more things since it covers for a term’s work.

The instructor provides a particular topic in which students are required to apply their research and writing skills to come up with a complete paper in response to the topic.

In a research paper, students will also conduct research into specific questions that have been posted by hypotheses and/or scientific theories.

When instructors give students research papers as assignments, it means that they are trying to gauge the research capabilities of their students concerning a specific topic within a particular discipline.

Research papers help students become better scholars and field researchers later in life.

Research papers are usually completed at the end of the semester and they are comparatively shorter in length compared to term papers – at least in most cases.

As we have noted, term papers are meant to show a student’s academic process during the term/semester.

However, research papers are meant to tackle specific research issues or topics that have been derived from the course.

What this means is that as the course continues, the research questions or topics will arise. As such giving students an opportunity to tackle them through their research papers.

Therefore, research papers are usually given to students towards the end or at the middle of the semester to give students enough time to come up with their papers.

Research papers take a different structure of writing. Check out our comprehensive guide on how to write a research paper and learn more.

But in brief, there is an introduction, background, literature review, methodology, findings and discussions, and finally a conclusion. This is the major defining characteristic of research papers.

3. An Essay

On the other hand, the essay is an interpretive or an analytic literary composition written to test students’ knowledge of simple concepts.

Essays are shorter than research papers and term papers because they are meant to interpret or analyze particular topics.

Essays can be written by students in high school. This is because the steps of writing an essay are pretty simple.

They can also be written by college-level students. However, it is rare for post-graduate students to write essays.

Essays take a simpler structure or format compared to research papers and term papers. Essays have an introduction, body, and a conclusion.

It should be noted that there are times when research papers are longer than term papers depending on the academic requirements and the content presented in the papers.

At the same time, depending on the academic scheduling of the institution, students can be required to start writing their papers at any point during the term/semester.

As such, be keen with the instructions provided by your professors or teachers when writing essays, term papers, or research papers.

Similarities between a Term Paper and a Research Paper

The first similarity is that both term papers and research papers are longer pieces of academic writings that are written by college-level students concerning a particular subject matter.

What this means is that they are formal academic works that gauge the student’s understanding of the course concepts. These concepts go into the writing as subtopics in a research paper , which makes the difference.

The second similarity between a term paper and a research paper is that they both take the same writing or academic format. The basic format is the introduction, the background, literature review, methodology, findings and discussions, and finally conclusion.

However, it can have a table of contents, abstracts, acronyms, acknowledgments, and so on. Though there might be a slight difference, both papers must have both in-text citations and a reference page at the end of the paper.

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Similarities between a Term Paper and an Essay

There are some similarities between a term paper and an essay. The first similarity is that both analyze or interpret particular course concepts.

While an essay is a literary composition that takes a narrow scope in terms of the content to be covered, a term paper will also take the form of literary composition. In addition, it covers a wider scope of concepts within the course. However, both are literary compositions.

The second similarity between a term paper and an essay is that they allow students to be more autonomous when it comes to what they are discussing.

Students are given an opportunity to write their perceptions concerning the course concepts because they are used to gauge the proficiency of the student in terms of how much they have understood the course.

That being said, hope that this article has been worth your time. All the best!

When not handling complex essays and academic writing tasks, Josh is busy advising students on how to pass assignments. In spare time, he loves playing football or walking with his dog around the park.

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Reference management. Clean and simple.

What is a research paper?

A research paper is a paper that makes an argument about a topic based on research and analysis.

Any paper requiring the writer to research a particular topic is a research paper. Unlike essays, which are often based largely on opinion and are written from the author's point of view, research papers are based in fact.

A research paper requires you to form an opinion on a topic, research and gain expert knowledge on that topic, and then back up your own opinions and assertions with facts found through your thorough research.

➡️ Read more about  different types of research papers .

What is the difference between a research paper and a thesis?

A thesis is a large paper, or multi-chapter work, based on a topic relating to your field of study.

A thesis is a document students of higher education write to obtain an academic degree or qualification. Usually, it is longer than a research paper and takes multiple years to complete.

Generally associated with graduate/postgraduate studies, it is carried out under the supervision of a professor or other academic of the university.

A major difference between a research paper and a thesis is that:

• a research paper presents certain facts that have already been researched and explained by others
• a thesis starts with a certain scholarly question or statement, which then leads to further research and new findings

This means that a thesis requires the author to input original work and their own findings in a certain field, whereas the research paper can be completed with extensive research only.

➡️ Getting ready to start a research paper or thesis? Take a look at our guides on how to start a research paper or how to come up with a topic for your thesis .

Frequently Asked Questions about research papers

Take a look at this list of the top 21 Free Online Journal and Research Databases , such as ScienceOpen , Directory of Open Access Journals , ERIC , and many more.

Mason Porter, Professor at UCLA, explains in this forum post the main reasons to write a research paper:

• To create new knowledge and disseminate it.
• To teach science and how to write about it in an academic style.
• Some practical benefits: prestige, establishing credentials, requirements for grants or to help one get a future grant proposal, and so on.

Generally, people involved in the academia. Research papers are mostly written by higher education students and professional researchers.

Yes, a research paper is the same as a scientific paper. Both papers have the same purpose and format.

A major difference between a research paper and a thesis is that the former presents certain facts that have already been researched and explained by others, whereas the latter starts with a certain scholarly question or statement, which then leads to further research and new findings.

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Understanding the Difference Between Research & Term Papers

Do you find yourself confused when it comes to differentiating between research and term papers? Understanding the difference between these two types of essays can be tough; after all, they both require extensive research ! But while there are some similarities, there is also a range of key differences. This article will guide you through the ins-and-outs of each essay type in order to help you confidently tackle any writing assignment that comes your way.

1. Exploring the Fundamentals of a Research & Term Paper

Research papers and term papers are often confused as one type of writing; however, there is an inherent distinction between the two that must be understood. A research paper centers on a specific topic or subject area in order to explore it in depth by examining available data related to the field. How a research paper is different from a term paper lies mainly in its focus: research papers emphasize investigation into particular topics while also reviewing existing literature about them, while term papers provide students with opportunities to think critically and apply their knowledge of course content through argumentation and analysis.

Students should take note of this difference when determining which form of academic writing best suits their needs. When researching for details regarding any given subject matter, students need to bear in mind how reliable sources influence the accuracy or validity of information used for writing purposes—scholarly works, primary resources, books published professionally by accredited authors/editors & institutions serve as some examples here. How research paper is different from a term paper is that it encourages even greater reliance on such authority-based resources since findings presented therein will then be defended via arguments derived from independent study & scholarly insights reflective upon current trends within academia itself. Such thorough evaluation allows readers (i.e., professors) insight into both original thought processes & understanding pertaining towards established scholarship coupled alongside informed decisions guided through prior comprehension gained during previous lectures/seminars as well as other supplementary materials used throughout learning experiences carried out thus far!

2. Uncovering Distinction in Descriptive Writing Styles

Descriptive writing styles are among the most important techniques a writer can use to grab and maintain reader interest. They allow writers of any genre, from fiction to non-fiction, to paint vivid mental images in stories and articles alike. However, it is possible for there to be distinction between these writing styles – differentiating them by elements such as structure or length.

Structured Writing

• Research Papers: Research papers employ several sections which follow each other logically beginning with an introduction that introduces the topic then followed by body paragraphs which unpack evidence surrounding the topic before concluding with restating its importance and summarizing key points.
• Term Papers: Term papers have some overlap with research paper due simply how both assignments evaluate student’s comprehension of course material; however term papers tend not to need quite so much rigorous support via sources compared research paper.

3. Comprehending Exact Purposes for each Paper Type

The purpose of each paper type is something to be understood in order for students to create a successful piece. Research papers and term papers are two common types of writing assignments assigned by Professors that students must differentiate between accurately when starting an assignment.

• Research Papers:

Research papers require intense inquiry as well as extensive analysis and synthesis. Doing research with the goal of understanding a subject more deeply or gaining new insights is the primary purpose of these types of writings. Generally, they should include references from various sources such as books, journals, or websites. How a research paper is different from terms paper involves its level depth; since it dives extensively into information about the topic instead just summarizing existing ideas from others. It requires comprehensive literature review thus providing more insight on current knowledge on certain topics.

• Term Papers:

Unlike research papers which look deeper into theories and principles associated with specific topics, term papers are usually summary-based compositions without any original thought involved in them. Term Paper assignments serve mainly the purpose to assess student’s comprehension skills towards material taught throughout their coursework up until that point including lectures, readings & activities carried out during classes etc..Furthermore how this type differs from research ones involve being written quickly based only on what has been learned over time within one’s academic years rather than outside resources .This quick turnaround often make it difficult for students who rely heavily upon external materials found online or elsewhere

4. Examining Common Differences among Formats, Sources and Lengths

As a professor, it is important to recognize the common differences between different formats, sources and lengths of research papers. Every type of paper has its own specific characteristics that can help guide students in determining which one works best for their purpose.

• Research Papers : Research papers are generally much longer than term papers and require more comprehensive coverage of the topic at hand as well as wider scope for analysis. They typically involve more investigation into primary sources such as books or journal articles; this makes them distinct from term papers which draw heavily on existing knowledge derived from secondary sources like textbooks.
• Term Papers : In contrast to research papers, term papers are relatively brief and do not require extensive research beyond what was already covered in class. As opposed to how a research paper is different from a term paper – mainly because they focus primarily on ideas already known about an issue instead of exploring new ground – they should be limited in length (usually no more than 10-15 pages). Additionally, when writing these types of assignments it may be beneficial to use fewer resources since there will not be enough time available within the course timeline for deeper exploration.

5. Determining Data Criteria Essential for Outcomes 6. Discovering Substantial Structure Variations between Varied Papers 7 . Appraising the Appearances of Final Products

Determining data criteria essential for outcomes.

A research paper requires a much higher level of depth and analysis than is typically expected in term papers. Generally speaking, the research paper will involve more detailed criteria when it comes to determining data essential to outcomes. In order to truly complete an excellent research project understanding what information is necessary should be evaluated at each step as it may change based on new discoveries or perspectives gained through analyzing previously collected data. Some key questions that must be asked during this process include:

• What evidence does this discovery provide?
• How can I use past studies to make better decisions about my current research?
• What other sources could help me gain deeper insight into these results?

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The Difference between Term and Research Papers

Term paper and research papers have a lot in common, but they have some significant differences. First and for most, term papers are more personalized, while research assignments do not have to point to the student's personal achievements. It is rather general. Term paper is a collection of student's skills towards a particular academic Research paper highlights student's knowledge gained during the course marginally: an instructor can only guess the effectiveness of teaching methods and tools used within that class. The reason why term paper format is a bit more complex is that it provides a more detailed picture of what student actually knows. It shows the path for further education. For instance, student has to add up an appendix. This part only seems complicated, but, in fact, you just have to include some tables and graphs (if any) used as the basis for your research. Written Assignments Evaluation Criteria Term papers always go in the end of a semester. Students can face the challenge of writing a research at any time. It means that a student can be asked to accomplish multiple research papers during the semester. However, the process of grading these two tasks looks pretty much similar. The evaluation process is based on the:

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Thesis vs. Research Paper: Know the Differences

It is not uncommon for individuals, academic and nonacademic to use “thesis” and “research paper” interchangeably. However, while the thesis vs. research paper puzzle might seem amusing to some, for graduate, postgraduate and doctoral students, knowing the differences between the two is crucial. Not only does a clear demarcation of the two terms help you acquire a precise approach toward writing each of them, but it also helps you keep in mind the subtle nuances that go into creating the two documents. This brief guide discusses the main difference between a thesis and a research paper.

This article discusses the main difference between a thesis and a research paper. To give you an opportunity to practice proofreading, we have left a few spelling, punctuation, or grammatical errors in the text. See if you can spot them! If you spot the errors correctly, you will be entitled to a 10% discount.

It is not uncommon for individuals, academic and nonacademic to use “thesis” and “research paper” interchangeably. After all, both terms share the same domain, academic writing . Moreover, characteristics like the writing style, tone, and structure of a thesis and research paper are also homogenous to a certain degree. Hence, it is not surprising that many people mistake one for the other.

However, while the thesis vs. research paper puzzle might seem amusing to some, for graduate, postgraduate and doctoral students, knowing the differences between the two is crucial. Not only does a clear demarcation of the two terms help you acquire a precise approach toward writing each of them, but it also helps you keep in mind the subtle nuances that go into creating the two documents.

Defining the two terms: thesis vs. research paper

The first step to discerning between a thesis and research paper is to know what they signify.

  Thesis: A thesis or a dissertation is an academic document that a candidate writes to acquire a university degree or similar qualification. Students typically submit a thesis at the end of their final academic term. It generally consists of putting forward an argument and backing it up with individual research and existing data.

How to Write a Perfect Ph.D. Thesis

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Research Paper: A research paper is also an academic document, albeit shorter compared to a thesis. It consists of conducting independent and extensive research on a topic and compiling the data in a structured and comprehensible form. A research paper demonstrates a student's academic prowess in their field of study along with strong analytical skills.

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How to Formulate Research Questions

Now that we have a fundamental understanding of a thesis and a research paper, it is time to dig deeper. To the untrained eye, a research paper and a thesis might seem similar. However, there are some differences, concrete and subtle, that set the two apart.

1. Writing objectives

The objective behind writing a thesis is to obtain a master's degree or doctorate and the ilk. Hence, it needs to exemplify the scope of your knowledge in your study field. That is why choosing an intriguing thesis topic and putting forward your arguments convincingly in favor of it is crucial.

A research paper is written as a part of a course's curriculum or written for publication in a peer-review journal. Its purpose is to contribute something new to the knowledge base of its topic.

2. Structure

Although both documents share quite a few similarities in their structures, the framework of a thesis is more rigid. Also, almost every university has its proprietary guidelines set out for thesis writing.

Comparatively, a research paper only needs to keep the IMRAD format consistent throughout its length. When planning to publish your research paper in a peer-review journal, you also must follow your target journal guidelines.

3. Time Taken

A thesis is an extensive document encompassing the entire duration of a master's or doctoral course and as such, it takes months and even years to write.

A research paper, being less lengthy, typically takes a few weeks or a few months to complete.

4. Supervision

Writing a thesis entails working with a faculty supervisor to ensure that you are on the right track. However, a research paper is more of a solo project and rarely needs a dedicated supervisor to oversee.

5. Finalization

The final stage of thesis completion is a viva voce examination and a thesis defense. It includes proffering your thesis to the examination board or a thesis committee for a questionnaire and related discussions. Whether or not you will receive a degree depends on the result of this examination and the defense.

A research paper is said to be complete when you finalize a draft, check it for plagiarism, and proofread for any language and contextual errors . Now all that's left is to submit it to the assigned authority.

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In the context of academic writing, a thesis and a research paper might appear the same. But, there are some fundamental differences that set apart the two writing formats. However, since both the documents come under the scope of academic writing, they also share some similarities. Both require formal language, formal tone, factually correct information & proper citations. Also, editing and proofreading are a must for both. Editing and Proofreading ensure that your document is properly formatted and devoid of all grammatical & contextual errors. So, the next time when you come across a thesis vs. research paper argument, keep these differences in mind.

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Best Edit & Proof expert editors and proofreaders focus on offering papers with proper tone, content, and style of  academic writing,  and also provide an upscale  editing and proofreading service  for you. If you consider our pieces of advice, you will witness a notable increase in the chance for your research manuscript to be accepted by the publishers. We work together as an academic writing style guide by bestowing subject-area editing and proofreading around several categorized writing styles. With the group of our expert editors, you will always find us all set to help you identify the tone and style that your manuscript needs to get a nod from the publishers.

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Whenever you use words, facts, ideas, or explanations from other works, those sources must be cited. Academic referencing is required when you have copied texts from an essay, an article, a book, or other sources verbatim, which is called quotation. You also need referencing when you use an idea or a fact from another work even if you haven’t used their exact expression.

Track changes function in Microsoft Word 2021 for macOS is a very handy tool to track your revisions, corrections, changes, edits, and even suggestions and comments while you’re reviewing a document. When an editor or proofreader wants to return a revised document to a client with his/her all revisions visibly marked, and so clients can accept or reject, or the suggested changes appear in the margins of the returned document, he/she needs Track Changes function of Microsoft Word.

A theoretical framework primarily supports the idea of a research study. It bears all the theories that prove the essence and importance of any research. In a nutshell, it is developed to explain the research and comprehend its circumstances. It may involve all the theory-based logic behind the importance and existence of your research in academics. This step-by-step guide discusses how to build a theoretical framework for a dissertation.

Briefly, research objectives are all about what you intend to achieve in your project. Therefore, they are expected to list every stage of the research and cover which methods they have used to gather data, establish their focal point, and advance their conclusions.

In statistics, a population refers to the pool of individuals from which one can draw the statistical sample for a study. A population includes a complete set of individuals. That group can comprise a nation or people sharing common characteristics.

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A term paper is an extensive research paper typically assigned at the end of a semester or academic term, allowing students to demonstrate their understanding and in-depth knowledge of a particular subject. It involves thorough research, analysis, and synthesis of information from various sources to address a specific topic or question, culminating in a comprehensive written report. Term papers are designed to assess students’ critical thinking, research skills, and ability to communicate their findings effectively, often accounting for a significant portion of their final grade. Essential components include a Thesis Statement for Research Paper , a Research Paper Cover Letter , and adherence to the Research Paper Format .

What is Term Paper?

A term paper is a detailed research paper written by students over an academic term, contributing significantly to their final grade. It demonstrates their understanding and analysis of a specific topic, includes a thesis, supporting arguments, and evidence, and requires citations from academic sources.

Term Paper Format

Title of the Paper Student’s Name Course Name and Number Instructor’s Name Date of Submission

A brief summary of the paper (150-250 words) Key points, objectives, methods, results, and conclusions

Introduction

Introduction to the topic Thesis statement Purpose and objectives Paper overview

Literature Review

Overview of Existing Research Key Theories and Studies Gaps in the Literature Relevance to the Current Study

Methodology

Research design Data collection methods Sample selection Analysis techniques

Presentation of findings Use of tables and figures (if applicable)

Interpretation of results Comparison with existing literature Implications and limitations

Summary of key findings Restatement of thesis Future research implications

List of All Sources Cited Formatted According to a Specific Citation Style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.)

Appendices (if applicable)

Additional Material Raw Data Questionnaires Detailed Calculations

Formatting Guidelines

Font: Times New Roman, 12-point Spacing: Double-spaced Margins: 1 inch Page numbers: Top right corner Consistent headings and subheadings

Term Paper Examples for Students

• The Impact of Climate Change on Coastal Ecosystems
• The Role of Social Media in Modern Marketing Strategies
• The Influence of Ancient Greek Philosophy on Western Thought
• Cybersecurity Threats and Solutions in the 21st Century
• The Effectiveness of Online Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic
• The Relationship Between Diet and Mental Health
• An Analysis of Shakespeare’s Use of Tragic Heroes
• The Evolution of Women’s Rights in the United States
• The Economic Impact of Immigration Policies
• The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare
• The History and Future of Space Exploration
• The Psychological Effects of Video Games on Children
• The Ethics of Genetic Engineering
• The Cultural Significance of Traditional Festivals in Japan
• The Impact of Globalization on Local Economies
• The Role of Renewable Energy in Combating Climate Change
• The Effects of Substance Abuse on Family Dynamics
• An Examination of Modernist Architecture
• The Influence of the Harlem Renaissance on American Literature
• The Legal and Social Implications of Data Privacy Laws
• The Role of Sports in Promoting Social Integration
• An Analysis of Economic Inequality in Developing Countries
• The Impact of Music Therapy on Mental Health Recovery
• The Development and Impact of the Internet of Things (IoT)
• The Relationship Between Sleep Patterns and Academic Performance

Simple Term Paper Examples

• The Effects of Video Games on Child Development
• The History and Impact of the Civil Rights Movement
• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Benefits and Risks
• The Influence of Greek Philosophy on Western Thought
• The Impact of Immigration on the U.S. Economy
• The Role of Education in Reducing Poverty
• The Ethics of Animal Testing in Medical Research
• Mental Health Stigma and Its Social Implications
• The Evolution of E-commerce and Online Shopping
• The Importance of Early Childhood Education

Types of Term Papers

1. analytical term papers.

• Definition: Analyzes a specific issue or topic, breaking it down into its components and examining them in detail.
• Purpose: To provide a deep understanding of the subject through detailed analysis.
• Example: “The Economic Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture”

2. Argumentative Term Papers

• Definition: Presents an argument on a particular topic, supporting it with evidence and reasoning.
• Purpose: To persuade the reader of a specific viewpoint or stance.
• Example: “The Case for Renewable Energy Sources over Fossil Fuels”

3. Definition Term Papers

• Definition: Explores the meaning and implications of a specific concept or term.
• Purpose: To clarify and define a concept in depth.
• Example: “Defining Social Justice in Modern Society”

4. Compare and Contrast Term Papers

• Definition: Examines the similarities and differences between two or more subjects.
• Purpose: To highlight comparative aspects and provide insights into the subjects.
• Example: “Comparing Online Education with Traditional Classroom Learning”

5. Cause and Effect Term Papers

• Definition: Investigates the causes of a particular event or phenomenon and its effects.
• Purpose: To understand the relationships between events and outcomes.
• Example: “The Causes and Effects of the 2008 Financial Crisis”

6. Interpretive Term Papers

• Definition: Provides an interpretation of a specific piece of literature, artwork, or historical event.
• Purpose: To offer insights and perspectives on the subject.
• Example: “Interpreting Symbolism in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s ‘The Great Gatsby'”

7. Research-Based Term Papers

• Definition: Relies heavily on existing research and data to discuss a particular topic.
• Purpose: To present an in-depth analysis based on extensive research.
• Example: “The Role of Vaccinations in Public Health”

8. Reflective Term Papers

• Definition: Reflects on a personal experience or event and its significance.
• Purpose: To provide a personal perspective and insights.
• Example: “Reflections on My Internship Experience in a Non-Profit Organization”

9. Case Study Term Papers

• Definition: Focuses on a detailed examination of a particular case within a real-world context.
• Purpose: To analyze specific instances and draw broader conclusions.
• Example: “A Case Study of the Flint Water Crisis”

10. Expository Term Papers

• Definition: Explains or describes a topic in a straightforward and factual manner.
• Purpose: To inform and educate the reader about the subject.
• Example: “An Overview of the U.S. Healthcare System”

Importance of Term Papers

1. development of research skills.

• Encourages thorough exploration of various information sources
• Enhances data gathering, analysis, and interpretation abilities

2. Enhancement of Writing Skills

• Improves clarity, precision, and organization in writing
• Refines grammar and syntax

3. Critical Thinking and Analytical Skills

• Fosters logical reasoning and problem-solving
• Promotes evaluation and synthesis of information

4. Time Management and Discipline

• Teaches effective planning and adherence to deadlines
• Develops a disciplined work ethic and organizational skills

5. In-Depth Understanding of Subject Matter

• Facilitates comprehensive knowledge of the topic
• Enhances retention and application of theoretical concepts

How to Write a Term Paper

1. choose a topic.

• Select a topic: Ensure it’s relevant to your course and interests you.
• Narrow the focus: Make sure the topic is specific enough to be manageable.

2. Conduct Research

• Gather sources: Use books, academic journals, and credible websites.
• Take notes: Organize your notes and highlight key points.
• Create a bibliography: Keep track of all sources for your references.

3. Develop a Thesis Statement

• Clear and concise: Summarize the main point or argument of your paper.
• Position: Clearly state your position or perspective on the topic.

4. Create an Outline

• Introduction: Introduce the topic and state your thesis.
• Body paragraphs: Organize the main points and supporting evidence.
• Conclusion: Summarize your findings and restate your thesis.

5. Write the First Draft

• Hook: Grab the reader’s attention.
• Background information: Provide context.
• Thesis statement: Present your main argument.
• Topic sentence: State the main idea of the paragraph.
• Evidence: Present data, quotes, and research findings.
• Analysis: Explain how the evidence supports your thesis.
• Transition: Link to the next paragraph.
• Restate the thesis: Summarize your main argument.
• Summarize main points: Recap the key points.
• Closing statement: Provide a final thought or call to action.

6. Revise and Edit

• Review content: Ensure your arguments are clear and supported by evidence.
• Check organization: Ensure your paper flows logically.
• Edit for grammar and style: Correct any grammatical errors and improve readability.

7. Format the Paper

• Follow guidelines: Use the required formatting style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).
• Title page: Include the title, your name, course, instructor, and date.
• Page numbers: Ensure all pages are numbered.
• Citations: Properly cite all sources in-text and in the bibliography.

8. Proofread

• Final check: Look for any remaining errors or typos.
• Read aloud: Helps catch mistakes you might overlook.
• Peer review: Have someone else review your paper for feedback.

9. Submit the Paper

• Meet the deadline: Ensure you submit your paper on time.
• Follow submission guidelines: Submit according to your instructor’s requirements (e.g., online or printed copy).

FAQ’s

How do i choose a topic for my term paper.

Choose a topic that interests you, is relevant to your course, and has enough research material available.

What is the structure of a term paper?

A term paper typically includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion, and references.

How long should a term paper be?

The length varies, but a standard term paper is usually between 8-15 pages, depending on the subject and requirements.

How do I start writing a term paper?

Begin with thorough research, create an outline, and then draft your introduction to set the context for your paper.

What is a thesis statement in a term paper?

A thesis statement is a concise summary of the main point or claim of your paper, usually placed at the end of the introduction.

How important is the introduction in a term paper?

The introduction is crucial as it sets the tone, provides background information, and presents your thesis statement.

What should be included in the literature review?

The literature review should summarize, analyze, and compare existing research relevant to your topic.

How do I cite sources in my term paper?

Use a citation style recommended by your instructor (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago) to credit the original sources of your information.

How do I present my findings in a term paper?

Present your findings clearly and logically, using tables, charts, or graphs if necessary, in the results section.

How do I write a conclusion for a term paper?

Summarize your main points, restate the significance of your findings, and suggest areas for future research.

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Difference Between Research Paper and Term Paper

Term paper and Research paper are two different things. The two share similar features and they may even be related, but exhibit differences to consider.

The research paper is an academic style of writing that requires the student to answer a significant, methodical, and theoretical level of questioning. Similarly, term paper requires the student to interpret what he or she gathered from the subject matter to display a clear understanding in the form of a paper. It can be of various lengths, which can be up to five thousand words.

A research paper is devoted to a problem within a specific course. Research papers are written to study some specific problems which have not been covered efficaciously or sometimes when results are doubtful. Research paper usually has elements of research.

A research paper has a specific structure despite the subject; the title page, the table of contents, the introduction/background information, the literature review, the methodology, the results, the discussion, and the conclusions/recommendations. Each of these sections has specific guidelines for writing. No matter the problem question under research, the structure usually remains the same. This type of paper writing usually requires time for conducting research and writing it.

There are many types of research which differ in properties according to the mode of information gathering technique, examples; interview, observation, questionnaire, survey, and experiment. Depending on the hypothesis and the purpose of the study, the research may take time ranging from a day to years depending on the volume and difficulty of problem question.

A research paper is usually a lengthy piece of writing. Usually, research papers are a minimum of ten pages and may be up to hundred pages and more. One can rarely meet a research paper less than ten pages; it is almost impossible in its case to explain the major points, discuss results and prove the hypothesis in a low number of pages.

A research paper can cover materials studied over previous years which are laid out in various courses in forms of books, journals, previous research papers, and published articles. Writing a research paper on a particular problem may require turning to the particular problem discussed in the past. The materials learned from the past may help in explaining some processes, discussing the background information, and analyzing the literature on the problem question. Look for examples of research paper to get practical idea to write your own.

A term paper , on the other hand, is aimed at checking students’ knowledge after some themes studied. Having completed a specific theme, students may also be asked write an essay, take a test, or complete some task devoted to this particular theme study. Students are required to write term papers to demonstrate that they have gained the required knowledge and skills in a certain subject matter.

A term paper is usually assigned to students near the end of a class as a tool to count toward the subject’s final grade; in fact, in some instances, it will be the only assigned means to grade. Although the length may vary greatly, it is common for them to be from three to five thousand words.

A term paper can come in the form of a critical essay that covers a current or popular topic. When structured like this, the student must include their point of view on the subject while also demonstrating an accurate and clear understanding of the topic. The paper should also contain some arguments that are both compelling and accompanied by evidence or facts for support

Generally speaking, one writes a term paper to indicate that he or she has learned or acquired the knowledge of a particular subject. The term paper is usually given at the end of the term and counts as an important percentage of the final exam. A term paper generally runs between 3,000 and 5,000 words.

A term paper permits for a vital examination of current topics and usually allows the writer’s opinion. Term paper contains arguments and persuasions that must be supported with facts taken from various reliable sources, such as scholarly magazines, academic papers, and textbooks.

A term paper, being part of a course, is usually completed after a specific period of studying. The course is usually divided into terms and themes. Having come to an end of a term, students are usually asked to take a test or complete another task, which will show how well students have learned the course material during the discussed period. The grades for this task usually have a special value in the overall student’s grade.

A term paper can be of any nature and structure. Opposing to a research paper with a specific structure. A term paper may be written in the form of an essay or other forms of writing; it can have a questions-answers structure; it can be an article, a review, an annotated bibliography, a test, and even a research paper.

A term paper can be of any length. It can be one-paged, unlike the typical research paper which cannot be adequately expressed on a page and could also be twenty paged, no matter what the topic is and what type of the task is requested. Overall, each professor should select what kind of task fit better the specific topic which has been studied. Usually, a term paper covers the theme or the themes studied during a particular period, the main purpose of such task is to show how well students have understood the materials and lessons taught during that period.

A task in a term paper can be in the form of a research paper, while it is impossible to have a task in a research paper to write a term paper. These two types of writing are different even though each student’s task is aimed at checking their knowledge. Educational process can be complicated and usually require constant motivation and encouragement from the professors. Therefore it is advised that tutors should try not to impose his/her opinion on students when writing term papers, this helps term paper serve its purpose better, which is to determine students’ knowledge on the topic. Some students may need the appreciation of their skills or some additional punishment, which may stimulate them to work harder.

The Main Characteristics of a Research Paper

This kind of academic writing involves exploration of the topic idea which aims to answer a particular theoretical question. A typical document consists of 5,000 words but is often a bit longer. The student is asked to interpret information provided on a chosen topic and analyze it thoroughly. It can be assigned anytime, yet most instructors give this task at the beginning of the semester to allow students to have enough time to gather data and compose their works. This kind of paper often involves primary data collection and its further interpretation.

The Key Features of a Term Paper

A student writes this paper to demonstrate his or her knowledge of a particular subject studied. The length of the work usually varies from 3,000 to 5,000 words. A chosen topic should be carefully examined, and the writer should provide his or her personal opinion towards the issue under study.

This assignment is usually given at the end of the semester and significantly influences the final grade. The term paper should be based on credible sources, such as scholarly articles, academic works, lab reports, and textbooks.

The Differences between These Assignments

Despite both assignments share some qualities. In each instance, students can pick a topic that arouses their interest. They use the same type of resources and the structures of the documents could be quite similar. The real difference between these pieces of academic writing, is that a research paper is assigned at any time and doesn’t generally count toward the final grade . Another aspect that writing instructors pay their attention to is the fact that a research paper often contains a hypothesis while a term paper supports a thesis statement. Besides, the research paper usually has a long list of references. The term paper assignment, however, is shorter and does not usually contain appendixes.

Another significant difference between a research paper and a term paper is that the research paper is used to make the student engage in problem-solving activities while term paper is simply meant to test the student’s knowledge, not necessarily solve the problem.

This table summarizes the difference between research paper and term paper;

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The InfoGraphic seems to suggest that it ‘Takes Moths… to complete’. This is new to me.

very nice description for undertanding thank you

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• Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Thesis and Research Paper

On the other hand, a research paper is analytical, argumentative and interpretative in nature. It involves the pursuit of knowledge and intelligent analysis of the information collected. It contains the idea of the author, often supported by expert opinions, research and information available in this regard.

Whether you are writing a thesis or research paper, they are equally challenging and take a lot of time to prepare. In this post, we will update you on all the points of difference between thesis and  research paper.

Content: Thesis Vs Research Paper

• Key Elements
• Thesis Statement

How to start a research paper?

Comparison chart.

What is Thesis?

The thesis is a document containing the research and findings that students submit to get the professional qualification or degree . It has to be argumentative, which proposes a debatable point with which people could either agree or disagree. In short, it is a research report in writing that contains a problem which is yet to be dealt with.

In a thesis, the researcher puts forth his/her conclusion. The researcher also gives evidence in support of the conclusion.

Submission of the thesis is a mandatory requirement of a postgraduate course and PhD degree. In this, the primary focus is on the novelty of research along with the research methodology.

It is all about possibilities, by introducing several anti-thesis. Also, it ends up all the possibilities by nullifying all these anti-thesis.

Key Elements of Thesis

• Proposition : The thesis propagates an idea, hypothesis or recommendation.
• Argument : Gives reasons for accepting the proposition instead of just asserting a point of view.
• Maintenance of argument : The argument should be made cogent enough by providing suitable logic and adequate evidence.

Features of An Ideal Thesis

• An Ideal thesis is expected to add fresh knowledge to the existing theory.
• It communicates the central idea of the research in a clear and concise manner.
• An effective thesis is more than a simple statement, fact or question.
• It answers why and how questions concerned with the topic.
• To avoid confusion, it is worded carefully.
• It outlines the direction and scope of your essay.
• It gives reasons to the reader to continue reading.

Also Read : Difference Between Thesis and Dissertation

What is Thesis Statement?

A thesis statement is a sentence of one line, usually written at the end of your first paragraph. It presents the argument to the reader.

It is a blueprint of your thesis that directs the writer while writing the thesis and guides the reader through it.

What is Research Paper?

Research Paper is a form of academic writing. It is prepared on the basis of the original research conducted by the author on a specific topic, along with its analysis and interpretation of the findings.

An author generally starts writing a research paper on the basis of what he knows about the topic and seeks to find out what experts know. Further, it involves thorough and systematic research on a particular subject to extract the maximum information.

In short, a research paper is a written and published report containing the results of scientific research or a review of published scientific papers. Here, the scientific research is the primary research article, while the review of a published scientific paper is the review article.

In case of the primary research article, the author of the research paper provides important information about the research. This enables the scientific community members to:

• Evaluate it
• Reproduce the experiments
• Assess the reasoning and conclusions drawn

On the other hand, a review article is written to analyze, summarize and synthesize the research carried out previously.

When a research work is published in a scientific journal, it conveys the knowledge to a larger group of people and also makes people aware of the scientific work. Research work published as a research paper passes on knowledge and information to many people. The research paper provides relevant information about the disease and the treatment options at hand .

To start writing a research paper, one should always go for a topic that is interesting and a bit challenging too. Here, the key to choosing the topic is to pick the one that you can manage. So, you could avoid such topics which are very technical or specialized and also those topics for which data is not easily available. Also, do not go for any controversial topic.

The researcher’s approach and attitude towards the topic will decide the amount of effort and enthusiasm.

Steps for writing Research Paper

The total number of pages included in a Research Paper relies upon the research topic. It may include 8 to 10 pages, which are:

• Introduction
• Review of Literature
• Methodology
• Research Analysis
• Recommendations

Also Read : Difference Between Research Proposal and Research Report

Key Differences Between Thesis and Research Paper

• A thesis implies an original, plagiarism-free, written academic document that acts as a final project for a university degree of a higher level. But, Research Paper is a novel, plagiarism-free long essay. It portrays the interpretation, evaluation or argument submitted by a researcher.
• The thesis acts as a final project. Whereas a research paper is a kind of research manual of journals.
• The length of the thesis is around 20,000 to 80,000 words. On the contrary, the length of the research paper is relative to the study.
• The thesis focuses on the central question or statement of an intellectual argument that entails further research. On the contrary, the research paper is concerned with proving the central argument.
• The purpose of submitting the thesis is to get the degree or professional qualification. It also presents the knowledge of the candidate in the respective field. Conversely, the aim of publishing research papers is to prove credibility and contribute knowledge in the respective field.
• While the student submits the thesis to the educational committee or panel of professors who review it. In contrast, scientists and other researchers read and review the research paper.
• Preparation and completion of thesis is always under the guidance of a supervisor. For submission of the thesis, the university assigns a supervisor to each student, under whose guidance the thesis must be completed. As against, no supervisor is appointed as a guide in case of a research paper.
• The thesis contains a broader description of the subject matter. In contrast, the research paper contains a narrow description of the subject matter.

Once the research paper is published, it increases the fellowship and job opportunities for new researchers. On the other hand, thesis writing will enable the students to get the desired degree at the end of the course they have opted.

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Dr. Owenga says

February 23, 2023 at 2:38 pm

So good and informative. These are quite beneficial insights. Thanks

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What are the boundaries between draft, manuscript, preprint, paper, and article?

In the terminology for a peer-reviewed publication to be submitted to a reputable scientific journal, what are the differences and characteristic properties of the following?

My own take on it would be that my text is a draft until I submit it to a journal, at which point it becomes a manuscript. When the manuscript is accepted it becomes a preprint, and when it gets published it becomes a paper, which is synonymous to article.

Would that be an accurate summary? Would anyone have corrections or additions?

• publications
• terminology

• See also this related question on the difference between preprints and accepted manuscripts, and on its copyright implications. –  henning no longer feeds AI Commented Feb 3, 2016 at 23:20

5 Answers 5

paper = article : In the academic meaning of the words, papers and articles refer to the same thing: a published piece of writing. The term is used for journal papers or journal articles , which means they have been published by a journal, but also for less traditional publications, including self-publication ( “Dr. Who just published a great paper on the intricacies of time travel on his webpage” ) and e-print repositories such as arXiv ( “check out the latest paper by Galileo on arXiv, that guy has mad ideas!” ).

Some journals have different categories of “articles”, and differentiate between letters, communications, reports, reviews, and full papers (sometimes abbreviated as just “papers”). In usage I have seen, paper (or article ) used as a generic term covers all of those: you would say, for example, that “letters and full papers are two types of articles” .

A preprint (more commonly used without the hyphen) refers to the distribution, in advance of formal publication, of something that will be published in print . The preprint may differ from the final publication.

Preprint status does not always indicate that the work has been formally accepted for publication. It just means the authors intend to publish it in a more formal venue (journal, book, etc.) but wanted to distribute by other means beforehand (preprints used to be distributed to colleagues as photocopies, but are now mostly circulated by email or repositories).

A manuscript is, in the New Oxford American Dictionary 's words, “an author's text that has not yet been published ”. Any piece of writing that you have not published in any way (but intend to) is a manuscript.

A draft is the same as a manuscript, except that it insists on the unfinished state of the manuscript.

Summarizing, I could say:

Here's the draft I've been working on, please amend it with your corrections. Once we have done this final round of revision, I will upload the manuscript to the editor's website, and we can start circulating it as a preprint to colleagues whom you think may be interested. Once it is accepted and published, we'll just send them the published version of the paper for their records.

• 9 These rules sound really weird to me. I describe any written result as a paper regardless of its publication or submission status. ("Are you planning to submit your TSP paper to FOCS?" "No, it still needs some more work.") Similarly, a preprint is a paper that is available but not in final published form, again regardless of submission or publication status. For example, all papers on arXiv are preprints, but not all arXiv preprints have been submitted for publication. In my opinion, the only word in this category with a restricted definition is publication . –  JeffE Commented Sep 30, 2013 at 16:54
• @JeffE I believe there is some confusion on what a “preprint” is, so I listed the term as it is used by notable sources ( Nature policy, SHERPA RoMEO , etc.). Of particular note: while arXiv is sometimes called a “preprint server”, it calls itself an “e-print server” –  F'x Commented Sep 30, 2013 at 17:01
• While I am not a mother-tongue English speaker, I've occasionally had the impression that paper and article , while being synonyms, have slightly different connotations. One tends to say "paper" for an own result, or one that they feels closer/related to, and "article" for "something you read in a journal, but you have no personal interest in". Is it the case? Or is it only a wrong impression created by talking too much with other non-native speakers? –  Federico Poloni Commented Oct 1, 2013 at 12:39
• 2 -1 This might vary between fields, but the word "paper" is certainly used for unpublished writeups, including the editors of the top journals in my field (economics). Working papers are papers too. –  Michael Greinecker Commented Feb 13, 2018 at 9:31
• I guess this is field-dependent, since other commenters report different usages, but my understanding of paper (from pure maths/logic) definitely agrees with this answer: to me, paper implies published status just as strongly as article does. –  PLL Commented Mar 22, 2019 at 16:51

In French, paper is definitely informal, while article is the term to be used in a written document.

However, in English I feel that we tend to use

• "journal article" more often that "journal paper",
• "conference article" less than "conference paper",
• "workshop article" far less often than "workshop paper".

So paper might tend to designate a piece of work of lesser importance than article, or as jakebeal said have a more general use. It still sounds slightly more informal to me, probably because I am a French native speaker, but I'm pretty sure many French colleagues of mine have the same feeling even if they work in some English-speaking country.

My field computer science > machine learning, in case the terminology changes from field to field, and my location is the US.

Some statistics (obviously biased by the corpus):

Journal paper vs. journal article :

Conference paper vs. conference article :

Workshop paper vs. workshop article :

• @FranckDernoncourt In the last plot, what's the difference between three lines? They are all workshop papers. –  enthu Commented Oct 18, 2014 at 16:40
• 1 @EnthusiasticStudent Different cases: in the Ngram Viewer when you only plot 1 ngram with case-insensitive mode on, it will plot different cases separately. Since not enough occurrences of "workshop article" were found, the query "workshop paper, workshop article" was regarded as plotting only 1 ngram, not 2. –  Franck Dernoncourt Commented Oct 18, 2014 at 17:03
• What about "newspaper article", or "student newspaper article" are these of less value then a conference paper? –  Ian Commented Oct 18, 2014 at 18:16
• 3 Since you mention French, a quick note about Italian: the formal word is articolo ; there is no Italian word with the same root as "paper", but people in academia often use informally the humorous Italianization papero , which literally means "duck". So it has a more informal connotation, too. And one often gets weird looks from non-academics when using it in their presence. –  Federico Poloni Commented Oct 18, 2014 at 20:20
• Is it OK with you if I merge this answer into the duplicate (i.e., it will appear as an answer to this post with a note indicating that it was merged to explain why it only partially addresses that question.) Since the other post is the 'canonical' one that we point people to when they ask similar questions, I think it would be a shame not to have this answer there. –  ff524 Commented Dec 12, 2014 at 7:43

I think that a piece of writing during the pre-submission stage is a draft and during the post-acceptance, but pre-publication, stage is a preprint. I think that this agrees with your terminology.

Many journals publish original research findings under a number of categories including articles, letters, and reports and in some fields books are the predominant mode of publishing research. Therefore, I would say that a preprint does not necessarily become a paper/article when published and instead becomes whatever it is.

Defining a manuscript is the hardest for me. I have often seen acknowledgements which thank someone for reading a previous version of the manuscript. This happens frequently enough in my field that I believe that a piece of writing becomes a manuscript prior to submission to a publisher. I am not sure when a piece of writing becomes a manuscript. I think a piece of writing becomes a manuscript when the first complete draft is completed.

An "article" typically specifically means a paper in a journal, while "paper" is a more general term that also includes conferences, technical memos, etc.

• I would add that other accompanying words often clarify the meaning. For instance a "published paper" nearly always means a journal article, while a "conference paper" may mean something that was just a presentation with no actual written article. In some cases, an "article" can also mean a publication in a non-academic venue (e.g., Scientific American, The New Yorker), in which case it may also be qualified (as "article in the popular press" or the like). –  BrenBarn Commented Oct 18, 2014 at 20:18
• 2 @BrenBarn This is very field dependent. In computer science, for example, conference papers are often stiffly peer reviewed and quite clearly count as a "published paper." –  jakebeal Commented Oct 18, 2014 at 20:24

I would consider a preprint is the read-proof document that some Journals allow the author to distribute under some rules. So it is in post-acceptance but pre-publication stage. I don´t think the draft-manuscript-paper distinctions are relevant.

• 4 No, this is definite not what the term preprint usually refers to. –  Tobias Kildetoft Commented Feb 12, 2018 at 17:52

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Sixteen Nobel Prize-winning economists warn a second Trump term would ‘reignite’ inflation

Sixteen  Nobel Prize -winning economists signed a joint letter Tuesday warning of what they see as economic risks if former President  Donald Trump  were to serve a second term, including reheated inflation.

“While each of us has different views on the particulars of various economic policies, we all agree that Joe Biden’s economic agenda is vastly superior to Donald Trump’s,” the economists wrote. Axios was  first to report  the letter.

“There is rightly a worry that Donald Trump will reignite this inflation, with his fiscally irresponsible budgets,” wrote the group of politically progressive academics.

Trump has so far proposed making his first-term  tax cuts  permanent, imposing universal  tariffs  on all imports, with a China-specific tariff rate between 60% and 100%, and pressuring the independent Federal Reserve Board to cut interest rates.

Economists and Wall Street analysts alike have predicted that any or all of those proposals could reinflate prices, which remain vulnerable despite cooling slightly in recent months.

Joseph Stiglitz, who won the Nobel Prize in 2001, led the effort to publish Tuesday’s letter. His co-signers include George Akerlof, Sir Angus Deaton, Claudia Goldin, Sir Oliver Hart, Eric Maskin, Daniel McFadden, Paul Milgrom, Roger Myerson, Edmund Phelps, Paul Romer, Alvin Roth, William Sharpe, Robert Shiller, Christopher Sims and Robert Wilson.

“Nonpartisan researchers, including at Evercore, Allianz, Oxford Economics, and the Peterson Institute, predict that if Donald Trump successfully enacts his agenda, it will increase inflation,” the economists wrote.

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Stiglitz said he felt compelled to initiate the letter based on a flurry of recent polling in which voters said they trusted Trump over Biden to manage the U.S. economy.

“A lot of people think Trump would be better for the economy than Biden,” Stiglitz told CNBC in an interview. “I thought it would be important for Americans to know that at least a group of credible economists differs very strongly.”

The timing of Tuesday’s letter was notable, coming just days before Trump and Biden are scheduled to face off in the first presidential debate of the general election. The Atlanta debate hosted by CNN is expected to dedicate significant time to the economy and specifically, inflation.

The Trump campaign staunchly rejected the Nobel economists’ position.

“The American people don’t need worthless out of touch Nobel peace prize winners to tell them which president put more money in their pockets,” Trump campaign spokesperson Karoline Leavitt said in a statement to CNBC.

Under Trump, the  December year-over-year Consumer Price Index  fell during three of his four years in office.

The Biden campaign seized the opportunity to tout the letter on Tuesday: “Top economists, Nobel Prize winners, and business leaders all know America can’t afford Trump’s dangerous economic agenda.”

The Nobel laureates’ letter contained a distinct political perspective, as well as an economic one.

Many of these economists signed a similar  September 2021 letter  expressing support for President Joe Biden’s Build Back Better package. Critics at the time argued that the massive spending packages would drive up inflation.

At the time, Stiglitz observed that some people “invoked fears of inflation as a reason to not undertake” the Build Back Better investments. “This view is short-sighted,“he said in a press release.

This time around, Stiglitz and his co-signers took a more cautious approach to inflation, after the U.S. economy has spent that last year recovering from 2023′s scorching inflation spike.

The higher prices were partly due to pandemic-era supply chain snarls, which left the global trade system unable to meet the pent up demand of American consumers.

But this demand was itself the result of a U.S. economy that weathered the pandemic  better than many had anticipated it would — thanks to generous government subsidies  like the expanded Child Tax Credit and the Paycheck Protection Program.

Since then, Stiglitz said, Biden has helmed a successful effort to cool those inflation peaks.

“Inflation has been brought down, actually, remarkably quickly,” he said. “I would say it’s because of Biden.”

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A 2022 Supreme Court opinion.

Supported by

The Gun Lobby’s Hidden Hand in the 2nd Amendment Battle

In the battle to dismantle gun restrictions, raging in America’s courts even as mass shootings become commonplace, one name keeps turning up in the legal briefs and judges’ rulings: William English, Ph.D.

A little-known political economist at Georgetown University, Dr. English conducted a largest-of-its-kind national survey that found gun owners frequently used their weapons for self-defense. That finding has been deployed by gun rights activists to notch legal victories with far-reaching consequences.

He has been cited in a landmark Supreme Court case that invalidated many restrictions on guns, and in scores of lawsuits around the country to overturn limits on assault weapons, high-capacity magazines and the carrying of firearms. His findings were also offered in another Supreme Court case this term, with a decision expected this month.

Dr. English seems at first glance to be an impartial researcher interested in data-driven insights. He has said his “scholarly arc” focuses on good public policy, and his lack of apparent ties to the gun lobby has lent credibility to his work.

But Dr. English’s interest in firearms is more than academic: He has received tens of thousands of dollars as a paid expert for gun rights advocates, and his survey work, which he says was part of a book project, originated as research for a National Rifle Association-backed lawsuit, The New York Times has found.

He has also increasingly drawn scrutiny in some courts over the reliability and integrity of his unpublished survey, which is the core of his research, and his refusal to disclose who paid for it. Other researchers say that the wording of some questions could elicit answers overstating defensive gun use, and that he cherry-picked pro-gun responses.

The Bruen decision in 2022 upended Second Amendment law by sweeping away any modern-day gun restrictions that could not be tied to a historical antecedent. The ruling led to a surge in firearms cases — to an annual average of 680 today compared with 122 in the decade before. Pro-gun rulings have also risen: The 74 issued last year make up a quarter of all such rulings since 2000, according to researchers at the University of Southern California. Courts have struck down restrictions on high-capacity magazines in Oregon, handgun purchases in Maryland and assault weapons in California.

Dr. English’s brief in the Bruen case.

Here’s an example of that missing context.

The paper quotes a survey question, omitting the setup to it, which is highlighted below in blue.

Many policymakers recognize that a large number of people participate in shooting sports but question how often guns are used for self-defense. Have you ever defended yourself or your property with a firearm, even if it was not fired or displayed? Please do not include military service, police work, or work as a security guard.

Other questions followed the same pattern of omission. This one, about AR-15-style rifles, included text before and after the question in the version respondents saw, but not in the paper.

Some have argued that few gun owners actually want or use guns that are commonly classified as ‘assault weapons.’ Have you ever owned an AR-15 or similarly styled rifle? You can include any rifles of this style that have been modified or moved to be compliant with local law. Answering this will help us establish how popular these types of firearms are.

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What Makes International Paper (IP) a New Strong Buy Stock

International Paper ( IP Quick Quote IP - Free Report ) could be a solid addition to your portfolio given its recent upgrade to a Zacks Rank #1 (Strong Buy). An upward trend in earnings estimates -- one of the most powerful forces impacting stock prices -- has triggered this rating change.

A company's changing earnings picture is at the core of the Zacks rating. The system tracks the Zacks Consensus Estimate -- the consensus measure of EPS estimates from the sell-side analysts covering the stock -- for the current and following years.

Individual investors often find it hard to make decisions based on rating upgrades by Wall Street analysts, since these are mostly driven by subjective factors that are hard to see and measure in real time. In these situations, the Zacks rating system comes in handy because of the power of a changing earnings picture in determining near-term stock price movements.

Therefore, the Zacks rating upgrade for International Paper basically reflects positivity about its earnings outlook that could translate into buying pressure and an increase in its stock price.

Most Powerful Force Impacting Stock Prices

The change in a company's future earnings potential, as reflected in earnings estimate revisions, and the near-term price movement of its stock are proven to be strongly correlated. The influence of institutional investors has a partial contribution to this relationship, as these big professionals use earnings and earnings estimates to calculate the fair value of a company's shares. An increase or decrease in earnings estimates in their valuation models simply results in higher or lower fair value for a stock, and institutional investors typically buy or sell it. Their bulk investment action then leads to price movement for the stock.

Fundamentally speaking, rising earnings estimates and the consequent rating upgrade for International Paper imply an improvement in the company's underlying business. Investors should show their appreciation for this improving business trend by pushing the stock higher.

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The Zacks Rank stock-rating system, which uses four factors related to earnings estimates to classify stocks into five groups, ranging from Zacks Rank #1 (Strong Buy) to Zacks Rank #5 (Strong Sell), has an impressive externally-audited track record, with Zacks Rank #1 stocks generating an average annual return of +25% since 1988. You can see the complete list of today's Zacks #1 Rank (Strong Buy) stocks here >>>> .

Earnings Estimate Revisions for International Paper

For the fiscal year ending December 2024, this global paper and packaging company is expected to earn $1.86 per share, which is a change of -13.9% from the year-ago reported number.

Analysts have been steadily raising their estimates for International Paper. Over the past three months, the Zacks Consensus Estimate for the company has increased 1.2%.

Bottom Line

Unlike the overly optimistic Wall Street analysts whose rating systems tend to be weighted toward favorable recommendations, the Zacks rating system maintains an equal proportion of 'buy' and 'sell' ratings for its entire universe of more than 4000 stocks at any point in time. Irrespective of market conditions, only the top 5% of the Zacks-covered stocks get a 'Strong Buy' rating and the next 15% get a 'Buy' rating. So, the placement of a stock in the top 20% of the Zacks-covered stocks indicates its superior earnings estimate revision feature, making it a solid candidate for producing market-beating returns in the near term.

You can learn more about the Zacks Rank here >>>

The upgrade of International Paper to a Zacks Rank #1 positions it in the top 5% of the Zacks-covered stocks in terms of estimate revisions, implying that the stock might move higher in the near term.

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Ice shelves differ from ice sheets. Study misrepresented online | Fact check

The claim: study shows antarctic ice isn't melting, growing overall instead.

A June 9 Facebook post ( direct link , archive link ) shows a graphic depicting Antarctic ice shelf change that was originally published in a 2023 research paper .

" Is ice melting in Antarctica alarming?" reads the post. "Nope, in fact the very opposite is happening!!! Satellite measurements make it clear, the Antarctic ice plates have become even larger. The ice has risen by 5305 km2, or 661 gig tonnes of ice (sic)."

The post names the European Geosciences Union − the entity that published the 2023 research paper − as its source.

The post was shared more than 800 times in less than three weeks.

More from the Fact-Check Team: How we pick and research claims | Email newsletter | Facebook page

Our rating: False

The post misrepresents the research in the 2023 paper, according to the paper's lead author. The graphic in the post only shows changes to the 34 ice shelves studied in the paper. Research shows the Antarctic ice sheet is losing mass overall.

Paper reports results from 34 ice shelves, not entire Antarctic ice sheet

The Antarctic ice sheet has lost about 2.6 trillion tons of ice since 2002, NASA reports .

The 2023 research paper referenced in the Facebook post does not contradict this finding, according to the paper's lead author, Julia Andreasen , a graduate student at the University of Minnesota.

The paper "does not find that Antarctica is gaining ice overall," she told USA TODAY in an email.

While the paper reports growth of 5,305 km² and 661 billion metric tons of ice, this finding does not apply to the entire Antarctic ice mass. Instead, it refers only to overall changes in 34 specific Antarctic ice shelves between 2009 and 2019.

More : Can we count on renewable energy? Four ways wind, solar and water can power the US

Antarctica has more than a hundred ice shelves that develop when the ice sheet , the giant expanse of ice that sits on top of the Antarctic continent, flows out over ocean water and forms a floating structure.

"It is important to note that there are many different types of ice in Antarctica," Andreasen said, also noting that the term "ice plates" used in the Facebook post is not a term used in glaciology.

"Although our paper discusses the mass change associated with ice shelf area change, we do not make any statements about total ice mass change in Antarctica," she said.

Likewise, the graphic in the Facebook post only shows changes to specific ice shelves, not total ice change on the continent.

For information on total ice mass change, Andreasen referred USA TODAY to a 2018 paper published in Nature . The paper reports overall losses from the ice sheet.

USA TODAY reached out to the Facebook user who shared the post for comment but did not immediately receive a response.

Our fact-check sources:

• The Cryosphere, May 16, 2023, Change in Antarctic ice shelf area from 2009 to 2019
• Julia Andreasen , June 26, Email exchange with USA TODAY
• NASA Sea Level Change Observations from Space, accessed June 26, Antarctica
• National Snow and Ice Data Center, accessed June 26, What is an ice shelf?
• The Conversation, June 13, 2018, Short-term changes in Antarctica’s ice shelves are key to predicting their long-term fate
• National Geographic, accessed June 26, Ice sheets
• Nature, June 13, 2018, Mass balance of the Antarctic Ice Sheet from 1992 to 2017
• Science Advances, Oct. 12, 2023, Annual mass budget of Antarctic ice shelves from 1997 to 2021

Thank you for supporting our journalism. You can subscribe to our print edition, ad-free app or e-newspaper here .

USA TODAY is a verified signatory of the International Fact-Checking Network, which requires a demonstrated commitment to nonpartisanship, fairness and transparency. Our fact-check work is supported in part by a grant from Meta .

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Comparing Research Papers and Term Papers

In recent years, the distinction between research papers and term papers has become increasingly blurred. This article will provide a comparison of these two types of academic writings, examining their key differences in terms of structure, style, content and purpose. Moreover, this article aims to shed light on how certain components may be used in both forms to construct an effective argument or conclusion. Finally, implications for further study are discussed in order to assess potential avenues for additional analysis into each type’s approach and features.

I. Introduction

English term papers and research papers differ in their approach, requirements, and outcome. A term paper , typically assigned at the end of a semester course or class, requires more planning than most other types of academic writing. For a successful English term paper you need to possess an excellent command over language usage as well as use proofreading techniques for typos and errors.

Research paper vs term paper : A research paper is usually much longer than a regular essay – it can reach up to 40 pages when written correctly. It must be based on intense research with accurate facts being used throughout the content that should make your point clear to readers. On the other hand, though also involving thorough researching efforts from students like its cousin; an English research paper , is shorter in length compared to its counterpart (10-20 pages). In addition, instead of trying out new ideas through experimentation or analysis; this type mostly involves summarizing existing works by different authors.

II. Definition of Research Papers and Term Papers

Research Papers

• A research paper is a written work that reports on facts and findings related to the investigation of an idea, issue or problem.
• It typically involves gathering information from various sources like books, articles, experiments and interviews.
• In writing a research paper, students must use their own knowledge and understanding as well as analyze the ideas presented in other sources.

Term Papers

III. Key Differences between Research Papers and Term papers

Research papers and term papers are two of the most common forms of written assignments in academia, but their major differences set them apart from each other.

• Purpose : A research paper is an assignment that requires a student to conduct academic research or field work with the goal of contributing original ideas or insights on a given topic. On the other hand, term papers provide students with an opportunity to apply what they have learned over the course of a semester while focusing mainly on summarizing content rather than introducing new information.
• Scope & Length : Research Papers typically require much more effort and thus tend to be longer than Term Papers due to its comprehensive nature. The scope covered in research papers can range anywhere between 5-10 pages up until 100+ depending on how deeply one wants/needs to explore their chosen topic(s). In contrast, most Term Paper requirements are shorter as they serve primarily as summaries covering only key concepts discussed throughout lectures and readings over the course of a single semester.

IV. Content Analysis of Research Papers versus Term papers

In the process of content analysis, research papers and term papers provide a number of similarities as well as differences. Both focus on providing an analytical insight into a given topic or subject; however, their target audience is different. Research papers are written for an academic purpose and tend to be used in college settings. They need to include sophisticated detail concerning a certain phenomenon from both primary and secondary sources so that one can draw evidence-based conclusions about the material presented.

On the other hand, term papers don’t necessitate quite such deep levels of analysis compared with research papers. These are usually assigned by professors over shorter periods than research paper assignments, often requiring students to cover only topics taught within their coursework.

• Research Papers:
• > Intended for scholarly inquiry
• > Written based on extensive original source material

V. Factors Influencing the Quality of a Research Paper or a Term Paper

When writing a research paper or term paper, it is essential to understand the factors that influence its quality and integrity. In general, these papers are expected to have clear structure and sound methodology in order to be successful.

• Writing style: Research papers require extensive technical writing due to their level of detail while term papers can incorporate more creative approaches such as storytelling or persuasive arguments.
• Credibility: Establishing credibility is crucial when crafting any academic piece, but particularly important for research papers which involve evidence-based analysis. Sources must be properly cited with facts presented in an impartial manner regardless of personal opinion. On the other hand, convincing readers about a certain perspective should remain at the center of every argumentative approach used in a term paper.

Scope & topic focus: From a broader view point , one major difference between research pape r s vs . t erm pape r s lies within their purposeful scope – research assignments typically look into specific topics deeply whereas most ter m pa per s focus on analyzing already existing theories . T hus , esse ntial f acts sh ould form th e back bone of th e former whi le developing sound ar gu menta tion remains key within l ate r .

VI. Common Issues Associated with Writing Both Types of Academic Writings

When it comes to academic writing, there are many common issues associated with research papers and term papers. Here we will discuss the most frequent problems that students encounter when producing these two types of documents.

• Brainstorming a Topic: Choosing an appropriate topic for a research paper is not always easy as one must ensure the subject has enough information available from reliable sources in order to create an adequate argument and present evidence-based facts. Moreover, topics related to current events tend to be more controversial than those about past events.
• Time Management: Research papers often require multiple stages of data collection such as conducting interviews or researching primary sources before starting the actual writing process which can take months if time management is not properly addressed.
• Formatting Rules & Regulations: Some term papers may require specific formatting rules and regulations that need to be followed closely in order for them to receive credit from their professors or instructors. This includes following particular citation styles along with adhering to certain page length requirements and font size specifications set by universities.

Scope Restrictions : Term papers also have limited scopes meaning they cannot cover all aspects related on a given subject but instead should focus specifically on key points while providing relevant details within its allocated word count limits . Keeping this limitation into account during the planning phase helps students avoid going off topic which could negatively impact overall grades received at completion. .

VII. Conclusion

The research paper and term paper are two commonly written academic assignments, each with their own unique characteristics that help to set them apart from one another. From the discussion of the differences between these two types of papers, it is evident that a student must use different techniques when constructing either type in order to achieve success in an academic setting.

Firstly, there is a clear distinction regarding length requirements; while both papers require evidence-based writing and well-supported arguments based on reliable sources, only the research paper requires an extended amount of content compared to its counterpart—the term paper may be shorter than 10 pages while most likely requiring fewer sources as well. Furthermore, understanding what constitutes primary versus secondary data differs depending upon which assignment you are completing; for instance, personal interviews or field observations can act as primary data within a research paper but not necessarily within a term paper context. Secondly and perhaps more importantly is the differing levels of creativity expected for each respective assignment: While critically evaluating information retrieved through library resources provides support for any argument put forth by students during coursework related to terms papers (as opposed to developing original ideas), research projects generally involve synthesizing multiple sources into something new due solely off contributions by authors themselves – making this type of project inherently much more complex than other forms such as traditional essays or reports generated throughout high school/college courses .

In conclusion then , researching skills gained throughout higher education courses become invaluable once familiarized with distinguishing aspects surrounding both Research Papers and Term Papers — allowing students greater flexibility in addressing similar themes under diverse constraints according conditions presented at hand . As demonstrated here , despite superficial similarities inherent amongst these two assignments – subtle nuances remain essential if aspiring towards obtaining tangible outcomes pertaining “research vs term” dynamics discussed at length herein above .

English: The purpose of this article was to explore the similarities and differences between research papers and term papers, in order to provide insight into when each may be more appropriate for academic endeavors. By illustrating commonalities as well as distinctions between these two document types, we have provided a clearer understanding of their purposes and what considerations must be made before deciding on which type is most suitable for any given task. We hope that our examination has been useful in helping professors guide students toward choosing the best paper type for their needs while completing assignments.

Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget

Trump and biden: the national debt.

The national debt is on course to reach a record share of the economy under the next presidential administration, due in part to policies approved by Presidents Trump and Biden during their time in office, including executive actions and legislation passed by Congress. 

While it is important to understand the fiscal impact of the promises candidates make on the campaign trail – particularly because they reflect the candidates’ own policy preferences and are not impacted by unexpected external events or the actions of Congress – the fact that both leading candidates have served as President also allows for a comparison of their actual fiscal records. This analysis focuses on the estimated ten-year debt impact of policies approved by Presidents Trump and Biden around the time of enactment. 1 In this analysis, we find:

• President Trump  approved $8.4 trillion of new ten-year borrowing during his full term in office, or $4.8 trillion excluding the CARES Act and other COVID relief.
• President Biden , in his first three years and five months in office, approved $4.3 trillion of new ten-year borrowing, or $2.2 trillion excluding the American Rescue Plan.
• President Trump approved $8.8 trillion  of gross new borrowing and $443 billion  of deficit reduction during his full presidential term. 
• President Biden has so far approved $6.2 trillion of gross new borrowing and $1.9 trillion of deficit reduction.

In companion analyses, we will show:

• Roughly 77 percent  of President Trump’s approved ten-year debt came from bipartisan legislation, and 29 percent  of the net ten-year debt President Biden has approved thus far came from bipartisan legislation. The rest was from partisan actions.
• President Trump approved $2.2 trillion of debt in his first two years in office and $6.2 trillion  ($2.6 trillion non-COVID) in his second two years. President Biden approved $4.9 trillion ($2.9 trillion non-COVID) in his first two years in office and has so far approved over $600 billion of net ten-year deficit reduction since. 
• President Trump approved $5.9 trillion of net spending increases including interest ($2.8 trillion non-COVID) and $2.5 trillion of net tax cuts ($2.0 trillion non-COVID). President Biden has approved $4.3 trillion of net spending increases including interest ($2.3 trillion non-COVID) and roughly $0 of net tax changes ($60 billion revenue increase non-COVID).
• Debt held by the public rose by $7.2 trillion during President Trump’s term including $5.9 trillion in the first three years and five months. Debt held by the public has grown by $6.0 trillion during President Biden’s term so far. 
• President Trump’s executive actions added less than $20 billion to ten-year debt on net. President Biden’s executive actions have added $1.2 trillion to ten-year debt so far. 
• The President’s budget was on average 39 days late under President Trump and 58 days late under President Biden. 

Summary Table: Executive Actions & Legislation Approved by Presidents Trump & Biden

Note: bipartisan indicates legislation passed with votes from both political parties in either chamber of Congress. *Includes $23 billion of executive actions in the form of student debt payment pauses. 

How Much Debt Did President Trump Approve?

During his four-year term in office, President Trump approved $8.4 trillion  of new ten-year borrowing above prior law, or $4.8 trillion  when excluding the bipartisan COVID relief bills and COVID-related executive actions. Looking at all legislation and executive actions with meaningful fiscal impact, the full amount of approved ten-year borrowing includes $8.8 trillion of deficit-increasing laws and actions offset by $443 billion of deficit-reducing actions. 2

These estimates are based on scores of legislation and executive actions rather than retrospective estimates. Scores are generally made on a conventional basis, though the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA) is scored dynamically. The actual debt impact of the policies was likely somewhat higher than these scores. In particular, the TCJA likely reduced revenue more than projected and saved less from repealing the individual health care mandate penalty, 3 while the Employee Retention Credit was likely far more expensive than originally estimated.

Sources: CRFB estimates based on CBO and OMB projections.

The major actions approved by President Trump (and ten-year impact with interest) include:

• The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 ( $1.9 trillion debt increase )
• The Bipartisan Budget Acts of 2018 and 2019 ( $2.1 trillion debt increase ) 
• ACA Tax Delays and Repeals ( $539 billion debt increase )
• Health Executive Actions ( $456 billion debt increase ) 
• Other Legislation ( $310 billion debt increase )  
• New and Increased Tariffs ( $443 billion debt reduction )
• The CARES Act ( $1.9 trillion debt increase ) 
• The Response & Relief Act ( $983 billion debt increase ) 
• Other COVID Relief ( $756 billion debt increase )

How Much Debt Has President Biden Approved?

Over his first three years and five months in office, President Biden has approved $4.3 trillion  of new ten-year borrowing, or $2.2 trillion  when excluding the American Rescue Plan Act. This includes $6.2 trillion of deficit-increasing legislation and actions, offset by $1.9 trillion of legislation and actions scored as reducing the deficit.

These estimates are based on scores of legislation and executive actions rather than retrospective estimates and do not include preliminary rules, unexecuted “side deals,” or actions ruled illegal by the Supreme Court. Updated scores and in-process actions would increase the total. For example, an updated estimate would likely wipe away the $252 billion of scored savings from the Inflation Reduction Act, 4 the informal FRA side deals would reduce its savings by  about $500 billion , and the new student debt cancellation plan could cost  $250 to $750 billion .

The major actions approved by President Biden so far (and ten-year impact with interest) include:

• Appropriations for FY 2022 and 2023 ( $1.4 trillion debt increase ) 
• The Honoring Our PACT Act ( $520 billion debt increase )
• The Bipartisan Infrastructure Law ( $439 billion debt increase ) 
• Other Legislation ( $422 billion debt increase )
• Student Debt Actions ( $620 billion debt increase )
• Other Executive Actions ( $548 billion debt increase ) 
• The Fiscal Responsibility Act ( $1.5 trillion debt reduction )
• The Inflation Reduction Act ( $252 billion debt reduction )
• Deficit-Reducing Executive Actions ( $129 billion debt reduction )
• The American Rescue Plan Act ( $2.1 trillion debt increase )

The next presidential term will present significant fiscal challenges. While past performance is not necessarily indicative of future actions, it is helpful to examine the fiscal performance from each President’s time in office for clues as to how they plan to confront these challenges or how high of a priority fiscal responsibility will be on their agendas.

Both candidates approved substantial amounts of new borrowing in their first term. President Trump approved $8.4 trillion in borrowing over a decade, while President Biden has approved $4.3 trillion so far in his first three years and five months in office. Of course, accountability also rests with Congress as a co-equal branch of government, which passed legislation constituting the majority of the fiscal impact under both presidents.

Some of this borrowing was clearly justified, particularly in the early parts of the COVID-19 pandemic when joblessness was rising rapidly and large parts of the economy were effectively shut down. However, funding classified as COVID relief explains less than half of the borrowing authorized by either President, and arguably, a meaningful portion of this COVID relief was either extraneous, excessive, poorly targeted, or otherwise unnecessary. 5

In supplemental analyses, we will compare a number of other aspects of the candidates’ fiscal records. 

During the next presidential term, the national debt is projected to reach a record share of the economy, interest costs are slated to surge, the debt limit will re-emerge, discretionary spending caps and major tax cuts are scheduled to expire, and major trust funds will be hurtling toward insolvency. 

Adding trillions more to the national debt will only worsen these challenges, just as both Presidents Trump and Biden did during their terms along with lawmakers in Congress. The country would be better served if the candidates put forward and stuck to plans to reduce the national debt, secure the trust funds, and put the budget on a sustainable long-term path.

Appendix I : Details of Policies Approved by President Trump

• Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 ( $1.9 trillion debt increase )   – The TCJA included several tax cuts and reforms. Among those changes, the law reduced individual and corporate income tax rates, virtually eliminated the alternative minimum taxes, repealed or limited numerous deductions and tax breaks, replaced personal and dependent exemptions with an expanded standard deduction and Child Tax Credit, established a new deduction for pass-through business income, shrunk the estate tax, offered full expensing of equipment purchases, and reformed the tax treatment of international income. Most individual and estate tax changes were temporary while most corporate changes were permanent. The legislation also repealed the Affordable Care Act’s individual mandate penalty. As a result of these policy changes, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) projected the TCJA would boost output by roughly 1 percent at peak and 0.6 percent after a decade. The estimate incorporated in this analysis includes the dynamic feedback effects of this faster growth, based on CBO’s April 2018 analysis of the bill. While it is impossible to know exactly how the bill’s fiscal impact compared to this prospective estimate, a number of factors point towards it adding significantly more to the debt, including: higher-than-expected inflation and nominal incomes and profits leading to higher revenue loss; SALT cap workarounds; increased use of bonus depreciation; and lower than expected revenue from limiting the use of pass-through losses. As a reference point, CBO’s latest estimate for extending the expiring elements of the TCJA is almost  50 percent higher than its 2018 estimate. In addition, the budgetary savings from the individual mandate penalty repeal were likely less than originally projected.
• The Bipartisan Budget Acts of 2018 and 2019  ( $2.1 trillion debt increase )   – The Bipartisan Budget Acts (BBA) of 2018 and 2019 increased the caps on defense and nondefense discretionary spending set by the 2011 Budget Control Act (BCA) and further reduced through a ‘sequester’ activated after the failure of the Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction. BBA 2018  increased the caps in FY 2018 and 2019 by a combined $296 billion,  effectively repealing the $91 billion per year sequester and further increasing spending above the BCA caps. BBA 2019 essentially codified these increases by  boosting the FY 2020 and 2021 caps by a combined $320 billion. Because the 2021 cap was the final year of the BCA caps, BBA 2019 increased baseline discretionary spending levels beyond 2021 to the new 2021 level plus inflation. Both bills also included smaller additional policies, including some partial offsets. In total, BBA 2018 added $418 billion to the ten-year debt and BBA 2019 added $1.7 trillion.
• ACA Tax Delays and Repeals  ( $539 billion debt increase )   – Three taxes enacted by the 2010 Affordable Care Act (ACA) – the health insurer tax, the “Cadillac tax” on high-cost health insurance, and the medical device excise tax – were delayed in a 2018 continuing resolution. They were subsequently repealed in one of the full-year funding bills for FY 2020. The Joint Committee on Taxation (JCT) estimated that the health insurer tax would have raised about $150 billion over a decade, the Cadillac tax would have raised $200 billion, and the medical device excise tax would have raised $25 billion. In addition to these tax repeals, policymakers enacted roughly $70 billion of other unpaid-for policies related to health care, retirement savings, and other priorities in these two bills. Interest costs added $64 billion more.
• Health Executive Actions  ( $456 billion debt increase )   – President Trump approved two health-related executive actions with significant costs over his term. Ending federal appropriations for the  ACA’s cost-sharing reduction payments in 2017 led insurers to raise premiums on “silver” ACA plans to fund low-income cost sharing subsidies, ultimately increasing the cost of federal subsidies by an estimated $220 billion. Meanwhile, a  2020 rule to restrict prescription drug rebates paid to pharmacy benefit managers and insurer plans was estimated to cost $177 billion. Interest costs added $59 billion more. Importantly, the rebate rule was delayed and ultimately repealed by Congress under President Biden.
• Other Legislation ( $310 billion debt increase )   – President Trump signed a number of other deficit-increasing bills into law over the course of his term. This includes several appropriations bills for disaster relief as well as the changes to mandatory programs (CHIMPs) that boosted spending in the full-year appropriations bills enacted in his term. Additionally, President Trump signed a permanent extension of several tax “extenders,” which are tax policies that have been routinely extended for short periods. Finally, he signed the Great American Outdoors Act, which transferred certain offsetting receipts and authorized them to be spent without appropriation, and the permanent authorization of the 9/11 victims fund, which authorized funds to pay out claims to 9/11 victims.
• Tariffs  ( $443 billion debt reduction )   – Over the course of his presidency, President Trump used his authority under the Trade Act of 1974 and the International Emergency Economic Powers Act of 1978 to increase a number of import tariffs through executive action. Beginning in 2018, the Trump Administration announced the imposition or increase to a variety of tariffs, including on washing machines, solar panels, and steel and aluminum products. In 2019, the tariff rate on many Chinese imports was increased from 10 percent to 25 percent. Based on CBO’s estimates at the time, we estimate these tariffs will have generated over $440 billion of revenue and interest savings over a decade.
• The CARES Act  ( $1.9 trillion debt increase ) – Enacted in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020, the bipartisan CARES Act included expanded and extended unemployment benefits, economic relief checks of $1,200 per eligible adult and $500 per child, the Paycheck Protection Program (PPP) to provide support to small businesses to keep employees on payroll, and emergency disaster loans and grants to businesses, industries, health care facilities, educational institutions, state and local governments, and others, among many other provisions. Based on our ongoing  tracking , the actual fiscal impact of the CARES Act was likely similar to the initial score though perhaps slightly higher overall.
• The Response & Relief Act  ( $983 billion debt increase )   – Enacted in December 2020 as part of the omnibus appropriations bill for Fiscal Year (FY) 2021, the  Response & Relief Act included funding for a second tranche of PPP payments and small business grants, an extension of enhanced unemployment benefits, economic relief checks of $600 per eligible person, funding support for schools and higher education institutions, vaccine and testing funding, targeted support to industries greatly impacted by COVID-19, an extension and expansion of the Employee Retention Credit, and an extension of various other COVID-related tax and spending relief programs. Based on our ongoing  tracking , the actual fiscal impact of the Response & Relief Act was likely higher than the initial score due to the significantly higher-than-expected deficit increase from the  Employee Retention Credit .
• Other COVID Relief  ( $756 billion debt increase )   – President Trump approved several other measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic and recession. This includes the three other COVID relief laws enacted in March and April 2020: the  Coronavirus Preparedness and Response Supplemental Appropriations Act , the  Families First Coronavirus Response Act , and the  Paycheck Protection Program and Health Care Enhancement Act . It also includes the student loan repayment pauses enacted at the onset of COVID and extended after the CARES Act’s pause ended in October 2020. President Trump also approved  other executive actions that resulted in little deficit impact. Based on our ongoing  tracking , the actual fiscal impact of these bills were likely much higher than the initial score due to the significantly higher-than-expected revenue loss from the  Employee Retention Credit and the higher Medicaid and SNAP costs resulting from a longer-than-projected public health emergency.

Appendix II : Details of Policies Approved by President Biden So Far

• Appropriations for FY 2022 and 2023  ( $1.4 trillion debt increase )   –President Biden signed full-year omnibus appropriations bills for  FY 2022 and  2023 , boosting nominal appropriations by 6 percent and then 9 percent. While those bills only set funding for those specific years, future-year projected levels are calculated by assuming continued inflation growth. This is consistent with the reality that appropriators generally work from the prior year’s spending levels. Based on CBO, we estimate the FY 2022 omnibus directly increased spending by $50 billion and indirectly by $519 billion above baseline, while the FY 2023 omnibus increased spending directly by $58 billion and base discretionary spending indirectly by $511 billion. Interest costs added $175 billion more. Both laws’ impacts on baseline deficits would be substantially smaller had they been scored against an updated CBO baseline that reflected actual inflation rather than projections – the bulk of the increases under both laws kept spending apace with the very-high rate of inflation for those years.
• The Honoring Our PACT Act ( $520 billion debt increase )   – Enacted in August 2022, the PACT Act created new benefits for veterans exposed to toxic substances during their tours of duty, expanded existing health and disability benefits, and modified eligibility tests that allowed more veterans to automatically qualify for benefits. Although veterans’ health spending is generally discretionary, the PACT Act allowed the cost of the expansion to be classified as mandatory spending and allowed lawmakers to  shift existing discretionary costs to the mandatory side of the budget. Based on CBO’s score, the PACT Act increased spending by between $277 billion and $667 billion, depending on how much funding was reclassified. Our estimate reflects the midpoint (plus interest), which policymakers effectively codified in the Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023. 
• The Bipartisan Infrastructure Law  ( $439 billion debt increase )   – The 2021  Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act authorized more than $500 billion of direct spending and tax breaks related to surface transportation, broadband, energy and water, transit, and other infrastructure. The law also increased baseline levels of highway spending, translating to more than $50 billion in indirect costs. While lawmakers claimed that it was fully paid for at the time of passage, CBO determined that it only contained $173 billion of scorable savings, leading to $439 billion of new borrowing when interest is included.
• Other Legislation  ( $422 billion debt increase )  –  President Biden signed several other bipartisan pieces of legislation during his first term. This includes  several   packages   of aid to Ukraine, Israel, and Gaza, additional emergency spending related to disaster relief and military readiness, $80 billion of investments and tax credits to encourage onshoring manufacturing facilities for semiconductors in the CHIPS and Science Act, and additional FY 2024 appropriations spending based on  “side deals” to the Fiscal Responsibility Act.
• Student Debt Actions ( $620 billion debt increase )   – The Biden Administration has instituted several changes to the federal student loan program through executive actions. Most significantly, the Education Department introduced the Savings on a Valuable Education (SAVE)  income-driven repayment (IDR) program , which reduced required payments and interest accrual for those enrolled, among other changes – estimated to cost $276 billion. In addition, President Biden extended the  pause of student debt repayments and cancellation of interest for 31 months at a cost of $146 billion. And finally, President Biden enacted a number of targeted debt cancellation measures, including expansions of the Public Service Loan Forgiveness program and cancellation of debt borrowed for institutions that closed or were found to be fraudulent, at a cost of $145 billion. President Biden also enacted a policy to cancel up to $20,000 per borrower of student debt that would have cost an additional $330 billion (after interactions with the SAVE plan), but this was ruled illegal by the Supreme Court. Recently, the Administration introduced  an alternative debt cancellation plan that could cost between $250 and $750 billion, though it has yet to be implemented and is not counted here because our estimates only include regulations that have been finalized through the full rulemaking process.
• Other Executive Actions  ( $548 billion debt increase )   – President Biden has also expanded deficits through other executive actions. Most significantly, he approved over $200 billion of borrowing by  changing the way Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits – also known as food stamps – are calculated and adjusted. More recently, the Administration announced a rule to limit vehicle emissions, which we estimate will add nearly $170 billion to the debt by boosting the cost of electric vehicle tax credits expanded under the IRA and reducing gas tax revenue. Other executive actions will add a combined $180 billion to the debt by expanding Medicaid enrollment, changing the way prescription drug price concessions are considered by Medicare plans, addressing the ACA’s “family glitch,” allowing states to boost Medicaid payments to managed care plans to pull in additional federal dollars, and an expansion of allowed income for Supplemental Security Income recipient households.
• Fiscal Responsibility Act ( $1.5 trillion debt reduction )   – In June 2023, President Biden signed the bipartisan Fiscal Responsibility Act (FRA), which capped discretionary spending for FY 2024 and 2025, among other changes. The FRA set 2024 nondefense discretionary levels to 5 percent below the 2023 level, set defense to be 3 percent higher, and set both to grow by 1 percent between 2024 and 2025. These  caps, along with other measures, were scored to generate over $250 billion of direct savings and also reduce the baseline for future spending to generate an additional $1.1 trillion of additional savings. With interest, the FRA was estimated to reduce deficits by $1.5 trillion over a decade. Importantly, negotiators at the time agreed to a number of  “side deals” mentioned above that would reduce the FRA’s savings to roughly $1 trillion if enacted in full in future appropriations bills. A different but similar set of side deals were enacted for FY 2024 and added about $85 billion to deficits – these are included in the “other legislation” category. Additional side deals will not be counted until enacted.
• Inflation Reduction Act  ( $252 billion debt reduction )   – In August 2022, President Biden signed the  Inflation Reduction Act (IRA ) into law, a reconciliation bill focused on energy, health care, and tax changes. The IRA established new and increased existing energy- and climate-related spending and tax credits, expanded ACA health insurance subsidies, required prescription drug negotiations and other drug pricing reforms, introduced a 15 percent corporate “book minimum tax,” established an excise tax on stock buybacks, increased funding to the IRS to close the tax gap, and made other changes. At the time of passage,  CBO and JCT estimated the IRA’s tax breaks and spending would reduce revenue and increase spending by about $500 billion, while its offsets would generate almost $740 billion. Recent estimates of the impact of repealing the IRA tax credits suggest these provisions will reduce revenue and increase spending by $260 billion higher than the official score; at the same time, the IRA’s offsets are also likely to raise more in revenue. On net, we expect a full re-estimate of the IRA would score as roughly budget neutral through 2031, excluding effects related to subsequent regulatory changes. This analysis attributes the additional cost of these regulations as executive actions.
• Deficit-Reducing Executive Actions  ( $129 billion debt reduction )   –President Biden approved two other executive actions that would result in savings over a decade, including changes to payments for Medicare Advantage plans and a temporary stay of the subsequently repealed Trump prescription drug rebate rule.
• American Rescue Plan Act  ( $2.1 trillion debt increase )  –  Enacted in the Spring of 2021, the American Rescue Plan Act was the final piece of legislation that contained many major components designed to provide COVID relief. It included several extensions of enhanced unemployment benefits, additional relief checks of $1,400 per person, and a slew of funding for state and local governments, educational institutions, health care providers, public health agencies, and others. The legislation also included  about $300 billion of policies that we have described as extraneous to the COVID crisis – including a pension bailout and expansions of the Child Tax Credit, Earned Income Tax Credit, health insurance subsidies, and child care tax credit – and roughly $100 billion of offsets.

Appendix III: Methodology 

This analysis estimates the additional borrowing approved by Presidents Trump and Biden through tax and spending changes passed by Congress or contained in executive actions from their administrations. It does not estimate the amount of debt that accumulated over their terms, which partially reflects actions taken prior to their time in office and does not account for the fiscal impact of the actions approved by the President but incurred outside of his four-year term. We will publish changes in debt during their terms in a supplemental analysis.

Our analysis incorporates all major pieces of legislation and executive actions – those with more than $10 billion of ten-year budget impact – approved by Presidents Trump and Biden. Estimates rely on ten-year budget scores, as under standard convention. In order to rely on official scores wherever possible, however, all estimates are based on the ten-year budget window at the time of enactment – meaning different policies cover different time frames and thus are not purely additive or comparable.

In general, estimates rely on official estimates from the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) and Joint Committee on Taxation (JCT) presented prospectively. When such scores are not available or not comprehensive, we may use estimates from the Office of Management and Budget, the regulatory agencies, or our own estimates. 

Estimates are not updated to incorporate data and results made available well after implementation; no legislation signed by either President Trump or President Biden has been re-estimated in full to incorporate observed costs or effects, and partial updates would bias the overall numbers. However, possible differences between initial scores and actual costs, including from the TCJA, the IRA, and COVID relief, are discussed throughout this paper.

Estimates incorporate impact on interest costs, which we calculate using the most recent CBO debt service tool at the time of enactment, unless interest impact is included in the estimate. Estimates are generally based on conventional scoring, but in the case of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, we incorporate macroeconomic impacts as estimated by CBO shortly after enactment.

All estimates are in nominal dollars at the time of approval, which means deficit impact from earlier budget windows generally represent a larger share of GDP per dollar due to higher price levels and output over time. 

Finally, the estimates are based on the policies as written and do not try to correct for arbitrary cliffs, side agreements, or other budget gimmicks that may create a misleading picture of the intended fiscal impact of the policy.

1 Our estimates compare ten-year estimates of each action before implementation, generally using prospective scores of policies and adding them together despite being over different windows. Although this is not a perfect apples-to-apples comparison for a variety of reasons, it allows us to rely on official numbers and continue to compare over time. See the methodology section for a more detailed explanation.

2 Many pieces of legislation with fiscal impact include tax and spending changes that both add to and reduce projected deficits. The $8.8 trillion figure is based on the net deficit impact of deficit-increasing bills, rather than the gross deficit increases within those bills. For example, the $1.9 trillion impact of the TCJA represents the combination of tax cuts, base broadening, lower spending as a result of repealing the individual mandate penalty, interest, and dynamic effects on revenue and spending.

3 The larger deficit impact from the TCJA is due to a combination of a larger nominal tax base, lower health savings from individual mandate repeal, the unexpected use of a SALT cap workaround, reduced revenue collection from the limit on pass-through losses, higher revenue loss related to bonus depreciation, and other factors.

4 Due to higher prices and output, greater demand for subsidized activities, and laxer-than-expected regulations, the IRA’s energy provisions are now expected to have a fiscal impact of  $660 billion – about two-thirds more than the original estimate of roughly $400 billion. This excludes the effects of the Administration’s vehicle emissions rule, which we’ve scored separately. At the same time, revenue collection under the IRA is also likely to be higher in light of  higher-than-projected nominal corporate profits , greater expected  voluntary tax compliance , and less-than-expected responsiveness to the buyback tax. Overall, we believe a re-estimate of the IRA would be roughly budget neutral. The emissions rule approved by President Biden would increase deficits by about $170 billion – mainly by further increasing the fiscal impact of the IRA tax credits – and is included in our tally of his executive actions.

5 In a previous analysis, we estimated that  $500 to 650 billion of COVID relief was extraneous – unrelated to the pandemic or subsequent economic fallout – including $300 to $335 billion enacted under President Trump and $200 to $315 billion under President Biden. These prior estimates are not perfectly comparable to estimates in this paper but give a sense of scale. In additional analyses, we estimated that the American Rescue plan likely  significantly overshot the output gap it was aiming to close while providing excessive relief to a number of sectors. There were also excesses and lack of targeting in earlier COVID relief packages, including as it related to  stimulus checks , the additional $600 of weekly  unemployment benefits , and the  Paycheck Protection Program.

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Government Spending Just Keeps on Growing

Record Interest Next Year, Record Debt Projected in Just 3 Years

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Why Are Companies That Lose Money Still So Successful?

• Vijay Govindarajan,
• Shivaram Rajgopal,
• Anup Srivastava,
• Aneel Iqbal,
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New research on how to identify investments that produce delayed but real profits — not just those that produce short-term accounting profits.

In a well-functioning capital market, profits should be the sole criterion for firm survival; that is, firms reporting losses should disappear. Of late, however, loss-making firms are highly sought after by investors — often more than some profitable firms. Unicorns, or startups with valuations exceeding a billion dollars, are examples of such loss-making firms. What has changed over time? When and why did losses lose their meaning? The authors’ series of new research papers provide some answers, guiding managers to make the right investments: those that produce delayed but real profits — not just those that produce short-term accounting profits but decimate shareholder wealth in long run.

In 1979, psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky famously posited that losses loom larger than gains in human decision-making. For example, a dollar of loss affects our behavior more than a dollar of profits . Likewise, when a firm announces losses, its stock price declines more dramatically than it increases for the same dollar amount of profits. Investors abandon and lenders tend to stop financing loss-making firms , which then start restructuring their business lines and laying off employees. Some firms go even further, conducting M&A transactions without substance and “managing earnings” to report profits instead of a loss.

• Vijay Govindarajan is the Coxe Distinguished Professor at Dartmouth College’s Tuck School of Business, an executive fellow at Harvard Business School, and faculty partner at the Silicon Valley incubator Mach 49. He is a New York Times and Wall Street Journal bestselling author. His latest book is Fusion Strategy: How Real-Time Data and AI Will Power the Industrial Future . His Harvard Business Review articles “ Engineering Reverse Innovations ” and “ Stop the Innovation Wars ” won McKinsey Awards for best article published in HBR. His HBR articles “ How GE Is Disrupting Itself ” and “ The CEO’s Role in Business Model Reinvention ” are HBR all-time top-50 bestsellers. Follow him on LinkedIn . vgovindarajan
• Shivaram Rajgopal is the Roy Bernard Kester and T.W. Byrnes Professor of Accounting and Auditing and Vice Dean of Research at Columbia Business School. His research examines financial reporting and executive compensation issues and he is widely published in both accounting and finance.
• Anup Srivastava holds Canada Research Chair in Accounting, Decision Making, and Capital Markets and is a full professor at Haskayne School of Business, University of Calgary. In a series of HBR articles, he examines the management implications of digital disruption. He specializes in the valuation and financial reporting challenges of digital companies. Follow Anup on  LinkedIn .
• Aneel Iqbal is an assistant professor at Thunderbird School of Global Management, Arizona State University. He examines the accounting measurement and financial disclosures for new-economy firms and incorporates his wide-ranging industry experience into his research and teaching. He is a seasoned accounting and finance professional with diverse experience in auditing, financial analysis, business advisory, performance management, and executive training. Follow Aneel on LinkedIn .
• Elnaz Basirian is a PhD student at the Haskayne School of Business. She examines the influence and role of intangibles in accounting and finance, aimed at improving valuation and market efficiency. She brings a decade of work experience in international financial markets. Follow Elnaz on LinkedIn .

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• Introduction
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• Article Information

ADHD indicates attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; CVD, cardiovascular disease.

a Controls were derived from the same base cohort as the cases; thus, a case with a later date of CVD diagnosis could potentially serve as a control for another case in the study.

Crude odds ratios (ORs) were based on cases and controls matched on age, sex, and calendar time. Adjusted ORs (AORs) were based on cases and controls matched on age, sex, and calendar time and adjusted for country of birth, educational level, somatic comorbidities (type 2 diabetes, obesity, dyslipidemia, and sleep disorders), and psychiatric comorbidities (anxiety disorders, autism spectrum disorder, bipolar disorder, conduct disorder, depressive disorder, eating disorders, intellectual disability, personality disorders, schizophrenia, and substance use disorders).

The solid lines represent the adjusted odds ratios, and the shaded areas represent the 95% CIs. In restricted cubic splines analysis, knots were placed at the 10th, 50th, and 90th percentiles of ADHD medication use.

eTable 1. International Classification of Diseases (ICD) Codes from the Swedish National Inpatient Register

eTable 2. Type of Cardiovascular Disease in Cases

eTable 3. Risk of CVD Associated With ADHD Medication Use Across Different Average Defined Daily Doses

eTable 4. Risk of CVD Associated With Cumulative Duration of Use of Different Types of ADHD Medications

eTable 5. Sensitivity Analyses of CVD Risk Associated With Cumulative Use of ADHD Medications, Based On Different Cohort, Exposure, and Outcome Definitions

eFigure. Risk of CVD Associated With Cumulative Use of ADHD Medications, Stratified by Sex

Data Sharing Statement

• Long-Term ADHD Medications and Cardiovascular Disease Risk JAMA Medical News in Brief December 26, 2023 Emily Harris
• Long-Term Cardiovascular Effects of Medications for ADHD—Balancing Benefits and Risks of Treatment JAMA Psychiatry Editorial February 1, 2024 Samuele Cortese, MD, PhD; Cristiano Fava, MD, PhD

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Zhang L , Li L , Andell P, et al. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Medications and Long-Term Risk of Cardiovascular Diseases. JAMA Psychiatry. 2024;81(2):178–187. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.4294

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Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Medications and Long-Term Risk of Cardiovascular Diseases

• 1 Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
• 2 Unit of Cardiology, Heart and Vascular Division, Department of Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
• 3 School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
• 4 Department of Applied Health Science, School of Public Health, Indiana University, Bloomington
• 5 Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington
• Editorial Long-Term Cardiovascular Effects of Medications for ADHD—Balancing Benefits and Risks of Treatment Samuele Cortese, MD, PhD; Cristiano Fava, MD, PhD JAMA Psychiatry
• Medical News in Brief Long-Term ADHD Medications and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Emily Harris JAMA

Question   Is long-term use of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) medication associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD)?

Findings   In this case-control study of 278 027 individuals in Sweden aged 6 to 64 years who had an incident ADHD diagnosis or ADHD medication dispensation, longer cumulative duration of ADHD medication use was associated with an increased risk of CVD, particularly hypertension and arterial disease, compared with nonuse.

Meaning   Findings of this study suggest that long-term exposure to ADHD medications was associated with an increased risk of CVD; therefore, the potential risks and benefits of long-term ADHD medication use should be carefully weighed.

Importance   Use of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) medications has increased substantially over the past decades. However, the potential risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) associated with long-term ADHD medication use remains unclear.

Objective   To assess the association between long-term use of ADHD medication and the risk of CVD.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This case-control study included individuals in Sweden aged 6 to 64 years who received an incident diagnosis of ADHD or ADHD medication dispensation between January 1, 2007, and December 31, 2020. Data on ADHD and CVD diagnoses and ADHD medication dispensation were obtained from the Swedish National Inpatient Register and the Swedish Prescribed Drug Register, respectively. Cases included individuals with ADHD and an incident CVD diagnosis (ischemic heart diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, hypertension, heart failure, arrhythmias, thromboembolic disease, arterial disease, and other forms of heart disease). Incidence density sampling was used to match cases with up to 5 controls without CVD based on age, sex, and calendar time. Cases and controls had the same duration of follow-up.

Exposure   Cumulative duration of ADHD medication use up to 14 years.

Main Outcomes and Measures   The primary outcome was incident CVD. The association between CVD and cumulative duration of ADHD medication use was measured using adjusted odds ratios (AORs) with 95% CIs.

Results   Of 278 027 individuals with ADHD aged 6 to 64 years, 10 388 with CVD were identified (median [IQR] age, 34.6 [20.0-45.7] years; 6154 males [59.2%]) and matched with 51 672 control participants without CVD (median [IQR] age, 34.6 [19.8-45.6] years; 30 601 males [59.2%]). Median (IQR) follow-up time in both groups was 4.1 (1.9-6.8) years. Longer cumulative duration of ADHD medication use was associated with an increased risk of CVD compared with nonuse (0 to ≤1 year: AOR, 0.99 [95% CI, 0.93-1.06]; 1 to ≤2 years: AOR, 1.09 [95% CI, 1.01-1.18]; 2 to ≤3 years: AOR, 1.15 [95% CI, 1.05-1.25]; 3 to ≤5 years: AOR, 1.27 [95% CI, 1.17-1.39]; and >5 years: AOR, 1.23 [95% CI, 1.12-1.36]). Longer cumulative ADHD medication use was associated with an increased risk of hypertension (eg, 3 to ≤5 years: AOR, 1.72 [95% CI, 1.51-1.97] and >5 years: AOR, 1.80 [95% CI, 1.55-2.08]) and arterial disease (eg, 3 to ≤5 years: AOR, 1.65 [95% CI, 1.11-2.45] and >5 years: AOR, 1.49 [95% CI, 0.96-2.32]). Across the 14-year follow-up, each 1-year increase of ADHD medication use was associated with a 4% increased risk of CVD (AOR, 1.04 [95% CI, 1.03-1.05]), with a larger increase in risk in the first 3 years of cumulative use (AOR, 1.08 [95% CI, 1.04-1.11]) and stable risk over the remaining follow-up. Similar patterns were observed in children and youth (aged <25 years) and adults (aged ≥25 years).

Conclusions and Relevance   This case-control study found that long-term exposure to ADHD medications was associated with an increased risk of CVDs, especially hypertension and arterial disease. These findings highlight the importance of carefully weighing potential benefits and risks when making treatment decisions about long-term ADHD medication use. Clinicians should regularly and consistently monitor cardiovascular signs and symptoms throughout the course of treatment.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common psychiatric disorder characterized by developmentally inappropriate inattentiveness, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. 1 , 2 Pharmacological therapy, including both stimulants and nonstimulants, is recommended as the first-line treatment for ADHD in many countries. 1 , 3 The use of ADHD medication has increased greatly in both children and adults during the past decades. 4 Although the effectiveness of ADHD medications has been demonstrated in randomized clinical trials (RCTs) and other studies, 5 , 6 concerns remain regarding their potential cardiovascular safety. 7 Meta-analyses of RCTs have reported increases in heart rate and blood pressure associated with both stimulant and nonstimulant ADHD medications. 5 , 7 - 9

As RCTs typically evaluate short-term effects (average treatment duration of 75 days), 7 it remains uncertain whether and to what extent the increases in blood pressure and heart rate associated with ADHD medication lead to clinically significant cardiovascular disease (CVD) over time. Longitudinal observational studies 10 - 12 examining the association between ADHD medication use and serious cardiovascular outcomes have emerged in recent years, but the findings have been mixed. A meta-analysis 13 of observational studies found no statistically significant association between ADHD medication and risk of CVD. However, the possibility of a modest risk increase cannot be ruled out due to several methodological limitations in these studies, including confounding by indication, immortal time bias, and prevalent user bias. Additionally, most of these studies had an average follow-up time of no more than 2 years. 13 , 14 Thus, evidence regarding the long-term cardiovascular risk of ADHD medication use is still lacking.

Examining the long-term cardiovascular risk associated with ADHD medicine use is clinically important given that individuals with a diagnosis of ADHD, regardless of whether they receive treatment, face an elevated risk of CVD. 15 Additionally, a substantial proportion of young individuals with ADHD continues to have impairing symptoms in adulthood, 16 necessitating prolonged use of ADHD medication. Notably, studies have indicated a rising trend in the long-term use of ADHD medications, with approximately half of individuals using ADHD medication for over 5 years. 17 Furthermore, evidence is lacking regarding how cardiovascular risk may vary based on factors such as type of CVD, type of ADHD medication, age, and sex. 13 Therefore, there is a need for long-term follow-up studies to address these knowledge gaps and provide a more comprehensive understanding of the cardiovascular risks associated with ADHD medication use. This information is also crucial from a public health perspective, particularly due to the increasing number of individuals receiving ADHD medications worldwide. 4

This study aimed to assess the association between cumulative use of ADHD medication up to 14 years and the risk of CVD by using nationwide health registers in Sweden. We hypothesized that longer cumulative use of ADHD medication would be associated with increased CVD risk. In addition, we aimed to examine whether the associations differ across types of ADHD medication, types of CVD, sex, and age groups.

We used data from several Swedish nationwide registers linked through unique personal identification numbers. 18 Diagnoses were obtained from the National Inpatient Register, 19 which contains data on inpatient diagnoses since 1973 and outpatient diagnoses since 2001. Information on prescribed medications was retrieved from the Swedish Prescribed Drug Register, which contains all dispensed medications in Sweden since July 2005 and includes information on drug identity based on the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification, 20 dispensing dates, and free-text medication prescriptions. Socioeconomic factors were obtained from the Longitudinal Integrated Database for Health Insurance and Labour Market studies. 21 Information on death was retrieved from the Swedish Cause of Death Register, 22 which contains information on all deaths since 1952. The study was approved by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority. Informed patient consent is not required for register-based studies in Sweden. The study followed the Reporting of Studies Conducted Using Observational Routinely Collected Health Data–Pharmacoepidemiological Research ( RECORD-PE ) guideline. 23

We conducted a nested case-control study of all individuals residing in Sweden aged 6 to 64 years who received an incident diagnosis of ADHD or ADHD medication dispensation 15 between January 1, 2007, and December 31, 2020. The diagnosis of ADHD ( International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision [ ICD-10 ] code F90) was identified from the National Inpatient Register. Incident ADHD medication dispensation was identified from the Swedish Prescribed Drug Register and was defined as a dispensation after at least 18 months without any ADHD medication dispensation. 24 Baseline (ie, cohort entry) was defined as the date of incident ADHD diagnosis or ADHD medication dispensation, whichever came first. Individuals with ADHD medication prescriptions for indications other than ADHD 25 and individuals who emigrated, died, or had a history of CVD before baseline were excluded from the study. The cohort was followed until the case index date (ie, the date of CVD diagnosis), death, migration, or the study end date (December 31, 2020), whichever came first.

Within the study cohort, we identified cases as individuals with an incident diagnosis of any CVD (including ischemic heart diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, hypertension, heart failure, arrhythmias, thromboembolic disease, arterial disease, and other forms of heart disease; eTable 1 in Supplement 1 ) during follow-up. For each case, the date of their CVD diagnosis was assigned as the index date. Using incidence density sampling, 26 up to 5 controls without CVD were randomly selected for each case from the base cohort of individuals with ADHD. The matching criteria included age, sex, and calendar time, ensuring that cases and controls had the same duration of follow-up from baseline to index date. Controls were eligible for inclusion if they were alive, living in Sweden, and free of CVD at the time when their matched case received a diagnosis of CVD, with the index date set as the date of CVD diagnosis of the matched case ( Figure 1 ). Controls were derived from the same base cohort as the cases. Thus, a case with a later date of CVD diagnosis could potentially serve as a control for another case in the study. 26

The main exposure was cumulative duration of ADHD medication use, which included all ADHD medications approved in Sweden during the study period, including stimulants (methylphenidate [ATC code N06BA04], amphetamine [ATC code N06BA01], dexamphetamine [ATC code N06BA02], and lisdexamfetamine [ATC code N06BA12]) as well as nonstimulants (atomoxetine [ATC code N06BA09] and guanfacine [ATC code C02AC02]). Duration of ADHD medication use was derived from a validated algorithm that estimates treatment duration from free text in prescription records. 25 The cumulative duration of ADHD medication use was calculated by summing all days covered by ADHD medication between baseline and 3 months prior to the index date. The last 3 months before the index date were excluded to reduce reverse causation, as clinicians’ perception of potential cardiovascular risks may influence ADHD medication prescription. This time window was chosen because routine psychiatric practice in Sweden limits a prescription to a maximum 3 months at a time. 27 Individuals with follow-up of less than 3 months were excluded.

We conducted conditional logistic regression analyses to estimate odds ratios (ORs) for the associations between cumulative durations of ADHD medication use and incident CVD. Crude ORs were adjusted for all matching variables (age, sex, and calendar time) by design. Adjusted ORs (AORs) were additionally controlled for country of birth (Sweden vs other), highest educational level (primary or lower secondary, upper secondary, postsecondary or postgraduate, or unknown; individuals aged <16 years were included as a separate category), and diagnoses of somatic (type 2 diabetes, obesity, dyslipidemia, and sleep disorders) and psychiatric comorbidities (anxiety disorders, autism spectrum disorder, bipolar disorder, conduct disorder, depressive disorder, eating disorders, intellectual disability, personality disorders, schizophrenia, and substance use disorders; eTable 1 in Supplement 1 ) before baseline. The association between cumulative ADHD medication use and incident CVD was assessed using both continuous and categorical measures (no ADHD medication use, 0 to ≤1, 1 to ≤2, 2 to ≤3, 3 to ≤5, and >5 years). To capture potential nonlinear associations, we used restricted cubic splines to examine ADHD medication use as a continuous measure throughout follow-up. 28 The associations were examined in the full sample and stratified by age at baseline, that is, children or youth (<25 years old) and adults (≥25 years old). Furthermore, to evaluate the association with dosage of ADHD medication, we estimated the risk of CVD associated with each 1-year increase in use of ADHD medication across different dosage groups categorized by the average defined daily dose (DDD; for instance, 1 DDD of methylphenidate equals 30 mg) during follow-up. 29

In subgroup analyses, we examined the associations between ADHD medication use and specific CVDs, including arrhythmias, arterial disease, cerebrovascular disease, heart failure, hypertension, ischemic heart disease, and thromboembolic disease (eTable 1 in Supplement 1 ). Additionally, we investigated the associations with CVD risk for the most commonly prescribed ADHD medications in Sweden, ie, methylphenidate, lisdexamfetamine, and atomoxetine, while adjusting for other ADHD medication use. We also examined sex-specific associations.

To further examine the robustness of our findings, we conducted 4 sensitivity analyses. First, we restricted the sample to ever users of ADHD medication to reduce unmeasured confounding between ADHD medication users and nonusers. Second, we assessed ADHD medication exposure over the entire follow-up period without excluding the 3 months prior to the index date. Third, to capture fatal cardiovascular events, we additionally included death by CVD in the outcome definition. Finally, we constructed a conditional logistic regression model that adjusted for propensity scores of ADHD medication use. Data management was performed using SAS, version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc) and all analyses were performed using R, version 4.2.3 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing).

The study cohort consisted of 278 027 individuals with ADHD aged 6 to 64 years. The incidence rate of CVD was 7.34 per 1000 person-years. After applying exclusion criteria and matching, the analysis included 10 388 cases (median [IQR] age at baseline, 34.6 (20.0-45.7) years; 6154 males [59.2%] and 4234 females [40.8%]) and 51 672 matched controls (median [IQR] age at baseline, 34.6 [19.8-45.6] years; 30 601 males [59.2%] and 21 071 females [40.8%]) ( Figure 1 and Table 1 ). Median (IQR) follow-up in both groups was 4.1 (1.9-6.8) years. Among the controls, 3363 had received a CVD diagnosis after their index dates. The most common types of CVD in cases were hypertension (4210 cases [40.5%]) and arrhythmias (1310 cases [12.6%]; eTable 2 in Supplement 1 ). Table 1 presents the sociodemographic information and somatic and psychiatric comorbidities in cases and controls. In general, cases had higher rates of somatic and psychiatric comorbidities and a lower level of educational attainment compared with controls.

A similar proportion of cases (83.9%) and controls (83.5%) used ADHD medication during follow-up, with methylphenidate being the most commonly dispensed type, followed by atomoxetine and lisdexamfetamine. Longer cumulative duration of ADHD medication use was associated with an increased risk of CVD compared with nonuse (0 to ≤1 year: AOR, 0.99 [95% CI, 0.93-1.06]; 1 to ≤2 years: AOR, 1.09 [95% CI, 1.01-1.18]; 2 to ≤3 years: AOR, 1.15 [95% CI, 1.05-1.25]; 3 to ≤5 years: AOR, 1.27 [95% CI, 1.17-1.39]; and >5 years: AOR, 1.23 [95% CI, 1.12-1.36]) ( Figure 2 ). The restricted cubic spline model suggested a nonlinear association, with the AORs increasing rapidly for the first 3 cumulative years of ADHD medication use and then becoming stable thereafter ( Figure 3 ). Throughout the entire follow-up, each 1-year increase in the use of ADHD medication was associated with a 4% increased risk of CVD (AOR, 1.04 [95% CI, 1.03-1.05]), and the corresponding increase for the first 3 years was 8% (AOR, 1.08 [95% CI, 1.04-1.11]). We observed similar results when examining children or youth and adults separately ( Figure 2 ). The restricted cubic spline model suggested a similar nonlinear association, with higher AORs in children or youth than in adults, but the 95% CIs largely overlapped ( Figure 3 ). Furthermore, similar associations were observed for females and males (eFigure in Supplement 1 ). The dosage analysis showed that the risk of CVD associated with each 1 year of ADHD medication use increased with higher average DDDs. The risk was found to be statistically significant only among individuals with a mean dose of at least 1.5 times the DDD (eTable 3 in Supplement 1 ). For example, among individuals with a mean DDD of 1.5 to 2 or less (eg, for methylphenidate, 45 to ≤60 mg), each 1-year increase in ADHD medication use was associated with a 4% increased risk of CVD (AOR, 1.04 [95% CI, 1.02-1.05]). Among individuals with a mean DDD >2 (eg, for methylphenidate >60 mg), each 1-year increase in ADHD medication use was associated with 5% increased risk of CVD (AOR, 1.05 [95% CI, 1.03-1.06]).

When examining the risk for specific CVDs, we found that long-term use of ADHD medication (compared with no use) was associated with an increased risk of hypertension (AOR, 1.72 [95% CI, 1.51-1.97] for 3 to ≤5 years; AOR, 1.80 [95% CI 1.55-2.08] for >5 years) ( Table 2 ), as well as arterial disease (AOR, 1.65 [95% CI, 1.11-2.45] for 3 to ≤5 years; AOR, 1.49 [95% CI 0.96-2.32] for >5 years). However, we did not observe any statistically significant increased risk for arrhythmias, heart failure, ischemic heart disease, thromboembolic disease, or cerebrovascular disease ( Table 2 ). Furthermore, long-term use of methylphenidate (compared with no use) was associated with an increased risk of CVD (AOR, 1.20 [95% CI, 1.10-1.31] for 3 to ≤5 years; AOR, 1.19 [95% CI, 1.08-1.31]) for >5 years; eTable 4 in Supplement 1 ). Compared with no use, lisdexamfetamine was also associated with an elevated risk of CVD (AOR, 1.23 [95% CI, 1.05-1.44] for 2 to ≤3 years; AOR, 1.17 [95% CI, 0.98-1.40] for >3 years), while the AOR for atomoxetine use was significant only for the first year of use (1.07 [95% CI 1.01-1.13]; eTable 4 in Supplement 1 ).

In sensitivity analyses, we observed a similar pattern of estimates when the analysis was restricted to ever users of ADHD medications. Significantly increased risk of CVD was found when comparing ADHD medication use for 1 year or less with use for 3 to 5 or less years (AOR, 1.28 (95% CI, 1.18-1.38) or for use for more than 5 years (AOR, 1.24 [95% CI, 1.13-1.36]) (eTable 5 in Supplement 1 ). When assessing ADHD medication use across the entire follow-up period, and compared with no use, the pattern of estimates was similar to the main analysis (3 to ≤5 years: AOR, 1.28 [95% CI, 1.18-1.39]; >5 years: AOR, 1.25 [95% CI, 1.14-1.37]) (eTable 5 in Supplement 1 ). The analysis that included cardiovascular death as a combined outcome also had results similar to the main analysis. Moreover, when adjusting for propensity scores of ADHD medication use, the findings remained consistent (eTable 5 in Supplement 1 ).

This large, nested case-control study found an increased risk of incident CVD associated with long-term ADHD medication use, and the risk increased with increasing duration of ADHD medication use. This association was statistically significant both for children and youth and for adults, as well as for females and males. The primary contributors to the association between long-term ADHD medication use and CVD risk was an increased risk of hypertension and arterial disease. Increased risk was also associated with stimulant medication use.

We found individuals with long-term ADHD medication use had an increased risk of incident CVD in a dose-response manner in the first 3 years of cumulative ADHD medication use. To our knowledge, few previous studies have investigated the association between long-term ADHD medication use and the risk of CVD with follow-up of more than 2 years. 13 The only 2 prior studies with long-term follow-up (median, 9.5 and 7.9 years 30 , 31 ) found an average 2-fold and 3-fold increased risk of CVD with ADHD medication use compared with nonuse during the study period, yet 1 of the studies 30 included only children, and participants in the other study 31 were not the general population of individuals with ADHD (including those with ADHD and long QT syndrome). Furthermore, both studies were subject to prevalent user bias. Results from the current study suggest that the CVD risk associated with ADHD medication use (23% increased risk for >5 years of ADHD medication use compared with nonuse) is lower than previously reported. 30 , 31 Furthermore, we observed that the increased risk stabilized after the first several years of medication use and persisted throughout the 14-year follow-up period.

The association between ADHD medication use and CVD was significant for hypertension and arterial disease, while no significant association was observed with other types of cardiovascular events. To our knowledge, only 1 previous study 12 has examined the association between ADHD medication use and clinically diagnosed hypertension, and it found an increased risk, although the increase was not statistically significant. Furthermore, increased blood pressure associated with ADHD medication use has been well documented. 7 , 9 One study 32 found that blood pressure was mainly elevated during the daytime, suggesting that the cardiovascular system may recover at night. However, the cross-sectional nature of that study cannot preclude a long-term risk of clinically diagnosed hypertension associated with ADHD medication use. We also identified an increased risk for arterial disease. To date, no previous study has explored the association between ADHD medication use and arterial disease. A few studies have reported that ADHD medication may be associated with changes in serum lipid profiles, but the results were not consistent. 33 , 34 Further research is needed on the potential implications of ADHD medications for individuals’ lipid profiles. We did not observe any association between ADHD medication use and the risk of arrhythmias. A recent systematic review of observational studies of ADHD medication use reported an elevated risk of arrhythmias, but the finding was not statistically significant. 13 A review of RCTs also found that the use of stimulants was associated with an average increase in heart rate of 5.7 beats/min, 9 but no evidence of prolonged QT interval or tachycardia was found based on electrocardiograms. 7 Additionally, it is worth noting that some individuals receiving ADHD medications might be prescribed antiarrhythmic β-blockers to alleviate palpitation symptoms, thus potentially attenuating an association between ADHD medications and arrhythmias. Nevertheless, the absence of an association between ADHD medication use and clinically diagnosed arrhythmias in the present study does not rule out an increased risk for mild arrhythmias or subclinical symptoms, as palpitations and sinus tachycardia are not routinely coded as arrhythmia diagnoses. Further research is necessary to replicate our findings.

Regarding types of ADHD medication, findings of the present study suggest that increasing cumulative durations of methylphenidate and lisdexamfetamine use were associated with incident CVD, while the associations for atomoxetine were statistically significant only for the first year of use. Previous RCTs have reported increased blood pressure and heart rate with methylphenidate, lisdexamfetamine, and atomoxetine, 5 , 35 , 36 but the mechanisms behind these adverse effects are still a topic of debate; there might be differences in cardiovascular adverse effects in stimulants vs nonstimulants. 37

We found that the association between cumulative duration of ADHD medication use and CVD was similar in females and males. Previous investigations exploring sex-specific association found higher point estimates in females, although the differences were not statistically significant. 13 Research has indicated that females diagnosed with ADHD may demonstrate different comorbidity patterns and potentially have different responses to stimulant medications compared with males. 38 - 40 Therefore, additional studies are needed to explore and better understand the potential sex-specific differences in cardiovascular responses to ADHD medications.

A strength of this study is that data on ADHD medication prescriptions and CVD diagnoses were recorded prospectively, so the results were not affected by recall bias. The findings should, however, be interpreted in the context of several limitations. First, our approach for identification of patients with CVD was based on recorded diagnoses and there could be under ascertainment of cardiovascular diagnoses in the registers used. This means that some controls may have had undiagnosed CVD that did not yet require medical care, which would tend to underestimate associations between ADHD medication use and CVD. Second, exposure misclassification may have occurred if patients did not take their medication as prescribed. This misclassification, if nondifferential, would tend to reduce ORs such that the estimates we observed were conservative. Third, while we accounted for a wide range of potential confounding variables, considering the observational nature of the study and the possibility of residual confounding, we could not prove causality. It is possible that the association observed might have been affected by time-varying confounders. For example, other psychotropic medications and lifestyle factors could have affected both ADHD medication use and the occurrence of cardiovascular events. 41 , 42 Confounding by ADHD severity is also a potential factor to consider, as individuals with more severe ADHD symptoms may have more comorbidities and a less healthy lifestyle, which could affect the risk of CVD. Fourth, the study did not examine the risk of CVD among individuals with preexisting CVD. Individuals with preexisting CVD represent a distinct clinical group that requires careful monitoring; thus, evaluating the risk among them necessitates a different study design that carefully considers the potential impact of prior knowledge and periodic monitoring. Finally, the results by type of ADHD medication and type of CVD need to be replicated by studies with larger sample sizes.

The results of this population-based case-control study with a longitudinal follow-up of 14 years suggested that long-term use of ADHD medication was associated with an increased risk of CVD, especially hypertension and arterial disease, and the risk was higher for stimulant medications. These findings highlight the importance of carefully weighing potential benefits and risks when making treatment decisions on long-term ADHD medication use. Clinicians should be vigilant in monitoring patients, particularly among those receiving higher doses, and consistently assess signs and symptoms of CVD throughout the course of treatment. Monitoring becomes even more crucial considering the increasing number of individuals engaging in long-term use of ADHD medication.

Accepted for Publication: August 29, 2023.

Published Online: November 22, 2023. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.4294

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2023 Zhang L et al. JAMA Psychiatry .

Corresponding Authors: Zheng Chang, PhD ( [email protected] ) and Le Zhang, PhD ( [email protected] ), Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Nobels väg 12A, 171 65 Stockholm, Sweden.

Author Contributions: Dr Zhang and Prof Chang had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Zhang, Johnell, Larsson, Chang.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: Zhang, Li, Andell, Garcia-Argibay, Quinn, D'Onofrio, Brikell, Kuja-Halkola, Lichtenstein, Johnell, Chang.

Drafting of the manuscript: Zhang.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Zhang, Li.

Obtained funding: Larsson, Chang.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Garcia-Argibay, D'Onofrio, Kuja-Halkola, Lichtenstein, Chang.

Supervision: Andell, Lichtenstein, Johnell, Larsson, Chang.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Larsson reported receiving grants from Takeda Pharmaceuticals and personal fees from Takeda Pharmaceuticals, Evolan, and Medici Medical Ltd outside the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: This study was supported by grants from the Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life, and Welfare (2019-01172 and 2022-01111) (Dr Chang) and the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement 965381 (Dr Larsson).

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .

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