short note on american education system

A primer on elementary and secondary education in the United States

Editor’s Note: This report is an excerpt, with minor edits, from Addressing Inequities in the US K-12 Education System , which first appeared in Rebuilding the Pandemic Economy , published by the Aspen Economic Strategy Group in 2021.

This report reviews the basics of the American elementary and secondary education system: Who does what and how do we pay for it? While there are some commonalities across the country, the answers to both questions, it turns out, vary considerably across states. 1

Who does what?

Schools are the institution most visibly and directly responsible for educating students. But many other actors and institutions affect what goes on in schools. Three separate levels of government—local school districts, state governments, and the federal government—are involved in the provision of public education. In addition, non-governmental actors, including teachers’ unions, parent groups, and philanthropists play important roles.

Most 5- to 17-year-old children – about 88%– attend public schools. 2 (Expanding universal schooling to include up to two years of preschool is an active area of discussion which could have far-reaching implications, but we focus on grades K-12 here.) About 9% attend private schools; about a quarter of private school students are in non-sectarian schools, and the remaining three-quarters are about evenly split between Catholic and other religious schools. The remaining 3% of students are homeschooled.

Magnet schools are operated by local school districts but enroll students from across the district; magnet schools often have special curricula—for example, a focus on science or arts—and were sometimes designed specifically to encourage racial integration. Charter schools are publicly funded and operate subject to state regulations; private school regulations and homeschooling requirements are governed by state law and vary across states. Nationally, 6.8% of public school students are enrolled in charter schools; the remainder attend “traditional public schools,” where students are mostly assigned to schools based on their home address and the boundaries school districts draw. Washington, D.C. and Arizona have the highest rates of charter enrollment, with 43 and 19% of their public school students attending charter schools. Several states have little or no charter school enrollment. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, nearly all public schooling took place in person, with about 0.6% of students enrolled in virtual schools.

Local School Districts

Over 13,000 local education agencies (LEAs), also known as school districts, are responsible for running traditional public schools. The size and structure of local school districts, as well as the powers they have and how they operate, depend on the state. Some states have hundreds of districts, and others have dozens. District size is mostly historically determined rather than a reflection of current policy choices. But while districts can rarely “choose” to get smaller or larger, district size implicates  important   trade-offs . Having many school districts operating in a metropolitan area can enhance incentives for school and district administrators to run schools consistent with the preferences of residents, who can vote out leaders or vote with their feet by leaving the district. On the other hand, fragmentation can lead to more segregation by race and income and less equity in funding, though state laws governing how local districts raise revenue may address the funding issues. Larger districts can benefit from economies of scale as the fixed costs of operating a district are spread over more students and they are better able to operate special programs, but large districts can also be difficult to manage. And even though large districts have the potential to pool resources between more- and less-affluent areas, equity challenges persist as staffing patterns lead to different levels of spending at schools within the same district.

School boards can be elected or appointed, and they generally are responsible for hiring the chief school district administrator, the superintendent. In large districts, superintendent turnover is often cited as a barrier to sustained progress on long term plans, though the causation may run in the other direction: Making progress is difficult, and frustration with reform efforts leads to frequent superintendent departures. School districts take in revenue from local, state, and federal sources, and allocate resources—primarily staff—to schools. The bureaucrats in district “central offices” oversee administrative functions including human resources, curriculum and instruction, and compliance with state and federal requirements. The extent to which districts devolve authority over instructional and organizational decisions to the school level varies both across and within states.

State Governments

The U.S. Constitution reserves power over education for the states. States have delegated authority to finance and run schools to local school districts but remain in charge when it comes to elementary and secondary education. State constitutions contain their own—again, varying—language about the right to education, which has given rise to litigation over the level and distribution of school funding in nearly all states over the past half century. States play a major role in school finance, both by sending aid to local school districts and by determining how local districts are allowed to tax and spend, as discussed further below.

State legislatures and state education agencies also influence education through mechanisms outside the school finance system. For example, states may set requirements for teacher certification and high school graduation, regulate or administer retirement systems, determine the ages of compulsory schooling, decide how charter schools will (or will not) be established and regulated, set home-schooling requirements, establish curricular standards or approve specific instructional materials, choose standardized tests and proficiency standards, set systems for school accountability (subject to federal law), and create (or not) education tax credits or vouchers to direct public funds to private schools. Whether and how states approach these issues—and which functions they delegate to local school districts—varies considerably.

Federal Government

The authority of the federal government to direct schools to take specific actions is weak. Federal laws protect access to education for specific groups of students, including students with disabilities and English language learners. Title IX prohibits sex discrimination in education, and the Civil Rights Act prohibits discrimination on the basis of race. The U.S. Department of Education issues  regulations and guidance  on K-12 laws and oversees grant distribution and compliance. It also collects and shares data and funds research. The Bureau of Indian Education is housed in the Department of the Interior, not the Department of Education.

The federal government influences elementary and secondary education primarily by providing funding—and through the rules surrounding the use of those funds and the conditions that must be met to receive federal funding. Federal aid is typically allocated according to formulas targeting particular populations. The largest formula-aid federal programs are Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), which provides districts funds to support educational opportunity, and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), for special education. Both allocate funding in part based on child poverty rates. State and school district fiscal personnel ensure that districts comply with rules governing how federal funds can be spent and therefore have direct influence on school environments. Since 1965, in addition to specifying how federal funds can be spent, Congress has required states and districts to adopt other policies as a condition of Title I receipt. The policies have changed over time, but most notably include requiring school districts to desegregate, requiring states to adopt test-based accountability systems, and requiring the use of “evidence-based” approaches. 

IDEA establishes protections for students with disabilities in addition to providing funding. The law guarantees their right to a free and appropriate public education in the least restrictive setting and sets out requirements for the use of Individualized Educational Programs. Because of these guarantees, IDEA allows students and families to pursue litigation. Federal law prohibits conditioning funding on the use of any specific curriculum. The Obama Administration’s Race to the Top program was also designed to promote specific policy changes—many related to teacher policy—but through a competitive model under which only select states or districts “won” the funds. For the major formula funds, like Title I and IDEA, the assumption (nearly always true) is that states and districts will adopt the policies required to receive federal aid and all will receive funds; in some cases, those policy changes may have  more impact than the money  itself. The federal government also allocated significant funding to support schools during the Great Recession and during the COVID-19 pandemic through specially created fiscal stabilization or relief funds; federal funding for schools during the COVID crisis was significantly larger than during the Great Recession.

The federal tax code, while perhaps more visible in its influence on higher education, also serves as a K-12 policy lever. The controversial state and local tax deduction, now limited to $10,000, reduces federal tax collections and subsidizes progressive taxation for state and local spending, including for education. As of 2018, 529 plans, which historically allowed tax-preferred savings only for higher education expenses, can also be used for private K-12 expenses.

Non-Governmental Actors

Notable non-governmental actors in elementary and secondary education include teachers’ unions and schools of education, along with parents, philanthropists, vendors, and other advocates.The nation’s three million public school teachers are a powerful political force, affecting more than just teachers’ compensation. For example, provisions of collective bargaining agreements meant to improve teachers working conditions also limit administrator flexibility.  Teachers unions  are also important political actors; they play an active role in federal, state, and school board elections and advocate for (or, more often, against) a range of policies affecting education.  Union strength varies considerably across U.S. states.

Both states and institutions of higher education play important roles in determining who teaches and the preparation they receive. Policies related to teacher certification and preparation requirements, ranging from whether teachers are tested on academic content to which teachers are eligible to supervise student teachers, vary considerably across states. 3 Meanwhile,  reviews of teacher training programs  reveal many programs do not do a good job incorporating consensus views of research-based best practices in key areas. To date, schools of education have not been the focus of much policy discussion, but they would be critical partners in any changes to how teachers are trained.

Parents play an important role, through a wide range of channels, in determining what happens in schools. Parents choose schools for their children, either implicitly when they choose where to live or explicitly by enrolling in a charter school, private school, participating in a school district choice program, or homeschooling, though these choices are constrained by income, information, and other factors. They may also raise money through Parent Teacher Associations (PTAs) or other foundations—and determine how it is spent. And they advocate for (or against) specific policies, curriculum, or other aspects of schooling through parent organizations, school boards, or other levels of government. Parents often also advocate for their children to receive certain teachers, placements, evaluation, or services; this is particularly true for parents of students with disabilities, who often must make sure their children receive legally required services and accommodations. Though state and federal policymakers sometimes  mandate parent engagement , these mechanisms do not necessarily provide meaningful pathways for parental input and are often dominated by  white and higher-SES parents .      

Philanthropy also has an important influence on education policy, locally and nationally. Not only do funders support individual schools in traditional ways, but they are also increasingly active in influencing federal and state laws. Part of these philanthropic efforts happen through advocacy groups, including civil rights groups, religious groups, and the hard-to-define “education reform” movement. Finally, the many vendors of curriculum, assessment, and “edtech” products and services bring their own lobbying power.

Paying for school

Research on school finance might be better termed school district finance because districts are the jurisdictions generating and receiving revenue, and districts, not schools, are almost always responsible for spending decisions. School districts typically use staffing models to send resources to schools, specifying how many staff positions (full-time equivalents), rather than dollars, each school gets. 

Inflation-adjusted, per-pupil revenue to school districts has increased steadily over time and averaged about $15,500 in 2018-19 (total expenditure, which includes both ongoing and capital expenditure, is similar but we focus on revenue because we are interested in the sources of revenue). Per-pupil revenue growth tends to stall or reverse in recessions and has only recently recovered to levels seen prior to the Great Recession (Figure 1). On average, school districts generated about 46% of their revenue locally, with about 80% of that from property taxes; about 47% of revenue came from state governments and about 8% from the federal government. The share of revenue raised locally has declined from about 56% in the early 1960s to 46% today, while the state and federal shares have grown. Local revenue comes from taxes levied by local school districts, but local school districts often do not have complete control over the taxes they levy themselves, and they almost never determine exactly how much they spend because that depends on how much they receive in state and federal aid. State governments may require school districts to levy certain taxes, limit how much local districts are allowed to tax or spend, or they may implicitly or explicitly redistribute some portion of local tax revenue to other districts.

Both the level of spending and distribution of revenue by source vary substantially across states (Figure 2), with New York, the highest-spending state, spending almost $30,000 per pupil, while Idaho, Utah, and Oklahoma each spent under $10,000 per pupil. (Some, but far from all, of this difference is related to higher labor costs in New York.) Similarly, the local share of revenue varies from less than 5% in Hawaii and Vermont to about 60% in New Hampshire and Nebraska. On average, high-poverty states spend less, but there is also considerable variation in spending among states with similar child poverty rates.

Discussions of school funding equity—and considerable legal action—focus on inequality of funding across school districts  within the same state . While people often assume districts serving disadvantaged students spend less per pupil than wealthier districts within a state, per-pupil spending and the child poverty rate are nearly always uncorrelated or  positively  correlated, with higher-poverty districts spending more on average. Typically, disadvantaged districts receive more state and federal funding, offsetting differences in funding from local sources. Meanwhile, considerable inequality exists between states, and poorer states spend less on average. Figure 3 illustrates an example of this dynamic, showing the relationship between district-level per-pupil spending and the child poverty rate in North Carolina (a relatively low-spending state with county- and city-based districts) and Illinois (a higher-spending state with many smaller districts). In North Carolina, higher poverty districts spend more on average; Illinois is one of only a few states in which this relationship is reversed. But this does not mean poor kids get fewer resources in Illinois than in North Carolina. Indeed, nearly  all  districts in Illinois spend more than most districts in North Carolina, regardless of poverty rate.

Figure 4 gives a flavor of the wide variation in per-pupil school spending. Nationally, the district at the 10th percentile had per-pupil current expenditure of $8,800, compared to $18,600 at the 90th percentile (for these calculations we focus on current expenditure, which is less volatile year-to-year, rather than revenue). Figure 4 shows that this variation is notably  not  systematically related to key demographics. For example, on average, poor students attend school in districts that spent $13,023 compared to $13,007 for non-poor students. The average Black student attends school in a district that spent $13,485 per student, compared to $12,918 for Hispanic students and $12,736 for White students. 4  School districts in high-wage areas need to spend more to hire the same staff, but adjusting spending to account for differences in prevailing wages of college graduates (the second set of bars) does not change the picture much.

Does this mean the allocation of spending is fair? Not really. First, to make progress reducing the disparities in outcomes discussed above, schools serving more disadvantaged students will need to spend  more  on average. Second, these data are measured at the school district level, lumping all schools together. This potentially masks inequality across (as well as within) schools in the same district.

The federal government now requires states to report some spending at the school level; states have only recently released these data. One study using these new data finds that within districts, schools attended by students of color and economically-disadvantaged students tend to have more staff per pupil and to spend more per pupil. These schools also have more novice teachers. How could within-district spending differences systematically correlate with student characteristics, when property taxes and other revenues for the entire district feed into the central budget? Most of what school districts buy is staff, and compensation is largely based on credentials and experience. So schools with less-experienced teachers spend less per pupil than those with more experienced ones, even if they have identical teacher-to-student ratios. Research suggests schools enrolling more economically disadvantaged students, or more students of color, on average have worse working conditions for teachers and experience more teacher turnover. Together, this means that school districts using the same staffing rules for each school—or even allocating more staff to schools serving more economically disadvantaged students—would have different patterns in spending per pupil than staff per pupil.

[1] : For state-specific information, consult state agency websites (e.g., Maryland State Department of Education) for more details. You can find data for all 50 states at the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics , and information on state-specific policies at the Education Commission of the States .

[2] : The numbers in this section are based on the most recent data available in the Digest of Education Statistics, all of which were collected prior to the COVID-19 pandemic.

[3] : See the not-for-profit National Council on Teacher Quality for standards and reviews of teacher preparation programs, and descriptions of state teacher preparation policies.

[4] : These statistics may be particularly surprising to people given the widely publicized findings of the EdBuild organization that, “ Nonwhite school districts get $23 billion less than white school districts. ” The EdBuild analysis estimates gaps between districts where at least 75% of students are non-White versus at least 75% of students are White. These two types of districts account for 53% of enrollment nationally. The $23 billion refers to state and local revenue (excluding federal revenue), whereas we focus on current expenditure (though patterns for total expenditure or total revenue are similar).

Disclosures: The Brookings Institution is financed through the support of a diverse array of foundations, corporations, governments, individuals, as well as an endowment. A list of donors can be found in our annual reports published online  here . The findings, interpretations, and conclusions in this report are solely those of its author(s) and are not influenced by any donation .

About the Authors

Sarah reber, joseph a. pechman senior fellow – economic studies, nora gordon, professor – mccourt school of public policy, georgetown university.

Foundations of American Education: A Critical Lens

(3 reviews)

Melissa Wells 

Courtney Clayton

Copyright Year: 2021

Publisher: VIVA

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Micah Walker, Non Tenure Track Instructor, Western Oregon University on 9/16/23

Book provides a throughout overview in distinct chapters with clear outlines for each chapter. The book is divided into two sections which are both outlined in the introduction of the book. The text has an organized glossary and additional... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Book provides a throughout overview in distinct chapters with clear outlines for each chapter. The book is divided into two sections which are both outlined in the introduction of the book. The text has an organized glossary and additional resources. There is no index present.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

The book provides factual accounts, information, and definitions. Some information in the Special Education sections are generalized, in reality, some information discussed varies from state to state rather than generalized across the country. For example, disability categories for special education eligibility.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

Very impressed with the updated information. References relevant information including laws, court cases, and societal trends up to 2021.

Clarity rating: 5

Utilizes academic language in a comprehensible way. Terms are quickly defined and paired with contextual examples.

Consistency rating: 5

The text is consistent with it's organization, formatting and prose style.

Modularity rating: 5

One of the biggest strengths of the text. Lots of embedded videos. I utilized the print version, so I am unsure if the sources are digitally linked. However, link addresses were present in the printed version. The outlines for each chapter would make assigning and locating sections manageable.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

Text is very organized with consistent structure throughout.

Interface rating: 4

The print version had some images that were harder to read due to size.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

Grammatical errors were not present.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The text contains a "Critical Lens" component throughout each chapter. Cultural relevance is a theme throughout the text and is encouraged by embedded prompts.

I plan to utilize Section 1 of this text for an undergraduate course that is required for students prior to their entry into the EPP.

Reviewed by Mandy Olsen, Instructor, Western Oregon University on 3/2/22

This is a great starting point for problematizing American education systems. It gives a good overview of historical context and also discusses important concepts such as how deficit ideologies of educator's impact student's lived experiences in... read more

This is a great starting point for problematizing American education systems. It gives a good overview of historical context and also discusses important concepts such as how deficit ideologies of educator's impact student's lived experiences in schools. The text touches on broad and important concepts from classroom environment to racial justice in the classroom to curriculum and assessment. All topics are considered from a critical lens.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

All content appears accurate and current, the authors connect learning to seminal research as well as current historical contexts.

Given the importance and recent emphasis on social justice, equity, diversity, and inclusion- this text is a timely and useful resource.

Material is written in an easy to understand, clear way. Authors use applicable examples and scenarios to frame new learning.

Terminology is consistent throughout the text. Glossary is provided at the end of the text and matches terminology throughout chapters.

Easy to navigate individual chapters and topics allowing for small portions of the text to be assigned to students. There is always a chapter outline and quick links to sections of each chapter.

Very logical structure- the authors opted to organize first by situating what we know about the teaching profession and teachers both historically and currently, then moving on to the needs of students, and finishing by considering how teachers can support students in a variety of ways.

Interface rating: 5

All links works appropriately, images and charts were easy to read.

No noticeable grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

I appreciate that this text emphasizes the need for teachers to evaluate and examine their own ideologies and that the authors problematize the education system. Images and pictures show a range of diverse students and teachers. Seminal research described is still very white centered (Piaget, Vygotsky, etc.) and perhaps inclusion of BIPOC researchers would have been helpful but overall, this is a great resource!

Reviewed by Demetrice Smith-Mutegi, Assistant Professor, Virginia Tech on 12/30/21

The text is very comprehensive, covering the profession of teaching in general, the history of education, as well as the future of teaching. Each chapter contained "myths" associated with the profession, as well as an opportunity to observe... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

The text is very comprehensive, covering the profession of teaching in general, the history of education, as well as the future of teaching. Each chapter contained "myths" associated with the profession, as well as an opportunity to observe critical ideas within the text.

Based on my review of the text, the author was well-sourced and supported arguments with key studies. Major errors were not observed in the text.

The author did a great job of incorporating many relevant ideas into the text. Within, there are links to surveys, standards, videos, as well as prompts asking readers to research their own schools. Updates to videos could be easily integrated into this text.

The author presents keywords or terms within the text by providing links to additional resources for more information. This allows the reader to explore further in order to gain more clarity or depth.

Consistency rating: 4

The text is pretty consistent in its presentation. The author uses text boxes to highlight specific sections such as starting each chapter with "unlearning". The chapters also feature "critical lens" sections. There are a few "critical lens" boxes that are presented as the author's ideas without sources to support them. It would be great to see sources consistently integrated into this section, in particular.

The modularity is sufficient. The text can be broken down into chapters and even sections that are hyperlinked in a green box at the beginning of each chapter.

The topics are very organized, overall. The text is broken down into two main parts: Foundations and Education in Action. From there, the text is broken down into chapters and sections.

All images, links, etc. were in working order.

I did not notice any grammatical errors in this text.

Throughout the text, the author references the impact of education on various cultural groups. Diversity and inclusion seem to be a central focus of the text. For example, the political ramifications of education can not exclude the impact made on different cultural groups. The author includes a thoughtful section addressing this and also poses several "pause and ponder" boxes for readers to pursue.

Overall, I thought this was a well-resourced, well-written text. I would definitely like to think through using this in my course. The critical lens sections were included as boxes but I see the text as providing a "critical" eye without limiting it to the call-out boxes.

Table of Contents

• Chapter 1: The Teaching Profession
• Chapter 2: Influences on Learning: Student Differences and Similarities
• Chapter 3: Philosophical and Historical Foundations of Education in the United States
• Chapter 4: Schools in the United States
• Chapter 5: Ethical & Legal Issues in Education
• Chapter 6: Curriculum: Planning, Assessment, & Instruction
• Chapter 7: Classroom Environment
• Chapter 8: And Now What? The Path Forward

Ancillary Material

About the book.

In this survey text, readers will explore the foundations of American education through a critical lens. Topics include the teaching profession, influences on student learning, philosophical and historical foundations, structures of schools, ethical and legal issues, curriculum, classroom environment, and the path forward.

About the Contributors

Dr. Melissa Wells  

I spent the first eight years of my career teaching in the South Carolina public schools as a third grade teacher, a kindergarten teacher, and an elementary literacy coach. All of my positions served Title 1 schools, which we will talk more about later in this book, but these are schools typically situated in less-affluent communities. When I was in fifth grade, I helped a kindergarten class at lunch, and this experience helped me decide that I wanted to become a teacher one day. While opening milk and mustard packets (trust me, they are so much worse than ketchup packets) were some of my early responsibilities as a lunchroom volunteer, I also got to visit the class during other parts of the day, such as instruction and recess. I met one little girl in the class named Aubrey. Aubrey stood out to me early on because she was one of the only students who could tell me apart from my twin sister (who also helped with the kindergarten class), her love of giving the tightest hugs, and her unique communication techniques (I figured out one day that she stuck out her tongue just a little to request that her hot dog be cut into tiny pieces, and she stuck out her tongue more if she wanted her hot dog in larger, but still anti-choking-sized, pieces). Aubrey also happened to have Down Syndrome. While this meant that Aubrey had some special learning needs, I was able to work with her teachers to see so many of the things Aubrey was capable of instead of just what she  wasn’t . I knew then I wanted to be a teacher who saw possibilities, who focused on what students  do  bring with them instead of what they  don’t .

Dr. Courtney Clayton Being an educator was not my goal when I graduated from college. I majored in French Literature in college. I studied what I was passionate about, but when it came time to graduate, I realized I was in the minority of students at my school: most of them wanted careers in business, law, or medicine. I knew med school was out–too much blood; went to one interview in a suit for a large business firm–nope. When I really started to consider applying to law school, I realized that wasn’t for me either. I decided to go a different direction and ended up in something that piqued my interest: video, film and commercial production. I worked in this industry for many years, becoming increasingly disillusioned, until one day I remember distinctly that I was on a commercial shoot for eyeglasses. The director was yelling at the producer, my boss, saying that she couldn’t get anything right, and I stood there thinking, “Seriously, this is what I am doing with my life?” I went home that night and considered what else I might want to do for a living.

I thought back to when I was in elementary school and how much I loved my teachers; how school was a safe haven for me from my own family’s struggles; how much I loved reading and learning new things. That was it–I wanted to try teaching. Before I jumped head-first into a teaching licensure program, I wanted to see about getting my feet wet first. I applied and was hired for a position as an assistant teacher at a school for boys that serviced a residential treatment facility. All of the students in the facility had been removed from their families due to significant emotional and physical trauma. The work was tough, but I loved it. I loved working with young people. Even in this very traumatic setting, the students needed their teachers and looked to them for instruction and guidance.

I went on to get my teaching license in K-6 education with a CLAD (Crosscultural, Language, and Academic Development) certificate and Master’s degree in Education. The CLAD certificate was something that California had started requiring in the mid to late 1990s (when I was doing my certification) to be qualified to teach the linguistically and culturally diverse student population we were to encounter in schools, including English Learners. Though nothing can completely prepare a White, suburban-raised woman for the rich diversity of schools, I did study topics like applied linguistics, second language acquisition, and multicultural education at a time when most colleges of education had not begun to consider the importance of these issues and topics.

After teaching in California for several years, I moved to Boston. I taught at an independent school first since my teaching license did not transfer (we will discuss license reciprocity more in Chapter 1), and then got hired at the International School of Boston, which ran a dual language program in French and English. I was trained as an ESL specialist and taught 2nd grade. As a teacher there, combined with my experience in California schools, I became more and more interested in students whose first language was not English, and more importantly, the best ways to instruct them. I decided to pursue my PhD, and my dissertation focused on what made an effective teacher of English Learners in full classroom settings, not as ESL teachers. Since that time, I have worked in supporting preservice teachers to learn about how best to work with our English Learners in schools, particularly in the area of using culturally and linguistically responsive teaching.

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current events conversation

What Students Are Saying About How to Improve American Education

An international exam shows that American 15-year-olds are stagnant in reading and math. Teenagers told us what’s working and what’s not in the American education system.

By The Learning Network

Earlier this month, the Program for International Student Assessment announced that the performance of American teenagers in reading and math has been stagnant since 2000 . Other recent studies revealed that two-thirds of American children were not proficient readers , and that the achievement gap in reading between high and low performers is widening.

We asked students to weigh in on these findings and to tell us their suggestions for how they would improve the American education system.

Our prompt received nearly 300 comments. This was clearly a subject that many teenagers were passionate about. They offered a variety of suggestions on how they felt schools could be improved to better teach and prepare students for life after graduation.

While we usually highlight three of our most popular writing prompts in our Current Events Conversation , this week we are only rounding up comments for this one prompt so we can honor the many students who wrote in.

Please note: Student comments have been lightly edited for length, but otherwise appear as they were originally submitted.

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From 1871 to 2021: A Short History of Education in the United States

In 1600s and 1700s America, prior to the first and second Industrial Revolutions, educational opportunity varied widely depending on region, race, gender, and social class.

Public education, common in New England, was class-based, and the working class received few benefits, if any. Instructional styles and the nature of the curriculum were locally determined. Teachers themselves were expected to be models of strict moral behavior.

By the mid-1800s, most states had accepted three basic assumptions governing public education: that schools should be free and supported by taxes, that teachers should be trained, and that children should be required to attend school.

The term “normal school” is based on the French école normale, a sixteenth-century model school with model classrooms where model teaching practices were taught to teacher candidates. In the United States, normal schools were developed and built primarily to train elementary-level teachers for the public schools.

The Normal School The term “normal school” is based on the French  école normale , a sixteenth-century model school with model classrooms where model teaching practices were taught to teacher candidates. This was a laboratory school where children on both the primary or secondary levels were taught, and where their teachers, and the instructors of those teachers, learned together in the same building. This model was employed from the inception of the Buffalo Normal School , where the “School of Practice” inhabited the first floors of the teacher preparation academy. In testament to its effectiveness, the Campus School continued in the same tradition after the college was incorporated and relocated on the Elmwood campus.

Earlier normal schools were reserved for men in Europe for many years, as men were thought to have greater intellectual capacity for scholarship than women. This changed (fortunately) during the nineteenth century, when women were more successful as private tutors than were men.

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, newly industrialized European economies needed a reliable, reproducible, and uniform work force. The preparation of teachers to accomplish this goal became ever more important. The process of instilling in future citizens the norms of moral behavior led to the creation of the first uniform, formalized national educational curriculum. Thus, “normal” schools were tasked with developing this new curriculum and the techniques through which teachers would communicate and model these ideas, behaviors, and values for students who, it was hoped, through formal education, might desire and seek a better quality of life.

In the United States, normal schools were developed and built primarily to train elementary-level teachers for the public schools. In 1823, Reverend Samuel Read Hall  founded the first private normal school in the United States, the Columbian School in Concord, Vermont. The first public normal school in the United States was founded shortly thereafter in 1839 in Lexington, Massachusetts. Both public and private “normals” initially offered a two-year course beyond the secondary level, but by the twentieth century, teacher-training programs required a minimum of four years. By the 1930s most normal schools had become “teachers colleges,” and by the 1950s they had evolved into distinct academic departments or schools of education within universities.

The Buffalo Normal School Buffalo State was founded in 1871 as the Buffalo Normal School. It changed its name more often than it changed its building. It has been called the State Normal and Training School (1888–1927), the State Teachers College at Buffalo (1928–1946), the New York State College for Teachers at Buffalo (1946–1950), SUNY, New York State College for Teachers (1950–1951), the State University College for Teachers at Buffalo (1951–1959), the State University College of Education at Buffalo (1960–1961), and finally the State University College at Buffalo in 1962, or as we know it more succinctly, SUNY Buffalo State College.

As early as the 1800s, visionary teachers explored teaching people with disabilities. Thomas Galludet developed a method to educate the deaf and hearing impaired. Dr. Samuel Howe focused on teaching the visually impaired, creating books with large, raised letters to assist people with sight impairments to “read” with their fingers.

What Goes Around, Comes Around: What Is Good Teaching? Throughout most of post-Renaissance history, teachers were most often male scholars or clergymen who were the elite literates who had no formal training in “how” to teach the content in which they were most well-versed. Many accepted the tenet that “teachers were born , not made .” It was not until “pedagogy,” the “art and science of teaching,” attained a theoretical respectability that the training of educated individuals in the science of teaching was considered important.

While scholars of other natural and social sciences still debate the scholarship behind the “science” of teaching, even those who accept pedagogy as a science admit that there is reason to support one theory that people can be “born” with the predisposition to be a good teacher. Even today, while teacher education programs are held accountable by accreditors for “what” they teach teachers, the “dispositions of teaching” are widely debated, yet considered essential to assess the suitability of a teacher candidate to the complexities of the profession. Since the nineteenth century, however, pedagogy has attempted to define the minimal characteristics needed to qualify a person as a teacher. These have remained fairly constant as the bases for educator preparation programs across the country: knowledge of subject matter, knowledge of teaching methods, and practical experience in applying both are still the norm. The establishment of the “norms” of pedagogy and curriculum, hence the original name of “normal school” for teacher training institutions, recognized the social benefit and moral value of ensuring a quality education for all.

As with so many innovations and trends that swept the post-industrial world in the twentieth century, education, too, has experienced many changes. The names of the great educational theorists and reformers of the Progressive Era in education are known to all who know even a little about teaching and learning: Jean Piaget , Benjamin Bloom , Maria Montessori , Horace Mann , and John Dewey to name only a few.

As early as the 1800s, visionary teachers explored teaching people with disabilities. Thomas Galludet developed a method to educate the deaf and hearing impaired. He opened the Hartford School for the Deaf in Connecticut in 1817. Dr. Samuel Howe focused on teaching the visually impaired, creating books with large, raised letters to assist people with sight impairments to “read” with their fingers. Howe led the Perkins Institute, a school for the blind, in Boston. Such schools were usually boarding schools for students with disabilities. There are still residential schools such as St. Mary’s School for the Deaf in Buffalo, but as pedagogy for all children moved into the twentieth century, inclusive practice where children with disabilities were educated in classrooms with non-disabled peers yielded excellent results. This is the predominant pedagogy taught by our Exceptional Education faculty today.

As the reform movements in education throughout the twentieth century introduced ideas of equality, child-centered learning, assessment of learner achievement as a measure of good teaching, and other revolutionary ideas such as inquiry-based practice, educating the whole person, and assuring educational opportunities for all persons, so did the greater emphasis on preparing teachers to serve the children of the public, not just those of the elite.

This abridged version of events that affected teacher education throughout the twentieth century mirrors the incredible history of the country from WWI’s post-industrial explosion to the turbulent 1960s, when the civil rights movement and the women’s rights movement dominated the political scene and schools became the proving ground for integration and Title IX enforcement of equality of opportunity. Segregation in schools went to the Supreme Court in 1954 with  Brown vs. Board of Education.  Following this monumental decision, schools began the slow process of desegregating schools, a process that, sadly, is still not yet achieved.

As schools became more and more essential to the post-industrial economy and the promotion of human rights for all, teaching became more and more regulated. By the end of the twentieth century, licensing requirements had stiffened considerably in public education, and salary and advancement often depended on the earning of advanced degrees and professional development in school-based settings.

In the second half of the twentieth century, the Sputnik generation’s worship of science gave rise to similarities in terminology between the preparation of teachers and the preparation of doctors. “Lab schools” and quantitative research using experimental and quasi-experimental designs to test reading and math programs and other curricular innovations were reminiscent of the experimental designs used in medical research. Student teaching was considered an “internship,” akin to the stages of practice doctors followed. Such terminology and parallels to medicine, however, fell out of vogue with a general disenchantment with science and positivism in the latter decades of the twentieth century.  Interestingly, these parallels have resurfaced today as we refer to our model of educating teachers in “clinically rich settings.” We have even returned to “residency” programs, where teacher candidates are prepared entirely in the schools where they will eventually teach.

As schools became more and more essential to the post-industrial economy and the promotion of human rights for all, teaching became more and more regulated. By the end of the twentieth century, licensing requirements had stiffened considerably in public education, and salary and advancement often depended on the earning of advanced degrees and professional development in school-based settings. Even today, all programs in colleges and universities that prepare teachers must follow extensive and detailed guidelines established by the New York State Education Department that determine what must be included in such programs. Additions such as teaching to students with disabilities and teaching to English language learners are requirements that reflect the changing needs of classrooms.

As the world changed, so did the preparation of teachers. The assimilation of the normal school into colleges and universities marked the evolution of teaching as a profession, a steady recognition over the last 150 years that has allowed the teacher as scientist to explore how teaching and learning work in tandem and to suggest that pedagogy is dynamic and interactive with sociopolitical forces and that schools play a critical role in the democratic promotion of social justice.

Campus Schools and Alternative Classroom Organization During the ’60s and ’70s, new concepts of schooling such as multigrade classrooms and open-concept spaces, where students followed their own curiosity through project-based learning, were played out right here at Buffalo State in what was then the College Learning Lab (Campus School). Campus School shared many of the college’s resources and served as the clinical site for the preparation of teachers. School administration and teachers held joint appointments at the college and in the lab. Classrooms were visible through one-way glass, where teacher candidates could observe and review what they saw with the lab school teacher afterward. Participation in these classrooms was a requirement during the junior year. (I myself did my junior participation in a 5/6 open class there.)

However, as the SUNY colleges became less and less supported by New York State budgetary allocations, the Campus School was soon too expensive to staff and to maintain. The baby boom was over, and the population was shrinking. Job opportunities for the graduates of Buffalo State were rare. A 10-year cycle of teacher shortage and teacher over-supply continues to be a trend.

Standards and Norms In the 1980s, education in America once again turned to “norming,” but now the norms were not measuring one child against others; rather, each child was assessed as he or she approached the “national standards” that theoretically defined the knowledge and skills necessary for all to achieve.  

Fearing America’s loss of stature as the technologically superior leader of the free world, A Nation at Risk , published in 1983, cast a dark shadow over teaching and schools for many years to come until its premises were largely disrupted. During the time after this report, however, being a teacher was not a popular career choice, and teaching as a profession was called into question.

By 1998, almost every state had defined or implemented academic standards for math and reading. Principals and teachers were judged; students were promoted or retained, and legislation was passed so that high school students would graduate or be denied a diploma based on whether or not they had met the standards, usually as measured by a criterion-referenced test.

In the 1980s, education in America once again turned to “norming,” but now the norms were not measuring one child against others; rather, each child was assessed as he or she approached the “national standards” that theoretically defined the knowledge and skills necessary for all to achieve.

The pressure to teach to a standards-based curriculum, to test all students in an effort to ensure equal education for all, led to some famous named policies of presidents and secretaries of education in the later twentieth century. National panels and political pundits returned to the roots of the “normal school” movement, urging colleges of teacher education to acquaint teacher candidates with the national educational standards known as Goals 2000 . The George H. W. Bush administration kicked off an education summit with the purpose of “righting the ship” since the shock of A Nation at Risk .  Standards-based curriculum became a “teacher proof” system of ensuring that all children—no matter what their socioeconomic privilege—would be taught the same material.  This “curriculum first” focus for school planning persisted through the Clinton administration with the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), the George W. Bush administration with No Child Left Behind , and the Obama administration with Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) and the accompanying federal funding called Race to the Top .  Such packaged standards-based curriculum movements once again turned the public eye to a need to conform, achieve, and compete.

For teachers, the most important development from this pressure to teach to the standards was the controversial Common Core , a nationalized curriculum based on standards of education that were designed to give all students common experiences within a carefully constructed framework that would transcend race, gender, economics, region, and aptitude. So focused were the materials published on the Common Core that schools began to issue scripted materials to their teachers to ensure the same language was used in every classroom. Teacher autonomy was suppressed, and time for language arts and mathematics began to eclipse the study of science, social studies, art, music.

Now What? That takes us almost to today’s schools, where teachers are still accountable for helping student achieve the Common Core standards or more currently the National Standards. Enter the COVID pandemic. Full stop.

Curriculum, testing, conformity, and standards are out the window. The American parent can now “see into” the classroom and the teacher can likewise “see into” the American home. Two-dimensional, computer-assisted instruction replaced the dynamic interactive classroom where learning is socially constructed and facilitated by teachers who are skilled at classroom management, social-emotional learning, and project-based group work. Teacher candidates must now rely on their status as digital natives to engage and even entertain their students who now come to them as a collective of individuals framed on a computer screen rather than in a classroom of active bodies who engage with each other in myriad ways. Last year’s pedagogical challenges involved mastery of the 20-minute attention span, the teacher as entertainer added to the teacher as facilitator . Many of our teacher candidates learned more about themselves than they did about their students. Yet, predominately, stories of creativity, extraordinary uses of technology, and old-fashioned persistence and ingenuity were the new “norm” for the old Buffalo State Normal School.

There has been nothing “normal” about these last two years as the world learns to cope with a silent enemy. There will be no post-war recovery, no post-industrial reforms, no equity of opportunity in schools around the world. But there will be teaching. And there will be learning. And the Buffalo State Normal School will continue to prepare the highest quality practitioners whose bags of tricks grow ever-more flexible, driven by a world where all that is known doubles in just a few days. Pedagogy is still a science. Teaching is a science, but it is also a craft practiced by master craftsmen and women and learned by apprentices.

Teaching has been called the noblest profession. From our earliest roots as the Buffalo Normal School to the current challenges of post-COVID America, we have never changed our dedication to that conviction.

Ultimately, however, as even the earliest teacher educators knew, the art of teaching is that ephemeral quality that we cannot teach, but which we know when we see it at work, that makes the great teacher excel far beyond the competent teacher.

Teaching has been called the noblest profession. From our earliest roots as the Buffalo Normal School to the current challenges of post-COVID America, we have never changed our dedication to that conviction. We are still doing what the words of Nobel laureate Malala Yousafzai encourage us to do: “One child, one teacher, one book, one pen can change the world.” That was and always will be the mission of Buffalo State, “the Teachers College.”

This article was contributed as part of a guest author series observing the 150th anniversary celebration of Buffalo State College. Campus authors who are interested in submitting articles or story ideas pertaining to the sesquicentennial are encouraged to contact the editor .

Wendy Paterson, ’75, ’76, Ph.D., dean of the School of Education, is an internationally recognized scholar in the areas of early literacy and reading, developmental and educational technology, and single parenting. She received the SUNY Chancellor’s Award for Excellence in Professional Service in 1996.

Read other stories in the 150th anniversary guest author series:

Pomp, Pageantry Seize the Day in 1869 Normal School Cornerstone Laying

Transforming Lives for 150 Years: Memoir of a 1914 Graduate

Buffalo Normal School Held Opening Ceremony 150 Years Ago Today

New Buffalo Normal School Replaces Outgrown Original

The Grover Cleveland–E. H. Butler Letters at Buffalo State

Test Your College Knowledge with a Buffalo State Crossword Puzzle

Photo: Staff of the Record student newspaper, 1913 .

References:

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/education-reforms/

https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_school

https://britannica.com/topic/normal-school

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1216495.pdf

https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Normal_school

http://reformmovements1800s.weebly.com/education.html

http://www.leaderinme.org/blog/history-of-education-the-united-states-in-a-nutshell/

The American Education System: Characteristics and Role

In this essay, we will try to analyse the educational model of America and how this essential social institution has performed numerous manifest as well as latent functions in the society.

The word “school” is derived from an ancient Greek word meaning “leisure”. Even though the link between these two words may seem outrageously improbable, it is important to know that in preindustrial societies, going to school was reserved for the children of the privileged families of the society. Even today, there exists many societies across the globe, where only a handful of people are educated. Even in India, where, according to the Census of 2011, ‘54.6% of the population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities’, schooling is not considered a contributing factor to increasing a person’s productivity, and is considered wasteful (particularly in the economic sense). In such cases, children are not sent to school and made to participate in the labour force. They acquire knowledge and skills through informal socialization processes .

What is Education?

Durkheim conceived of education as “the socialisation of the younger generation”. He further stated that it is “a continuous effort to impose on the child ways of seeing, feeling, and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously”. Education is indeed synonymous to socialisation for it is the agent of cultural transmission and the most remarkable feature of education in modern society is that it has become an institutionalised, formal activity.

Education in America

The education department in the USA follows the K-12 system, which stands for ‘Kindergarten to 12 th ’ and is further broken into elementary(K-5), middle school (Grades 6-8) and high school or secondary education (Grades 9-12). As one completes the K-12 system, he/she can proceed for their undergraduate course (for around 4 years), followed by postgraduation (thesis to be written in two years), and, finally, can enter the doctoral program (lasts for a minimum of 3-4 years).

The primary objective of education in America is ‘to ensure equality of access and of opportunity for all boys and girls, including minority groups and the disabled’.

Characteristics of American Education

America is committed to mass education and formal education is not only freely available but is also compulsory. Education is financed by taxes levied on each and every citizen of the country.

Education is believed to be the remedy for all social evils in the society. In America, schools are considered to be a positive factor in changing the attitude and behaviour of individuals. Initially, education was used as a tool to ‘Americanise’ immigrants and ‘civilise’ Native Americans, but its realm has been expanded to ameliorate and solve, for instance, criminal activities and drug addiction.

A Functionalist Analysis of Education: The Role of Education in the American Society

‘Culture consists of all the shared products of human society’ and culture is an integral part of our lives because it frees us from the fetters of dependence on the ‘slow, random, accidental process of physical evolution by offering us a new, purposeful, efficient means of adapting to changing conditions.’ Education plays an important role in transmitting the culture of the society to the young, because without cultural transmission it would be difficult for the society to survive. Schools provide the children with the knowledge, skills, and values that are considered by the society to be important. A child learns the history, geography, and politics of the country alongside numerous values and norms that are venerated in the society. However, it must be noted that this function of education is a traditional one as it leads to indoctrination of existing culture (even if some elements of it may be harmful for the society at large) and does not lead to innovation but rather tends to reinforce existing ethnocentrism.

Modern industrial societies are marked by a heterogeneous population, that is, people who belong to diverse racial, religious, class, and ethnic backgrounds. The population of the United State is also very diverse. People have immigrated to the United States from all over the world and in this context, education plays a vital role in integrating the young members of various cultures into the common culture, encouraging the development of a homogeneous society whose members hold shared values. Education is a contributing factor to the ‘melting-pot’ process. When immigrant children enter schools, very few of them can speak English or are familiar with the American way of life, but after completing their schooling, they are able to find their place in mainstream American society.

Like discussed earlier, indoctrination of existing cultural values through transmission via education sometimes hinder innovation and promote ethnocentrism. This is why, the element of innovation has been introduced to the American education system which aids in augmenting the already existing cultural heritage. Innovation comes about when the experience of education stimulates intellectual curiosity and develops the critical acumen of the students. Participation in extensive research- both basic and applied- in every discipline also promotes innovation. Certain cultural elements detrimental to the development of society has been eradicated, the good ones have been enhanced and further transmitted ensuring its continuity.

Sawhill, I (2006). Opportunity in America: The Role of Education

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What Changes to the U.S. Education System Are Needed to Support Long-Term Success for All Americans?

With the pandemic deepening inequities that threaten students’ prospects, the vice president of the Corporation’s National Program provides a vision for transforming our education system from one characterized by uneven and unjust results to one that puts all students on a path to bright futures 

At no point in our nation’s history have we asked so much of our education system as we do today. We ask that our primary and secondary schools prepare all students, regardless of background, for a lifetime of learning. We ask that teachers guide every child toward deeper understanding while simultaneously attending to their social-emotional development. And we ask that our institutions of higher learning serve students with a far broader range of life circumstances than ever before.

We ask these things of education because the future we aspire to requires it. The nature of work and civic participation is evolving at an unprecedented rate. Advances in automation, artificial intelligence, and social media are driving rapid changes in how we interact with each other and what skills hold value. In the world our children will inherit, their ability to adapt, think critically, and work effectively with others will be essential for both their own success and the well-being of society.

At Carnegie Corporation of New York, we focus on supporting people who are in a position to meet this challenge. That includes the full spectrum of educators, administrators, family members, and others who shape young people’s learning experiences as they progress toward and into adulthood. Our mission is to empower all students with the tools, systems, knowledge, and mindsets to prepare them to fully participate in the global economy and in a robust democracy.

All of our work is geared toward transforming student learning. The knowledge, skills, and dispositions required for success today call for a vastly different set of learning experiences than may have sufficed in the past. Students must play a more active role in their own learning, and that learning must encompass more than subject-matter knowledge. Preparing all children for success requires greater attention to inclusiveness in the classroom, differentiation in teaching and learning, and universal high expectations.

This transformation needs to happen in higher education as well. A high school education is no longer enough to ensure financial security. We need more high-quality postsecondary options, better guidance for students as they transition beyond high school, and sufficient supports to enable all students to complete their postsecondary programs. Preparing students for lifelong success requires stronger connections between K–12, higher education, and work.

The need for such transformation has become all the more urgent in the face of COVID-19. As with past economic crises, the downturn resulting from the pandemic is likely to accelerate the erosion of opportunities for low-skilled workers with only a high school education. Investments in innovative learning models and student supports are critical to preventing further inequities in learning outcomes. 

An Urgent Call for Advancing Equity 

The 2020–21 school year may prove to be the most consequential in American history. With unfathomable speed, COVID-19 has forced more change in how schools operate than in the previous half century.

What is most concerning in all of this is the impact on the most underserved and historically marginalized in our society: low-income children and students of color. Even before the current crisis, the future prospects of a young person today looked very different depending on the color of her skin and the zip code in which she grew up, but the pandemic exposed and exacerbated long-standing racial and economic inequities. And the same families who are faring worst in terms of disrupted schooling are bearing the brunt of the economic downturn and disproportionately getting sick, being hospitalized, and dying.

Our mission is to empower all students with the tools, systems, knowledge, and mindsets to prepare them to fully participate in the global economy and in a robust democracy.

Every organization that is committed to educational improvement needs to ask itself what it can do differently to further advance the cause of educational equity during this continuing crisis so that we can make lasting improvements. As we know from past experience, if the goal of equity is not kept front and center, those who are already behind through no fault of their own will benefit the least. If ever there were a time to heed this caution, it is now.

We hope that our nation will approach education with a new sense of purpose and a shared commitment to ensuring that our schools truly work for every child. Whether or not that happens will depend on our resolve and our actions in the coming months. We have the proof points and know-how to transform learning, bolster instruction, and meet the needs of our most disadvantaged students. What has changed is the urgency for doing so at scale.

Our starting place must be a vision of equal opportunity, and from there we must create the conditions that can actually ensure it — irrespective of how different they may look from the ones we now have. We need to reimagine the systems that shape student learning and put the communities whose circumstances we most need to elevate at the center of that process. We need to recognize that we will not improve student outcomes without building the capacity of the adults who work with them, supporting them with high-quality resources and meaningful opportunities for collaboration and professional growth. We need to promote stronger connections between K–12, higher education, and employment so that all students are prepared for lifelong success.

The pandemic has deepened inequities that threaten students’ prospects. But if we seize this moment and learn from it, if we marshal the necessary resources, we have the potential to transform our education system from one characterized by uneven and unjust results to one that puts all students on a path to bright futures.

In a pandemic-induced moment when the American education system has been blown into 25 million homes across the country, where do we go from here?

We Must Learn to Act in New Ways

These are not controversial ideas. In fact, they constitute the general consensus about where American education needs to go. But they also represent a tall order for the people who influence the system. Practically everyone who plays a part in education must learn to act in new ways.

That we have made progress in such areas as high school completion, college-going rates, and the adoption of college- and career-ready standards is a testament to the commitment of those working in the field. But it will take more than commitment to achieve the changes in student learning that our times demand. We can’t expect individuals to figure out what they need to do on their own, nor should we be surprised if they struggle to do so when working in institutional structures designed to produce different outcomes. The transformation we seek calls for much greater coordination and a broader set of allies than would suffice for more incremental changes.

Our starting place must be a vision of equal opportunity, and from there we must create the conditions that can actually ensure it — irrespective of how different they may look from the ones we now have.

Our best hope for achieving equity and the transformation of student learning is to enhance adults’ ability to contribute to that learning. That means building their capacity while supporting their authentic engagement in promoting a high-quality education for every child. It also means ensuring that people operate within systems that are optimized to support their effectiveness and that a growing body of knowledge informs their efforts.

These notions comprise our overarching strategy for promoting the systems change needed to transform student learning experiences on a large scale. We seek to enhance adult capacity and stakeholder engagement in the service of ensuring that all students are prepared to meet the demands of the 21st century. We also support knowledge development and organizational improvement to the extent that investments in these areas enhance adult capacity, stakeholder engagement, and student experiences.

Five Ways We Invest in the Future of Students

These views on how best to promote systems change in education guide our philanthropic work. The strategic areas of change we focus on are major themes throughout our five investment portfolios. Although they are managed separately and support different types of initiatives, each seeks to address its area of focus from multiple angles. A single portfolio may include grants that build adult capacity, enhance stakeholder engagement, and generate new knowledge.

New Designs to Advance Learning

Preparing all students for success requires that we fundamentally reimagine our nation’s schools and classrooms. Our public education system needs to catch up with how the world is evolving and with what we’ve come to understand about how people learn. That means attending to a broader diversity of learning styles and bringing what happens in school into greater alignment with what happens in the worlds of work and civic life. We make investments to increase the number of innovative learning models that support personalized experiences, academic mastery, and positive youth development. We also make investments that build the capacity of districts and intermediaries to improve learning experiences for all students as well as grants to investigate relevant issues of policy and practice.

Pathways to Postsecondary Success

Lifelong success in the United States has never been more dependent on educational attainment than it is today. Completing some education beyond the 12th grade has virtually become a necessity for financial security and meaningful work. But for that possibility to exist for everyone, we need to address the historical barriers that keep many students from pursuing and completing a postsecondary program, and we must strengthen the options available to all students for education after high school. Through our investments, we seek to increase the number of young people able to access and complete a postsecondary program, with a major focus on removing historical barriers for students who are first-generation college-goers, low-income, or from underrepresented groups. We also look to expand the range of high-quality postsecondary options and to strengthen alignment between K–12, higher education, and the world of work.

Leadership and Teaching to Advance Learning

At its core, learning is about the interplay between teachers, students, and content. How teachers and students engage with each other and with their curriculum plays a predominant role in determining what students learn and how well they learn it. That’s not to say that factors outside of school don’t also greatly impact student learning. But the research is clear that among the factors a school might control, nothing outweighs the teaching that students experience. We focus on supporting educators in implementing rigorous college- and career-ready standards in math, science, and English language arts. We make investments to increase the supply of and demand for high-quality curricular materials and professional learning experiences for teachers and administrators.

Public Understanding

As central as they are to the education process, school professionals are hardly the only people with a critical role to play in student learning. Students spend far more time with family and other community members than they do at school. And numerous stakeholders outside of the education system have the potential to strengthen and shape what happens within it. The success of our nation’s schools depends on far more individuals than are employed by them. 

We invest in efforts to engage families and other stakeholders as active partners in supporting equitable access to high-quality student learning. We also support media organizations and policy research groups in building awareness about key issues related to educational equity and improvement.

Integration, Learning, and Innovation

Those of us who work for change in education need a new set of habits to achieve our vision of 21st-century learning. It will take more than a factory-model mindset to transform our education system into one that prepares all learners for an increasingly complex world. We must approach this task with flexibility, empathy for the people involved, and an understanding of how to learn from what’s working and what’s not. We work to reduce the fragmentation, inefficiencies, and missteps that often result when educational improvement strategies are pursued in isolation and without an understanding of the contexts in which they are implemented. Through grants and other activities, we build the capacity of people working in educational organizations to change how they work by emphasizing systems and design thinking, iteration, and knowledge sharing within and across organizations.

Two recent surveys by Carnegie Corporation of New York and Gallup offer insights into how our education system can better help all Americans navigate job and career choices

Join Us in This Ambitious Endeavor

Our approach of supporting multiple stakeholders by pulling multiple levers is informed by our deep understanding of the system we’re trying to move. American education is a massive, diverse, and highly decentralized enterprise. There is no mechanism by which we might affect more than superficial change in many thousands of communities. The type of change that is needed cannot come from compliance alone. It requires that everyone grapple with new ideas.

We know from our history of promoting large-scale improvements in American education that advancements won’t happen overnight or as the result of one kind of initiative. Our vision for 21st-century education will require more than quick wins and isolated successes. Innovation is essential, and a major thrust of our work involves the incubation and dissemination of new models, resources, and exemplars. But we must also learn to move forward with the empathy, flexibility, and systems thinking needed to support people in making the transition. Novel solutions only help if they can be successfully implemented in different contexts.

Only a sustained and concerted effort will shift the center of gravity of a social enterprise that involves millions of adults and many tens of millions of young people. The challenge of philanthropy is to effect widespread social change with limited resources and without formal authority. This takes more than grantmaking. At the Corporation, we convene, communicate, and form coalitions. We provide thought leadership, issue challenges, and launch new initiatives. Through these multifaceted activities, we maximize our ability to forge, share, and put into practice powerful new ideas that build a foundation for more substantial changes in the future.

We encourage everyone who plays a role in education to join us in this work. Our strategy represents more than our priorities as a grantmaker. It conveys our strong beliefs about how to get American education to where it needs to be. The more organizations and individuals we have supporting those who are working to provide students with what they need, the more likely we are to succeed in this ambitious endeavor. 

LaVerne Evans Srinivasan is the vice president of Carnegie Corporation of New York’s National Program and the program director for Education.

TOP: Due to the COVID-19 outbreak, a lower-school substitute teacher works from her home in Arlington, Virginia, on April 1, 2020. Her role in the school changed significantly due to the pandemic. Whereas she previously worked part-time to support teachers when they needed to be absent from the classroom, amid COVID-19 she now helps teachers to build skills with new digital platforms so they can continue to teach in the best way for their students and their families. (Credit: Olivier Douliery/AFP via Getty Images)

Mercedes-Benz, a top employer in the region, is part of a network involving more than 230 industry, government, and education representatives that are improving school-to-local employment paths for students

Women have been largely sidelined from negotiations, even as they bear the brunt of violence. Where are conditions for women worsening, improving, or static?

The Complete Guide to Understanding the American Education System

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The American education system offers a wide array of choices for students .  Here is everything you need to know to formulate your education plan.

The American education system may seem complex to students . But it offers a wide array of choices and fields once you understand how it works. There are a variety of schools, locations, and programs to choose from. And it can be overwhelming to navigate at first.

Whether you’re just beginning your school search. Or trying to familiarize yourself with how the American education system works. This guide will answer all of your questions.

Here, we will give you the tools you need to narrow down the plethora of choices. And develop your personal education plan.

American Educational Structure

Before any student can apply for higher education. They must first complete primary and secondary schooling. Beginning around age six, children start attending school for a total of 12 years.  In the U.S., these years are commonly called the first through twelfth grades.

The first five years are also referred to as “elementary school.” And serve as the primary school education.  Secondary schooling is typically broken into two programs. “Middle school” or “junior high school,” and then “high school.”

After a student has completed all twelve years. They graduate 12th grade and earn their diploma.  At this time, they may then apply for admittance into a college, university, or technical program.

How Does the U.S. Grading System Work?

Marks are given that are reflected on your academic transcripts during your schooling. And these will be used when you apply for higher education.  These marks come in two formats. Both your grades which are in a letter format and your grade point average (GPA) which is a number.

American School Year

The academic year in the U.S. for primary education traditionally begins in either August or September. And concludes in May or June.  This will vary based on the location within the country where you elect to attend school.

In college and university programs. New students can begin during any semester throughout the year. And summer courses are available.  However, most students choose to start their college experience in a fall semester. And may also take summer off from classes to maintain a similar structure to that of primary education.

Higher Education Degree Levels

Undergraduate.

If you have been accepted into a university or college. And are currently taking classes. But have not yet earned your bachelor’s degree, you are an undergraduate .   Students in this category can expect it to take four years to receive their bachelor’s degree. And may attend a community college or university to obtain their education.

In your first two years. You’ll take courses that pertain to your core curriculum. And meet prerequisite requirements for your degree.  These may include things like history, literature, science, art, or social sciences. And will give you a strong foundation and general knowledge base. Before you delve into courses specific to your degree.

It’s possible to attend a community college during your first two years of schooling. To get your core classes completed. And earn your Associate of Arts (AA) degree.  Many students choose to do this. And then transfer to a larger college or university to earn their four-year degree in the major of their choice.

When you pick a major. You are selecting a specific field where your degree and expertise will be focused.

Students are typically required to choose a major at the beginning of their third year of college. But can change it at any time.  However, switching majors may result in the need to take additional courses. And could extend the amount of time needed to complete the bachelor’s degree.

Graduate Studying for Master’s

After obtaining your four-year degree. Then you have an option to extend your schooling to pursue a Master’s Degree. To further specialize in your field of study.

If you want to have a career with a high-level position in healthcare, education, science, or engineering, for example. You may need a Master’s Degree to be competitive.  Also, a Master’s Degree could be a step. Towards an ultimate goal of achieving a Doctorate in a specific field.

Graduate programs are traditionally a division of a college or university. And you will need to apply and take a graduate record examination  (GRE) to be accepted.  If you want to attain certain types of master’s degrees. Like one in law or medicine, you may also need to take specialized tests like the LSAT  or MCAT .

Master’s programs are designed to take between one and two years to complete. And you will need to submit a research paper called your master’s thesis to pass.

Graduate Studying for a Doctorate

If you have attained your master’s degree. This may have been one step towards completing your education at a doctorate (Ph.D.) level.

Although students who wish to enter the medical field as doctors will need to attain a doctorate. This degree isn’t limited only to aspiring surgeons.  Doctoral programs are available in a variety of areas. And those who achieve their Ph.D. are considered experts. For reaching the highest level of education and expertise in their arena.

These programs can take between three and six years to complete dependent on a variety of factors.

For most, the first two years are classroom based. Where you take courses that give you a foundation of knowledge for what’s to come.  Next, students will write a thesis or dissertation.  This can take up to a year as it involves in-depth research. So that you can create and publish a paper on a topic that hasn’t previously been covered.

Common Characteristics of the American Education System

Classroom environment.

In the U.S., class sizes range from large lecture halls that house hundreds of students at major universities. Then down to smaller classes and breakout groups with as few as a dozen participants at private schools.  Regardless of size, expect that the atmosphere will be dynamic. And encourage participation and feedback from the students.

Teachers and professors are the leaders in the classroom. And will give lectures, assign readings and homework each week.  Students are expected to complete all of their coursework and stay up-to-date on homework and reading assignments. So that you can actively participate in class discussions and activities.

Depending on your degree. You may also need to complete lab work and be hands-on in the classroom environment.

Grades are calculated based on several factors, but in a college or university setting testing is the most common way.  Common criteria include:

• Class Attendance and Participation:   This is usually outlined by the teacher or professor at the beginning of each semester. And may vary depending on the course and class size.
• Mid-Term Exam :  This is a test administered halfway through the semester. To check that you are learning and retaining the material covered thus far.
• Research or Term Paper :  Some courses require you to write one or more paper on an assigned topic. To show understanding and mastery of the subject.  Students are graded on both their knowledge and their writing ability.
• Periodic Tests and Quizzes :   Also called a “pop quiz.” Some teachers like to give unannounced tests. To check that you’ve been doing assigned reading and homework. That will have a small factor into your overall grade.
• Final Exam :  At the conclusion of the course, you will take a final test. That covers all of the material learned in the semester.

Higher Education Options

State schools.

A state college or university is a school that’s run and supported by the state it resides in.  Every one of the 50 U.S. states has at least one university, and some also operate several state colleges.

Although these are considered public schools, many are still very competitive. And only admit a fraction of the students who apply each year.  You can often identify a state school. Because they will use the name of the area or the word state in their title. Like “ Florida State University ” or the University of Missouri .

Private Schools

As their name suggests, private schools are not run by the government but are instead funded by independent entities.  They often have a smaller student body and significantly higher tuitions than a state school.

Any university with a religious affiliation is a private school. And despite their roots, almost all welcome students of all religions.  That said, some prefer student’s whose beliefs align more closely with their own. And will have questions on their applications and during interviews to ensure they find a good match.

Community College

Community colleges offer two types of two-year Associate Degree programs.

There is an academic transfer option. Whereby you can take the courses necessary to earn an associate of arts or sciences. And then transfer those course credits to a four-year university. Where you will select your major and finish your degree.  It’s important that you take transferable courses if you intend to use them at a state or private school.

You can also go to community college. And follow a degree track designed to get you into the workforce after completion.  These courses are sometimes non-transferable. But the goal of the program is to help you secure employment with job-specific skills upon graduation.

Technical School

If you want to go into a field that requires hands-on training. Like becoming a hair stylist or auto mechanic. You’ll need to attend a technical school.  These programs vary in length. But when you complete them, you will be qualified to test and get licensed in your desired profession.

Ted Johler talks College Planning

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History of the American education system

There is now—and has always been—a direct correlation between education and wealth in the United States. In the beginning, even basic education was reserved for the children of the rich, and college was a finishing school for the next generation of the aristocracy. Over time, the culture changed and education became something that was recommended, then eventually required, for all children. COVID-19 widened student achievement gaps largely along economic lines, and stands as a searing reminder of educational disparities still pervasive among American students. Today, the 15% of students who don't graduate high school likely fall into the lowest-earning demographic in American society, with median weekly wages of $592, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Using sources like news reports, government data, and historical records, Stacker developed a list of 50 moments that helped to define the history of American education. It is, of course, an incomplete list. Volumes have been written just about individual Supreme Court cases that redefined the American classroom. What follows, however, is a chronology of the events that connect colonial Puritan homeschooling to online homeschooling in the age of the coronavirus.

Since knowledge is power, education has always been a source of controversy. The storylines of race, gender, economics, religion, culture, geography, and politics drove and were driven by the history of education. Along the way, generations of children learned their ABCs and times tables from teachers they would remember for the rest of their lives.

As of January 2019, there were 130,930 K-12 schools in the United States . The total includes 91,276 public schools, 32,461 private schools, and 7,193 charter schools. Nearly 51 million children get their education at those schools and another 1.69 million were being homeschooled—a number that likely climbed dramatically amid the pandemic when, even a schools reopened, many parents and guardians opted to keep their children learning from home.

Keep reading to learn 50 major moments in the history of the American education system.

1635: The first school opens in America’s education capital

On April 23, 1635, the Town of Boston opened the Boston Latin School for the sons of the ruling class. It is the oldest school in America as well as the country's first public school. Nearby Harvard University became America’s first and oldest school of higher education the very next year.

17th century: Homeschooling is the norm

Despite the creation of the Boston Latin School, the concept of classroom teaching remained a novel concept for years to come. In most of the Puritan Northeast during the 17th century, virtually all children who were educated learned to read and write at home.

17th century: The rich take interest in classrooms

In-classroom learning was a privilege reserved almost exclusively for boys from wealthy families of European ancestry as more schools were constructed in large, 17th-century towns. Virtually all girls and nonwhite boys were excluded. Only about 10% of colonial children went outside the home for any kind of organized education.

17th century: Religion is the basis of education

Instead of academic pursuits like math and science, early schools focused on concepts like morality, family, and community. The most important subject of all, and the one that guided the teaching of all others, was religion.

1690: A new book sets the standard

Benjamin Harris in 1690

published a beginning reader called the "New England Primer." It went on to sell more than 5 million copies and remained in use for more than 100 years into the 19th century. It combined the study of the alphabet with religious coursework, including Q&As in topics like sin and punishment.

1775: The Revolutionary War changes everything

Parents and teachers in colonial times used primers and readers that were mostly imported from England. That ended with the Revolution, when a new need for homegrown educational aids would eventually lead to the development of textbooks. The struggle to control the content and distribution of those textbooks would lead to epic political, social, and cultural battles that continue to this day.

1783: Webster emerges as a visionary

Lexicographer, teacher, author, and dictionary innovator Noah Webster also pioneered early textbooks. Published in 1783, Webster’s “A Grammatical Institute of the English Language” was used in schools for more than 100 years and sold 100 million copies. The most popular book of any kind of its era, it has never been out of print.

1799: The education color barrier is broken

Washington and Lee University in 1799 admitted a man named John Chavis, the first known instance of an African American attending college in the United States. In 1823, Alexander Lucius Twilight became the first person of color to earn a bachelor’s degree when he graduated from Middlebury College. Mary Jane Patterson became the first African American woman to earn a degree when she graduated from Oberlin College, a center of the abolitionist movement, in 1862.

1801: Blackboards grow up

Before 1801, students used individual slates for chalk writing and teachers didn’t have a way to present lessons to an entire classroom. That year, James Pillans, a geography teacher and headmaster at the Old High School in Edinburgh, Scotland, introduced the modern blackboard when he mounted a large piece of slate on a classroom wall. A West Point instructor named George Baron was the first to use a wall-mounted blackboard in the U.S.

1820s: A literary icon changes the pencil game

Graphite was discovered in the 1820s in New England, but it was of inferior quality and smudged too much to be good for writing. Enter naturalist  Henry David Thoreau , who—prior to becoming an author—worked in his family's pencil factory and was instrumental in developing a graphite hardening technique that served as the precursor to the classroom-staple #2 pencil.

1828: Dull pencils get some help

French mathematician Bernard Lassimonne in 1828 patented the world’s first pencil sharpener. The familiar hand-cranked classroom version debuted in 1896.

1828: Webster chronicles the language

Noah Webster steered and recorded the linguistic transition from British English to American English through his series of dictionaries. He spent decades compiling and defining 65,000 words while undoing the British aristocracy’s influence on spelling and pronunciation. When he was 70, Webster in 1828 published the “American Dictionary of the English Language,” the new classroom standard and one of the best selling books of all time.

1836: McGuffey publishes his readers

Like the “New England Primer” in the 17th century and Webster’s instructional masterpiece in the 18th century, the “McGuffey Readers” defined American education in the 19th century. Scots-Irish Ohio teacher William Holmes McGuffey’s readers sold more than 120 million copies between 1836 and 1960 and continued to sell tens of thousands of copies per year after that. Found in classrooms everywhere for more than 100 years, it was the #2 best-selling book in the 19th century after only the Bible and remains one of the best-selling books of all time.

1837: The ‘common school’ movement takes hold

In 1837, Horace Mann became the Massachusetts secretary of education and quickly began reforming the state’s inconsistent and scattershot approach to schooling. He advocated for publicly funded “common schools” led by professionally trained teachers that were open to all children through at least elementary school. Mann’s common schools would become the basis for the modern public school system.

1850s: The South falls behind

The antebellum South did not have an educational infrastructure anything like that which existed in the North. Much of that was cultural: Before the Civil War, the Southern tradition was for parents to educate their children, teach them morals and values, and prepare them to enter Southern society. Meanwhile, it was illegal to educate slaves. Southern leaders were additionally suspicious of primers and readers, the vast majority of which were published in the North and often encouraged students to question the institution of slavery.

1852: School becomes a must

Well into the 19th century, it was up to the parents to decide if their children went to school—if they happened to live near one that would take them. In 1852, Massachusetts became the first state to make formal schooling mandatory for all children, followed a year later by New York. In 1918, Mississippi became the last state in America to pass compulsory education laws.

1850s: School’s out for summer

There’s a common misconception that the traditional summer break comes from farmers relying on their children to chip in for the summer harvest. The reality is that rural and city kids went to school year-round until urban centers became so densely packed that summers were unbearably hot for the metropolitan elite. Summer recess policies began emerging only when rich urbanites demanded it so they could whisk their kids away to their country homes during the hottest months.

1857: Teachers get organized

Education associations from 10 states in 1857 formed the National Education Association (NEA) to “unite … to advance the dignity, respectability and usefulness of their calling.” The NEA was for men only until 1866, when women were taken on as members. In 1910—10 years before the 19th Amendment gave women the right to vote—the NEA elected a woman as its president.

1850s-60s: Curriculum controversy

School curriculums have always been a source of controversy—but never more so than in the subjects of science and history. That controversy ignited a raging blaze in the mid-19th century when Charles Darwin published “On the Origin of the Species” in 1859 and the American Civil War became the bloodiest conflict in history. From then on, geographic location largely determined whether students learned biblical creation or evolution in biology class and whether slavery was taught as the central cause of the Civil War instead of states’ rights and Northern aggression.

1867: Education grows up

President Andrew Johnson in 1867 established the first Department of Education, a predecessor to the Cabinet-level agency that emerged more than a century later. In response to concerns about the department's influence over local schools, it was scaled back to the smaller Office of Education the following year.

1896: School segregation begins

In 1896, “all men are created equal” lost out to “separate but equal” when the Supreme Court voted 8-1 to uphold Louisiana’s segregation laws in public transportation. The standard set by Plessy v. Ferguson soon spread beyond trains to public schools. Classrooms—like virtually every other social institution across the South—would soon be segregated by law instead of just by custom.

1900: The standardized test era begins

The earliest coordinated efforts to track student progress began in the late 1830s, but the widespread use of standardized tests first emerged at the turn of the 20th century. Between 1900-1932, 1,300 achievement tests hit the market, as well as nearly 100 vocational tests, high school tests, and standardized measurements of athletic ability.

1901: Colleges get picky

Around the same time, colleges began requiring applicants to take standardized tests as part of the admissions process. College entrance exams were first proposed a decade earlier in 1890, but in 1900, the College Entrance Examination Board was established and made it official.

1910: School structure changes

The one-room schoolhouse dominated education through the 19th century. There, a single instructor taught children in first through eighth grades in the same class at the same time. By 1910, that model had all but disappeared in favor of the six-three-three system, which called for six years of elementary school, three years of junior high, and three years of high school.

1916: Teachers join the working class

In 1916, the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) union was formed and joined the American Federation of Labor (AFL). It fought for things like higher wages and better working conditions, same as all the other unions that were springing up at the time, but also for academic and intellectual freedom. That freedom would be threatened time and again, most notably during the communist witch hunts of the McCarthy era.

1925: The Scopes ‘Monkey Trial’ highlights a division

In 1925, education found itself at the center of an epic battle between science and religion that dated back to the time of Charles Darwin and that still reverberates today. That year, a 24-year-old teacher named John Thomas Scopes was arrested, tried, and found guilty of breaking Tennessee law by teaching evolution in school. The subject of the Oscar-nominated movie “Inherit the Wind,” the “ Scopes Monkey Trial” was a media sensation and a pivotal moment for the ongoing fundamentalist-modernist rivalry in education.

1930s: Schools decline during the Depression

With millions of Americans out of work, property tax payments—and therefore school budgets—plummeted during the Depression. Schools fell into disrepair or were closed, teachers were fired or had their salaries reduced, and the children who did attend were often hungry and/or traumatized by difficult home lives. With legions of Americans on the road looking for work, a generation of schoolchildren became transients.

1944: G.I. Bill brings college to the masses

College was mostly reserved for the wealthy prior to World War II. But the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944—known as the G.I. Bill of Rights—allowed millions of returning servicemen to pursue an education instead of entering the workforce. At peak enrollment in 1947, veterans made up 49% of college admissions and by the time the original G.I. Bill ended in 1956, 7.8 million World War II veterans—nearly half of the 16 million who served—had participated in education or training.

1944: But not all the masses

Although the G.I. Bill’s language was race-neutral, most colleges and universities excluded nonwhites either by policy or by practice. It didn’t matter that the federal government would have paid the tuition for Black veterans who were never going to be admitted to a college in the first place. Just as redlining did for the G.I. Bill’s other great promise—guaranteed home loans backed by the VA—racial realities on the ground kept many Black vets from enjoying the benefits they earned through their service.

1954: School segregation meets its match

In 1954, NAACP lawyer Thurgood Marshall successfully argued that even in the rare instances where resources were distributed equally to Black and white schools, segregation itself taught inferiority to Black students and favored white children. In Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that separate is inherently unequal and declared segregation in American schools to be unconstitutional.

[Pictured: Nettie Hunt and her daughter Nickie sit on the steps of the U.S. Supreme Court after the high court's ruling in the Brown Vs. Board of Education case on May 1, 1954.]

1950s-60s: Education gets a boost

Two major events triggered large increases in education spending in the early 1960s . First, the 1957 launch of Sputnik and the ensuing space race fueled spending in science and technology education through the National Defense Education Act. Second, President Lyndon Johnson’s War on Poverty included major funding for poor students and schools at all levels across the country.

1950s-60s: Classrooms become battlegrounds

After Brown v. Board, schools became battlegrounds for integration and the Civil Rights movement in general. The National Guard had to quell school integration riots in Tennessee, paratroopers from the 101st Airborne had to shepherd the Little Rock Nine to their classes at Central High School in Arkansas, and trailblazing students like Ruby Bridges and James Meredith became icons.

[Pictured: Nine Black students attending Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, are shown leaving the school under the protection of National Guardsmen on Oct. 9, 1957.]

1962: Prayer in school ruled unconstitutional

The modern culture wars can largely be traced to the Engel v. Vitale Supreme Court decision in 1962. The court ruled 6-1 that the longstanding practice of schools adopting an official Christian prayer and encouraging or mandating its recitation by all violated the First Amendment’s religious establishment clause.

1962: The school voucher concept is born

In 1962, Nobel Prize-winning economist Milton Friedman published “Capitalism and Freedom,” which outlined his proposal to give poor children government vouchers that were redeemable for tuition at private schools. He argued that free-market forces would eliminate underperforming schools and allow good schools to thrive while giving needy families a choice. It was the beginning of the school voucher program, which remains highly controversial today.

1963: Education gets a second language

English-only education was the standard either by custom or policy throughout the first half of the 20th century. In 1963, Dade County, Florida, adopted the first bilingual education program to accommodate its enormous increase in Cuban immigrants. It became a model for the modern English as a Second Language (ESL) program.

1963: The trades get formal training

In 1963, President Johnson signed the Vocational Education Act. The legislation dramatically increased funding for non-college training and education in the trades, particularly for in-demand jobs. Later amendments would extend funding to specific demographics like women, minorities, and people with disabilities.

1965: New legislation expands access to college

President Johnson also signed the Higher Education Act of 1965, which expanded funding to colleges and universities. It was specifically designed to improve access to higher education for middle- and low-income families and to support smaller schools with fewer resources.

1971: School busing becomes a painful solution

By the 1970s, schools across the country were still segregated, often because neighborhoods were segregated and kids went to whichever school was closest to home. In 1971, the Supreme Court approved the strategy of busing children to more distant schools populated by students of the other race. It was a traumatic time that revealed widespread racism in major Northern cities, most notably Boston—the birthplace of school—where a series of ugly and violent protests erupted.

[Pictured: Accompanied by motorcycle-mounted police, school buses carrying Black students arrive at formerly all-white South Boston High School on Sept. 12, 1974, the first day of federal court-ordered busing.]

1972: Title IX squashes the athletic boys club

Title IX was a great achievement for civil rights, women’s rights, and equality in education. Part of the Education Amendments of 1972, Title IX banned discrimination based on sex and opened doors for girls and young women to participate in the same school athletic programs as their male counterparts.

1974: The charter school concept emerges

In 1974, UMass Amherst education professor Ray Budde proposed a model that allowed private schools to receive public funding if they entered into state-sanctioned charters. To this day, charter schools remain controversial, with their detractors saying the model robs public schools of funding and its supporters saying it offers academic freedom and choice. In practice, the performance of charter schools is wildly uneven since the framework varies so much from state to state.

1975: Special education has its moment

Although real efforts at increasing access to education emerged in the early 1960s, the modern special education movement began in 1975. That year, two pieces of landmark legislation launched a movement: The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Because of the legislation, millions of children with special needs who would have otherwise been shut out now attend the same public schools as their peers.

1976: For-profit colleges trade degrees for dollars

Although education had been for sale since colonial times, the for-profit college industry as it exists today started in 1976 with the founding of Phoenix University. Back then, just 0.2% of college students pursued degrees at for-profit institutions but today it’s more than 12%. Most for-profit colleges are run by large, publicly-traded corporations, many are not accredited, and shady operators often overcharge students for worthless degrees.

1977: The paddle remains

In 1977, the Supreme Court upheld the use of corporal punishment—spanking, paddling, or other punishments that inflict physical pain—in schools as constitutional. Despite the fact that corporal punishment has been banned in military training and as a criminal sentence, 19 states still allow teachers and administrators to physically beat students. Where it is allowed, it’s almost always used disproportionately on boys, disabled students, and especially on African American students.

1979: Education gets a Cabinet agency

By the end of the 1970s, the radical changes and growth in education had become too immense for the Office of Education to manage. In October 1979, the Department of Education Organization Act created the DoE as a Cabinet-level agency.

1980s: Big banks see dollar signs

Historically, higher education was mostly free thanks to philanthropic efforts and large grants distributed to the states. That began to change in the 1970s as the federal guarantee system was eroded, enrollment rates soared, and rising tuition costs forced prospective students to seek private loans to pay for college. Wall Street stepped in to fill that void, and today, tens of millions of students and graduates owe a combined $1.6 trillion in student loan debt.

1999: A tragedy changes mindsets

The 1999 Columbine High School massacre left 12 students and one teacher dead and gave rise to the era of school shootings. The tragedy brought the age-old and long-tolerated issue of bullying—like the kind suffered by the pair of outcasts who became murderers at Columbine—was brought to the forefront of the national discussion.

2000s: Schools get police officers

After Columbine, armed, uniformed police officers began replacing hall monitors as the issue of school security took center stage. As school resource officers became standard, stories emerged of children being hustled through the criminal justice system for childish misbehavior that might have warranted a trip to the principal’s office before. The term “school-to-prison pipeline” emerged and—just like corporal punishment—minority students became much more likely to be turned over to law enforcement for in-school infractions.

2002: No Child Left Behind defines a generation

No Child Left Behind was the name of President George W. Bush’s signature education legislation that governed K-12 education from 2002-2015. The law aimed to hold schools accountable for the performance of their students—the yardstick used to measure success, however, became a source of heated controversy. Its detractors believed that the law’s focus on standardized testing forced educators to “teach the test” instead of just teaching—or risk their school being penalized.

2018: Texas relents

Because of its sheer size and number of pupils, Texas gained an outsized influence on American education as it became a national hub of textbook publishing and distribution. The powerful and conservative Texas State Board of Education had enormous sway over what was included and excluded from those textbooks, with subjects like evolution and historical race relations causing controversy well into the 21st century. In 2018, Texas finally relented and amended its curriculum to acknowledge that slavery—not states’ rights—was the central cause of the Civil War.

2020: America revisits its Puritan roots

Change usually takes place slowly over time, but 2020 delivered some of the most immediate and drastic changes ever experienced in America's education system. From kindergarten to college, schools were thrown into turmoil, teachers learned how to be online educators, and administrations scrambled to come up with coherent policies. For moms and dads across the country, however, the coronavirus forced a return to the earliest Puritan schooling model—parents teaching their children at home.

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8 Students on What Should Change About the American Education System

This article was originally written for Fresh U by Saman Aamer . It has been given minor edits before re-posting.

Politicians are in the news constantly, and one popular topic of discussion is the education system in the United States. There are a lot of significant issues associated with education: Less than 50 percent of high school graduates cannot read or perform math problems to the level that is expected at that age, not enough women pursue careers in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) and 14 percent of schools are overcrowded due to exceeding capacity.

During conventions and debates, politicians often speak about how they believe the education system should be fixed. However, in order to make more effective change, students, rather than politicians, should be asked what they believe is wrong with the education system. They are the ones facing those problems firsthand, and learning about students opinions is far more useful for making decisions than relying on mere statistics. Below are eight students' answers to one simple question: What would you change about the American education system?

1. Misbah, Recent Graduate from Bluefield College

“More one on one attention for kids who need it. Especially those that come from broken/addict families. We see that a lot around here [in West Virginia]. They have trouble focusing. I think a lot of the time they just need someone to tell them that they believe in them and to work hard. Teachers can be super biased and judgmental ... There have been studies done in Scandinavian countries ... giving no or less homework is better [than stressing students out with more work]. Actually, [I] went to a presentation by a Finnish professor for it. It was great. They focused more on the child’s happiness, and they didn't have standardized testing. And I think they're number 1 or 2 in education in the world.”

2. Serena, Freshman at Temple University

“I think more emphasis on the creative fields like arts and humanities. Also, encourage good people to go into teaching [as a profession rather than only focusing on 'prestigious' careers]. And less standardized testing."

3. Anonymous, Junior at Bergenfield High School

“Make it more about actually learning and attaining information and not just about getting good grades, which causes a lot of kids to just use Google, copy or cheat.”

4. Zara, Freshman at Cornell University

“If it's less like a cutthroat environment that only allows a certain type of student to do well and instead more forgiving and reflective of all personalities/backgrounds/intelligences, kids will be less stressed, more determined and actually interested in what they're learning. The teachers I've had who made the class interesting [rather than systematic] and made grades and homework secondary to the education part have been the most rewarding. It's easier to compare statistics about how well an education system is based on test scores [and] acceptances ... but it should be ranked based on student happiness and success based on how they feel they have grown and what they've learned.”

5. Hanna, Freshman at St. Petersburg College

"I would change the amount we use technology. Such as in math class and state tests. As millennials, we are already on technology enough. [We stare] at a screen for hours, straining your eyes, becoming lazy [compared to] having an actual paper where you can write, underline important facts in a reading excerpt, and write notes on the side. Work out math problems. Which one would you choose? Also, expecting students to sit down in an actual physical classroom sitting on a computer and learn math from a 'tutor' which is just a cartoon drawing telling you how to complete a math problem while we have an actual teacher in the class is absurd."

6. Tess, Freshman at Marquette University

"What I would change about the education system is just basic and fair funding and funding for after school programs. I'm from the Chicago area and there's been a lot of controversy about the budget along with teacher strikes. Education is the solution to a lot of the city's problems because it promises hope for a better future for kids especially in areas with high gang activity. Keeping the kids in school keeps them off the streets and helps them have the tools to build a better future which would boost the economy in the long run."

7. Emaan, Sophomore at Montclair State University

“Learn relevant things so we can be adults.”

8. Britt, Freshman at Alma College

"If I could change anything about the way our education system is set up, I would group high school classes based on academic ability rather than by graduating year or age or any other factor. Generally, high school classrooms look like this: Most of the students are average, a few of them are below average, some are trouble makers and some are star students who are considered advanced. We group students [by graduating year] in hopes that the best students' behaviors will rub off on the rest of the class but they don't. Instead, the kids who can go through the material faster are held back and those who need to spend more time on topics are overwhelmed by the speed that the material is being covered in classrooms. If we started grouping students by ability, then the best students can move on to more challenging things while other students can go at a pace that is comfortable for them and get the help that they need. Grouping classes by ability will help teachers tailor the classes to the needs of the students without leaving some students behind or slowing down others."

Many of these students agree that the pressure to succeed in school is the most overwhelming issue. Each day we are reminded to succeed, with negative messages implying that failure in school correlates with failure in life. This pressure increases mental health issues in students, including anxiety and depression. Eight out of 10 college students have reported a mental health issue . Also, students feel the need to cheat to keep up with all their work, with over 85 percent of high school students participating in cheating. Students show disinterest in their classes, but a less systematic approach can draw students in. Less pressure can cause more interest in learning and reduce academic dishonesty.

For students to succeed in school, they need free time for activities meant solely for enjoyment. Students at peace are the ones who perform well. The students that Fresh U interviewed stated that they would like more emphasis on both practical and artistic classes. Practical courses include education on money management, legal forms, insurance and other skills needed in the "adult" world. Artistic courses are often deemphasized due to the instability of related careers. However, participation in arts increases intelligence and mental health. It benefits even those who do not plan on having artistic careers.

Nowadays, students are aware of what needs to be fixed in the education system to ensure their success. It is up to those in government positions to listen to these students.

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American Educational System » Useful Notes

The American Educational System has gone through some changes over the years. In the beginning, most schools in America were private institutions, split between church-sponsored schools for Bible study and training ministers, and colleges founded for the purposes of research and training professionals. Schooling was also not required, and a man could be considered "well-educated" just by doing what bookworms do, though modern presentations of old schoolhouses frequently omit this detail.

Even after a compulsory public school system was established, the standard for schooling was, for quite some time, the one room school house. Children of all ages were taught in the same classroom, with older students working on their lessons while younger students were taught, then younger students working on their lessons while the older students were taught. Some lessons were taught to the group as a whole. The rustic one-room schoolhouse with a steeple and bell is a common image in American media depicting the 1800s and early 1900s. Students did their work on blackboards and slates, teachers were usually female (outside of colleges and universities), and frequently students went home for lunch.

A dangerous idea escaped during this period of time. It became apparent to students that the Three R's (readin', 'ritin', and 'rithmetic; spelling was obviously not one of them) were more interesting and easier on the back than shoveling manure in the stables.

The various vacation periods in America come from this period. Spring and fall break not only coincide with certain Holidays, they also come during times when things are busy in farming communities. Fall break falls during harvest time, while spring break comes along when livestock are being born. Summer vacation covers several months of the growing season.

Which meant that being out of school meant shoveling manure in the stables and harvesting crops. School was looking better all the time.

The Modern Education System

In modern day America, there are many possible routes to take when going to school. One can go to public school, private school, charter school, or be home schooled.

• A public school (sometimes called a "traditional public school" and "district-run public school" to disambiguate them from charter schools. note  You'll also hear the term "government school" from either a conservative Strawman Political or someone trying to be transatlantically unambiguous "Public School" is the American term for a school run by the government and funded by taxes. This is what the British call a "state school", a term used only in a post-secondary context in the US. Every American youth has the privilege to receive taxpayer-supported education in a public school, and it is the default form of schooling for the vast majority (roughly 87% of American kids go to a public school of some kind).
• A vocational school (also known as a trade school , a technical school , or a career school ) may take the form of either a post-high school education track (some community colleges offer vocational programs) or a high school in its own right. Their main goal is to develop career skills in their students rather than general education, allowing them to enter the workforce right after graduation with a number of useful skills (auto repair, wood and metal shop, et cetera). Originally modeled after the German industrial education system, vocational schools got a bad rap during the 1950s and '60s due to the fact that the education systems in many Northern cities, in lieu of de jure segregation (which was often illegal in the North), often used them as dumping grounds for poor and minority students, leaving them underfunded, overcrowded and unable to perform their stated goals of training students for careers. Currently, however, they're being rediscovered by educators as an alternative to the skyrocketing costs of college education.
• A magnet school is a type of public school with a particular focus (e.g. science and technology, the arts, vocational education, foreign languages) that any student who lives in the district can opt to attend. Some magnet schools have competitive entrance processes, requiring an examination, an interview and/or (in the case of arts-focused schools) an audition. Magnet schools first appeared in the '60s as a way of encouraging desegregation in areas where racial lines are still fairly strong.
• Preparatory schools , or prep schools, are elite private schools designed to prepare teenagers (or students of all ages) for college life. They usually have an advanced curriculum, are very selective, and very expensive. Many also function as boarding schools . A preparatory school is probably what most people think of when they hear "private school." Prep school students are stereotyped as being rich snobs, often "old money" — this is where we get the slang term "preppy" from. These schools are essentially the American equivalent to U.K. "public schools."
• Catholic schools , or parochial schools, are schools that are run by the Roman Catholic Church. Due to the principle of separation of church and state, all religiously-aligned schools are privately operated. America's Catholic education system was established in the 19th century by Catholic families (especially within The Irish Diaspora ) who didn't want to send their kids to public schools, where they would face discrimination from the mostly WASP students and faculty. While religious instruction is mandatory (even for non-Catholic students), as are uniforms, Catholic schools otherwise have the same curriculum as public schools (biology classes teach evolution, sex education can be fairly comprehensive and not necessarily homophobic, and proselytizing is kept to a minimum). They also have a reputation for providing a very high-quality education for their price. In addition, the Church heavily subsidizes its schools, allowing them to have lower tuition and grant more scholarships. These two factors make them a popular choice not only among Catholic families, but among those parents who don't want to send their kids to public school but don't want to spend too much money or invest their time in homeschooling. The image of stern nuns beating students with yardsticks is a common stereotype of how Catholic schools are taught, but this hasn't been true (at least in the US) for decades . This is where the American version of the "schoolgirl fetish" has its roots.
• Other Christian schools aren't part of the Catholic education system and are run according to principles of other Christian denominations, often evangelical Protestant (although there are exceptions note  Episcopal schools, for example, are nearly identical to Catholic schools in their structure, in keeping with the stereotype of the Episcopal Church as "Catholicism lite". Other "mainline" Protestant denominations likewise run schools with enough marked similarities to the Catholic education system that discussing the differences would be a matter of splitting hairs. ). Unlike Catholic schools and their mainline Protestant counterparts note  as previously noted, the Episcopalians and other mainline Protestant denominations run schools which are more or less identical to Catholic schools in curriculum and quality, only wearing a slightly different theological hat , these Christian schools are often marketed as The Moral Substitute to the public education system. Not only is there mandatory religious instruction, but the curriculum can be heavily modified in accordance with the school's mission — creationism and Flood geology are part of science classes, sex education (if there even is any) is abstinence-only, and social studies classes teach that America was explicitly founded as a Christian nation. An excellent satire of Christian schools can be seen in the film Saved! . The actual academic quality of these schools varies from school to school — some of them aren't allowed to legally award diplomas, instead forcing their students to obtain GEDs , while others are quite academically rigorous and are considered on par with some of the better prep schools.
• Jewish day schools also exist, naturally in areas with a high enough Jewish population to support one. They bear some similarities to their Christian counterparts, but are free of much of the political baggage. Mostly they function like any secular private school (smaller classes, better teachers, up-to-date materials), just with periods set aside for prayer, Bible studies, and Hebrew lessons. This somehow manages to not conflict with their scientific curriculum at all, leaving their students very befuddled when they learn of the controversies listed above.
• A military school is a high school modeled after the USA's Federal Service Academies and Senior Military Colleges . They tend to be preparatory schools, and many (though not all) of them have Junior ROTC programs. The style of discipline they practice is in line with that of the military, which often causes them to be confused with...
• Behavior modification facilities (also known as wilderness schools and wilderness therapy ) are boarding schools that specialize in "troubled teens" who have been kicked out of every school they have gone to, and employ harsh (and often controversial) methods to bring them into line . They tend to be located in the wilderness, far from the nearest town, to deter potential runaways and create a feeling of isolation. Some go further and are located in foreign countries that have looser laws regarding child abuse, which kind of says all you need to know about how they go about with discipline . They are often confused with military schools — indeed, some behavior modification facilities call themselves such, even though, in many cases, their treatment of students would horrify a real-life military drill instructor. Most modern examples of the Boarding School of Horrors are set at these places. They're often seen in fiction used as a threat issued by parents to unruly children and teenagers ("we'll send you to wilderness school if you don't shape up").
• Homeschooling is when the parents teach their children themselves rather than sending them to a school. One of the most common reasons for homeschooling is the social or academic environment of whatever school the student went to beforehand — bullying, sexual harassment, drugs, the Popularity Food Chain , and bad teachers have led many a parent to pull their child out of school. Religion is also a motivation, with many Christian parents feeling that they have a divine mandate to educate their own children instead of passing the job on to others, as well as feeling that public schools will corrupt their children. Finally, homeschooling is often used by parents who feel that their children aren't being challenged by any of the schools they go to, for those who have children engaged in a hobby or early career (many child and teenage actors go this route in order to keep up with production schedules), or for those who believe the "gear-in-the-cog" mentality is counterproductive and not suited for children. In any event, children who are homeschooled are often stereotyped as socially awkward shut-ins who have trouble functioning in the outside world due to having not been educated in a classroom environment, interacting with a wide variety of other people. When faced with this argument against homeschooling, parents will usually retaliate that learning social skills from other kids who haven't learned them yet themselves is a horrible idea, and it is , in fact, possible to make friends and socialize outside of school. (Many Homeschooled Kids fit this stereotype, many don't.) Many homeschool parents put their kids in co-op (short for co-operative), which is like a weekly or twice a week public school for homeschoolers, with homework taking the place of the class for the rest of the week. Some co-ops will teach the core subjects and leave electives up to the parents (this setup is pretty much inevitable for small co-ops), while some co-ops will offer both electives and core subjects. Small/core-based co-ops will have a pre-determined class schedule that everyone in that grade level will follow. Larger/electives-based co-ops give either the students, the parents, or both (depending on the family) free reign over what classes they want to take. Co-ops that follow the latter model usually only offer each class in one timeslot, so if there are two or more classes you want to take (or worse — a class you want to take and a class your parents want you to take) in the same timeslot, you're pretty much screwed. Free-flowing co-ops aren't completely free-flowing- there are grade ranges for each class (e.g. Spanish I may only be taken by 9th through 12th graders), and classes may have pre-requisites (e.g. no taking Spanish II until you've taken Spanish I).

Each of the 50 states has its own accreditation system and set of standards for education. They are common enough that transferring from one state to another is normally not a problem. There are some federal standards, implemented through federal funding. If a school meets federal standards, then that school is eligible for federal funds. Standards include the kind of curriculum that must be covered as well as minimum average test scores.

These federal standards are actually a big deal. Were you paying attention? The word "funds" was used. This means there will be a person showing the kids how to use a pencil to fill in the specific dots on a standardized test. Okay, not really, but there is significant pressure on school districts to make the scores look good. Some districts have failed this test of character (more on that below).

School funding is both complicated and politically sensitive. According to OECD figures, the US has long had one of the highest rates of per-pupil spending for schooling in the world. A large part of funding of schools is based on property taxes for the area where the school is located. If you guess that means school districts in poor areas have a lot less money than those in rich areas, you'd be absolutely correct. Even worse, the gap is self-creating: the quality of local public schools is by far the most influential criteria on the cost of housing and real estate, and thus property tax, in any given area. In fact, many rich suburbs and gated communities were created partly because parents wanted their kids to have the best free education money could buy, and bought it. To help keep things in balance, some courts have ordered various corrective remedies, such as taking all the money in the state and averaging it out. In some places, the state will add money, taken from the general fund or from other taxes. Some states use whatever funds come from the state lottery. And some will use federal grants based on other criteria. A few states use alternate taxes, such as income taxes (in Ohio , using property taxes to fund schools has been ruled illegal per the state constitution.) State aid allows school systems in some poorer areas, notably some in Maryland and New Jersey , to spend far more per pupil than school systems in some wealthier areas; however, the promised improvement in school outcomes has not occurred.

Next, there is federal funding. Federal funding often uses, as a starting point, the number of students given free or reduced-price lunches. Thus, schools often try to encourage as many parents as possible to apply for the free lunch program, because a number of other subsidies, such as funding for sports and other programs, begin with the free lunch count and go from there. The ability to get free or reduced-price lunch is a "means tested" system: if the parents make more than a certain amount, the student is ineligible; below that but above "poverty level" and the student is eligible for reduced price lunches; and at or below the "poverty level," the student is eligible for the free lunch program.

Why do we care about this? Here is an example: If a child pays cash for lunch, it might cost $1.40. If the child receives reduced-cost lunches, the child might pay half, or 70 cents, and the federal government pays $1.05. This means, ironically, that the school gets more money if the child pays less because the meal is subsidized. And if the child qualifies for free lunch, the federal government will pay $2.25. Thus, obviously, it is to the school's interest to push as many kids as possible onto the free lunch program. Some are even offering free breakfast, which is 100% subsidized and often has no "means" testing, meaning any kid who walks in gets a free breakfast with no questions asked.

Beyond funding, if a school repeatedly fails to meet academic standards, it will draw federal attention under the No Child Left Behind Act (2001), which can be extremely bad for local administrators. If a school fails to meet standards for two consecutive years, it is required to submit an improvement plan detailing how it plans to meet standards next year and offer students the option to transfer to different schools; generally not all that harsh, this serves as a warning and an incentive to action. If it fails to meet standards for the third year, it must offer free tutoring and other supplemental aid to its students; this is theoretically at federal expense, but practically speaking, that's only indirectly likely as it typically filters through the state level first. At four years, the negligent school becomes classified as "requiring corrective action," which can range between replacing recalcitrant (or scapegoated) staff, restructuring the curriculum, and extending class times to ensure that everything is covered properly. After five and six years of a systematic failure to improve, the entire school can be "restructured" — in other words, the federal Department of Education now has a free hand to dismantle the school and rebuild from scratch.

While it was initially viewed as one of the major bipartisan successes of the Bush administration , the No Child Left Behind Act later took a lot of flak for failing to foresee the funding requirements the additional standards required (increases in federal funding proved both transient and insufficient), lack of incentive for providing adequate education for accelerated students, and placing too much emphasis on standardized testing, which has not only caused schools to "teach for the test" through rote memorization rather than fostering creativity, critical thinking, and learning skills, but has created enough pressure for some school districts to engage in flat-out fraud in order to artificially boost their test scores. It also, oddly and simultaneously, took criticism for both handing control of local schools (via punitive measures) and state curricula (via standardized testing) over to the federal Department of Education, while still allowing individual state Departments of Education to set their own academic standards pursuant to NCLB requirements (leading to the potential for states to lower their standards and punitive measures ). In short, it was both too draconian for the libertarians and too lax for the federalists.

Each school district will have its own School Board. The number of boards is set at the state level — some have one per county, some have one per city, some major cities have one for the whole metro area, Hawaii has one school district and board for the entire state, and Vermont has (depending on how you count two schools of different grade levels that share a campus and part or all of their identity) more school boards than public schools note  Vermont's public schools, incidentally, are some of the most highly-rated in the country, perhaps due to the fact that community oversight is on them around the clock.

This group of officials, who are usually elected, makes decisions such as what books are purchased for the schools, how long the school day and school year will be, when breaks and days off will occur, the hiring of faculty, and even what grade levels are assigned to each building. Even moving from one part of a state to another may result in a major change in school life for a student.

Some states, notably Texas , have school districts that are organized and act independent of municipal governments. This is done to prevent conflicts of interest between schools and cities and also for demographic reasons. It often leads to Gerrymandering, either for political, demographic, or (usually) for varsity sports reasons. On the other hand, Virginia has no "school districts" as such—public K–12 education is operated by a subdivision of a local government (city, town, or county) known as a "school division" (though, like the rest of the country, Virginia has local school boards). note  The main difference between a Virginia school division and a school district in the rest of the country is tax-related. In the rest of the country, school districts have the authority to levy taxes. Virginia law gives no taxing power to its school divisions—any school-related taxes are levied by the local government, with the funds then provided to its school division.

Public education before 1954

Prior to 1954, school districts in many parts of the country (particularly those in the Southern US ) were segregated by race. They were run under the principle of "separate but equal," which stated that, in theory, the segregated facilities should be effectively equal to each other in terms of quality. In practice, the schools for white children got most of the funding and had far better facilities, while the schools for blacks (and in other areas, Asians, Latinos, American Indians and other minorities) were underfunded, overcrowded, and falling apart .

In 1951, a class action suit was brought against the Board of Education in Topeka, Kansas by Oliver and Linda Brown and eleven other black parents, who demanded that the board overturn their policy of racial segregation and allow their children to be admitted to the white schools. Three years later, the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas made its way to the Supreme Court, which unanimously overturned the "separate but equal" policy of Plessy v. Ferguson and outlawed racial segregation in public schools. The decision in Brown v. Board of Education was heavily opposed by segregationists at the time, who declared a policy of "massive resistance" to integration of schools and other areas of life — the state of Virginia even shut down all of its public schools for a time rather than let them be integrated. However, by The '70s , after corrective legislation and often federal intervention note  President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent the 101st Airborne to enforce desegregation at Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas, and James Meredith's entry to the University of Mississippi required him to be protected by U.S. Marshals, military police, and the Army. , the practice of racial discrimination (by school officials) in public schools was essentially ended.

Parents, however, could choose to move to other areas if they didn't like their neighbors or the schools their kids would have to go to, or put their kids into private "segregation academies" ( Brown v. Board of Education didn't apply to private schools note  That case was decided under the equal-protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which limits the power of states and by extension local governments, not private entities. ). Oftentimes, they did just that, in a phenomenon known as "white flight" that saw white middle-class families moving into the suburbs , leading to the decline of many an inner city due to falling tax revenue — which only caused more people to leave, furthering the decline.

Primary and secondary school

Here's the bit that non-Americans often wonder about: Most kids in a grade, from first grade to twelfth grade, are the age of (number of grade+5 or 6). That is, most first graders are six or seven years old (and most kindergarteners are five or six) and most twelfth graders are 17 or 18 ( even if they look 30 ). Students are grouped into grades by age, generally with a cutoff of the beginning of September of a given birth year (i.e., students starting kindergarten in fall 2021 will be those born between September 1, 2015 and August 31, 2016), although this may vary by state. This means that some of the students will have almost a year's worth of physical and mental development over others; this can make a huge difference in performance in the early grades, though differences typically disappear by high school.

Usually, students in public schools do not wear uniforms note  Uniforms are almost always mandatory in Louisiana, however. . A very few do require uniforms, and some schools (particularly elementary schools) might have a dress code, but in most you can get away with wearing pretty much anything. Because a public school is in fact a government agency, a dress code cannot be made mandatory (it then becomes a 1st Amendment issue, as the government is thus forcing the child to wear a uniform that expresses the state's opinion, a big no-no; forcing parents to do business with a given supplier is another, distinctly different no-no). However, in places where there is a standard uniform, parents often select it because there are so many kids buying the same style of clothes that the uniform version is much cheaper than going with a non-uniform style; conversely, there is much less incentive on suppliers to offer a sale, especially on goods marked with the school name. A number of public schools started requiring uniforms in the 1990s and early 2000s; this has been parodied on The Simpsons and elsewhere, and has since died down.

American students usually address their teachers as Mr./Mrs./Miss/Ms. plus last name; in some regions, teachers may be called "sir" and "ma'am". (Contrary to what is shown on television, principals and coaches are often addressed the same way, not as "Principal So-and-so" or "Coach So-and-so." note  Most coaches are also teachers and there may be a dichotomy here: students who participate in the sport the coach, well, coaches may call him "Coach So-and-So" or even just "Coach" even in class, while those who don't will probably use "Mr So-and-So" ... referring to a teacher using "Coach" is regarded by many students as a Jock Privilege, though teachers of physical education classes sometimes prefer it and are more likely to encourage "Coach" from all students. ) Teachers at high school level and below are not generally called "Professor" or "Doctor", mainly because those terms are reserved for people with PhDs , few of whom teach in public schools. This is due to bias from both the schools and the people with PhDs — very few schools are interested in paying their salaries when less-decorated instructors are much cheaper, while the PhDs themselves don't usually seek teaching jobs at primary or secondary schools, instead going for far more lucrative fields (like university professors).

American media often show students of widely varying abilities in the same classes. This depiction is largely accurate below the college/university level, with remedial and advanced classes often being found only in high schools. The sort of recognition of differing abilities that is commonplace elsewhere in the world is hugely controversial in large parts of the U.S. — while it means that the brightest kids in a class are not necessarily learning as much as they could it also means that children who are still developing aren't tracked into lower level classes so early that they don't have the opportunity to reach the higher level classes that are offered at the middle and high school level.

For the same reason, schools often practice what is known as "social promotion," in which students are advanced to the next grade even when a reasonable argument could be made for making them repeat the year or take summer classes. Being held back a grade carries a heavy social stigma, and can easily cause a kid to be considered unintelligent by peers — the theory is that social promotion will save underachieving students from such torment, which could cause them to give up on school entirely and drop out due to them feeling that they're not good enough. In addition, putting students through school costs a lot of money, and every student who has to repeat a grade is another money sink for the school district. However, this also winds up cheating students out of a proper education and sets them up for failure — by the time an underachieving student has reached High School , where social promotion is far less common (in favor of summer school or holding students back), they find that they don't have the needed skills to make it through, and struggle more often than not. It also tells students that Hard Work Hardly Works — why study and get good grades in elementary school when you're gonna get passed along to the next grade whether or not you're doing well? This is a controversial subject — many school districts have gotten rid of social promotion due to concern about slipping academic standards, only to bring it back when they realized just how many retained students they would have to pay for.

The entire kindergarten to 12th grade process is referred to as "K-12" on some occasions.

Kindergarten and Pre-school

If a student is issued a report card at this level, it will use "Unsatisfactory", "Satisfactory", and "Outstanding" for grading purposes. These cards will include categories such as " Plays Well with Others " alongside grades for numbers and letters.

Elementary School

Also known as grade school or primary school. Elementary school starts at 1st grade and typically ends in grade 4, 5, or 6, but in some cases continues until 8th grade, encompassing middle/junior high school. This all depends on the local school board, and only adds to the confusion.

Note that the ratings on a report card are also called grades. Whether or not a student repeats a grade will depend in part on the grades they get on their report card.

Students will be assigned one teacher at the beginning of the school year, and will spend all day or almost all day in one class. The same teacher will typically (though not always) teach all the various subject matters, including English, Math, and Social Studies. This is a demanding post for teachers. Four of the students are trying to figure out this whole pounding sand thing, two can name all fifty states and their capitals and recite the alphabet backwards, two of them have ADHD, and the other twenty are all just waiting for recess. Hard to tailor instruction for that mix.

Even if students have the same teacher and classroom most of the day, there may be certain special subjects (art, music, gym) that are taught in a different classroom (e.g. one with a piano) by a different teacher (e.g. one who can play the piano). It's also possible that one teacher may teach science and math and another one teach history and language. Having multiple teachers gets more likely as the grade increases, so first graders could be in the same room with the same teacher all day (except for lunch and recess, and even then it's probably still the same teacher) while fourth graders might swap rooms and teachers three or four times during the day.

Starting at this point, report cards use the standard grade system of A for best, B for above average, C for average, D for below average, and F for failing. A system that used E(xcellent), S(uperior), M(edium), I(nferior), F(ailing) has been largely phased out, but might show up in older works. Teachers in both systems often report grades with plusses and minuses, which may be strictly advisory (a minus means "you just barely squeaked out this letter grade" while a plus means "you just barely missed the next higher letter grade") or may actually make a difference to the grade point average. In the cases of multiple plusses and minuses, any past the first are almost certainly advisory even if the school does regard the first one as significant to the GPA .

In both systems, there's often an additional possible grade of "incomplete". This is generally given to reflect that report cards were due (and the teacher had to write down something ) but that the student has not completed the same work as the other students in class (perhaps due to an unfortunately-timed hospital stay). In most cases, the student still has the opportunity to make up the missed work and receive an actual letter grade.

In some states, such as Louisiana, an F is replaced with a U for "Unsatisfactory" because "failing" is considered too harsh and not necessarily accurate.

Middle School/Junior High School

The first half of secondary school. This can be Grades 5-8, 6-8, 7-8, 6-9, or 7-9. If it includes 5th and/or 6th grade, it will probably be referred to as a middle school. If it includes 9th grade, it will probably be referred to as a junior high school. This is a compromise between treating the middle years as the first half of secondary school (as is done in Europe) and treating them as a continuation of elementary school (as was common in parts of the country until The '50s and still done by most parochial schools).

For the first time, students will move from classroom to classroom. Instead of teachers who teach one grade level, teachers instead teach one subject matter, often to two or three different grade levels throughout the day. Class times are often referred to as periods. A student will go to English in first period, math in second period, and so on.

When moving through the halls to these classes, the students will notice that the opposite ( and/or same ) sex is strangely interesting. More interesting, possibly, than math class.

Some schools, but not all, have a "homeroom", where students of the same grade gather before heading out to their various classes for the day. A school's homeroom period can range from a short (15 minutes or so) period, during which teachers generally take attendance and make announcements, to a full length class - in which case it may just be called First Period instead. Sometimes students' first class for the day is their homeroom as well, to save everyone a trip (after all, walking to classrooms takes time you can use for teaching).

This is the first level where students have some choice about their curriculum, though typically much fewer than in high school. Students may opt for classes such as band, choir, art, various foreign languages, or just to take another study hall. This is also usually the first level of school to have school-sponsored sports.

High School

The second half of secondary school. High school usually covers Grades 9-12, and less often 10-12. A few rural and small-town districts combine middle and high schools on a single campus (typically 7–12), and an even smaller number of districts operate 8–12 high schools. Students in 9th grade are referred to as freshmen, 10th as sophomores, 11th as juniors, and 12th as seniors. Students continue to travel from classroom to classroom, typically taking 6 or 7 classes a day, depending on the length of the school day and how it's divided up. Some high schools have switched to "block scheduling," in which instead of going to each class every day, a student might have 3-4 classes a day, which lasts twice as long, and which they attend every other day or twice a week, or every day for a semester. The idea is to give students and teachers more time to delve into a topic in-depth, and give students more time to work on longer (and presumably more rigorous) homework assignments. Block scheduling also somewhat emulates scheduling at colleges and universities, where individual classes are not offered daily, but generally alternate and meet two or three times a week. In some areas, students may have the option to take an additional class before or after regular school hours. This may be done to make up for prior failed classes, to complete the school's requirements and graduate early, or to provide some flexibility in the student's schedule (particularly in the last two years, students may have jobs or other responsibilities).

Students are granted even more choice in their classes, often with elective additions to regular classes. What these are depend on the school. Generally, students are required to take certain classes - an English class, a math class, a science class, and a history class each year is typical - but they are allowed to choose how they fill in the rest of their schedules. A student may take a creative writing course that's taught by the English teacher, or may decide to continue taking math courses beyond the minimum, so that they learn trigonometry and calculus before going to college. They might also take a business, home economics, or shop class (which used to be required, but now tends to be an elective).

Just to be clear, trig and calc are taken up by those who intend to go on to college and take a math-heavy major such as math or engineering. Creative writing is taken by those who intend to go on to college and take a liberal arts degree (or, in many schools, those who want an easy A). Business, home economics, and shop students tend to be those who intend on going to community college, vocational/technical school, the workforce, or the military .

For many students, while they may have had rudimentary Spanish classes in grade school, high school will be the first time they take a serious foreign language course. They are offered in all high schools, because most colleges have a foreign-language requirement. Spanish and French are the two standards; other popular options include Italian, German, and Chinese (given the large ethnic communities with those backgrounds). Foreign language classes are fairly expensive, what with audio tapes and whatnot, so the number of languages a school offers is a decent gauge of how much funding it has. Modern foreign language education got its start in Florida (particularly Miami ) in The '60s , when Cuban exiles sought to have their children learn Spanish in school; before that, there was a period from World War I (when anti- German paranoia saw the effective destruction of German-American culture) to the early '60s when foreign languages were not taught in public schools in any form, and in fact speaking anything other than English in the classroom was seen as unpatriotic and a sign that one was rejecting assimilation.

Grades out of 100% translate into a letter grading system. Passing grades are A, B, C, and D, although some districts do not use the D grade. A failing grade is an F. Plus and minus are used to show distinctions between grades; some students and their parents are surprised to find that there's such a thing as an F- (usually a grade of 50 or below). A student's grades in high school translate into a grade point average, or GPA, according to a formula. By most systems, the highest GPA possible is a 4.0. note  Advanced Placement classes (college level classes taken to get an early start on college classes) often get +1 to the basic GPA score for each letter, making a 5.0 unlikely, but possible. GPAs are of great interest to colleges; they also determine class rank. The two students with the highest class ranks are the valedictorian and salutatorian, who usually have to make a speech at graduation. note  Students who earn these positions will probably regard it as "GET to make a speech" instead, though it's possible for bookish-but-exceptionally-shy students to dread the traditional graduation speech... while those who are in no danger of being in that position probably dread them also, but for different reasons.

Most schools have "honors" courses (which AP courses — see below — are usually lumped in with for grading purposes), which are ostensibly tougher than regular courses. Accordingly, they often count more towards graduation and are "weighted" more heavily, which is to say, a high grade in an honors course will boost your GPA more than a similar grade in a regular course. They also look better to colleges. In order to take an honors class, you may have had to meet a certain grade requirement in your last class in the subject, and if you fail an honors class, you may be bumped back down to regular classes. In theory, this system separates gifted and motivated students from the rest and gives them a chance to cash in on their potential. In practice, an honors class might be tougher in name only, especially if the teacher is unengaged and doesn't assign challenging work. Word often gets around when an honors class is a lot easier than it should be, and less able students will take it in order to boost their GPAs . It's also not uncommon for Brilliant, but Lazy students to coast through high school getting low B's and C's in honors classes, with the mindset that if they're not going to do any work they might as well get the best possible results for it.

"Honors students" may or may not take a lot of honors classes. Generally, to make the "honor roll," you have to have gotten only A's and B's (i.e. grades of 80 or higher) for a given term/year. To make "high honors," it's all A's (grades or 90 or higher). Students who do get a nice certificate and maybe some kind of reward. Like honors courses, the honor roll also looks good on a college transcript.

At many high schools, particularly motivated or pressured students are permitted to take a subset of college courses. These courses are dubbed "dual enrollment" as the student can apply the class towards both their high school and college diplomas. These courses are often taken remotely, but certain programs exist that may allow students to actually spend part of their day on a local college campus. More common, however, is cases of a college class being taught on the high school campus. Though rare, occasionally a student will end up receiving an Associate's Degree before their high school diploma.

Note that, in schools that offer both dual enrollment and AP classes, dual enrollment is seen as slacking off. For example, one could take American History at the local community college (with a 100% acceptance) with students who (more often than not, though obviously there are exceptions) didn't have the grades to go to a four-year college/university, whereas another student could take AP US History at the high school which, since it would be an AP/Honors class, would consist entirely of highly motivated, hard-working students and (usually) taught by the best teachers.

It's possible, in America, to not finish high school. Legally, students can "drop out" after reaching a certain age (16 in most states), because they would rather shovel manure and harvest crops than hear another word in a classroom. Dropping out of high school tends to look very bad to potential employers, however, and can doom a person to a life of work flipping burgers or pushing shopping carts.

Those who wish to leave early, but want to avoid the stigma of not having a diploma, can go for a GED. GED stands for General Educational Development, but is usually referred to as a General Equivalency Diploma. (Or a "Good Enough Degree" by the cynical.) It consists of five tests, all of which must be passed to earn it. While GEDs are legally equivalent to a high school diploma (one can enroll in college or enlist in the military using a GED), they are seen as somewhat less desirable by employers and colleges. Because of this, teenage immigrants may find it better to re-do the last year of high school rather than get a GED. However, GEDs are still stigmatized by colleges (often requiring higher SAT or ACT scores to compensate) and by the military (especially the Navy, many job fields are closed to those with GEDs , or require a higher ASVAB score than if the applicant had a diploma).

This can lead to amusing situations when a Brilliant, but Lazy student drops out at age 16, promptly gets their GED, and has a diploma equivalent 2 years before their peers. Theoretically they could get an Associate's Degree while everyone else is graduating, but this is much rarer, hence the "lazy" part. A real-life example of this is current Philadelphia Phillies star Bryce Harper, who took and passed his GED at 16 so he could enter junior college early, thus getting a head start on a professional baseball career. note  Under MLB rules, U.S. players are eligible for the draft upon high school graduation. Harper chose junior college because of another draft rule—a player who enrolls in a four-year college is ineligible until three years after enrollment or turning 21, whichever is sooner. Junior college players, on the other hand, are always eligible. This meant that Harper could be drafted at age 17 with a year of college under his belt (and was, as the first overall pick). To prevent students from gaming the system in this manner, some states require a GED candidate to be at least 18 years of age. note  Harper's home state of Nevada is obviously not one of them.

SATs and ACTs

The SAT and the ACT are standardized tests, both overseen by non-profit organizations. note  The ACT is owned and operated by an organization of the same name. The SAT is owned and developed by the College Board, but administered by the Educational Testing Service. Students usually first take them during their junior year of high school (though some take them in 7th grade and upward), but because they are one of the criteria used by colleges in approving students for enrollment, some will retake them to achieve a better score . All regionally accredited colleges in the US will accept a score from either test, but some prefer one over the other.

The SAT score currently consists of 800 points for math and 800 for reading, making a perfect score 1600. From 2005 to 2021, a writing portion was also included. Initially, it was scored on the same scale as the other sections, making the possible perfect score 2400. In 2016, the perfect score again became 1600, with the writing score reported separately from the main test and using a completely different scoring scale (0 to 24, in one-point increments). Effective in June 2021, the writing section was eliminated from the standard test format. This section is now only offered in states that require said section as part of the SAT School Day program, in which the test is administered during a regular school day . The test is frequently retuned so that the national average score falls around 500 points per section. Most colleges, however, still use the old system for admissions, and the minimum score for admission tends to fall between 1100 and 1300 for the math and reading sections combined note  Nearly all colleges say they don't have a minimum score requirement, and technically this is true, but you're not going to find many incoming freshmen with an SAT much under 1100 unless the school's policy is to admit everyone who applies, and if by chance you do find someone with an 800 at an Ivy League school, then that student wowed the admissions committee in some other way... probably by being Chip Buffington IV, who will be residing in Buffington Hall . Some colleges include minimums in math or reading as well as the total score. In areas where the SAT is popular (generally the East Coast), students might also take a PSAT (Pre-SAT) as a practice in the 10th Grade (and possibly again in the spring). This test is also used as a qualification test for the National Merit Scholarship.

The ACT consists of math, science, reading, and English exams, which are each graded on a 36-point scale; these scores are averaged to give the composite score, also out of 36 points. Most universities require both a minimum composite score and minimum scores on each of the individual subjects; these minimums may vary based on a student's potential major (see below). The ACT is much more popular at colleges in the Midwest, with the result that many high schools and some states in the Midwest include it as part of their standardized testing regimen.

Students may take the SAT and the ACT as often as they want, and may use the best score, even if it's not the most recent. Each time they take the test, however, they must pay a fee to the non-profit organization that issues the test.

Until 2016, a key difference between the SAT and the ACT was how they were graded. The SAT penalized takers for wrong answers—in other words, a wrong answer took away from the overall score. A wrong answer on the ACT neither added nor took away points. The SAT removed its guessing penalty in 2016.

There are also numerous prep courses devoted to preparing students for the SAT and ACT. Some tutoring services are run through schools, but many students go to private classes and tutors after school to take practice tests and learn test-taking strategies. Sort of like an American version of Cram School. Combined with the test fees, the fees for attending test prep courses can make standardized tests very expensive for many families. The College Board, which owns the SAT, took steps to counter the tutoring issues in 2014, contracting with a tutoring company to provide free online practice problems and instructional videos for the SAT.

Advanced Placement tests

Advanced Placement (usually abbreviated AP) tests can be taken by high school students in May. They are administered by the College Board, the same organization responsible for the SATs . (The College Board also offers a different test that serves much the same purpose, the College Level Examination Program or CLEP test ... confused yet? If you're thinking about taking one, contact the college you're interested in to see which they prefer.) The format of the test varies widely with the subject (ranging from calculus to psychology), but usually features multiple-choice and essay portions. Each test uses a five-point grading scale, with 3 being "Qualified" and 5 being "Extremely Qualified". Many high schools offer AP courses designed to prepare students for the associated AP Test, and some will pay the $87 testing fee.

Colleges will often offer credit for certain courses if an acceptable score on a related AP test is offered; very selective schools will only offer credit for a 5, while some schools will accept a 3. One hyper-selective school, Caltech, doesn't offer AP credit at all. Some schools, usually private schools, have credit caps. This means that students are only permitted to use a certain number of AP credits for college credit, although AP scores may be used to place out of lower-level classes. These credit caps often come in one of two forms. One is an overall credit cap limiting the total number of credits that can be gained via AP testing. Another is a cap on the number of credits that can be gained in the subject area of one's major, while having no cap on the number of AP credits a student can use to fulfill other requirements.

Note that some schools are able to offer many more AP classes than others — don't visit a school that's falling apart and has the highest drop-out rate in the state and expect to find the Russian Language and Culture course on the curriculum, although they might have English, World History, U.S. History, Calculus, note  There are actually two separate AP calculus exams, AB and BC. AB is roughly equivalent to the first semester of college calculus, and BC to the first year. Since the BC test covers all AB material, and then some, students who take the BC test get an AB subscore. and other more basic subjects.

Because AP classes follow a curriculum standardized on the federal rather than on the state or district level, they're notable among high-school classes for usually actually being as rigorous as everyone says they are. One of the key aspects of getting ready for an AP exam is taking as many practice exams as possible, which are usually parts of official exams from past years.

Another dramatic difference between AP tests and the ACT and SAT is that each AP test can only be taken once in a lifetime.

It is the rule, not the exception, for a high school to have sports programs. School athletes tend to be at or near the top of the Popularity Food Chain , especially if they're on a winning team and the sport they play is basketball and/or football. A sizable chunk of a school's budget will be devoted to supporting its athletic programs, much to the ire of teachers and the more academically inclined. Student athletes are nominally required to maintain a certain GPA in order to stay on the team, and there is plenty of evidence to suggest that student athletes have better than average disciplinary records and academic performance. However, there is often a lot of pressure placed on teachers from coaches, the administration, and the community to give athletes special favors in the grading department. Sometimes, even school districts will be redrawn in order for a high school to get at a hot prospect for its team. All of this is especially true in rural communities, where the high school football field or basketball court is often, along with the church , one of the main focal points of community life (as seen in Friday Night Lights ). The most popular sports at the high school level are usually football and basketball , although most schools also have soccer , Ice Hockey (mostly in New England and the Great Lakes states), wrestling, volleyball (mostly a girls' sport in the US, with California a partial exception), lacrosse (mainly in the eastern states), baseball and track programs.

Most schools offer both boys' and girls' sports. This is due to Title IX, a law passed in 1972 which mandates that schools offer sufficient athletic opportunities to female students. Controversy arises from the fact that schools with limited budgets are often forced to cut boys' sports in order to establish and maintain equivalent girls' sports programs (the general perception, more often than not, is that boys' sports are more worthy of attention). The benefit is that programs and opportunities for girls (and for women in college) have become dramatically better, and the results play out on the international stage — the United States is a powerhouse in international women's sports. For example, while the US men's national soccer team has long been viewed as a joke by the rest of the world (although nowadays, it's seen as a middle-tier team), the women's soccer team has won three FIFA Women's World Cups and four Olympic gold medals in the last twenty years. It's saying something when there aren't that many well-known male American soccer players but also few big-name female footballers from outside the U.S. The main sports for female athletes tend to be basketball, soccer, softball, track, volleyball, field hockey, lacrosse (again, especially in the eastern US), ice hockey (again, mostly in its US heartland of the northern tier of states) and, of course, cheerleading .

For the record, the status of cheerleading as a legitimate sport is a point of controversy in many school districts. On one hand, there are those who feel listing it as a sport is an excuse for schools to de-fund other women's sports programs while still maintaining compliance with Title IX. On the other hand, there are those who feel that not calling it a sport is an insult to the strenuous activity that cheerleaders do and the risk that they put themselves in, and that they don't have the protections given to other athletes — statistically, cheerleading is the most dangerous athletic activity in high schools, even more so than football. note  You try landing all those flips without breaking your neck. Some schools dodge the issue entirely by making their cheer squads co-ed, though there is a strong stigma against male cheerleaders in such schools — oftentimes, they're stereotyped (unfairly) as either Ambiguously Gay or, conversely, having joined the squad just to get laid .

Many schools have "pep rallies" which the entire school must attend. These rallies are supposed to get students enthused over an upcoming sports event, to instill school spirit, and to give them a chance to recognize the various students participating. One quarter of the attendees of these pep rallies have no idea what sport is in season. Another quarter can recite the win-loss stats for the team for the last two decades. Another quarter are just really glad to be out of class. The rest have all "cut" (skipped) the rally to do something more interesting.

The High-School Dance is one of the major events of high school, although naturally, there are always those students who couldn't care less. In most schools, the biggest dances are the homecoming dance, which occurs around late September or early October, and the prom (originally short for "promenade," but no one calls it that nowadays), which is at the end of the year. The homecoming dance is part of a larger "back-to-school" celebration, also known as 'homecoming', which includes parades, pep rallies, and picnics, and is usually capped off with a big football game note  The "homecoming" in question is supposed to be the return of alumni to visit their old school; though some schools will organize alumni recognition events or highlight notable graduates, nobody goes out of their way to attend. These days, homecoming is more closely related to the beginning of the school year or the opening of football season.

The prom, meanwhile, is a formal event that's designed to act as a big going-away party for the students. Emphasis on the "formal" — tuxedos are mandatory for the guys, as are fashionable dresses for the women. Most students spend hundreds of dollars on the prom, what with the ticket price, the clothes, the corsages, and the obligatory limo service (it's considered embarrassing to take your own car — or worse, your parents' car — to the prom). The prom usually ends with the election of the King and Queen, decided by ballots filled out beforehand.

Most schools have two proms — one for juniors, one for seniors — although some (particularly smaller schools) have a single junior-senior prom. note  Often in combined proms, the junior class has to do all the work (come up with a theme, decorate, hire a band) while the seniors just get to show up (they had to do all the work the year before). The senior prom is usually considered more important, although at some, it's junior prom that's the really big deal, with senior prom being more of a chance for a last fling with your friends before graduation. On a similar note, in fiction, Prom is seen as a night for high school couples to "go all the way." The reality is less impressive; teens who are inclined to do it have probably already done it.

Most students reach the minimum legal age (usually 16 or 17, although it varies by state ) to drive a car part way through their sophomore or junior year in high school. This has a huge impact socially, as students now have the ability to plan social engagements that do not require their parents to accompany them (assuming they can scrape together enough money to buy a car, or enough trust to borrow their parents'), as well as take summer jobs to gain some disposable income (jobs being generally available to people over 14). As a result, high school is often seen as the period in an American's life when they have the most social freedom and the least financial responsibility, at least in fiction.

After the Columbine massacre, high schools began taking very strong measures regarding security in an effort to prevent another shooting from taking place. One of the most visible signs of this increase of security was the metal detectors installed at school entrances to prevent students from bringing weapons into the school, and the presence of an armed police officer or hired security guard within the school to deal with such problems. Dress codes were modified to ban trenchcoats and limit the amount of black clothing a student can wear. School administrators began to believe that all shooters fell under a certain list of stereotypes (which often conveniently overlapped with the " shy, bullied loner " and the goth subculture), and that watchlists could be created for "problem" students before they kill (not unlike terrorist watchlists). Finally, zero-tolerance policies came into effect, with students being suspended or even expelled for violence or the threat of it, or for bringing onto school grounds anything that can be used as a weapon (even something relatively innocuous).

These policies quickly became highly controversial, with many people, particularly students and social scientists, feeling that they go too far and violate the First Amendment. A report by the Secret Service stated that schools were taking false hope in such security measures, and that they wouldn't do anything to deter another massacre. Metal detectors? The kids could just be shot at as they wait in line. Scrutiny of goths and loners? The Columbine killers were neither, so singling out those two groups would allow real killers to fly under the radar note  This cannot be stressed enough. The Secret Service explicitly noted in their report that in the cases they studied, there was no evidence of a profile that all attackers fit. Kids from all walks of life from Popular Jocks to Loners could be a potential shooter. In addition, they noted that shooters never fit a common racial or socio-economic background. . Zero-tolerance policies? They concluded that such policies may actually backfire, as they could very well drive an unstable student over the edge by getting him or her suspended or expelled for a minor infraction.

Of course, this is all seen in the case of an Active Shooter situations (cases where the perpetrator is killing with no pattern or method to their victims). These are the most common to be featured in media, but it goes without saying that not all school shootings are Active Shooter events. Weapons are brought to school with intention to kill specific victims for any numerous reasons. In some cases, shootings at schools may be related to criminal activity, and while may occur on school grounds, may not occur in the school building (another critical part of an Active Shooter event). The reasons these are not covered as much are best discussed somewhere else. Many school systems have taken practice of employing a school officer, typically a fully deputized police officer of some kind, to assist in security matters. This is Older Than They Think . The first police response in Columbine were made by an on-duty school resource officer, who engaged in a brief firefight with the shooters before they retreated inside, less than 5 minutes after the shootings occurred.

College is optional, if you want to shovel manure and harvest crops, or you have made enough money in the stock market already to buy colleges. You can also join the military, but many young people do for the G.I. bill meant to pay for college. While a college degree isn't necessary to find work, most white collar jobs, and even blue collar jobs, require a degree of some sort, so not having one will severely limit one's career choices (although some professions prefer to use apprenticeships). Oddly enough, if your parents could buy a college, they probably did , and attendance is mandatory if you want that trust fund.

This is not literal now, in the sense that one "buys" a college the same way one would go "buy" a plot of land. Instead, a very wealthy donor gives a big chunk of cash to the college or university, and gets something named after them, such as a particular building, a campus, or, back in the 18th and 19th Centuries when very wealthy people did actually buy a whole university or college, the entire college. So if your last name is the same as the science department's building and it's the same as your father (or mother) then chances are you'll be going to that school, and more likely than not the school will have to take you, especially if it wants to see more money in terms of donations later on.

Colleges in the United States may be public or private, as with primary and secondary schools, but these terms are used slightly differently at the tertiary educational level. A "public" university derives some of its funding from the state (about 20-25%, in the case of the University of California system), and scrapes up the rest through tuition/patents/hitting up alums for money/etc. Private universities rely solely on tuition/patents/hitting up alums for money/etc. Public universities (also called state universities note  The general rule is, if it has "University of [STATE]" or "State University" as part of its name, it's probably public. However, the University of Pennsylvania is a tricky exception, as it is a prestigious Ivy League school that's not funded by the state of Pennsylvania. In the other direction, the same is true for Rutgers University, which was once a private college but is now the main public university system of New Jersey ; its full, formal name is "Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey", but that's in the fine print. ) generally tend to be less expensive than private universities, though this is not always the case. Neither public nor private universities are required to take everyone (with the exception of community colleges; see below) — you must apply, and admission can be very competitive indeed. However, public universities are usually easier to get into than private universities, if for no other reason than they are usually larger and can therefore afford to accept a larger number of students. Students are also much more likely to go to their home state's university for various reasons — they may have grown up cheering for the sports team, their parents are often alumni, and tuition is often drastically reduced for in-state students (even if the students themselves aren't taxpayers, their parents are, after all). The ease of gaining entry to a private university is variable, as the tuition is often drastically higher, and the minimum standards are usually stricter (even, oddly enough , if your parents own it ).

Colleges and universities are not regulated by a local school board, but have their own administration, often complex and confusing enough that it would leave a Vogon in tears.

American colleges are delineated between community colleges (sometimes called Junior Colleges) and four-year colleges. Community colleges will focus on Associate's Degrees and various certification programs, which usually take only two years to attain, while four year colleges will focus on Bachelor's Degrees (which, as the name suggests, usually takes a minimum of four years) and have post-graduate programs available. However, some community colleges also have Bachelor's programs (the actual degree being conferred by a cooperating senior college or university, classes offered on the community college campus), and many four-year colleges have certification programs (which may be incorporated into a degree).

Community colleges, unlike four-year colleges, are required by law to accept everybody, and have much lower tuition costs than four-year schools, usually as little as a hundred dollars per credit for in-state students. This has led to the stereotype of community colleges as being for those too dumb, lazy, or poor to get into a "real" college. Or, as it has been more eloquently put , "loser college, for remedial teens, twenty-something dropouts, middle-aged divorcees, and old people keeping their minds active as they circle the drain of eternity."

In reality, however, many people transfer to a four-year college after getting their two-year Associate's degree to a four-year school, to upgrade to a Bachelor's. It's often suggested, especially in the current economy, to recent high school grads that they go as cheap as possible with their Bachelor's degree, as unless it's from an elite Ivy League school, most employers and post-graduate programs won't care about what college you got it from as long as it's properly accredited. Others feel that a four-year education isn't worth the time or money. Others still take courses for a vocational skill. Unlike the European master-apprentice system, most trades are now taught in community colleges. Auto repair, electricians, paralegals, plumbing, police, fire, emergency medical technician, cooking, and some forms of nursing are commonly but a few of the courses done at community colleges. High school dropouts who tire of flipping burgers or pushing shopping carts can get their GEDs there. Thus, college is more or less necessary for anyone but unskilled laborers.

The term "university" is reserved for schools that offer both undergraduate (Associate's and Bachelor's) and post-graduate (Master's and Doctorate) programs. "College" is often used informally to refer to either a college or a university, as in, "I went to college at Rutgers University." To make things even more complicated, there are some universities that are still called "College" because they were named that way, way back when (such as Boston College). And on top of that there's Vincennes University in Indiana, which has never offered postgraduate degrees, and offers only associate degrees in the vast majority of its academic programs; much like Boston College, it was named as a "University" way, way back when.

Students may choose their entire curriculum. While there are certain standards that must be met in order to graduate, students have a great deal of leeway in when and how to meet those standards. Graduation requirements vary from institution to institution and even from department to department; some schools let you take whatever classes you want whenever you want; others have a very strict core curriculum and set "tracks" for majors, though most schools are somewhere in between. This is where the trig and calc students from high school move on to the even more complicated math or start learning to apply that trig and calc while building things, and the creative writing students of old have taken up law or begun the process of becoming teachers.

Four-year colleges almost always refer to incoming students as freshmen, second-year students as sophomores, third year as juniors, and fourth year as seniors. note  Notable exceptions include the University of Virginia and the US federal service academies. UVA uses "first-year" to "fourth-year", in order of number of years attended. All of the academies except for Air Force officially use "fourth class" to "first class", in reverse order of years attended. The USAFA follows the numbering order of the other academies, but uses the word "degree" instead of "class". Anybody on their last year before graduating can also be referred to as a senior, although students may teasingly refer to those who have been there for 5+ years as "Super Seniors". This is not the same as being "kept back" in primary or secondary school and does not carry much of a stigma; a student may abort a half-completed major to start over on a new one, may take a sabbatical, note  Until fairly recently, this was especially true at BYU and its branch campuses, since young male LDS Church members are strongly encouraged to go on church missions during the traditional college years. Young women can and do go on missions, but in considerably smaller numbers. Because the minimum age for American missionaries was 19 for men and 21 for women until 2012, this meant that most missionaries had to interrupt their college education to go into the field. Today, the minimum age is 18 for men and 19 for women, meaning that male missionaries can now go into the field straight from high school. or may suffer other impediments to their progress, such as money problems or illness. For instance, California 's San Jose State University has an Animation department which is so under-staffed and so over-attended (due to its proximity to Pixar and Industrial Light & Magic ) that its students are only allowed to take one animation course a semester , resulting in a seven-year program whose graduates take longer to obtain their Bachelor's degree than their contemporaries take for their Master's. Similarly, not finishing college at all has nowhere near the stigma that dropping out of high school does. Bill Gates, one of the world's richest people, dropped out of Harvard at 19 to found Microsoft. In fact, open disdain for college degrees has become fashionable in some corners of Silicon Valley.

Students may declare one or more majors and minors, indicating the course of study they will pursue. This is typically done at the end of the sophomore year. Students who have not yet indicated a major are referred to as underclassmen. Having more than one major is called double-majoring (having more than that may be possible, but is ridiculous), and is usually very difficult (you must meet all the requirements of both majors). Having a minor is, at many colleges, strictly optional; it consists of taking a defined subset of the courses required for the major. Some academic departments will not recognize minor subjects, even if a minor is earned. note  This is often the case for engineering departments, where degree programs often require enough courses to earn a minor in one or more non-engineering areas.

Classes are often numbered with a three or four digit number, e.g. 101, 102, 134, 305 or 1001, 1002, 2005, 3267. The first number indicates what year they expect most students will take that class in — 1 is for freshmen, 2 for sophomores, and so on. This isn't a requirement by any means, just a pretty good predictor of what year most of the students taking it will be in; going back and taking a 100-level class as a senior and finding yourself surrounded by freshmen can be a very odd experience. The next two numbers are generally an indication of complexity: 01 is the simplest possible, so 101 would be the most basic class in a field (this is the origin of the expression " X 101 " for a lot of topics). Numbers close to one another generally indicate a continuation of that class over the next semester — History 101 being World History BC-1000 AD and 102 being World History 1000 AD-present, for example. Higher numbers indicate electives or other classes on rather specific topics that would not be interesting to students who are not either majoring in the subject or intending to do so. History 134 might be Roman History; a basic (and broad) topic, but much more specialized than History 101. 100 and 200 level classes can be and are taken by underclassmen or students majoring in another topic, but 300 and 400 level classes are restricted to students who are majoring or minoring in the subject. This is done either by making having the topic as a major or minor a prerequisite for taking the class, or by simply making the class specialized enough that students not devoted to the topic will quickly fail or drop out of it. 500 and higher X00 level courses tend to be reserved for students that have already graduated college and are going for a higher degree in their field. (ex. a Master's Degree)

Most colleges use semesters, although some use the "quarter" system, and at least one uses trimesters. Semesters split the academic year into two semesters (fall and spring) of sixteen weeks each, while quarters split it into three quarters (fall, winter, spring) of ten weeks apiece. Classes usually last one semester or one quarter, though a given class may be part of a longer sequence of classes (e.g. Physics 1A/1B/1C/1D). While most colleges do have summer vacation, they also usually have a smaller selection of courses offered in a summer semester or quarter.

It is possible to take some courses in college as "pass/fail." Instead of getting a normal letter grade, a student either passes the class or fails it. Grades achieved this way often do not factor into one's GPA.

Since colleges are home to a large number of high-paying education and research jobs, they tend to have a great economic benefit for the surrounding area. In addition, thousands of young people with disposable income are a blessing for local businesses, and a strong sports program can bring in boatloads of tourists. So-called "college towns" have grown around these institutions, their economic and social life dominated by them. They tend to have a highly educated populace, a lot of alternative lifestyles, an active music scene, a disproportionate number of bars, and unusually left-wing politics.

This leads into another aspect of college culture — the politics. Since the student protests of The '60s , colleges and academia in general have been a popular strawman target for conservatives, being stereotyped as hotbeds of flaky leftist politics pushed by radical professors and student groups. While this is sometimes Truth in Television , most colleges are also home to rival conservative groups, some of which may wield considerable influence. In particular, religious colleges and less elite state colleges have been known for their conservatism. For every Berzerkeley , there is a Jim Jones University . Modern universities have also been criticized from the left for the aforementioned college sports detracting from academics, the focus on corporate-friendly majors like computer science and engineering at the expense of liberal arts, the shift from stable tenure-track faculty positions to lower-paid adjuncts, as well as the massive debt that students take on to finance their educations.

Most colleges have their own radio stations . The prominence of college radio on a particular campus or town may vary wildly. At some colleges, only the communications students care about it, and the signal may not even cover the entire campus. At others, the radio station is one of their most cherished institutions, and may be one of the most popular stations in the area. In The '80s , college radio was a major outlet for alternative rock (sometimes still known by the old name of "college rock"), and while the internet has largely taken up their role of introducing people to new music, many college stations still possess significant cultural clout, playing the kind of music that would not normally see airplay on commercial radio. Seton Hall's WSOU, for example, is one of the premier stations for metal, hardcore, and punk in America, and the only station in the New York area that plays death metal or modern punk rock — ironic, given the fact that Seton Hall is a Catholic institution (a fact that, at various points, has led to censorship controversies).

Most college students will, for at least the first year, live in "the dorms" (dormitories, on-campus housing). Living options after the first year vary by school: at some, it's usual to live in the dorms for all four years (e.g. at Stanford, where students can't afford the rents in neighboring Palo Alto — one of the public-school-caused million-dollar neighborhoods mentioned above); at others, students live off-campus after the first year, often pooling resources with friends to rent an apartment or (if they're ambitious) house.

Some colleges have a "Program House" system, in which students run on-campus houses based on common interests, and people who want to live there apply as part of housing selection. Examples include a Jewish house, where Jewish students or students who are interested in Judaism live together and may run programs through the house about Judaism and Jewish issues (or just have wild drunken parties mildly connected to a Jewish holiday), or language houses, where residents can only speak a certain language when they are in the house.

Some students, however, will opt for the Greek system. A fraternity or sorority is something like a club, complete with clubhouse. Each one is almost always designated by a different grouping of Greek letters (e.g. Alpha Beta Gamma); generally, an individual fraternity is a chapter of a national organization (e.g. the Stanford chapter of the Alpha Beta Gammas). There are, however, three exceptions to the Greek-letter rule, all fraternities—Acacia, FarmHouse , and Triangle (the last of these restricted to STEM majors). A chapter will own or rent a large-ish house ( frat house or sorority house ) which will then serve as living quarters for many of its members (sometimes all of them). Often these houses will be clustered together, in a part of town that will thereby be known as frat row (or, for women, sorority row ). Note, however, that at some schools, the word "frat" has a negative connotation, and few people in the Greek system will use it. Some might even find it offensive. As a rule of thumb, don't use the word unless you hear someone who is in a fraternity use it first. By contrast, the word "sorority" almost completely lacks the negative connotations of "frat".

Fraternities and sororities often have nicknames: the real-life sorority Delta Delta Delta, for example, is typically called "Tri-Delt". They always have reputations (e.g. "mostly Hispanic women", "mostly biology students", "mostly alcoholic date-rapists" ), and they almost always have rivalries and/or partnerships with other fraternities. They are almost always single-sex organizations (hence the delineation between fraternities and sororities), and until very recently, were just as likely to be all people of the same race or ethnic group. There are some coed Greek organizations (sometimes called "societies"), but these are pretty rare (except for honorary societies; see below). Fraternities and sororities have developed a reputation for partying and drinking alarming quantities of alcohol , especially if they are not affiliated with a particular professional or religious attachment. This is largely Truth in Television , and has caused some college to ban all Greek organizations from the campus. Remember, college is where many Americans will be both 1) exposed to alcohol and 2) away from parents or other authority figures who are likely to enforce the 21-year-old drinking age mandated by law. Furthermore, any American college student who waits until 21 to drink was actively trying to avoid it — anyone who wants to drink at college is going to have no trouble finding an of-age buddy to buy them beer.

And on the subject of underage drinking, the police of any given college town know that it's going on, but because it's so ubiquitous, they don't bother going after it, and generally avoid going on campus entirely. Only if drunk students wander into town and cause problems will police ever become involved. Most college have their own campus police to handle inter-campus matters of law, and even they generally have a "don't ask, don't tell" policy if a drunk student requests a cop to drive them home (a very common service). And even on campus, at most colleges the campus police will not try to actively "bust" parties with alcohol unless the students are serving alcohol to clearly underage guests, disturbing the peace, or breaking other, more serious laws. There are exceptions, especially at more conservative universities or schools that are trying to lose their reputation as a heavy party school. However, it is worth mentioning that having other types of drugs will get a student or students into a lot of trouble with the police - sometimes, though, a sympathetic officer might make an exception with pot.

Fraternities choose their new members once or twice a year, always in the fall and, more rarely, in the spring. The application process is called rushing . An applicant will choose to rush anywhere from one to several frats, who will then accept or reject the applicant. Once selected, the new member is called a pledge ; they may be subject to a difficult, dangerous, and/or embarrassing Initiation Ceremony . These ceremonies are another sticking point between frats and college administrations, as they have been known to devolve into hazing and outright abuse (as famously portrayed in Animal House ). note  The aforementioned FarmHouse averts this trope; its rituals are open, and members' families are encouraged to attend initiations.

At least two schools in the United States eschew the Greek system in favor of a residential college system: (1) Rice University, in Houston, Texas. The college system randomly places students in one of several colleges (in Rice's case, 11, though Rice students and alums will insist that it's 10 since by their count, Martel is not a "college"); like fraternities, students are members for life. Each college has its own commons and living quarters, where members can live for up to four years. Despite their random demographics, colleges tend to develop personalities, based on student behavior and aptitude toward intercollegiate competition. The week before classes begin is spent orienting students to their colleges, much like pledging for fraternities. (2) University of California, San Diego. Its system is similar to that of Rice (or rather, Oxbridge, from which both stole the idea), except there are seven colleges, housing is only guaranteed for 2 years, and your choice of college affects your general education requirements (though not your major; but some are obviously easier for certain majors). Not nearly as cool as the Houses of Harry Potter .

Another school, Murray State University in Kentucky, has a residential college system plus a Greek system. In Murray State's system, all students, whether or not they live on campus, are assigned to one of its eight colleges. Unusually for an American school, all faculty and staff are also assigned to a college. Unlike Rice, most of Murray State's colleges do not have dining halls or recreational facilities; unlike UC San Diego, one's college assignment does not affect general education requirements.

The fraternities and sororities mentioned above aren't the only Greek-letter societies on college campuses. There are also many honorary societies, usually but not always bearing Greek-letter names, that recognize outstanding students in one or another field of study. Unlike social fraternities and sororities, these are generally open to all regardless of sex or gender (though a few honorary societies are specifically for women). Usually, students who meet certain academic criteria (typically a GPA above a specified cutoff, either in absolute numbers or in percentage of students in that field) are invited to join as juniors or seniors. Probably the most famous example is Phi Beta Kappa, recognizing high achievement in liberal arts fields.

Some Miscellanea

Summer School

A student who fails a couple of classes in Middle School or High School might be offered the chance to retake those classes over the summer. If they fail to pass them again, they will be left back a grade. A few optional classes that don't fit into the normal school curriculum (like Driver's Education) may also be offered over the summer. More recently, it has become the norm at college-prep schools to take basic one-semester required courses, such as physical education, speech, and health, in the summer: this frees up space in one's schedule to take electives like band and drama or extra high-level honors courses like AP biology or advanced physics.

At the college level, summer school is a different matter. While most colleges traditionally operate on a fall/spring semester schedule, many also offer summer semesters with abbreviated class options, usually determined by which professors stay around for the summer. Summer semesters alternately have a reputation for being easier than main semesters (fewer students per class, the professor is usually more lenient) and harder than main semesters (the shorter summer term results in an accelerated schedule for the material). A few colleges require students to take a certain number of classes during the summer, but this is uncommon.

Disabled Students

The education of physically and/or mentally disabled students has been a contentious issue to many educators, parents, and administrators alike, especially in the context of federal standardization and education reform. Originally (before 1975), states were not actually required to extend mandatory education to all students according to prevailing interpretations of federal law, which led to something like 4 out of 5 students with disabilities being excluded from general education facilities, many by explicit legal fiat at the state level.

These students would typically be placed in separate state facilities where little effective education was being conducted, and the funding that should have been devoted to their education redirected to more suitable students. Legislation in 1975 and later gave parents more power in determining what level of education their children could receive, and school districts were obligated to provide at least a modicum of effort (and more importantly, funding) to that end. This legislation, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, requires that schools provide disabled students with an individualized education plan (IEP) that provides for a free and appropriate public education (FAPE).

There are 13 categories of disability recognized under IDEA ranging from speech and language impairments to blindness to intellectual disabilities. The process of assessing a student for a disability is typically conducted by a school psychologist or other appropriate professional.

All public schools fall under this regulation by virtue of receiving federal funding. Charter and private schools may or may not be required to comply, based on whether they receive any public funding, but where there is demand, supply will be created, and some charter schools have been specifically established to provide special instruction to students with disabilities.

Services and accommodations may include special transportation (including the so-called "short bus"), interpretive accommodations (signers for deaf students or Braille paperwork for blind serving as examples), psychological or medical services, or physical and/or occupational therapy, among any other requirements deemed reasonable and necessary to the student's functioning in an appropriate setting.

The legislation has received a fair amount of criticism. As with most federal projects aimed at state institutions, it functions in large part through federal financial incentives, which have not materialized in sufficient quantities to actually fund the mandated standards. This forces states to pull funds away from general education simply to ensure minimum compliance with federal standards, which itself offends parents who do not feel they are receiving what their children actually require.

Parents occasionally fear retribution from offended schools should they attempt to gainsay what they feel are inadequate services, while schools occasionally become upset by self-serving or misguided parents who attempt to demand unreasonable services at the school's expense. Parents seldom know or are taught what are reasonable and adequate services for their child's education on their own, but are expected to act as their child's advocate with equal voice and authority to the school staff. Even when the school is being helpful and third-party parent advocacy agencies are actively involved, this can result in a plan that either does not provide necessary services or costs the district too much to maintain consistently. When the school is being actively obstructive and the parent is entirely unaware that advocacy groups exist, the resulting plan may verge on the criminally negligent.

The sheer amount of paperwork involved in coordinating school, service, and other local agencies with the federal requirements on reporting to ensure that no students are lost or receive inadequate services can also be mind-numbing, taking large amounts of time from other tasks that teachers could be doing (like teaching students). Taxpayers themselves, who are ultimately footing the bill for all of these services, tend to be concerned that the plan doesn't make any provision for disabled students being excluded as being "lost causes," for lack of a better term; this means that schools can be required by parents to provide full services for a permanently vegetative individual with no ability to communicate or even move, even if there is no indication that said individual will ever benefit. As well, until 2004, there was no provision for funding from private sources on the part of the parent (such as medical insurance companies) in cases where such was available for use, and the 2004 amendments still only cover specific medical surgeries such as cochlear implants for deaf students.

Over-identification is a serious issue as well: certain minorities tend to be disproportionately identified as mentally disabled, and if a school district is not properly educating its general student population, it may also identify as disabled students who simply were never properly taught basic skills.

Despite all of this, the legislation is generally considered a massive step forward from three decades ago, when over 4.5 million students were receiving inadequate or no instruction under state-led initiatives.

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Opinion Commentary

Opinion: the future of education may be flex-based schools, students in the u.s. often aren't served well by the status quo.

To address these challenges and engage disenchanted students and parents, a viable solution exists: flex-based schools. These schools, also called hybrid schools, or in California, non-classroom-based schools, empower families and students to play a more active role in their education while providing personalized support and acceleration. Flex schools offer a dynamic schedule that adapts to each student’s evolving needs, promoting engagement and success.

Springs Charter Schools’ flex-based programs in 17 physical sites in Southern California, including two in San Diego County, have been serving the region for more than 20 years, and we have been listed as one of a select few charter school networks that have made gains toward closing the achievement gap for students in typically underperforming groups. We are making a positive impact on students’ lives  and providing valuable choices in education. What does this look like in practice? A high school student might take classes on campus three days per week and work at an internship two days per week while earning credit for that internship. A younger child might attend class four days per week and work on personalized assignments to accelerate her progress with her parents on the fifth day. And there are many more scenarios.

Unfortunately, despite the widespread availability of technology and the changing landscape of education, the return to the traditional classroom model remains the norm for most public schools. California continues to make it difficult for public charter schools to operate flexible schools like ours — case in point, the current moratorium on opening new non-classroom-based charter schools, even though the existing schools are popular and successful. This moratorium indicates the disinterest many in the traditional system have for new ideas. The old guard would prefer we would just go away, but our students and parents keep us going.

Here are five compelling reasons why flex-based schools should become the new standard in American education:

1. Personalized learning paths: Flex schools prioritize individualized education. Unlike traditional schools, where all students receive the same assignments and are given the same amount of time to do them, flex students can customize their learning pace. Maybe the student needs 10 hours a week for math, but only three for history. Electronic tracking tools ensure students receive the necessary support, and teachers can monitor progress in real time at the touch of a button.

2. Students pursue their passions: Flex-based schools allow students to explore their interests while staying on track academically. They can engage in community groups, sports and extracurricular activities without rigid time constraints. The freedom to choose fosters motivation and engagement across all age groups.

3. Students are empowered: Flex students learn essential skills such as self-directed learning and time management because they have the autonomy to manage their schedules. Flex kids learn to manage time because they actually have time to manage. This empowerment extends beyond their compulsory schooling, preparing them for lifelong success.

4. Flex students learn to be kinder and more inclusive: Flex schools reduce the social pressures often associated with traditional education. Students have choices regarding when and where they attend class, and smaller virtual groups create a supportive learning environment. For students with learning differences, flex-based schools provide essential flexibility.

5. Real-world learning: Flex-based schools emphasize real-world applications. Students work with community experts, undertake internships, attend community college classes and initiate community projects during school hours. This practical approach enhances their education and prepares them for life beyond school

Flex schools are truly the model of the future. They offer a balanced approach, combining personalization, flexibility and accountability, ultimately fostering student success and happiness. America’s education system must evolve to meet the needs of today’s learners and provide them with the tools to chase their dreams during school hours, rather than waiting for the end of the school day for “real” learning to occur.

Hermsmeyer is superintendent of Springs Charter Schools and lives in Vista .

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Bangladesh’s protests explained: What led to PM’s ouster and the challenges that lie ahead

Senior Professorial Lecturer of Global Governance, Politics and Security, American University School of International Service

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Tazreena Sajjad does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

American University School of International Service and American University provide funding as members of The Conversation US.

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Bangladesh’s embattled prime minister, Sheikh Hasina, fled the country on Aug. 5, 2024, after weeks of protests that have resulted in scores of deaths .

Her departure is a landmark moment, but one that has left the South Asian nation facing a power vacuum into which the army – for the time being, at least – has stepped.

To understand what led to the crisis and what could happen next, The Conversation turned to Tazreena Sajjad , an expert on Bangladeshi politics at American University’s School of International Service.

What sparked the demonstrations in Bangladesh?

The protests stem from long-running resentment over a quota system that saw 56% of government positions in Bangladesh reserved for various groups, including 30% for the descendants of freedom fighters who fought in the 1971 War of Independence .

This quota system has proved an enormous barrier to highly coveted civil service positions for the country’s large youth population, many of whom are unemployed .

It had also become a subject of controversy due to how many of those quota jobs went to supporters of the ruling Awami League party.

Under immense pressure from an earlier student mobilization over the issue , Hasina abolished the entire quota system in 2018.

But in June 2024, the country’s high court ruled that move illegal , sparking a fresh round of protests across the country.

Then, in July, Bangladesh’s public universities saw a series of walkouts by faculty and students over new pension reforms that, if implemented, would involve salary deductions .

Initially, the protests were peaceful, but an incendiary speech by Hasina – in which she suggested that the students were “rajakaar ,” a term used to identify pro-Pakistan collaborators during Bangladesh’s War of Independence – inflamed tensions.

The Bangladesh Chhatra League – the armed wing of the Awami League – began attacking students with tear gas and live bullets, with support from the police. The Rapid Action Battalion, a controversial paramilitary group with a history of extrajudicial killings, torture and enforced disappearances , was also deployed.

After a video of one of the first to be killed – a university student named Abu Sayeed – circulated online, more joined the protests, leading to a further violent crackdown by police and armed groups.

It is estimated that about 266 people, mostly students , were killed in the protests, including at least 32 children .

The government closed schools and universities, imposed a curfew and cut internet and telecommunications. Meanwhile, student leaders were arrested and coerced to withdraw their list of demands .

But this only led to the declaration of a total noncooperation movement and a massive uprising of protesters demanding Hasina’s immediate resignation.

As thousands of protesters gathered for a long march to Dhaka in defiance of the curfew, the prime minister resigned and left the country.

Is there a wider context to the political unrest?

Absolutely. While attention has focused largely on the quota protests, a litany of grievances had piled up against the government.

Under Hasina’s rule, Bangladesh has seen GDP growth – but this has not translated into economic well-being for many Bangladeshis. Lack of opportunities, high unemployment rates among youth and soaring inflation have been ongoing sources of tension.

Meanwhile, despite the Awami League espousing a zero-tolerance policy towards corruption, money laundering , bribery and nepotism scandals have dogged government ministers .

And since its landslide victory in 2008, the Awami League has eroded the country’s democracy. For example, in 2011 the government ended an arrangement that allowed a 90-day caretaker administration, consisting of technocrats, to organize elections and oversee transfers of power.

Suppression of dissent has also grown. The harassment and detention of activists, opposition figures and human rights defenders have become more frequent. Meanwhile, there has been criminalization of any criticism of the government , including satire and social media posts .

Why is the 1971 war still relevant to Bangladeshi politics?

The War of Independence remains central to Bangladesh’s identity and its politics.

Its seeds were sown decades earlier in the 1947 British partition of the Indian subcontinent . This resulted in the violent division of the state of Bengal, with the eastern part becoming East Pakistan.

After partition, West Pakistan tried to maintain political and economic dominance over East Pakistan, while at the same time attempting to cultivate a singular national identity – based on their common Muslim majority populations – despite separate cultures and linguistic heritages.

Policies to marginalize Bengali – the vernacular of 56% of then East Pakistanis – and “purify” East Pakistan from Hindu influence contributed to a backlash that saw widespread student protests and growing calls for independence.

In 1971, a West Pakistani military incursion aimed at snuffing out pro-independence sentiments resulted in a genocidal war with East Pakistan that lasted nine months and resulted in the deaths of 500,000 to 3 million Bangladeshis .

The circumstances of that war have shaped Bangladesh’s politics ever since. The parties that have dominated the country’s politics, including Hasina’s Awami League, frequently politicized their War of Independence credentials . Political leaders have also used 1971 as a means of legitimizing positions, shoring up support, or delegitimizing opposition parties.

Does Hasina’s exit mark the end of Bangladesh’s political dynasties?

The resignation of Hasina signals – at least for the time being – the end of Awami League rule in Bangladesh.

Countries in South Asia, including Bangladesh, have largely been shaped by political dynasties . So the rejection of the Awami League, and the fact that many are also rejecting other established political parties – the Bangladesh Nationalist Party, Jamaat-i-Islami and the Jatiya Party – is extraordinary.

These established parties will no doubt try to regroup. While the Awami League may not be able to effectively organize in the near future given public sentiment, the others will make a concerted effort to participate in the promised forthcoming elections.

For the moment, there may be an opportunity for Bangladesh to have fresh voices and faces in politics, potentially emerging from the student movement.

What should we make of the military taking interim control?

Since Bangladesh’s independence, the army has played a huge role in shaping the political trajectory of the country.

From 1975 to 2011, Bangladesh experienced at least 29 military coups and counter-coups . It also experienced direct military rule from 1977 to 1981 and between 1981 and 1990.

Given the army’s frequent incursion into Bangladesh politics, it is not surprising that it has taken interim control of the country now.

For many Bangladeshis, this may represent some level of stability, given the political vacuum that has opened up and the uncertainty of the moment.

Student leaders, however, have made it clear they do not want military involvement in politics. Seemingly heeding this call, General Waker-uz-Zaman , the army chief of staff, has assured protesters that the army would meet their demands.

But it remains to be seen whether the military will keep its promises and hand over full authority to a civilian interim administration.

What could happen next?

It is too early to speculate what the future holds for Bangladesh – the situation is extremely fluid and unfolding by the minute.

The abrupt departure of Hasina has been a cause of relief and celebration among the millions of protesters who helped bring about an end to her rule.

Protest leaders have expressed a clear vision for an inclusive, corruption-free, democratic government. What they don’t want is an interim government that is formed without their involvement and input. Student leaders have put together a list of candidates they want to see in the interim government. Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus has accepted a role as chief adviser . Meanwhile, Bangladesh Nationalist Party and Jamaat-i-Islami leaders are vying for positions in the interim government.

But political transitions are extremely challenging and volatile. There have been incidences of looting, arson and violence around the country, as well as attacks on the Hindu community .

Armed wings of the Islamist Jamaat-i-Islami and the Bangladesh Chhatra League are being blamed for much of the violence , which, it is alleged, is carried out to delegitimize the protest movement. In response, students and the general public have stepped in to protect minority places of worship .

Rumors and disinformation campaigns will certainly have some significant impact in a volatile situation.

Meanwhile, the enormous damage done to the country’s economy by the political turmoil and military curfew will also require attention.

Neighboring countries, particularly India, are paying a lot of attention to the volatile situation. International donors and strategic partners including the U.S., EU, and China likewise await what comes next, given Bangladesh’s regional geopolitics and the global economy.

• Military rule
• 1971 Bangladesh War of Independence
• Bangladesh protests

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