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What is coconut water and what's behind the hype?

Coconut water is the clear fluid inside coconuts. It's not the same as coconut milk, which is a blend of coconut water and grated coconut.

So coconut water is a type of juice. Unlike some other juices, unflavored coconut water is low in added sugar and calories.

Some people drink coconut water for its electrolytes. Those are charged minerals that help you stay hydrated. The body loses water and electrolytes from sweating during exercise or hard work and from illnesses such as diarrhea. Electrolytes in coconut water include potassium, sodium and manganese. The amounts vary by brand.

Sports drinks, like coconut water, also have electrolytes. Some evidence suggests that coconut water may compare to having a sports drink. But coconut water is no more hydrating than plain water.

As a casual drink, coconut water is considered safe. It does have calories — about 45 to 60 calories in an 8-ounce serving. Weighing the pros and cons, plain water is still the smart choice.

Katherine Zeratsky, R.D., L.D.

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• Can whole-grain foods lower blood pressure?
• Coffee and health
• Coconut water. Natural Medicines. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com. Accessed July 8, 2019.
• Coconut water: Is it what it's cracked up to be? Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. https://www.eatright.org/food/nutrition/healthy-eating/coconut-water-is-it-what-its-cracked-up-to-be. Accessed July 8, 2019.
• Zeratsky KA (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic. May 20, 2023.
• Search results: Coconut water. Food Data Central. https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/?query=coconut%20water. Accessed May 11, 2023.
• Kalman DS, et al. Comparison of coconut water and a carbohydrate-electrolyte sport drink on measures of hydration and physical performance in exercise-trained men. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2012; doi:10.1186/1550-2783-9-1.

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HEALTH BENEFITS OF TENDER COCONUT WATER (TCW)

• February 2019
• International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research 10(2):474-480
• 10(2):474-480

• Universitas Islam Sultan Agung

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Coconut Water: 6 Benefits and When to Drink It

• Electrolytes
• Other Benefits
• Nutrition Breakdown
• When to Drink It
• Is It OK to Drink Daily?
• Who Should Avoid It?
• How to Buy It

Coconut water is the sweet, nutty, and refreshing liquid in young coconuts. It's packed with essential vitamins and minerals that help support muscle and nerve function and balance body fluids. Coconut water is perfect for replenishing fluids after a bout of diarrhea or vomiting , thanks to its high electrolyte content. It's also a great beverage to rehydrate and nourish muscles after exercise.

This article discusses the many benefits of coconut water, when to drink it, and how to source the best coconut water on the market.

DERO2084 / Getty Images

Coconut Water vs. Coconut Milk

Coconut water is the clear juice found in young, green coconuts. Coconut milk comes from the brown mature coconuts, where the meat and juice are blended to make a creamy drink.

The Top Benefit of Coconut Water: Electrolytes

Coconut water contains many natural electrolytes , such as sodium, magnesium , calcium, and potassium. Electrolytes are minerals essential for balancing the amount of water in your body, moving waste into and out of cells, supporting muscle and nerve function, and stabilizing blood pressure .

Sometimes, working out or losing a lot of liquid can cause an electrolyte imbalance , which is why sports drinks, which have electrolytes, are so popular. An imbalance of electrolytes can occur when the amount of water in your body changes drastically, like after vomiting or having diarrhea.

Coconut water is lower in sugar than most sports drinks and has carbohydrates, which may help improve muscle function. Research found coconut water more beneficial than regular water for rehydration after exercise because of its high electrolyte count.

Although coconut water contains natural electrolytes, it is not the best option after a long, high-intensity workout. Coconut water has less sodium than other sports drinks.

5 Other Impressive Benefits 

In addition to electrolytes, coconut water has many other health benefits, including:

• Lowers blood pressure : One cup of coconut water has 400 milligrams (mg) of potassium . A potassium-rich diet has been shown to reduce blood pressure and support heart health.
• Protects against free radicals : The antioxidants in coconut water have been shown to help fight cellular damage in the body.
• Prevents kidney stones : Water from coconuts may help prevent kidney stones by flushing the system of excess crystal-forming minerals.
• Stronger bones and teeth : The combination of phosphate and calcium in coconut water works together to help build strong bones and teeth.
• Stabilizes blood sugar : Magnesium in coconut water can help control blood glucose (sugar).

Nutrition Breakdown of Coconut Water

Coconut water has been touted as nature's sports drink because of its high levels of vitamin C and potassium. It's also low in calories and fat. One cup of 100% coconut water has:

• Calories : 44
• Fat : 0 grams (g)
• Sodium : 64 milligrams (mg)
• Carbohydrates : 10.4 g
• Fiber : 0 g
• Sugars : 9.6 g
• Protein : 0.5 g
• Vitamin C : 24.3 mg
• Potassium : 404 mg

When Coconut Water Could Come in Handy

Since coconut water is so hydrating and remineralizing, consider reaching for it in these scenarios:

• After exercise
• On hot days
• After being in a sauna or steam room
• During bowel prep for a colonoscopy
• If you have chronic diarrhea
• After a stomach virus
• To replenish fluids if medically dehydrated

Health-Wise, Is It OK to Drink Every Day?

Whether drinking coconut water is healthy to drink daily depends on your health and lifestyle. Consider your level of activity, the climate you live in, and your fluid intake from other sources. It all depends on your health and lifestyle.

Consider your level of activity, climate, and other fluid intake. Magnesium and potassium deficiencies are widespread in the United States—coconut water can supply these nutrients in high amounts.

Studies also show that women who increase magnesium intake during the luteal phase of their period (the two weeks leading to menstruation) saw a decrease in symptoms.

Should Anyone Not Drink Coconut Water?

See a healthcare provider before drinking coconut water if you have renal (kidney) failure , chronic kidney disease , or take medications such as angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors . It's high in potassium, and when the kidneys can't properly remove excess minerals from the body, a life-threatening condition called hyperkalemia (too much potassium in the blood) can occur.

If you have irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) or are following a low-FODMAP   (fermentable oligo-, di-, and monosaccharides, and polyols) diet , limit or avoid coconut water because it contains certain carbohydrates that can exacerbate digestive symptoms.

Coconuts are not tree nuts, so people with tree nut allergies can still safely consume coconut, but there are rare cases of coconut allergies .

Choosing Quality Store-Bought Coconut Water

Why is some coconut water refrigerated and some not? Why are some brands pink and others clear? Choosing quality store-bought coconut water can be confusing. Here's what you need to know:

• Always look for 100% coconut water (not made from concentrate). Avoid products labeled as "coconut juice," as this is often coconut water mixed with other ingredients, like fruit juice or flavorings. To be sure, scan the ingredients label and make sure there is no added sugar or other ingredients.
• Pink coconut water is due to the natural oxidation of its sugars. The color also indicates it has not been pasteurized in high temperatures, which can reduce natural vitamins and minerals. Refrigerated coconut water is richer in flavor and a bit pricier.
• Coconut water that is not refrigerated in the store is considered shelf-stable. This means it's been pasteurized (heated to high temperatures) to maintain freshness. It's also more affordable than refrigerated coconut water.

Young Coconut Water

Most coconut water comes from young, green coconuts, about 7 or 8 months of age. The more mature brown coconuts are better used for coconut milk, where the liquid and "meat" of the coconut are blended to make a creamy substance.

Coconut water is a naturally sweet drink that has several health benefits, thanks to all of its vitamins and electrolytes. From supporting heart health to stabilizing blood sugar and other benefits, it's healthy to drink daily, especially if you exercise often or have chronic diarrhea. Anyone with kidney issues or IBS should consult a healthcare professional before making it a regular beverage.

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By Larell Scardelli Scardelli holds a BA in creative writing and specializes in health and wellness content, focusing on diet and supplements.

Health Benefits of Coconut Water

• First Online: 15 October 2022

Cite this chapter

• P. Rethinam 3 &
• V. Krishnakumar 4  

513 Accesses

2 Citations

Coconut water is a powerhouse of nutrition and its wide application is greatly due to its unique chemical composition providing phytohormones, enzymes, antioxidant compounds, vitamins, minerals, phenolic compounds etc., which are closely associated with its biological activities and pharmacological effects. Coconut water offers numerous medicinal properties. It has anti-microbial, anti-bacterial anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive, rejuvenation, hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic and diuretic properties. Coconut water has therapeutic effect on gastric dysfunction, dysentery and child malnutrition and provides control over hypertension. Results of many medical researches indicate that coconut water can aid in exercise performance, reduce swelling, dissolve kidney stones and improve kidney function, improve digestion, relieve constipation, reduce risk of heart disease, lower high blood pressure, and improve cholesterol levels. Consumption of tender coconut water reduces the risk of heart disease, helps to prevent AD pathologies, and prevent osteoporosis in experimental animals. The unique nutritional profile of coconut water also gives it the power to balance body chemistry, fight cancer etc. This chapter elaborates the health benefits of both tender and mature coconut water and their role in reducing the occurrence of life style diseases and providing a healthy life.

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Rethinam, P., Krishnakumar, V. (2022). Health Benefits of Coconut Water. In: Coconut Water. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10713-9_9

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Coconut Water Nutrition Facts and Health Benefits

Verywell / Alexandra Shytsman

Coconut Water Calories

Health benefits, coconut allergies, adverse effects, varieties of coconut water, storage and food safety, how to use coconut water.

Coconut water is the liquid that pours out when you crack open a coconut. Older coconuts (the ones that are brown and hairy) generally provide better coconut milk, which is made from the flesh of the coconut. Younger, green coconuts produce better coconut water.

This beverage has a salty-sweet taste that can be divisive, but it does provide fewer calories than most fruit juices. It also provides vitamin C, carbs, and electrolytes that can be helpful for recovery after exercise.

Coconut Water Nutrition Facts

One cup of 100% coconut water (245g) provides 44 calories, 0.5g of protein, 10.4g of carbohydrates, and 0g of fat. Coconut water is an excellent source of vitamin C. The following coconut water nutrition data is provided by the USDA.

• Calories : 44
• Sodium : 64mg
• Carbohydrates : 10.4g
• Sugars : 9.6g
• Protein : 0.5g
• Vitamin C : 24.3mg
• Potassium : 404mg

A one-cup serving of coconut water provides about 10 grams of carbohydrates ; most of that (about 9 grams) is naturally occurring sugar. Some brands of coconut water are sweetened with added sugars , so check labels carefully if you are limiting sugar.

There is usually little to no fat (less than 1 gram) in coconut water, but some brands may contain a small amount of fat.

Coconut water contains a small amount of protein; the amount can vary by brand.

Vitamins and Minerals

Coconut water is an excellent source of vitamin C, with 24mg per one-cup serving. That's 32% of the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for women and 27% for men, based on a 2,000-calorie-per-day diet. Coconut water also contains the B vitamin thiamin (about 8% of RDA).

Minerals in coconut water include potassium (404mg or 16% of adequate intake for women and 12% for men), manganese (0.5mg or 28% of adequate intake for women and 22% for men). The drink also provides smaller amounts of magnesium , calcium, iron, phosphorus, zinc, and copper.

Coconut water is a low-calorie, low-fat source of carbohydrates, electrolytes , and vitamin C. It also contains vitamins and minerals like thiamin, potassium, and manganese.

One cup of 100% coconut water (240g) has 44 calories, 75% of which come from carbs, 15% from protein, and 10% from fat. Coconut water is a low-calorie beverage.

Coconut water contains far fewer calories than other electrolyte sports drinks that contain sugar. For instance, a bottle of Gatorade (20 ounces) contains 140 calories, or 65 calories in a cup. Other vitamin-packed beverages like orange juice also contain more calories, with 110 calories in a cup. These calorie differences come primarily from sugar in sports drinks and juice since coconut water does not contain much sugar.

When it comes to other coconut products, coconut water has fewer calories than coconut milk as well (both canned and boxed) because it contains less fat. While coconut water cannot stand in for coconut milk in recipes, it's worth comparing calories for beverage purposes. Coconut milk in a can contains 445 calories in a cup. Boxed coconut milk made for drinking contains 70 calories per cup.

Coconut water's health benefits have been overstated in the past, but it still contains several nutrients that can boost health, including the electrolytes potassium, magnesium, and sodium . Here are some more potential health benefits of coconut water.

Protects Against Free Radicals

Coconut water contains antioxidants , which help protect against free radicals—unstable molecules that can cause damage to your body's cells and may lead to cancer. While coconut water on its own cannot prevent or treat cancer of any kind, the antioxidants it contains are helpful for fighting cellular damage.

May Help Reduce Blood Sugar

Animal studies have shown that coconut water may provide benefits such as improved blood sugar levels. However, this has not been adequately studied in humans.

May Reduce Blood Pressure

A small study in humans showed a reduction in blood pressure with increased coconut water consumption. This may be related to the potassium provided by coconut water; low potassium intake increases the risk of hypertension.

May Help Balance Electrolytes

Some coconut water fans like it as an electrolyte supplement after exercising. It provides electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, carbohydrates to help improve muscle function, has fewer calories than a typical sports drink , and is gluten-free .

However, you can get the same benefits from consuming whole foods, like a potassium-rich banana , with water . Whole foods have no hidden ingredients (like added sugar) and are generally cheaper than sports drinks or recovery bars.

We've tried, tested, and reviewed the best electrolyte drinks . If you're in the market for an electrolyte drink, explore which option may be best for you.

May Reduce Diabetic Retinal Damage

Although only performed on rats, research has shown reduced retinal damage caused by diabetes in subjects given coconut water. More research is needed to say whether these effects are consistent or able to be reproduced in humans.

May Prevent Kidney Stones

A small study showed that coconut water helped flush out potassium, chloride, and citrate, thereby reducing the risk of developing kidney stones. More research is needed.

Coconut is not a tree nut, and most people who are allergic to tree nuts can still consume coconut . Still, there are some cases of coconut allergy. If you are allergic to coconuts, avoid coconut water, coconut milk, and other products made with coconut in addition to coconut flesh.

Although potassium is an essential mineral, consuming too much can lead to hyperkalemia (an overabundance of potassium in the blood). Since coconut water contains potassium, drinking large quantities could cause this issue. This is unlikely to happen for most people, but those who have chronic kidney disease or take medications, including ACE inhibitors, should be cautious.

Coconut water is also high in FODMAPs , a group of carbohydrates that can cause or worsen digestive symptoms in people with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). People following a low-FODMAP diet may need to limit or avoid coconut water if it causes symptoms.

You'll see lots of brands and options for coconut water on store shelves, including sweetened and unsweetened products along with blends that mix coconut water with other fruit juices . Some brands of coconut water also contain coconut flesh (which can mean they are higher in calories and fat). Read labels carefully if you want to avoid extra sweeteners or ingredients.

If you get coconut water straight from the fruit, it should be refrigerated right away. Fresh coconut water can also be frozen.

Likewise, once you open a container of coconut water, manufacturers usually recommend that you refrigerate it. Most people prefer the taste of cold coconut water. Keeping it chilled will help the drink stay fresh for 24 to 48 hours.

Some brands of coconut water use a pasteurization process so that the product is shelf-stable. That means you don't need to refrigerate the product after you buy it. As long as the package is not open, it should stay fresh for up to 12 months.

There are many creative ways to use coconut water—in smoothies , cocktails, or frozen fruit pops. Because coconut water is hydrating , some people use it to help buffer the effects of a hangover. While there is no scientific data to back up the practice, drinking non-alcoholic and hydrating fluids of any kind is likely to provide a benefit after you've had too much to drink.

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Health Benefits of Coconut Water

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Coconut water is the fluid that’s naturally found in young coconuts ( Cocos nucifera). As coconuts grow, some of this water becomes coconut meat, which is the flesh found within the fruit.

Sipping coconut water isn’t just refreshing—it’s also good for you. Coconut water contains antioxidants and minerals called electrolytes that support hydration. There are plenty of ways to incorporate coconut water into your diet to reap the benefits. However, coconut water may not be safe for everyone.

Provides Hydration

Like most fluids, coconut water can contribute to your daily hydration needs. Coconut water is essentially water with added carbohydrates and electrolytes, including sodium, potassium, magnesium, and chloride.

Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help maintain proper fluid balance in the body by regulating how much water enters and exits cells. Electrolytes also help maintain the body’s pH balance, blood pressure, and heart rate.

Imbalances in the amount of water or electrolytes in the body can potentially lead to dehydration. You may lose electrolytes if you're sick and experiencing ongoing vomiting or diarrhea. People who sweat a lot due to hot climates or during prolonged high-intensity exercise are also at risk of electrolyte losses and dehydration if they don't drink enough fluid.

Coconut water is often recommended for rehydration after a stomach flu or an intense workout because it’s rich in fluid and electrolytes. However, it’s not clear whether the beverage treats dehydration better than plain water.

Studies comparing the efficacy of coconut water and regular water for rehydration after vomiting and diarrhea are limited. Although coconut water is a hydrating beverage, more research is needed before it can be recommended as a remedy for clinical dehydration.

Coconut Water vs. Coconut Milk

Coconut water is different from coconut milk. Coconut milk is made from a combination of coconut water and coconut meat. It’s thicker, creamier, and much higher in fat compared to coconut water.

May Support Athletic Performance and Recovery

Some research suggests drinking coconut water before or after exercise may be more beneficial for performance and recovery than drinking water or sports drinks.

One study assessing the benefits of coconut water on athletic performance reported that drinking coconut water before exercising in a hot environment prolonged the time it took participants to reach exhaustion compared to regular water—but only by a few seconds.

This may be because the main electrolyte lost through sweat is sodium , but the main electrolyte found in coconut water is potassium.

In an older study, researchers compared the effects of plain water, sports drinks, coconut water, and sodium-enriched coconut water on athletic performance. Sodium-enriched coconut water and sports drinks offered the best rehydration after exercise, and plain coconut water offered better rehydration than plain water. Sodium-enriched coconut water also produced fewer side effects (e.g., nausea and stomach upset).

Coconut water is also naturally sweet and offers a higher quality source of carbohydrates than sugar-sweetened beverages like sodas and energy drinks. However, some coconut water products contain added sugars—make sure to choose one without added sugar or sweetener.

Natural sugars in coconut water supply the body with quick energy, which is critical during strenuous exercise. The body doesn't utilize proteins and fats as efficiently as carbohydrates during physical activity, so fueling the body with natural sugars like the ones found in coconut water can be helpful during lengthy endurance workouts.

Could Lower Blood Pressure

Drinking coconut water may help manage blood pressure. The beverage is rich in potassium , a key mineral lacking in many Americans’ diets. Potassium can help lower blood pressure levels by removing excess sodium from the body and reducing the force pressing against blood vessel walls.

A small, older study of 28 people with high blood pressure reported significant reductions in participants’ systolic blood pressure after they drank coconut water daily for two weeks.

Another more recent study utilizing rodents found that coconut water shows promise as a natural diuretic (a substance that increases urine output) without reducing electrolyte levels. Diuretics are often used to help treat hypertension (high blood pressure) and other cardiovascular conditions as they help remove excess sodium from the body.

However, studies demonstrating that coconut water can meaningfully lower blood pressure levels are limited. Many of these studies are small, short in duration, or on animals rather than humans. More data is needed before coconut water can be recommended for managing high blood pressure in the long term.

May Help Prevent Kidney Stones

Consuming potassium-rich foods and drinks like coconut water may also lower the risk of kidney stones , since potassium prevents the body from releasing too much calcium in the urine.

Two large-scale observational studies found that people who consumed the most potassium appeared to have a 35-51% lower risk of developing kidney stones compared to people who consumed the least potassium.

Another study found that drinking coconut water increases potassium, chloride, and citrate levels in the urine—all of which can help decrease the risk of developing kidney stones. However, this study focused on people without a history of kidney stones.

Nutrition of Coconut Water 

Coconut water is low in calories but it still delivers small amounts of hydrating electrolytes. Unlike coconut milk, which is rich in saturated fat, coconut water is fat-free.

Eight fluid ounces (oz), or one cup, of unsweetened coconut water provides:

• Calories: 43  
• Fat: 0 grams (g)
• Protein: 0.5 g 
• Carbohydrates: 10.2 g
• Added sugars: 0 g
• Sodium: 62.4 milligrams (mg), or 2.7% of the Daily Value (DV) 
• Potassium: 396 mg, or 8.4% of the DV

One cup of coconut water contains 62 mg of sodium—significantly less than most beverages created for optimal hydration. For example, Gatorade products contain between 160-310 mg of sodium per 12-oz serving. Classic Pedialyte contains 370 mg of sodium per 12-oz serving.

Risks of Coconut Water 

Coconut water is generally well tolerated and safe to consume in moderation, but some people may need to limit or avoid the beverage altogether.

Here are a few reasons you may need to pass on coconut water:

• Coconut allergy: Coconut allergies are relatively rare (less than 0.5% of the United States population), and the amount of coconut proteins in coconut water is minimal. Typically, proteins trigger immune reactions in people with allergies. Coconut is a tree nut, so people with tree nut allergies may also be sensitive to coconut. You may want to avoid drinking coconut water if you have a coconut or tree nut allergy.
• High blood pressure medications or supplements: Drinking large quantities of coconut water while taking medications or herbal supplements to lower blood pressure could potentially lead to hypotension (dangerously low blood pressure).
• Potassium-sparing diuretic: Drinking large amounts of coconut water while taking potassium-sparing diuretics—such as Aldactone (spironolactone)—could lead to dangerously high potassium levels (hyperkalemia) over time.
• Kidney disease: If you’re limiting your dietary potassium intake to manage chronic kidney disease, you may opt for plain water over coconut water to avoid consuming too much potassium.
• Limited-carbohydrates diet: Coconut water can often be a more hydrating beverage than plain water. However, if you’re watching your carbohydrate intake for blood sugar balance or weight management, choosing coconut water over plain water may not make sense. Though it's low in calories, coconut water has more calories than water and is higher in carbohydrates. Plus, some coconut water products are sweetened with added sugar.

If any of the above applies to you, ask your healthcare provider if coconut water is appropriate and safe for your health needs.

Tips for Consuming Coconut Water

Coconut water is naturally sweet. Unless you buy coconut water that lists added sugars on its nutrition label, you can assume the drink’s sweet flavor comes from the natural carbohydrates in the fruit.

Choosing unsweetened coconut water can help you avoid drinking excess sugars . You can tell if a product is sweetened by checking the package. The only ingredient listed should be coconut water, and the ‘added sugars’ line in the nutrition facts panel should read: ‘Includes 0 grams added sugars.’ 

Though coconut water is hydrating, it’s not recommended to completely replace plain water with coconut water. Hydrating with coconut water alone (even if it’s unsweetened) can result in a high sugar intake over time since the beverage contains natural sugars like glucose and fructose.

Try to get the majority of your fluid needs from plain water and enjoy coconut water on occasion by doing the following: 

• Drink it plain or mix one-half coconut water with one-half plain water for a semi-sweet sip
• Use coconut water as a base for homemade smoothies and popsicles
• Add a splash of coconut water to iced coffee for a refreshing infusion of flavor (and a little extra hydration!)
• Freeze it into ice cubes that you add to homemade spritzers or kombucha

A Quick Review

Coconut water is a hydrating beverage that offers quality carbohydrates and potassium. Drinking coconut water may be beneficial for athletic recovery, blood pressure management, and kidney stone prevention.

People with chronic kidney disease and people taking medications to manage high blood pressure may want to avoid or limit coconut water. However, many people can enjoy coconut water as a refreshing and flavorful alternative to plain water.

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• Diet & Weight Management

Coconut Water Benefits

What Is Coconut Water?

Coconut water, also known as coconut juice, is the translucent, or semi-clear, liquid inside a young coconut. The juice is low in sugar and calories but high in electrolytes and minerals.

In recent years, many athletes have turned to coconut water as an alternative to sugary sports drinks such as Gatorade. It's also a go-to beverage for people with stomach bugs or severe cases of dehydration.

Coconut water vs. coconut milk

Coconut water is often confused with coconut milk , but the two aren't the same. Coconut milk is the creamy, white milk made by grating the inner flesh of the mature brown coconut, mixing it with hot water, and then straining. Coconut water is already in liquid form inside the young green coconut. Unlike coconut water, coconut milk is very high in fat and calories.

Is Coconut Water Good for You?

Most of the health benefits of coconut water are due to its high levels of electrolytes , such as potassium, calcium, and magnesium. Electrolytes are essential minerals that have a natural positive or negative charge if dissolved in water. They help your body regulate chemical reactions and keep bodily fluids in balance, among many other things. If you're low on electrolytes, coconut water can be a healthy choice. If not, drinking coconut water isn’t better for you than drinking a glass of plain water.

Some people swear that c oconut water helps their acid reflux, thanks to the electrolytes. But there aren't any studies to support this yet.

Here are the potential benefits of coconut water:

Helps improve muscle function

Potassium is an essential mineral and electrolyte that the human body needs for muscle function. Drinking water containing electrolytes has been shown to prevent and decrease muscle cramps while exercising. One popular brand of coconut water has 509 milligrams of potassium in a 1-cup (240-milliliter or 8-ounce) serving. That's 15% of your daily value (DV) or recommended daily amount for this nutrient.

Helps hydrate the body

Staying hydrated is important for keeping joints lubricated, regulating body temperature, delivering nutrients to cells, and improving sleep quality and mood. Experts suggest you drink 11 cups of liquid per day if you're a woman and 16 cups a day if you're a man. It doesn't have to be all water. Coffee, tea, and juices count too. With just 60 calories per 1-cup serving, coconut water is an excellent way to rehydrate without adding a lot of sugar to your diet.

Keeps bones strong

Many people don’t consume the amount of calcium needed, and low calcium levels can lead to issues such as low bone density , bone loss, and weaker bones that can break more easily. A cup of coconut water has 40.8 milligrams of calcium, about 4% of your DV. So, while coconut water is not a top supplier of calcium, every bit helps.

May prevent constipation

Coconut water is a mild laxative because it contains large amounts of potassium. Too much potassium has caused diarrhea in some people but a regular drink of coconut water could keep constipation at bay.

Good source of magnesium

One cup of coconut water has 16 milligrams of magnesium or 4% of your DV. Magnesium has many functions in the body, including making protein, regulating blood sugar and blood pressure levels, and managing muscle and nerve function.

If you don't take in enough magnesium for an extended amount of time, you can get magnesium deficiency symptoms such as nausea, weakness, and fatigue. Excess magnesium is excreted through urine, so too much magnesium is not a concern.

Coconut Water Nutrition

Nutrients in coconut water

Coconut water contains important electrolytes that help your body function. You can find the following electrolytes in coconut water:

A 1-cup (240-milliliter) serving of a popular brand of organic unsweetened coconut water contains:

• Calories: 60
• Protein: 0 grams
• Fat: 0 grams
• Carbohydrates: 15 grams (5% DV)
• Fiber: 0 grams
• Sugar: 8 grams
• Calcium: 40.8 milligrams (4%)
• Potassium: 509 milligrams (15%)
• Magnesium: 16.8 milligrams (4%)
• Sodium: 45.6 milligrams (2%)
• Phosphorus: 19.2 milligrams (2%)

Other brands of coconut water may have more or less of these nutrients in the same serving size.

Coconut water electrolytes

You take in electrolytes from food and drink and lose them through sweat and pee. The main electrolytes your body needs are:

• Bicarbonate

An electrolyte water such as Gatorade contains good amounts of sodium, carbs, potassium, and a lot of added sugar. An 8-ounce glass has 56 calories, 106 milligrams of sodium, 14 grams of carbs, 33 milligrams of potassium, and 13 grams of added sugar. Most people don't drink an 8-ounce serving -- they're more likely to guzzle the whole 20-ounce bottle they get in the vending machine. That's a lot of sugar!

Coconut water has more potassium and less sugar than your typical sports drink. However, it usually has a lot less sodium (2% of your DV in 1 cup). When you sweat, you mostly lose water, sodium, and chloride. So, if you've been exercising hard, you may be better off with a sports drink for replacing electrolytes -- just look for one with low or no sugar. If you haven't sweated much, coconut water might be a good alternative -- or opt for plain water.

Coconut Water Risks

Drinking coconut water is considered low-risk, but if you have health conditions that require limiting potassium, sodium, or calories, it may not be the right beverage for you.

While coconut water is usually low in sodium, some brands have relatively high amounts -- one store brand has 130 milligrams in an 8-ounce serving . A diet rich in sodium can increase blood pressure. High blood pressure over a long period can result in kidney damage and heart disease. Sodium can also interact with blood pressure medications.

Coconut water is high in short-term carbohydrates called FODMAPS ( fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols), which can cause diarrhea if you have irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). This is especially true if you're drinking a lot of the juice.

Coconut water side effects

Coconut water doesn't really have any side effects when consumed moderately. If you drink a lot of it and you have chronic kidney disease (CKD), there could be a problem. CKD makes it harder for the kidneys to remove potassium, and coconut water has a lot of potassium. Too much potassium in the kidneys can lead to a condition called hyperkalemia , a dangerously high level of potassium in the blood that can be life-threatening. There's a case report of a man who drank eight 11-ounce bottles of coconut water during a day of playing tennis and developed severe hyperkalemia.

The high potassium level in coconut water also means it can help lower blood pressure by causing you to excrete more sodium through your urine. If you're already on blood pressure-lowering medication, talk to your doctor about how much coconut water you can safely drink.

Is coconut water fattening?

An 8-ounce serving of plain coconut water contains about 45-60 calories . Some flavored and sweetened types of coconut water may have many more calories. If your doctor has recommended a low-calorie diet, you'll need to limit how much coconut water you drink.

Can you drink coconut water on an empty stomach?

You can, but there's no special benefit to doing so. It won't help you lose weight faster or boost your immunity more.

Is coconut water good for people with diabetes?

Some brands of coconut water are low in sugar, while others are quite high, though they usually have less sugar than other fruit juices and sodas. If you have diabetes, you've likely been told to limit your sugar intake, meaning that you should look for a low-sugar brand of coconut water. And don't drink too much of it. A case was reported of a man with diabetes who drank a liter (about 33 ounces) of coconut water daily while on diabetes medication. His potassium levels increased significantly, but luckily, he stopped before he developed hyperkalemia.

Some studies on rats with diabetes have noted that coconut water may improve blood sugar levels, but no studies have been done on humans so far.

How to Use Coconut Water

There are no set guidelines for how much coconut water you should have. Those who drink it regularly often enjoy 1-2 cups per day, while others only reach for a glass/bottle after a run instead of a standard sports drink.

Here are some ways to incorporate coconut water into your diet:

• Blend coconut water with fruit to make a smoothie.
• Add a splash of pineapple juice to chilled coconut water.
• Mix up a coconut water lemonade.
• Use coconut water instead of milk or cream in your favorite curry.

Coconut water is a low-calorie option to rehydrate. It's high in electrolytes and minerals and can improve bone health and decrease muscle cramps after exercising. Some people use it as an alternative to sports drinks after vigorous exercising, but the juice is usually low in sodium, a needed electrolyte. Coconut water has no side effects unless you drink it in great quantities and have certain health problems such as chronic kidney disease or diabetes.

Coconut Water FAQs

Is coconut water OK to drink every day?

Yes, as long as you don't overdo it. An 8-ounce glass or two a day should be fine.

What does coconut water do for the female body?

Some studies suggest that coconut water can relieve menstrual pain, at least moderately. Coconut water is also full of electrolytes and minerals, so it's good for you. And if you're pregnant, it is good for your growing baby as well.

Does coconut water detox the body?

It's a myth that your body needs detoxing. If you're healthy, your liver and kidneys take care of flushing out anything that needs to be removed, so you don't need any special drink or supplement. However, coconut water can contribute to your well-being because it's a healthy low-calorie beverage, and if you like the taste, it will encourage you to drink more liquid. That's something everyone needs.

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• v.48(11); 2015 Nov

Cocos nucifera (L.) (Arecaceae): A phytochemical and pharmacological review

E.b.c. lima.

1 Laboratório de Neuropsicofarmacologia, Departamento de Fisiologia e Farmacologia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brasil

C.N.S. Sousa

L.n. meneses, n.c. ximenes, m.a. santos, júnior, g.s. vasconcelos, n.b.c. lima.

2 Laboratório de Farmacologia, Curso de Medicina, Centro Universitário Christus-Unichristus, Fortaleza, CE, Brasil

M.C.A. Patrocínio

S.m.m. vasconcelos, associated data.

Cocos nucifera (L.) (Arecaceae) is commonly called the “coconut tree” and is the most naturally widespread fruit plant on Earth. Throughout history, humans have used medicinal plants therapeutically, and minerals, plants, and animals have traditionally been the main sources of drugs. The constituents of C. nucifera have some biological effects, such as antihelminthic, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antioxidant, antifungal, antimicrobial, and antitumor activities. Our objective in the present study was to review the phytochemical profile, pharmacological activities, and toxicology of C. nucifera to guide future preclinical and clinical studies using this plant. This systematic review consisted of searches performed using scientific databases such as Scopus, Science Direct, PubMed, SciVerse, and Scientific Electronic Library Online. Some uses of the plant were partially confirmed by previous studies demonstrating analgesic, antiarthritic, antibacterial, antipyretic, antihelminthic, antidiarrheal, and hypoglycemic activities. In addition, other properties such as antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, cardioprotective, antiseizure, cytotoxicity, hepatoprotective, vasodilation, nephroprotective, and anti-osteoporosis effects were also reported. Because each part of C. nucifera has different constituents, the pharmacological effects of the plant vary according to the part of the plant evaluated.

Introduction

Cocos nucifera (L.) is an important member of the family Arecaceae (palm family) popularly known as coconut, coco, coco-da-bahia, or coconut-of-the-beach ( 1 ). The plant is originally from Southeast Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines) and the islands between the Indian and Pacific Oceans. From that region, the fruit of the coconut palm is believed to have been brought to India and then to East Africa. After the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, this plant was introduced into West Africa and, from there, dispersed to the American continent and to other tropical regions of the globe ( 2 ).

The plant is an arborescent monocotyledonous tree of around 25 m in height (giant coconut) with a dense canopy ( Figure 1 ). The root of the coconut system is fasciculated. The stem is an unbranched type, and at its apex, a tuft of leaves protects a single apical bud. The pinnate leaves are feather-shaped, having a petiole, rachis and leaflets. Under favorable environmental conditions, the giant adult coconut emits 12–14 inflorescence spikes per year, while the adult dwarf coconut can emit 18 spikes in the same period. The axillary inflorescence has globular clusters of female flowers. The plant is monoecious (male and female reproductive organs on the same plant) ( 3 ).

The coconut fruit comprises an outer epicarp, a mesocarp, and an inner endocarp. The epicarp, which is the outer skin of the fruit, and the mesocarp, which is heavy, fibrous, and tanned when dry, have many industrial uses. The endocarp is the hard dark core. Inside is a solid white albumen of varied thickness, depending on the age of the fruit, and with an oily pulp consistency and a liquid albumen called coconut water that is thick, sweet, and slightly acidic ( 3 , 4 ). The authors and the synonyms of the plant were confirmed using www.theplantlist.org ( Table 1 ).

The present review highlights the traditional uses of C. nucifera , phytochemical compounds isolated from different parts of the plant, and the biological activity and toxicological studies to date.

Articles published in English were searched in the online databases Scopus, Science Direct, PubMed, SciVerse and Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO), with no time limits. Search terms included combinations of the following: ‘ Cocos nucifera ’, ‘ C. nucifera and phytochemical profile’, ‘ C. nucifera and pharmacological properties’, and ‘ C. nucifera and toxicology’.

Traditional uses

All parts of the fruit of the coconut tree can be used. Both the green coconut water and solid albumen ripe fruits are used industrially and in home cooking in many ways ( 5 ). Additionally, several parts of the fruit and plant have been used by people in different countries for the treatment of various pathological conditions ( Table 2 ).

Currently, appreciation of natural coconut water is growing. Industry is using the husk fiber from the pith as raw material for carpets, car seat stuffing, and in agricultural as fertilizers. The hard core is used to make handcrafts. The stalk and leaves of the coconut tree are useful in construction, and sugar, vinegar, and alcohol can be extracted from the inflorescence ( 6 ).

In Brazil, extract from the husk fiber of C. nucifera is used to treat diarrhea ( 7 ). In Papua New Guinea, the leaves and roots of young plants are chewed as treatment for diarrhea and stomachaches ( 8 , 9 ). In Fiji, coconut oil is used to prevent hair loss and coconut water is used to treat renal disease ( 10 ). In Ghana, people use coconut milk to treat diarrhea ( 11 ). In Guatemala, the husk fiber extract is used as an antipyretic, to reduce renal inflammation, and as a topic ointment for dermatitis, abscesses, and injuries ( 12 ). In Haiti, a decoction of the dry pericarp is used for oral treatment of amenorrhea, and the oil is applied as an ointment to burns ( 13 ); an aqueous extract from the husk fiber is also used for oral asthma treatment ( 14 ). In India, infusions made with the coconut inflorescence are used for the oral treatment of menstrual cycle disorders ( 15 ). In Indonesia, the oil is used as a wound ointment, the coconut milk is used as an oral contraceptive, and fever and diarrhea are treated with the root extract ( 16 – 18 ). In Jamaica, the husk fiber extract is used to treat diabetes ( 19 , 20 ). In Mozambique, the fruit is consumed by men as an aphrodisiac ( 21 ). Peruvians use the aqueous extract of the fresh coconut fiber orally for asthma, as a diuretic, and for gonorrhea ( 22 ). In Trinidad, bark extract is used orally for amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea, and bark tea is used to treat venereal diseases ( 23 ). In Mexico, coconut is used to treat various disorders associated with urogenital tract infection by Trichomonas vaginalis ( 24 ). A decoction of the white flesh of the fruit is used in rural Malaysia to treat fever and malaria ( 25 ). In Kenya, the fruit is used to relieve skin rash caused by HIV infection ( 26 ).

Phytochemistry

Phytochemical studies of the coconut fiber (mesocarp) ethanolic extract revealed that the presence of phenols, tannins, leucoanthocyanidins, flavonoids, triterpenes, steroids, and alkaloids ( 27 ), while a butanol extract recovered triterpenes, saponins, and condensed tannins ( 28 ). Notably, compounds like flavonoids having antioxidant action are widely distributed in edible vegetables, fruits, and many herbs ( 29 – 31 ). Condensed tannins are reported to possess antihelminthic activity by binding to proteins present in the cuticle, oral cavity, esophagus, and cloaca of nematodes, thus intensifying the physical and chemical damage in helminth ( 32 ).

The lyophilized extract and fractions, as well as ethyl acetate extracts, from the C. nucifera fiber are rich in polyphenols, compounds such as catechins, epicatechins, tannins, and flavonoids ( 7 , 33 – 35 ).

The constituents of the liquid albumen were identified as vitamin B, nicotinic acid (B3, 0.64 µg/mL), pantothenic acid (B5, 0.52 µg/mL), biotin (0.02 µg/mL), riboflavin (B2, <0.01 ng/mL), folic acid (0.003 µg/mL), with trace quantities of vitamins B1, B6, and C, pyridoxine, thiamine, folic acid, amino acids, L-arginine, plant hormones (auxin, 1,3-diphenylurea, cytokinin), enzymes (acid phosphatase, catalase, dehydrogenase, diastase, peroxidase, RNA polymerases), and growth-promoting factors ( 36 – 38 ). Furthermore, oil extracted from the solid albumen is primarily lauric acid and alpha tocopherol ( 39 , 40 ). Root phenolic compounds were identified as flavonoids and saponins ( 41 ). Other compounds identified in leaf epicuticular wax were lupeol methylether, skimmiwallin, [3b-methoxy-25-ethyl-9,19-cyclolanost-24(241)-ene], and isoskimmiwallin [3b-methoxy-24-ethyl-9,19-cyclolanost-25(251)-ene] ( 42 ) ( Figure 2 ).

Pharmacological activities of extracts, fractions, and isolated constituents

Several studies have been conducted to identify the active molecules in coconut and their possible pharmacological and biological activities. Various extracts, fractions, and isolated compounds from different parts of the coconut fruit were tested, showing different activities, including antihypertensive; analgesia; vasodilation; protection of kidney, heart, and liver functions; protection against ulcers; and anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-osteoporosis, antidiabetes, antineoplastic, bactericidal, antihelminthic, antimalarial, leishmanicidal, antifungal, and antiviral activities ( 43 – 47 ). These effects are described below and also listed in Supplementary Table S1.

Analgesic activity

Crude husk-fiber extract and two aqueous extract fractions of molecular weights less than (F1) and greater than (F2) 1 kDa were studied for their analgesic activity by acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing, tail-flick, and hot plate tests in mice ( 44 ). All three extracts induced peripheral and central antinociceptive activity. Oral administration of the crude extract (50, 100, or 150 mg/kg) significantly inhibited writhing by 24%, 34%, and 52.4%, respectively, when compared with a control group. Fractions F1 and F2 reduced total writhing at 10 and 50 mg/kg. In the tail-flick test, oral pre-treatment with crude extract (100 and 150 mg/kg), F1 (10 and 50 mg/kg), or F2 (10 and 50 mg/kg) produced effects better or similar to morphine (5 mg/kg) until 80 min. However, with the exception of F1 (50 mg/kg, 60 min after administration), neither crude extract (150 mg/kg) nor F2 (50 mg/kg) significantly increased the latency of mice response to thermal stimulation in the hot-plate test. The mechanism of action of the extracts were also evaluated using the opioid antagonist naloxone (5 mg/kg), which inhibited the antinociceptive effect of the crude extract, F1, and F2, indicating a probable action on opioid receptors.

In another study, an ethanol extract of the husk fiber (40, 60, or 80 mg/kg) showed significant analgesic properties, as indicated by a reduction in the number of writhes and stretches induced in mice by 1.2% acetic acid ( 41 ). The results were similar to those in animals that received aspirin (68 mg/kg), paracetamol (68 mg/kg), or morphine sulfate (1.15 mg/kg). Furthermore, administration of the ethanol extract along with morphine or pethidine not only produced analgesia in mice but also potentiated the analgesic effect of these two drugs.

These studies were performed using coconut husk fiber extracts, suggesting that this part of the plant is a highly potent analgesic. Cocos nucifera may enable the production of new low-cost medicines for several ailments and may provide a very inexpensive source of new analgesic drugs. Further investigations are warranted. Further bioassay-guided fractionation and isolation of specific molecules are highly recommended so that the chemical moiety responsible for the activity can be identified and its mechanism of action established.

Anti-inflammatory activity

Aqueous crude extracts of husk fiber of C. nucifera are used to treat arthritis and other inflammatory ills in Northeastern Brazil's traditional medicine ( 7 ).

A study using animal models of inflammation (formalin test and subcutaneous air pouch model) showed that aqueous crude extracts of C. nucifera var. typica (50, or 100 mg/kg) significantly inhibited (P<0.05) the time that animals spent licking their formalin-injected paws and reduced inflammation induced by subcutaneous carrageenan injection by reducing cell migration, extravasation of protein, and TNF-α production ( 45 )

Husk fiber extracts were also tested on rat paw edema induced by carrageenan, histamine, and serotonin ( 44 ). Animals were pre-treated by oral administration of crude extract (50, 100 or 150 mg/kg), F1 or F2 (1, 10, or 50 mg/kg), promethazine (30 mg/kg), or methysergide (5 mg/kg). The crude extract significantly (P<0.05) reduced histamine (at 150 mg/kg) and serotonin-induced rat paw edema (at 100 and 150 mg/kg). Even when mice were treated with 1 mg/kg of F1, a significant inhibitory effect was observed in histamine and serotonin-induced edema. However, F2 did not inhibit the edema induced by any pro-inflammatory agent.

Animal tests revealed significant activity supporting the use of these husk fiber extracts in traditional medicine (35). The chemical constituents responsible for their activity should be isolated, identified, and researched to establish safety doses.

Anti-bacterial, antifungal, and anti-viral activities

Brushing the teeth with fibrous coconut husks is a common oral hygiene practice among rural people of South India ( 46 ). In this context, the antimicrobial properties of alcoholic extracts of the husk against common oral pathogens were analyzed by the agar well diffusion method ( 47 ). There was significant concentration-dependent antimicrobial activity, expressed as a zone of inhibition with respect to all tested organisms except Actinomyces species. However, the effect of the C. nucifera extract was less than that of chlorhexidine.

Ethanolic (cold and hot percolation), dry-distilled, and aqueous extracts of coconut endocarp were compared with gentamicin and ciprofloxacin for their antibacterial activities against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), methicillin-sensitive S. aureus , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Escherichia coli , Klebsiella pneumonia , Acinetobacter baumannii , Citrobacter freundii , Enterococcus , Streptococcus pyrogens , Bacillus subtilis , and Micrococcus luteus using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. The endocarp extracts showed strong antimicrobial activity against B. subtilis , P. aeruginosa , S. aureus , and M. luteus but had no effect on E. coli ( 26 ). The dry-distilled extract (1 mg/mL and 200 μg/mL) could inhibit the growth of B. subtilis and Aspergillus spp. but was inactive against R. oligosporus at all concentrations ( 48 ). The crude aqueous extract of husk fiber and five fractions obtained by thin layer chromatography (TLC) were also tested (10, 50, and 100 mg/kg) against E. coli , S. aureus , and MRSA via agar diffusion; they were active only against S. aureus and MRSA, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 1024 mg/mL for both ( 45 ).

In another study, the antimicrobial activity of mesocarp powder extracted with six common organic solvents was evaluated by the disk diffusion method ( 49 ). The pathogens E. coli and S. typhi were used. The antimicrobial activity against E. coli was higher with the benzene solvent, while bioactivity toward S. typhi was more effective with the diethyl ether extract. Potential bio-components responsible for the antimicrobial activity were identified as tocopherol, alcohol palmitoleyl, cycloartenol, and β-sitosterol.

The in vitro antilisterial activities and time kill regimes of crude aqueous and n -hexane extracts of the husk fiber of C. nucifera were tested ( 50 ). The aqueous extracts were active against 29 of 37 Listeria isolates examined, while the n -hexane extracts were active against 30 (both at 25 mg/mL). The diameters of the zones of inhibition were 12–17 mm and 12–24 mm, respectively, while those of the control antibiotics were 20–50 mm for ampicillin and 22–46 mm for tetracycline. The MICs of the susceptible bacteria were 0.6–2.5 mg/mL for the aqueous fraction and 0.6–5.0 mg/mL for the n -hexane extract. The mean reduction in viable cell count in the time kill assay with the aqueous extract ranged from 0.32 to 3.2 log 10 CFU/mL after 4 h of interaction and from 2.6 to 4.8 log 10 CFU/mL after 8 h at 1× and 2× MIC. With the n -hexane extract, the values were 2.8–4.8 log 10 CFU/mL after 4 h of interaction and 3.5–6.2 log 10 CFU/mL after 8 h in 1× and 2× MIC. For the aqueous extract, bactericidal activity was observed against three of the tested Listeria strains at a concentration of 2× MIC after 8 h exposure, while the n -hexane fraction was bactericidal against all five test bacteria at both MICs after 8 h.

In studies with crude extract and five TLC fractions (I-V) of fiber mesocarp of C. nucifera fruit, in vitro antimicrobial activity was seen in all trial strains of S. aureus tested with fractions II-V ( 7 ). Antifungal activity was demonstrated as growth inhibition of Candida albicans , Cryptococcus neoformans or Fonsecaea pedrosoi . Antiviral action was only seen with the crude extract and fraction II. The antifungal, antimicrobial, and antiviral effects were attributed to condensed tannins and catechins present in the crude extract and fractions II-V, especially fraction II, which had a higher concentration of these compounds.

Studies with alcohol extract of ripe dried coconut shell have demonstrated action against Microsporum canis , M. gypseum , M. audouinii , Trichophyton mentagrophytes , T. rubrum , T. tonsurans , and T. violaceum ( 51 ). This activity was attributed mainly to the high content of phenolic compounds. In another study, virgin oil from coconut pulp prevented growth of C. albicans ( 52 ).

Coconut oil is very effective against a variety of viruses with lipid capsules, such as visna virus, cytomegalovirus, and Epstein-Barr virus ( 53 ). The medium chain saturated fatty acids from coconut oil destroy and break the membranes and interfere with viral maturation.

These reports indicate that various parts of C. nucifera should be further tested for antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities in different animal models. Future studies should consider formulations and exact dose levels suitable for use in humans to treat various strains of bacteria, viruses, and fungi.

Antioxidant activity

There is considerable interest in the consumption of certain foods to prevent the onset of diseases. Evidence suggests that diets rich in phenolic compounds can significantly enhance human health because of the effects of phenolic antioxidants ( 54 ). Studies with virgin coconut oil (VCO) indicated that the total phenolic content was almost seven times that of commercial coconut oil, because the process of obtaining refined oil destroys some of the biologically active components ( 55 ). In the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) test, VCO had higher antioxidant activity compared to refined coconut oil ( 56 ).

The antioxidant activity of C. nucifera endocarp extracts was evaluated by DPPH radical scavenging, nitric oxide radical scavenging, and alkaline dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) methods. The DPPH analysis demonstrated that ethanolic (cold and hot percolation), dry-distilled, and aqueous extracts of endocarp had significant antioxidant activity (4.1828, 3.31, 20.83, 1.0179 μg/mL, respectively) comparable with that of standard ascorbic acid ( 48 ).

In another study, the antioxidant potential of four varieties of coconut (green dwarf, yellow dwarf, red dwarf, and Malaysian yellow) were evaluated and compared with industrialized and lyophilized water of the green dwarf variety ( 57 ). All varieties were effective at eliminating DPPH (50% inhibition concentration (IC 50 ) 73 mL) and nitric oxide (0.1 mL; inhibition percent (IP) 29.9%) as well as the in vitro production of thiobarbituric acid (1 mL; IP 34.4%). The green dwarf variety, which is commonly used, was especially potent compared with another variety of coconut. In cell culture, green dwarf water protected against oxidative damage induced by hydrogen peroxide.

Micronutrients, such as inorganic ions and vitamins present in coconut water, play vital roles in helping the antioxidant defense system of the human body ( 58 ). Some evidence points toward an antioxidant action of coconut water. Thus, administering coconut water (6 mL/100 g of body weight) to female rats intoxicated with carbon tetrachloride recovered the action of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase and catalase levels) and decreased lipid peroxidation ( 59 ). Coconut water is also rich in L-arginine (30 mg/dL), which significantly reduces the generation of free radicals ( 60 ) and has antioxidant activity ( 61 ), as well as ascorbic acid (15 mg/100 mL), which decreases lipid peroxidation in rats ( 62 ).

In summary, many parts of C. nucifera plants have proven to contain phenolic compounds and flavonoids that support antioxidant activity.

Antineoplastic activity

Different molecular weight fractions of husk fiber aqueous extracts of C. nucifera (typical A variety, commonly known as “olho-de-cravo”, and the common variety) were tested on human erythroleukemia cell line K562 and Lucena 1, a multidrug-resistant (MDR) and vincristine-resistant derivative of K562. Both varieties showed cytotoxicity against K562 cells and decreased by 50% the viability and anti-MDR activity of Lucena 1 cells. In both varieties, the antitumoral activity was concentrated in fractions with molecular weights between 1 and 10 kDa ( 63 ).

There is great potential for future research on antineoplastic activity, as only one study has been reported. Because coconut is extensively cultivated in Brazil and its fiber is often discarded, it may offer an inexpensive source for new antineoplastic drugs.

Antiparasitic activity

The antihelminthic activity of liquid extract of the bark of the green coconut (LBGC), as well as butanol extract obtained from LBGC, was tested on mouse intestinal nematodes ( 28 ). Thirty-six naturally infected mice were distributed into 6 treatment groups as follows: group I, 1000 mg/kg of LBGC; group II, 2000 mg/kg of LBGC; group III, 500 mg/kg of butanol extract; group IV, 1000 mg/kg of butanol extract; group V, 0.56 mg/kg febendazole; and group VI, 3% dimethylsulfoxide. The LBGC did not show antihelminthic activity against the mouse nematodes compared with the negative control group (P>0.05). However, the butanol extract at 500 and 1000 mg/kg had mean efficacy of 62.72% and 98.36%, respectively (P<0.05).

The ovicidal and larvicidal activity of the liquid from the coconut husk (LCCV) and butanolic LCCV extract were also tested against Haemonchus contortus ( 28 ). In egg hatching and larval development tests, 2.5 mg/mL LCCV and 10 mg/mL butanolic extract showed 100% ovicidal activity. Their larvicidal effects were 81.30% and 99.80% at 65 and 80 mg/mL, respectively.

These results suggest that coconut extracts can be used to control gastrointestinal nematodes and that more studies are needed to evaluate their use in humans.

Anti- Leishmania activity

The in vitro leishmanicidal effects of C. nucifera on Leishmania amazonensis were evaluated ( 33 ). The polyphenolic-rich extract obtained from coconut husk fiber completely inhibited the cellular growth of L. amazonensis promastigote forms (MIC 10 μg/mL) and killed 100% of both developmental stages of the parasite after 60 min (at 10 and 20 μg/mL). In addition, pretreatment of mouse peritoneal macrophages with 10 μg/mL of C. nucifera polyphenolic-rich extract reduced by approximately 44% their rate of association with L. amazonensis promastigotes with a simultaneous increase of 182% in nitric oxide production by macrophages compared with untreated macrophages.

Ethyl acetate extract (EAE) from husk fiber water was tested against L. braziliensis infected hamsters ( 35 ). Administering EAE (0.2 mL, 300 mg/kg) for 21 consecutive days did not reduce edema of infected footpad nor the weight of lymph node drainage but reduced skin lesions after 14 days.

These results offer new promise for the development of drugs against leishmaniasis from coconut extracts because of their potent effects and the absence of in vivo allergic reactions or in vitro cytotoxic effects in mammalian systems. Further studies with these and other species of the parasite are necessary to elucidate the role of C. nucifera in eliminating this etiological agent and its healing activity.

Depressant and anticonvulsant activity

Ethanol extract of root of C. nucifera (EECN) at 40, 60, and 80 mg/kg, ip, significantly enhanced the duration of sleep induced by pentobarbital (40 mg/kg, ip ), diazepam (3 mg/kg, ip ), and meprobamate (100 mg/kg, ip ) in mice, suggesting a probable depressive action on the central nervous system ( 41 ). The anticonvulsant action of EECN was also observed in pentylenetetrazole-induced seizure models. In the animals treated with 25 mg/kg, ip , EECN, 60.7% had seizures and died 30 min later. In the group that received EECN at 80 mg/kg, ip , no animals had seizures or died, even after 24 h. The components responsible for this depressant activity need to be identified, as well as the mechanism involved in this action. Research on the toxicity of these extracts is also warranted to guarantee the safety of possible future treatments.

Renal protective activity

Coconut water had prophylactic action against nephrolithiasis in an experiment with a Wistar rat model ( 64 ). Rats were divided into three groups. Group I (control) was fed standard rat diet. Group II was administered 0.75% ethylene glycol in drinking water to induce nephrolithiasis. Group III was given coconut water in addition to ethylene glycol. All treatments lasted 7 weeks. Analysis of urine samples revealed a drastic decrease in the number of calcium oxalate crystals in group III compared with group II. Coconut water also significantly lowered the levels of creatinine and urea in group III animals, significantly reduced lipid peroxidation (group II: 38.99±3.36 mol MDA/mg protein/15 min; group III: 27.68±2.45 mol MDA/mg protein/15 min) and decreased the enzyme activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase. These results demonstrate that coconut water has important properties against urolithiasis and therefore must be investigated as a potential treatment for this condition.

Antimalarial activity

Antimalarial activity of different crude methanol extracts (50, 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg, treated orally) was investigated in vivo against Plasmodium berghei (NK65) in mice during early, established, and residual infections. Chloroquine (20 mg/kg) and pyrimethamine (1.2 mg/kg) were used as reference drugs. The methanol white flesh extract of C. nucifera produced a dose-dependent chemotherapeutic activity in all three in vivo -assessment models. In the established malaria infection, there was a significant (P<0.05) decrease after treatment with the extract (200 and 400 mg/kg) compared to the reference drug for the treatment of the disease ( 25 ). These results suggest that the Malaysian folkloric medicinal application of C. nucifera has a pharmacological basis; however, chloroquine was much more effective at suppression and curing, and the extract did not increase the survival time of infected mice, indicating the need for additional studies to elucidate how C. nucifera can be used to treat malaria.

In another study, the antimalarial and toxicity potentials of husk fiber extracts of five Nigerian varieties of C. nucifera were evaluated in vitro . The results showed that only the West African Tall ethyl acetate extract fraction (WATEAEF) was active against P. falciparum W2 strain with a selectivity index of 30.3. The phytochemicals present in the WATEAEF were alkaloids, tannins, and flavonoids. The same extract fraction was active in vivo against P. berghei NK65, causing more than 50% reduction in parasitemia on days 4 and 6 after inoculation at various doses. However, parasitemia varied on days 8 and 10, and results with WATEAEF were no better than with chloroquine. Additionally, treatment with 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight WATEAEF significantly increased (P<0.05) plasma creatinine concentration compared with controls ( 65 ). Despite the reduction in parasitemia, the extract cannot yet be considered an appropriate treatment for malaria. More studies are needed to clarify the adverse effects and effectiveness of the coconut extracts, especially in infections caused by P. falciparum (the main agent in humans).

Antitrichomonal activity

The crude methanol extracts of 22 plants used in Mexican folk medicine were tested in vitro against Trichomonas vaginalis . The susceptibility tests were performed using a previously described subculture method ( 66 ). Trophozoites (4×10 4 ) were incubated for 48 h at 37°C in the presence of different concentrations (2.5–200 mg/mL) of the crude extracts in DMSO. Each test included metronidazole as a positive control, a negative control (culture medium plus trophozoites and DMSO), and a blank (culture medium). The experiments were performed in duplicate and repeated at least three times. The crude methanol extract of C. nucifera husk fiber demonstrated excellent antitrichomonal activity (IC 50 value of 5.8 μg/mL), standing out among the other tested plants, although the activity was less than that of metronidazole. Further research is needed to isolate the substances responsible for this activity and to test appropriate doses so that they can be used in the treatment of trichomoniasis ( 24 ).

Cardioprotective activity

An important biological action of coconut was demonstrated using an experimental model of myocardial infarction induced by isoproterenol in rats ( 67 ). Feeding these animals with tender coconut water (West Coast Tall variety) protected against the induction of myocardial infarction and decreased mitochondrial lipid peroxidation.

In another study, dietary coconut sprout (West Coast Tall variety) was tested on isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in rats ( 68 ). There was a decrease in the levels of cardiac markers (CK-MB and troponin-T) in serum of the group pretreated with coconut sprout (50, 100, or 200 mg/100 g body weight) orally for 45 days. Rats fed with 100 mg/100 g body weight showed better results than other treatment groups. In addition, pretreatment with coconut sprout decreased oxidative stress in the heart and increased antioxidant status. Biochemical analyses showed that sprouts contains bioactive components, such as vitamins, alkaloids, and polyphenols.

Tender coconut water could also reduce total cholesterol, very-low density lipoprotein, low density lipoprotein, and triglyceride levels in serum ( 69 ). Administering coconut water (4 mL/100 g body weight) in male rats counteracted the increases in these substances promoted by cholesterol feeding.

The results presented here support the cardioprotective effects of coconut water. Its administration could reduce oxidative stress and cell damage in animals with induced myocardial infarction and reverse increases in cholesterol levels in animals fed high-fat diets. Therefore, further research is warranted on its potential use to prevent a second ischemic event or in the treatment of dyslipidemic states.

Hepatoprotective activity

The hepatoprotective effect of tender coconut water was investigated in carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4 )-intoxicated female rats. The animals were divided into three groups: normal control rats, CCl 4 -treated control rats, and tender coconut water pretreated rats intoxicated with CCl 4 . Carbon tetrachloride caused elevated serum glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase and glutamate pyruvate transaminase levels and also lead to liver necrosis and fatty liver, while rats pretreated with coconut water showed decreased activities of these enzymes ( 59 ). With only one report describing these effects, there remains room to develop studies to define the real role of C. nucifera in this action.

Antidiabetic activity

The antidiabetic activity of purified coconut kernel protein (CPK) was evaluated in alloxan-induced diabetes (150 mg/kg body weight, ip ) ( 70 ). CPK was isolated from dried coconut kernel and administered to Sprague-Dawley rats with a semi-synthetic diet for 45 days. It attenuated the increase in glucose and insulin levels in these diabetic rats. Glycogen levels in the liver and the activities of carbohydrate-metabolizing enzymes in the serum of treated diabetic rats reverted to normal levels compared with healthy control animals. Histopathology revealed that CPK feeding also reduced the diabetes-related pancreatic damage in treated rats compared with the diabetic control. These results are probably due to the effects of CPK on pancreatic β cell regeneration through arginine, an important amino acid found at high concentrations in CPK by HPLC.

The effects of mature coconut water were also evaluated and compared with glibenclamide in alloxan-induced diabetic rats ( 71 ). Treatment of diabetic rats with lyophilized mature coconut water (1000 mg/kg body weight) or glibenclamide (0.6 mg/kg body weight) reduced blood glucose levels (129.23±1.95 and 120±2.3 mg/dL, respectively) when compared with the untreated control (275.32±4.25 mg/dL). Coconut water also increased insulin levels and liver glycogen concentrations and reduced glycated hemoglobin levels in diabetic rats. In addition, elevated levels of liver function enzymes markers like alkaline phosphatase, serum glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase, and serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase in diabetic rats were significantly reduced upon treatment with mature coconut water. It was also observed that diabetic rats showed altered levels of blood urea, serum creatinine, and albumin, and the albumin/globulin ratio was significantly reversed by treatment with mature coconut water and glibenclamide.

Administering immature coconut inflorescence methanol extract (West Coast Tall variety) to diabetic rats significantly reduced fasting glucose levels and increased insulin levels compared with a diabetic control ( 72 ). The 200 mg/kg body weight dose showed better antihyperglycemic effects than other doses.

These studies demonstrated that different parts of C. nucifera can benefit diabetic rats, similar to oral hypoglycemic agents currently used clinically to control diabetes. Therefore, clinical trials and biochemical analyzes are recommended to isolate the compounds responsible for these actions and to establish them as drugs.

Effects on bone structure

VCO was investigated in postmenopausal osteoporosis rats to determine its effects on bone microarchitecture ( 73 ). Rats were supplemented with VCO (8% mixed with the standard rat chow diet) for 6 weeks. VCO administration significantly increased bone volume, prevented a reduction in trabecular number, and lowered the trabecular separation compared with the ovariectomized control. Bone histology revealed that the trabecular bones of the ovariectomized group appeared to be sparser and less dense than in the group treated with VCO. Treatment of ovariectomized rats with VCO seemed to reverse the effects of estrogen deficiency on bone structure. With only one report on the anti-osteoporosis activity of C. nucifera available, there is a need for further studies.

Antihypertensive activity

The anti-hypertensive activity of an ethanolic extract of C. nucifera endocarp (EEC) using the deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA) salt-induced model of hypertension was observed. Administering EEC significantly reduced the mean systolic blood pressure in DOCA salt-induced hypertensive rats (from 185.3±4.7 to 145.6±6.1 mm Hg). This effect was attributed to the direct activation of the nitric oxide/guanylate cyclase pathway as well as stimulation of muscarinic receptors and/or the cyclooxygenase pathway. These activities can be explained by the presence of phenolic compounds and flavonoids in the extract used ( 74 ). Based on these results, C. nucifera should be studied further for its potential use against cardiovascular diseases.

Several studies have investigated the toxicological properties of C. nucifera. One paper verified the effect of ethyl acetate extract of C. nucifera fiber on physiological parameters and on topical inflammation induced by xylene in animal models ( 75 ). Regarding the physiological parameters and macroscopic aspects of the lymphoid organs in this study, neither mortality nor any symptom of toxicity was observed in the animals.

The possible toxic effects of crude extract, F1, and F2 (see above) of C. nucifera mesocarp were evaluated in mice ( 44 ). The oral treatment of mice over 5 days with a single dose (500 mg/kg) caused no behavioral changes. No injury or bleeding stomachs were observed.

Another study evaluated the toxicity of a methanol extract of C. nucifera endocarp ( 25 ). Five female and five male mice received a single dose orally (5000 mg/kg) of this extract. All male and female rats were observed for signs of toxicity and mortality on the day of dosing; at 1, 3, and 4 h after administration; and then twice daily for 14 days. No signs of toxicity and mortality were recorded, and all animals gained weight during the observation period.

Acute, subchronic, and chronic toxicity from liquid mesocarp of green coconut (LMGC) and butanol extract obtained from the LMGC were tested in mice and rats ( 28 ). No acute lethal effects were observed in mice receiving a dose of 3000 mg/kg orally of either extract. In contrast, when LMGC and butanol extract were administered intraperitoneally at doses of 500 and 700 mg/kg, no animal survived. In subchronic toxicity tests, the rats treated with LBGC had significantly higher white blood cell, neutrophil, red blood cell, hematocrit, and platelet counts. In the chronic toxicity test, the group treated with LBGC showed higher values for neutrophils, white blood cells, basophils, and platelets (P<0.05). However, in the subchronic and chronic toxicity tests, no hematological parameters differed significantly in the group treated with butanol extract (P>0.05). Only triglycerides were higher (P<0.05) in the group treated with LBGC during the chronic toxicity test. Rats treated with both extracts had no histopathological changes related to toxicity, nor did weight gain differ between treated and control groups (P>0.05). In conclusion, both extracts showed low toxicity for those parameters.

Cocos nucifera is a widely dispersed plant that has important pharmacological effects with low toxicity. Furthermore, medicinal use of C. nucifera has an environmental appeal, since this plant is widely used in the food industry and use of discarded plant parts will reduce waste and pollution. The pharmacological effects of the plant differ according to the part of the plant or fruit used. Antioxidant activity predominated in the constituents of the endocarp and coconut water. In addition, the fiber showed antibacterial, antiparasitic, and anti-inflammatory activities. Only the ethanolic extract of the root had depressant and anticonvulsant action on the central nervous system. Coconut water seems to have protective effects, e.g., on the kidney and heart, and antioxidant activity, as well as a hypoglycemic effect.

Some limitations of the studies on C. nucifera must be acknowledged. First, the studies have focused on the effects of different parts of the plant but without demonstrating the mechanisms underlying these actions. Second, formulations based on parts of the plant must be developed to conduct clinical trials.

Considering the diversity of pharmacological properties, future research into C. nucifera should be encouraged. The main goals should be to isolate specific compounds, to clarify the mechanisms involved in the pharmacological effects, and to investigate possible toxic effects to produce safe phytotherapies.

Several factors may limit such studies. Geographical and seasonal variations among countries and regions can influence the chemical composition of the studied material. Therefore, standardized procedures for collecting samples and quantifying compounds should be used to assure the reproducibility of results.

Supplementary Material

Acknowledgments.

This study was supported by CNPq, CAPES, and the Ceará Foundation for the support of scientific and technological development (FUNCAP).

First published online.