how to conclude a business law essay

• May 8, 2023

THE IRAC METHOD EXAMPLE

Updated: Sep 30, 2023

We write law books using the IRAC method. We deliver the content of your course in the way you are expected to answer your questions. Have a look at the work exampled below. Then have a look at both the Core books and the Q&A law books.

IRAC METHOD EXAMPLE

What is irac method.

IRAC is an acronym which stands for the “Issue, Rule, Application, Conclusion” (IRAC). You may structure your answer to any law problem question or essay topic using the IRAC method . The issue, rule, analysis, and conclusion (IRAC) make up the fundamental framework used by law students around the world. You may be confident that your answer is comprehensive if you use this straightforward approach for constructing it. Other methods exist such as Celo and the FACT LAW SANDWICH. Choose the one that works for you.

How do I use the IRAC method? There is no point in talking about applying IRAC unless we show you how it works. Let use this excerpt of a contact law, problem question, from a law past paper to show you a IRAC Method example: “Michael promises to sell his 3 year old BMW car to Chithra for £100.00 as he has recently won a new expensive car in a competition”.

IRAC METOD - ISSUE

Your answer should start by addressing the problem that is raised in the essay topic or the issue in the problem question, these are easy to spot in a problem because the facts of the cases you have studied (where the principle emerges) is to be applied will be similar to the facts in your problem scenario. Thus there are occasions when the question itself will supply the problem for you to solve. If this is not the case, the next question to ask is: What is the legal issue that, once answered, will decide the outcome of the case? It is recommended that the issue be posed in the form of a question, and that the inquiry be specific rather than generic.

How do you write a IRAC example? So using our example above the question that needs to be asked is: “Is Michael contractually obliged to provide the BMW car to Chithra for £100.00?” This is the legal issue and this is ultimately the advice Michael is looking for. We can refine that question even further to demonstrate being specific. Thus the question is: was there sufficient consideration and can Chithra bring an action against Michael for this promise?

IRAC METOD - RULE

The rule explains whether statute or case law guideline is relevant to the matter at hand. Instead of stating the rule as a conclusion to the specific instance that is being discussed, the rule needs to be articulated as a universal principle.

For example in Michael’s case of the BMW, consideration must be sufficient. It can range from some form of payment to other interests of value under the law. Consideration must also be ‘adequate’, in terms of a bargain being made, although it is not imperative. Sufficiency remains of prime importance when forming a contract.

IRAC METOD - ANALYSIS

Your analysis is both the most crucial and the most time-consuming component of your answer. This will includes adapting the Rule to the specific details of the issue or situation Michael is facing. You need to do this. Apply this information to demonstrate how the rule may be used to get the conclusion. When it is feasible to do so, discuss the situation from both perspectives. You have to predict what Chithra’s lawyers will argue. It is essential that you do not only assert a conclusion but also provide the grounds that support it. If you reach a conclusion without providing any supporting evidence or rationale, it indicates that you have not applied the principle and considered the relevant facts in your analysis of the problem. A helpful hint for your discourse is that you may use the rule as a guide.

For Michael’s example a case the authority establishing this principle is Thomas v Thomas , where the court held that as long as there is valid consideration. Under the authority of Currie v Misa then the agreement has some benefit or detriment to the parties. Furthermore in Chappel v Nestle , the courts stated the chocolate wrappers constituted purported consideration. It was held that the offer Nestle made for the exchange of chocolate wrappers provided that they were of some value.

IRAC METOD - CONCLUSION

After considering the position of the law you have to apply it to the scenario. Your solution to the problem is presented in the conclusion. This is the advice that Michael wants! Please share the findings of your assessment. As a rule of practice always give the bad news first and then the good news because then you can give them your bill.

For example in advice to Michael, if Michael promised to sell his 3 year old BMW to Chithra for £100, this may not be the market value of the car. However, the £100 will still be deemed to be of some value, hence valid consideration, making the promise to sell the car enforceable by Chithra. Any attack on the enforceability of the contract could be based around there was never any intention to create legal relations.

THE FINISHED ADVICE

This is how the advice will read:

Michael’s promise to sell the BMW

Michael promised to sell his 3 year old BMW car to Chithra for £100.00 as he won a new expensive car. The question is: was there sufficient consideration and can Chithra bring an action against Michael for this promise? Consideration must be sufficient. It can range from some form of payment to other interests of value under the law. Consideration must also be ‘adequate’, in terms of a bargain being made, although it is not imperative. Sufficiency remains of prime importance when forming a contract. A case authority establishing this principle is Thomas v Thomas , [1] where the court held that as long as there is valid consideration under the authority of Currie v Misa [2] then the agreement has some benefit or detriment to the parties. Furthermore in Chappel v Nestle , [3] the courts stated the chocolate wrappers purported consideration. It was held that the offer Nestle made for the exchange of chocolate wrappers provided that they were of some value. In advice to Michael, if Michael promised to sell his 3 year old BMW to Chithra for £100, this may not be the market value of the car. However, the £100 will still be deemed to be of some value, hence valid consideration, making the promise to sell the car enforceable by Chithra.

[1](1842) 2 Q.B. 851 [2]ibid [3] [1960] A.C. 87

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How To Use The IRAC Method To Excel In Your Law Essays

Find out how to tackle problem questions in your law exams using the IRAC method.

When it comes to writing essays for Law as a university student, you’ve probably read a lot about the typical ‘intro-main-body-conclusion’ essays. However, when it comes to black letter law subjects , these require a different type of approach. Here is how to approach problem questions using the IRAC (Issue, Rule, Application, Conclusion) method.

What Is Black Letter Law?

Black letter law refers to areas of Law that consist mainly of technical rules, as opposed to areas of law that are defined more by a conceptual basis. Black letter law subjects include modules like tort law , criminal law , property law, etc. When it comes to examinations for these subjects they typically consist of problem questions and statement questions.

What Are Problem Questions?

In a problem question, you would probably be given a legal scenario and be tasked with explaining what the legal outcome would/should be. For example, there might be only one issue you are addressing or a series of legal issues in one given scenario.

In a statement question, you may be asked to analyse and/or give your opinions on judgments and legal concepts. For example, ‘Would you agree that xyz statute has incrementally progressed over the years?’ .

In an exam, you may have the choice to answer a number of questions picking how many you want to answer from the two types of questions. In this blog, I will be explaining how to approach problem questions.

What Is The IRAC Method?

The best way to approach problem statements as a beginner law student is the IRAC method: Issue, Rule, Application and Conclusion. This will allow you to give analytical answers that are clear and structured.

With an IRAC essay and problem questions in general, you do not have to write an introduction. You can go straight into answering the question – this is a key difference to statement questions.

For each of your points, you will start by stating the  legal issues  that arise in this scenario. 

When writing an issue statement, you can say something like, ‘The issue that first arises is if/whether…’. Then, you would complete the sentence by identifying and stating the legal conclusion that needs to be reached. For example, ‘The issue is whether the defendant is criminally liable for xyz’. 

After this, you would connect the issue statement to the relevant facts in the scenario. For example, ‘The defendant did xyz knowingly, therefore doing xyz to the claimant’. 

After writing your issue statement, you should identify and explain the rules that apply in this scenario and will ultimately define the/your legal conclusion. The  rule describes  which law or test applies to this issue.

So, this is where you would draw on your primary and secondary sources knowledge to support your analysis. It should be stated as a general principle for the scenario and not as a conclusion to the scenario being analysed – at least not just yet.

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Application

After stating the legal issues and relevant rules, now it is time to provide the main body of your analysis. In the application part of your answer, this is where you will explain how the legal principles you mentioned can be applied to your scenario, demonstrating your understanding of the law. 

In the application stage, you should constantly use key phrases from the legal principles mentioned. Do not worry about repeating your words – it is important to establish the connection.

You can also build the connection between the rules and your application by using connectives like ‘because’ and ‘since’. For example, ‘Here, the criminal can be considered independent of xyz because xyz…’ or ‘Since the defendant did xyz this breaks the causation chain of xyz’.

The key to application is not to simply regurgitate the rules but to successfully provide judgment based on the facts and rules.

When it comes to problem statements, there are two types of conclusions. The 1-2 sentences that conclude each issue explored and your final judgment.

In your brief  conclusion s, you can use one or two sentences to concisely state the outcome of the issue, based on the application of the rules to the facts of the case. For example, ‘Therefore, the defendant can be found criminally liable for xyz’.

In your final conclusion, you should first state your conclusion regarding each issue. Then, if applicable, you will provide your overall judgement. Like a normal essay, do not mention anything new that you have discussed (unless you perhaps forgot a point and are on a time crunch). Moreover, your conclusion should draw back to why you have come to this final judgment.

With answering these questions you should be assertive and plainly state your opinion. The journey to your judgment is the main part of your assessment, but it is your conclusion that brings your work together.

It is important to remember though that you will still get marks for your understanding and exploration of the law, so don’t feel discouraged if you don’t feel like you know the answer and answer to the best of your abilities. After all, the beauty of Law is subjectivity. 

In some cases, you may find that you can not come to a final judgement because the scenario needs more information. You may also find that your judgment is conditional on certain things. It is fine to state as so, and perhaps that is the answer. In general, however, if you can, you should come to a final decision.

Extra Points

After deciding that the IRAC method is the best to use and before even starting to write your response, you should spend time deeply analysing the problem. You should go through the statement and identify which parts will be relevant to each component of IRAC.

It is advisable to use something like different highlighters to identify each component. Make sure you can identify each part of IRAC in the statement before you actually start writing your response.

Key Takeaways

Before using the IRAC method you need to analyse if that is the most appropriate method for your exam/essay.

Find out more essay methods you can use here.

The goal is that as you start to become more experienced and knowledgeable as a Law student, you won’t answer your questions as rigidly and use a method that best works to your abilities. However, you can still get a great grade using the IRAC method to the letter and is advised by many legal academics.

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Ace Your Law Essays with These Proven Conclusion Writing Techniques

In the world of law essays, the importance of a well-crafted conclusion cannot be overstated. Crafting an effective conclusion is an art that requires finesse, precision, and a deep understanding of the legal subject matter. Your conclusion serves as the final impression on your readers, leaving them with a lasting insight into your argument. It can be the difference between a mediocre essay and one that stands out. In this comprehensive guide, we’ll delve into the techniques that will help you master the art of law essay writing compelling conclusions for your law essays.

Understanding the Significance of a Conclusion

Before we dive into the techniques, let’s grasp the vital role a conclusion plays in your law essay. A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points; it is your opportunity to wrap up your argument, leaving a powerful and memorable impression. A well-structured conclusion can:

1. Summarize your key arguments concisely. 2. Reiterate your thesis statement. 3. Leave a thought-provoking question or idea. 4. Offer a clear and definitive resolution to your essay’s central issue.

Crafting a Winning Conclusion

1. summarize your key points.

Your conclusion should begin by summarizing the main points you’ve discussed in your essay. This serves as a quick recap for your readers and reminds them of the essential aspects of your argument.

2. Restate Your Thesis Statement

Reiterating your thesis statement reinforces your main argument and helps your audience remember the core message of your essay. However, don’t merely copy and paste it. Reformulate it in a way that adds depth and perspective to your essay’s central theme.

3. Pose a Thought-Provoking Question

To engage your readers on a deeper level, consider posing a thought-provoking question related to your topic. This not only stimulates critical thinking but also encourages further discussion and exploration of the subject matter.

4. Provide a Resolution

Offering a clear and definitive resolution to the legal issue at hand can set your essay apart. It demonstrates your in-depth understanding of the topic and shows your capacity to provide practical solutions. This can leave a lasting impression on your readers and even encourage them to consider your viewpoint.

Avoid Common Mistakes

While learning these techniques is crucial, it’s equally important to be aware of common mistakes that can undermine your conclusion’s effectiveness:

1. Introducing New Information

Your conclusion should not introduce new ideas or arguments that were not addressed in the body of your essay. Keep it focused on summarizing and emphasizing the key points you’ve made.

2. Being Repetitive

While restating your thesis is essential, don’t fall into the trap of repeating yourself. Ensure that your restatement adds value and depth to your conclusion.

3. Being Overly Ambiguous

Avoid leaving your readers with vague or unclear ideas. Your conclusion should offer clarity and resolution, leaving no room for ambiguity.

The Final Word

Mastering the art of crafting a compelling conclusion for your law essays is a skill that can set you apart as a proficient legal writer. A well-crafted conclusion leaves a lasting impression on your readers, reinforcing your arguments and providing valuable insight into the legal subject matter. By following the techniques outlined in this guide and avoiding common mistakes, you can elevate your law essays to a level that truly stands out.

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How to Write a Law Essay: A Comprehensive Guide with Examples

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Let's put it this way: if you are studying law, you will agree that writing a law essay is no easy feat. Whether you’re dealing with case law, statutes, or legal principles, structuring your essay correctly and presenting your arguments effectively are key to achieving a high grade. This guide will walk you through the essentials of writing a law essay, including structure, introduction examples, and practical tips to help you produce a first-class essay.

A Law Essay Structure

What is the basic structure of a law essay? A well-structured essay not only presents your arguments clearly but also demonstrates your grasp of legal concepts. Here’s a typical structure for a law essay:

Introduction

Overview : Briefly introduce the topic and outline the key issues. Thesis Statement : Clearly state your main argument or position. Purpose : Indicate how the essay will address the issues and what the reader can expect.

Issue Identification : Clearly identify and explain the legal issues or questions. Legal Analysis : Discuss relevant case law, statutes, and legal principles. Argument Development : Develop your arguments logically, providing evidence and analysis to support your points. Counterarguments : Consider and address potential counterarguments or alternative viewpoints.

Summary : Recap the main points and arguments. Reinforcement : Restate your thesis in light of the evidence presented. Final Thoughts : Offer any final reflections or implications of your analysis.

Crafting an Effective Introduction

The introduction of a law essay sets the tone for the rest of your work. A strong introduction should provide a clear overview of the topic and establish the context for your argument. Here’s how you can structure it:

• Hook : Start with an engaging statement or question related to the topic. This could be a relevant quote, a brief anecdote, or a provocative question.
• Context : Provide background information to help the reader understand the relevance of the topic.
• Thesis Statement : Clearly outline your main argument or position. This should guide the direction of your essay.
• Roadmap : Briefly outline how you will address the issues and structure your argument.

Example of a Law Essay Introduction:

“The principle of judicial review is a cornerstone of the British legal system, ensuring that all public authorities act within their legal boundaries. This essay explores the scope and limits of judicial review, focusing on recent judicial decisions that have reshaped its application. By analysing key case law and statutory developments, this essay will argue that while judicial review remains a vital check on executive power, recent trends indicate a shift towards more restrained judicial intervention. The discussion will be organised into three main sections: an examination of the historical development of judicial review, an analysis of contemporary judicial approaches, and an evaluation of the implications for future judicial oversight.”

Writing the Body of the Essay

The body of your law essay is where you provide detailed analysis and develop your arguments. Follow these steps to ensure clarity and depth in your writing:

• Identify the Issues : Clearly define the legal issues or questions at hand. This section should set the foundation for your analysis.
• Provide Legal Analysis : Discuss relevant case law, statutes, and legal principles. Be sure to provide brief summaries of relevant cases, discuss any statutes or legislative provisions relevant to the topic and explain any key legal principles or doctrines that apply to the issues.
• Develop Your Arguments : Present your arguments logically, using evidence and analysis to support your points. Ensure that each paragraph transitions smoothly to the next, maintaining a clear and coherent flow.
• Address Counterarguments : Consider potential counterarguments or alternative viewpoints. Address these within your essay to demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Example of Argument Development

“In the landmark case of R (on the application of Miller) v. Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union (2017), the UK Supreme Court reaffirmed the principle that significant constitutional changes require parliamentary approval. The court’s decision highlighted the importance of maintaining parliamentary sovereignty in the face of executive decisions. However, recent judicial trends suggest a cautious approach towards intervening in political matters, reflecting a broader shift towards judicial restraint. This shift raises questions about the future scope of judicial review and its role in holding the executive accountable.”

Crafting a Strong Conclusion

Your conclusion should summarise the key points discussed and reinforce your thesis. Avoid introducing new information; instead, focus on synthesising your arguments and providing a final perspective. Keep in mind the following:

• Summarise Main Points : Briefly recap the key issues and arguments presented in the body.
• Restate Thesis : Reaffirm your thesis statement, demonstrating how it has been supported by your analysis.
• Final Thoughts : Offer any concluding reflections or implications. This could include suggestions for further research or practical implications of your findings.

Example of a Law Essay Conclusion:

“In conclusion, while the principle of judicial review continues to serve as a crucial mechanism for ensuring accountability, recent developments indicate a more nuanced approach by the judiciary. The balance between maintaining judicial oversight and respecting the limits of judicial intervention is delicate. As demonstrated through recent case law and statutory changes, the evolving nature of judicial review reflects broader shifts in constitutional theory and practice. Future developments will likely continue to shape the scope and application of judicial review, underscoring the need for ongoing scholarly and judicial attention.”

Final Tips for Writing a Law Essay

• Use clear and precise language to convey your arguments. Avoid jargon and overly complex sentences.
• Ensure all claims and arguments are well-supported by legal evidence and analysis.
• Always edit and proofread your essay for clarity, coherence, and correctness. Ensure that your writing adheres to legal academic standards.

Read some complete law essay examples here.

Final Remarks

Writing a law essay involves understanding the structure, crafting an effective introduction, developing your arguments, and presenting a clear conclusion. By following the guidelines and examples provided, you can create a well-organised and compelling essay. Remember, the quality of your analysis and the clarity of your arguments are key to achieving a first-class result.

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How to Write a Law Essay: 8 Steps

December 28, 2023

1. Choosing an Essay Topic

When it comes to writing a law essay, choosing an appropriate topic is crucial. A well-chosen topic will make your research and writing process smoother and more enjoyable, while a poorly chosen topic can lead to frustration and a lackluster essay.

Firstly, consider what has piqued your interest in your law studies so far. Perhaps there was a case or topic that you found particularly intriguing, or an aspect of law that you feel needs further exploration. Alternatively, you could focus on a current legal issue that you feel strongly about and want to delve deeper into.

It’s also important to make sure your topic isn’t too broad or too narrow. Too broad of a topic can result in a lack of focus, while a topic that is too narrow won’t give you enough research material to work with.

Ultimately, choosing a law essay topic is about finding a balance between your personal interests and the practical aspects of your assignment. Take the time to carefully consider your options, and don’t be afraid to ask for input or guidance from your professor or classmates.

Possible Law Essay Topics

• The impact of social media on defamation laws.
• Analyzing the constitutionality of mandatory minimum sentencing.
• The effectiveness of restorative justice in reducing recidivism rates.
• Legal implications of artificial intelligence in the workplace.
• Exploring the rights of privacy versus national security in the digital age.
• Examining the legal and ethical issues surrounding euthanasia.
• Assessing the role of international law in combating climate change.
• Analyzing the legal framework for cyberbullying and online harassment.
• The legalization and regulation of recreational marijuana: a critical analysis.
• Exploring the intersection of intellectual property rights and emerging technologies.

Remember to choose a topic that aligns with your interests and research availability, while ensuring that it is adequately focused for a detailed analysis within the scope of your essay.

2. Researching the Topic

Before diving into writing a law essay, it’s essential to conduct thorough research on the chosen topic. This step is critical to ensure that the essay is factually correct, well-supported, and logically structured. Here are some tips on how to research effectively for a law essay:

• Begin by gathering basic information. Use specialized textbooks, journals, and databases to gain a foundational understanding of the topic.
• Use secondary sources to gain a broader perspective on the topic. Utilize reputable news sources, government publications, and online legal databases to broaden your search.
• Access case law. To support your arguments, cite legal cases that illustrate your argument. Access online case law databases that have accessible search functions.
• Use primary sources. Primary sources include statutes, regulation, and the constitution. It’s important to have a good grasp of the primary sources since they are the basis of much of legal research.
• Take notes. Keep track of all relevant information, including sources and citations. Use an organized format that will make outlining and writing the essay a simpler process.
• Evaluate and analyze. Through the research process, it’s important to analyze the information found. Determine what is and is not relevant, and how it factors into your argument.

By conducting thorough research, you will be able to support your argument with a well-evidenced and structured essay. Remember to keep track of all sources and citations as they will be necessary in the writing process.

3. Developing Strong Thesis Statement

Developing a strong thesis statement is essential when writing a law essay. This powerful statement sets the tone for the entire article and guides the reader’s understanding of your argument. To create an effective thesis statement, you must first fully understand the topic and question at hand. Take your time to research and gather relevant information to support your viewpoint. As you delve deeper into the subject, analyze different perspectives and identify the key arguments surrounding the topic. Once you have a clear understanding of the various viewpoints, narrow down your focus and craft a concise and persuasive thesis statement that clearly states your position. Remember, a strong thesis statement should be debatable, specific, and assertive. Spend time honing your thesis to ensure it effectively conveys your argument and engages the reader’s interest.

Example thesis statement:

“The death penalty should be abolished in the United States because it violates the Eighth Amendment, fails to act as an effective deterrent, and disproportionately affects marginalized communities.”

4. Structuring the Law Essay

Structuring your law essay is crucial to ensure clarity, coherence, and a logical flow of ideas. Here’s a breakdown of how to structure your law essay:

Introduction:

• Provide a brief overview of the topic and its significance.
• Present the thesis statement, clearly stating your argument.

Background and Context:

• Provide necessary background information to help the reader understand the topic.
• Explain relevant legal concepts, principles, or statutes related to your argument.
• Start each paragraph with a topic sentence that relates to your thesis statement.
• Present your arguments and support them with evidence, case law, or legal authorities.
• Use clear and concise language to explain your points and provide analysis.

Counter-Argument:

• Acknowledge and present the counter-argument(s) objectively and logically.
• Refute the counter-argument(s) with reasoned explanations and supportive evidence.

Conclusion:

• Summarize your main arguments and their supporting evidence.
• Restate your thesis statement and highlight its significance.
• Offer some final thoughts or suggestions for further research or action.

Remember to use appropriate headings and subheadings to structure your essay effectively. Use transition words and phrases to ensure a smooth flow between paragraphs. Additionally, ensure proper citations and referencing throughout the essay to maintain academic integrity.

5. Writing the Introduction

Writing the introduction is your opportunity to grab the reader’s attention and set the tone for your entire law essay. Here’s how you can effectively structure your introduction:

Start with a hook:

• Use a compelling statement, anecdote, or a relevant quote to engage the reader and create interest in your topic.

Provide background information:

• Give a brief overview of the legal issue or topic you will be discussing.
• Explain the significance and relevance of the topic to the field of law or society at large.

State the purpose and scope of your essay:

• Clearly state your thesis statement, which should encapsulate your main argument.
• Mention the key points you will address and the legal principles, cases, or statutes you will analyze.

Outline the essay structure:

• Provide a brief outline of how your essay will be structured.
• Mention the main sections or arguments you will present.

Establish the context:

• Explain any necessary legal concepts, terms, or background information that the reader needs to understand.

Remember to keep your introduction concise and focused. It should provide enough information to orient the reader and generate interest in your essay. However, save the detailed arguments and evidence for the main body of your essay. Aim to make your introduction clear, engaging, and persuasive, setting the stage for the rest of your law essay.

6. Developing the Body Paragraphs

Developing the body paragraphs is the core of your law essay, where you present and support your arguments with evidence and analysis. Here’s how to effectively structure and develop your body paragraphs:

Start with a topic sentence:

• Each body paragraph should begin with a clear topic sentence that relates to your thesis statement.
• The topic sentence sets the tone and direction for the paragraph.

Present your argument:

• Clearly state your argument or point of view in the opening sentences of each paragraph.
• Provide supporting evidence, such as case law, statutory provisions, or legal principles, to back up your argument.

Analyze and interpret the evidence:

• Explain the significance of the evidence in relation to your argument.
• Analyze how the evidence supports and strengthens your position.

Use legal authorities and sources:

• Cite relevant cases, statutes, or legal commentary to support your arguments.
• Refer to authoritative legal sources, such as court decisions or academic articles, to provide credibility.

Use clear and concise language:

• Clearly articulate your ideas using logical transitions and precise language.
• Avoid unnecessary jargon or overly complex language that may confuse the reader.

Remember to properly structure your paragraphs, provide sufficient evidence and analysis, and link your arguments back to your main thesis statement. Each paragraph should contribute to the overall coherence and flow of your essay, ensuring a convincing and well-supported argument.

7. Present the Counter-argument

Presenting the counter-argument is an essential component of writing a persuasive law essay. Failing to acknowledge opposing viewpoints weakens your argument and makes it appear biased. Therefore, it is crucial to identify different perspectives surrounding the topic and analyze these perspectives objectively. Once you have identified the counter-argument, you can present it in your essay, offering evidence and explanations to support it. Addressing counter-arguments in your essay strengthens your credibility as a writer and demonstrates your ability to look at a topic from multiple perspectives. Additionally, this approach makes your essay more convincing by acknowledging and addressing potential criticism of your argument. Keep in mind that effectively presenting the counter-argument requires thorough research, logical reasoning, and evidence-based arguments. Therefore, take your time to critically analyze opposing views to ensure your argument is backed up by relevant and reliable supporting evidence. By doing so, you can construct a well-reasoned and thoughtful essay that can withstand any counter-argument.

8. Crafting the Conclusion

Crafting a strong conclusion is essential to leave a lasting impression on the reader and effectively summarize your arguments in a law essay. Here are some key steps to consider when writing your conclusion:

Summarize your main points:

• Recapitulate the main arguments you presented in the body paragraphs.
• Provide a brief overview of the evidence you presented to support each argument.

Reinforce your thesis statement:

• Restate your thesis statement in a concise manner to remind the reader of your main argument.
• Emphasize the significance and relevance of your thesis in the context of the larger legal issue.

Offer a broader perspective:

• Connect your arguments to the wider legal or societal implications of the topic.
• Discuss the potential consequences or impact of your findings on the field of law or legal practice.

Suggest areas for further research:

• Highlight any unanswered questions or areas of debate that may require future exploration.
• Propose avenues for future research or policy development related to your topic.

Conclude with a compelling closing statement:

• Leave the reader with a thought-provoking final remark that leaves a lasting impression.
• Use a concise and powerful statement to tie together your essay and reinforce your main message.

Ensure that your conclusion is concise, focused, and aligned with your overall argument. It should serve as a strong ending to your law essay, leaving the reader with a clear understanding of your position and the importance of the topic discussed.

Use Legal Terms Accurately

In the realm of writing law essays, the accurate and precise use of legal terms is paramount. This subheading focuses on the importance of correctly employing legal terminology in order to craft an exceptional law essay.

Mastering legal terminology is essential for two reasons. Firstly, it demonstrates an understanding and grasp of the subject matter, showcasing your expertise to both professors and potential employers. Secondly, using legal terms accurately enhances the clarity and coherence of your arguments, making your essay more persuasive and compelling. However, it is crucial to strike a balance – overusing legal jargon may alienate readers who are not well-versed in the law.

To ensure accuracy, it is imperative to consult reliable legal sources such as authoritative textbooks, journals, or statutes. Moreover, reading and analyzing sample essays or exemplary legal writing can provide guidance on how to effectively incorporate legal terms into your own work. By diligently honing your legal language skills, you will significantly elevate the quality and impact of your law essays.

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Footnotes, endnotes, and citations

What citations should I use in my essay?

Regular essays and timed exams

Most instructors at the undergraduate level (including instructors on law conversion courses) do not require students to do more than indicate the names of cases or statutes in the text of their essays and examinations, particularly in timed examinations. While it's preferable to give the full case name (such as Jones v Smith), in a timed examination you can get by with one name or the other. Usually people pick the first party's name, unless it's a very common name or a criminal case. Sometimes, though, you will notice that your textbook or lecturer uses the second party's name regularly. If you know that the case is commonly short-cited to the second party's name, go ahead and use that.

If you can't remember the name of a particular case or statute, simply describe it. For example, 'the snail in the bottle case' sufficiently evokes Donoghue v. Stevenson . 'The first Occupiers' Liability Act' gets you past worries about the particular year it was enacted. Of course, if you are working on a weekly essay or a long-term research project you must take the trouble of finding and putting in the proper title or citation.

Once you have used the full name once, feel free to use a short citation, such as ' Donoghue' or 'the 1984 Act.' There's no need to keep repeating the full name.

If you are writing your essay by hand, there is no need to use different coloured ink for a case or statutory citation. It often helps if you underline case names, but you won't lose points if you don't. If you are typing your essay, you can underline or italicise case names, but there's no need for elaborate type faces. Make your writing stand out rather than your design skills. Sometimes it seems that students spend more time formatting the essay than they do writing it. Don't be one of those students.

Typically, citations in a regular essay or timed examination are placed in the text next to the proposition they support. See the sample student essays in chapter 10 of the book for models.

These suggestions are only guidelines to use if you do not receive more specific instructions from your tutor or lecturer. If your university or instructors have particular rules that they wish you to follow, do so.

Long-term research essays and theses

If you are doing a long-term research project, you should use the full and proper citation, either in a footnote, an endnote or in the text. Again, once you have given the citation in full, you may use the appropriate short citation.

Very often, instructors will give formatting advice for long-term research essays. Certainly students doing masters theses will be given detailed information on the citation convention they are to use. If you have not been given any guidance, ask for it. Also, don't wait until the last minute to investigate your citation requirements. There's nothing worse than having to go back through all your research to add in specific page numbers or dates because you forgot to do it the first time. With a long-term project, you can and should plan ahead.

When should I quote and when should I paraphrase?

As mentioned in the book, quotes are good in the law. The words of Lord Justice Whozits are much more persuasive than a mere lawyer's. Use quotations freely, as long as you:

• use the exact words and punctuation found in the original source;
• use square brackets [ ] to indicate changes in capitalization, punctuation and language; and
• provide the source of the quotation.

Remember also that extensive quotations from statutes – particularly if you are permitted to use the statute book in an otherwise closed examination – are not particularly impressive. What is more important in those situations is your interpretation and use of the statute.

Never include the precise language of a source – or language that is virtually identical – without a proper attribution. Not only does that constitute plagiarism, it is counter to the use of source material in law. The law depends on published precedent for its authority. A legal principle is only as good as its source. Therefore, you want to demonstrate where your various propositions come from, since they will be more valuable if they come from an outside source.

However, there are times when you should paraphrase rather than provide a direct quotation. If the pertinent section is very long or discusses issues that are not relevant to the point you are making, then go ahead and paraphrase. Similarly, if the point you are making is only tangential to your larger argument, a paraphrase may be appropriate. Sometimes it's wise to save your ammunition for the big issues.

If you are paraphrasing someone, it is still helpful to identify the source so that your reader knows that you are not making the proposition up out of whole cloth. Again, lawyers and judges evaluate the strength of your argument based on the strength of your sources. Show your reader how well-read you are and earn every point you possibly can.

When should I use footnotes, when should I use endnotes and when should I put the citation in the text?

For the most part, undergraduates can put their citations in the text of their essays. The citation can be set off mid-sentence through parenthesis ( Hansel v Gretel ) or can follow the sentence. Hansel v Gretel . The one exception for undergraduates is on long-term research projects, where the instructors might ask for footnotes or endnotes.

There is no formal convention on when you should use footnotes rather than endnotes. For the most part, it's a matter of style and personal choice, although the choice may not be yours to make. If you are writing a postgraduate thesis or dissertation, your faculty or your supervisor may have very strict ideas on how the work is to be presented. Follow those rules to the letter. Similarly, if you are hoping to have your work published in a periodical or legal journal, ask to see the editorial guidelines. An editor is much more likely to accept your work if it conforms to the house style.

If the issue is left entirely up to you, then you simply need to decide which form of notes you find more helpful. Footnotes can be seen to break the flow of the text, but they also help the reader follow the argument, particularly if the text is comparing and contrasting different sources. Footnotes are also more useful than endnotes if the footnotes contain substantive information rather than simply providing source material. For the most part, British and European writers do not include anything in their foot- or endnotes other than the citations themselves, possibly with a “see also” reference to additional material. American authors, on the other hand, fill their footnotes with additional substantive information. Often the best information in an American law review article can be found in the footnotes.

American legal texts are also known for dropping a footnote at the end of almost every sentence, whereas texts from other countries do so much less, usually only following a direct quote. The reason why American journals use as many footnotes as they do is because most American law journals are edited by law students. British and European journals are peer-reviewed, meaning that an article is only accepted if it passes muster with other academics and/or practitioners. Therefore, the text of the article is verified before it is accepted for publication. American students are not experts in their fields, so they must – and do – check the substance of each and every footnote by hand to make sure that it supports the proposition stated. Therefore, American law journals contain excellent source material for researchers, since the footnotes point the reader to a wide variety of verified information and additional resources. Because American footnotes contain so much information, it makes sense to place them on the same page as the text they support rather than at the end of the article or book.

If you are writing for a non-American audience, you should strongly consider putting citations only into your notes. Once you have made that decision, it matters less whether you put the note on the page or at the end of the piece. If you have a multi-chaptered work (such as a book or doctoral dissertation), then you might consider putting the notes at the end of each chapter rather than at the end of the work as a whole. However, it is highly unlikely that the decision to use footnotes or endnotes will be left to your discretion if you are writing a book or dissertation. Again, conform your text to the guidelines of your institution.

Do remember your punctuation, however. Footnotes and endnotes should both end with a full stop.

What is 'proper' citation form?

If you are an undergraduate writing a weekly essay or timed examination, a case name or the short title of a statute should be sufficient, unless you are told otherwise. If you are writing a more elaborate work, you should follow proper citation guidelines.

There are entire books written on how to cite legal authorities. If you are writing a detailed research paper such as a thesis or dissertation, you should consult one of those books so that you cite your sources properly. Your law librarian can help you find those resources. Also, you should know that each jurisdiction has its own conventions on how to cite legal authorities, so the style of case citation, for example, may not appear consistent if you are citing materials from different countries, even if the individual citations are correct.

In the U.K., authors generally do not give parallel (i.e., multiple) citations except when citing both a neutral reporter and an official reporter, though they must follow strict rules regarding punctuation (or the lack thereof), the type of brackets, typeface, etc. Examples of common British case citations are as follows.

Walker v Sitter [2004] EWHC 1000 (Ch) [5]-[7] (neutral citation, pinpointing paragraphs 5 to 7)

Yin v Yang [2004] QB 123 (QB) at 125 (Schmidt, J) (pinpointing page, noting author)

Tweedledee v Tweedledum [2003] 2 All ER 456 (HL)

Re Luftborough Airport [2002] 1 WLR 89 (Com Ct)

Barking Mad Ltd v Crazy Horse Int'l Inc (2005) Times, 15 April (QB)

The neutral citation system was introduced in the U.K. in January 2001. All cases since then have a neutral citation as well as numbered paragraphs instead of page numbers. The abbreviations indicate which court heard the case. For example, the jurisdictions include:

UK United Kingdom (used only with House of Lords decisions)

EW England and Wales

Scot Scotland

NI Northern Ireland

The court abbreviations which follow the jurisdictional abbreviation in a neutral citation are:

HL House of Lords

CA Civ Court of Appeal (Civil Division)

CA Crim Court of Appeal (Criminal Division)

HC (Ch) High Court (Chancery Division)

HC (QB) High Court (Queen's Bench)

HC (Admin) High Court (Administrative Court Division)

HC (Fam) High Court (Family Division)

HC (Pat) Patents Court

HC (Comm) Commercial Court

HC (Admlty) Admiralty Court

HC (TCC) Technology & Construction Court

European jurisprudence follows its own conventions. You might see citations along the following lines:

Case 26/97 Commission v. Ireland [1999] ECR 321

Case 177/75 Belgium v. Spain [1976] ECR 722, para. 3

Case C-123/92P Y v Commission [1994] ECR I-4321

American legal citations follow a different format, using the style known as the 'Bluebook', which is a citation guide put out by the Harvard Law Review. You'll usually see citations similar to the following:

Darth Vader v Skywalker , 103 F.3d 1049 (2d Cir. 2005)

In re Ballyhoo , 998 F.Supp. 22 (D. D.C. 1999)

Grasshopper v The Ant , 37 App. 2d 24 (Ill. App. Div. 2003)

Cowboy v Cow , 42 S.W.3d 444 (Tex. 2004)

Many common words (railway, limited, public limited company) can be abbreviated in a case name. Those abbreviations can be found in citation guides such as OSCOLA, which is described below. Similarly, many reporting series are known by their abbreviations. Some of the more common British reporters follow, with their short titles. Be aware that some of these series may also have numbers appearing before the volume name (for example, 2 QB).

Official Law Reports AC, QB, Ch, Fam, P

Weekly Law Reports WLR

European Court Reports ECR

All England Law Reports All ER, All ER Com

Common Market Law Reports CMLR

Criminal Appeal Reports Cr App R

Family Law Reports FLR

Lloyd's Law Reports Lloyd's Rep

Official Journal of the EC OJ

Scots Law Times CLT

The Times The Times

Citation of statutes in the U.K. is a straightforward affair. Typically a student needs only cite the name of the legislation and the year, along with the appropriate section, chapter or paragraph number. For example:

Companies Act 1985, sch. 1, para. 3

Arbitration Act 1996, s. 69

European legislation is equally simple, though the titles are often longer and appear in lower case.

Council Regulation (EC) 2693/94 addressing the need to conform widget size in automobiles [1994] OJ L123

Directive 77/331 applying competition rules to the dairy industry [1977] OJ L78/41

When citing American federal legislation and rules, do not include the name of the enactment.

28 U.S.C. § 1391

Fed. R. Civ. P. 4

Students should be aware that two well-known U.S. treatise series – the Restatement (of Tort, of Contract, of Foreign Relations, etc.) and A.L.R. (American Law Reports) do not constitute binding authority in the U.S. Instead, these works simply generalise about the laws of the various U.S. states and should not be considered as authoritative in any particular jurisdiction. While some courts may adopt the Restatement position on a particular issue, the Restatement does not constitute the law in that jurisdiction until a court has so stated. In all instances, the authority comes from the court, not the Restatement.

Which reporting series should I use?

Since the introduction of the neutral citation system in 2001, it is always proper to cite to that series, using paragraph numbers instead of page numbers. If a case is reported in the official Law Reports (AC, QB, etc.), then you should use that report in addition to the neutral citation (at least for decisions after 2001). If the case is not reported in the official Law Reports, you should use to the Weekly Law Reports and All England Law Reports, in that order. After that, you may turn to any other published source, including specialist series such as Lloyd's or the Times.

What is OSCOLA and how does it relate to the Harvard citation style?

'OSCOLA' refers to the Oxford Standard Citation of Legal Authorities, which is available free of charge on the University of Oxford Faculty of Law website ( www.law.ox.ac.uk ). The faculty releases two publications: 'Big OSCOLA', which is over 300 pages in length, and 'Little OSCOLA', which is about 30 pages long. Both documents give you detailed instructions on how to cite cases, statutes, books, journals and other legal materials. Most people should start with Little OSCOLA unless they are doing a postgraduate degree at Oxford or are directed to use Big OSCOLA. The OSCOLA system reflects a common understanding of how British legal authorities should be cited and is a good place to learn how British and European cases should be referenced. Notably, the OSCOLA system proposes a citation methodology that conflicts with American usage, and those whose work includes a large number of American cases may prefer to consult the latest edition of the Bluebook, which is available in many university law libraries, for U.S. sources.

You may also hear about the Harvard style of citation, particularly if you conduct socio-legal or other multi-disciplinary research. The Harvard style is not the same as the Bluebook, even though that guide is also put out by Harvard. The Harvard style of citation focuses primarily on non-legal sources such as books and journal articles, and, as such, is not as useful for those taking a strict law course as OSCOLA is. Under the Harvard style of citation, cases are cited in the text, rather than in the footnotes.

Citation signals

Older sources make wide use of Latin phrases such as infra, supra, ante, id, op cit, loc cit and contra . American sources continue to use many of these phrases in addition to a number of signals ( see, see also, but see, cf., accord ) at the beginning of a cite and descriptors ( cert. denied , aff'd by, rev'd by, superseded by , etc.) following a cite. Current British usage avoids all Latin phrases except for ibid , which means 'in the place of' and refers to the preceding citation only. You may only use ibid if the subsequent citation is to the same page; otherwise, use ibid 345 (if, for example, the new citation is to page number 345) or ibid art. 3 (if, for example, the new citation is to article 3). You may also use cf (compare) as a signal, but avoid the American use of see, see also, but see , etc.

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