role of the researcher in qualitative research sample

The Role of the Qualitative Researcher

In the following, we'll explore how the researcher conducting qualitative research becomes responsible for maintaining the rigor and credibility of various aspects of the research. In a way, this is analogous to the role statistics, validated and reliable instruments, and standardized measures and methods play in quantitative research.

After reviewing this document, you will be able to:

• Compare the role of the qualitative researcher with the role of standardized instruments, measures, and methods in quantitative analysis.
• Monitoring and reducing bias,
• Developing competence in one's methods,
• Collecting the data,
• Analyzing the data, and
• Presenting the findings.

Integrity of the Research is the Issue

Recall from other qualitative courses that qualitative researchers are as concerned about the integrity of their research as quantitative researchers, but they face different challenges. Before examining how the researcher is key to research integrity in qualitative research, let's note some terminology differences between the methodologies. The below provides them at a glance. These are terms related to research integrity:

In Quantitative: designs, validity, reliability, and generalizability (or external validity) are based on the integrity of the design, and of the methods, and instruments used, and only to a lesser extent to the person of the researcher.

In Qualitative: on the other hand, credibility, dependability, and transferability rely on the person and performance of the researcher.

This is why we talk about the role of the researcher in qualitative research.

The Integrity of the Research Equals The Integrity of the Researcher

Of course, this is true of both quantitative and qualitative research. Researchers make errors, and these threaten the validity, reliability, and utility of their studies.

Qualitative researchers, however, lack many of the protections against errors that the statistical methods, standardized measures, and classical designs afford. They must rely on their own competence, openness, and honesty. That is, on their person. Thus, their role, the role of the researcher is more open to scrutiny.

Role of Researcher: Monitoring and Reducing Bias

Bias is a source of error. When a quantitative researcher administers a standardized test, bias is less a problem than when a qualitative researcher has a conversation with a participant. Why?

The researcher's ideas—about the study, her knowledge, about the topic from the literature review, hopes for the study, and simply human distractibility—crop up constantly and can distort what she hears. Confirmation bias—(the name for this) afflicts quantitative researchers, too, but more often when they are analyzing data and seeing what they are disposed to see. Qualitative researchers, whose human brains are trained to find meaning in everything, encounter confirmation bias in every interaction with both participants and data.

Therefore, monitoring and reducing one's disposition to interpret too quickly is an essential part of the researcher's role. Qualitative researchers have evolved a variety of methods for this, such as the famous phenomenological reduction and epoché, but every design within qualitative methodology requires an explicit description of how the researcher will remain conscious of his or her previous knowledge and dispositions and how he or she will control the intrusion of bias.

For example, many qualitative researchers practice mindfulness meditation as a means to become aware when their thoughts are about previous knowledge rather than open and receptive to the information from the participant.

Role of Researcher: Developing Competence in Methods

Many novice researchers think they are competent to do qualitative research. Unfortunately, they are usually wrong.

Qualitative methods, like quantitative methods, require implementing specialized skills correctly. Competence in these skills is required at all these points:

• Explaining the study without biasing the potential participants.
• Conducting interviews properly, according to the design.
• Making appropriate field observations.
• Selecting appropriate artifacts, images, journal portions, and so on.
• Handling data per design.
• Analyzing and interpreting the data per the design.

This competence is not taught in most methods courses; novice researchers are often expected to obtain training and practice on their own. What should they do?

Here are some ideas, although they are not prescriptions and you may find many other ways to develop competence.

The first step: is to self-assess your competence. Assume you do not have competence in each of the skill areas unless you have demonstrated it to someone who knows. If you perform interviews of clients, for example, but have never been taught to do interviews for research, assume you do not have the competence until a researcher who uses interviews tells you that you do.

The next step: is to talk with your mentor— about a plan to get training. For example, many learners who need to demonstrate competence in qualitative interviews do a few practice interviews and ask their mentors to critique their technique. The coaching not only amounts to a kind of training, but the mentor can then attest to the researcher's baseline competence. Another common plan is to attend training workshops in the actual design—such as grounded theory—conducted in research organizations or universities.

For each skill set your design requires you to have, including practicing the analysis methods, create a training plan that includes demonstrating competence to someone.

Is this more work? Maybe so, maybe not. If you were conducting a multiple regression analysis and did not know how to do that, you'd have to learn it, practice it, and demonstrate your competence to someone. So, it's all a matter of perspective.

Role of Researcher: Collecting and Analyzing Data

There are far too many complications in collecting and analyzing qualitative data to cover in this presentation. Have you ever:

• Wired someone with a microphone and inadvertently touched a sensitive body part?
• Sat in a schoolyard to make field observations amid the chaos and swirl of 200 hundred children at recess and known where to start?
• Been confronted with 500 pages of a single-spaced transcript and, known where to start?
• Brought a straying interviewee back to the topic in a way that not only did not offend but actually improved rapport?
• Asked questions that didn't betray what you think the answer should be?
• Sorted through 10,000 sentences or 500 pictures to identify which ones should be retained as data and which ones could be discarded?
• Recognized when you have an actual finding. In other words, can you spot a finding in qualitative analysis?

These are but a few of the challenges that the qualitative researcher faces. Are you ready? Probably not. What should you do?

• Acknowledge that you are a novice. A dissertation is an apprenticeship or internship in research. No one expects the apprentice or intern to be a master.
• Committee members.
• Other dissertators, those in your mentor's courseroom, but also others around the world. Read similar dissertations and write to their authors asking for tips and tricks. Authors love knowing that someone is reading their work.
• Professional researchers. These professionals are scholars, and they will help, at least many of them will. Two or three e-mails that yield excellent advice—and perhaps an ongoing relationship—are well worth the investment of anxiety and time.

Role of Researcher: Presenting the Findings

Most of us present findings in writing. While a few will also present their findings in posters and oral presentations, everyone in Track 3 will at least present them in writing.

Develop and demonstrate competence in writing!

Dr. James Meredith of the Capella Writing Program points out that you have to write your way out of the doctoral program.

Capella makes an extraordinary effort to provide support and instruction in scholarly writing, primarily through the Capella Writing Program and the Online Writing Center. Failing to take advantage of all these resources will result in your findings being sent back to you for revision. Why waste the time? Right now, you can and should start to make use of:

• The Scholarly Communications Guide; it's available in the Dissertation Research Seminar courseroom for you.
• Review and get familiar with the Dissertation Chapter Four Guide (qualitative or quantitative); this too is available in the Dissertation Milestone Resources area on iGuide. It offers a conventional way to structure the findings chapter of the dissertation. By learning it now, you'll have in mind a set of ideas about what sort of competence in writing and in analyzing your data you'll need at this point in the project.
• Resources for writing in the Capella Writing Program; these are broad and deep—you will be ignoring a treasure that would help you succeed if you fail to take advantage of these.
• And, perhaps most important, read dissertations and articles; read dozens in your specific methodology and design (for example, phenomenology or grounded theory). Get to know what other novice researchers are doing and how well they are doing it. Open your mind to learning from them, and remain critical of their errors and foibles: we all have them. Make it your goal to absorb the style and conventions of writers using your methodology and design.
• Learn APA style; again, Dr. Meredith reminds us that the correct use of APA format and style is an automatic claim to credibility! Remember that the converse is also true: APA errors, or even ignoring the format and style rules, automatically deprive your writing of credibility and trustworthiness.

We've covered the importance of evaluating your own role as the researcher, in the various elements of a qualitative study:

• Monitoring and reducing bias.
• Developing competence in one's methods.
• Collecting the data.
• Analyzing the data.

Doc. reference: phd_t3_u06s1_qualrole.html

Extract insights from Interviews. At Scale.

Role of the researcher in qualitative research example guide.

Home » Role of the Researcher in Qualitative Research Example Guide

The researcher role in qualitative research is often a dynamic and multifaceted experience. Researchers immerse themselves in the study environment, capturing the essence of participants' experiences and perspectives. This means that their influence on the research process can shape the findings and interpretations significantly.

Understanding the complexities of the researcher role is crucial for achieving valid and reliable results. With qualitative research, the researcher must balance their own preconceptions with the authenticity of participant voices. This balance fosters rich insights, making it essential to examine the impact of the researcher’s involvement, as it can lead to meaningful discoveries and deeper understanding of the nuanced human experiences being studied.

Exploring the Significance of the Researcher Role

The researcher role is paramount in qualitative research, serving as a bridge between participants and the data gathered. Researchers facilitate an understanding of individual experiences and the meanings those experiences hold. Their perspective shapes not only the study’s findings but also the interpretation of data, emphasizing the importance of their involvement throughout the research process.

In this capacity, the researcher must actively engage with participants, ensuring a trusting environment where genuine insights can emerge. This involves adopting various techniques such as active listening, open-ended questioning, and reflection. Methodological choices made by researchers significantly impact the validity and depth of findings, showcasing their critical role in shaping outcomes. By maintaining awareness of their biases and perspectives, researchers can foster a rich dialogue that enhances the authenticity of collected data, ultimately leading to more reliable and nuanced conclusions.

Researcher Role in Data Collection

The Researcher Role in Data Collection is central to qualitative research. Researchers must immerse themselves in the data-gathering process, ensuring accuracy and depth. They interact closely with participants, developing rapport and trust, which are essential for capturing authentic responses. Through effective communication, researchers can gain insights that reflect the participants' true experiences and emotions.

Additionally, researchers have the responsibility of organizing and analyzing the collected data. This involves transcribing interviews and coding responses, identifying themes or patterns that emerge. Understanding the context within which the data is collected helps in drawing accurate conclusions. Through careful analysis, researchers can turn raw data into valuable insights that inform decisions and drive understanding in their respective fields. Thus, the Researcher Role extends beyond mere data collection to include analysis and interpretation, forming the backbone of qualitative research integrity.

Researcher Role in Data Analysis

In qualitative research, the researcher plays a critical role in data analysis, guiding the interpretation of findings. This process is not simply about collecting data but involves a deep engagement with the material gathered. Researchers must immerse themselves in the narratives and themes that emerge from interviews and observations, seeking insight beyond the surface.

The researcher's responsibility includes organizing data, identifying patterns, and extracting meaningful themes. This often involves employing tools, such as a research matrix, which can synthesize multiple interviews, presenting findings in a structured manner. As researchers analyze the qualitative data, their subjectivity and lived experiences influence the interpretation. Therefore, they must remain cognizant of biases and strive to maintain objectivity throughout the analysis. Ultimately, the success of qualitative research hinges on the researcher’s ability to skillfully navigate and articulate the findings drawn from complex data sets.

Examples of Researcher Roles in Qualitative Studies

In qualitative studies, the researcher plays several essential roles that shape the research outcomes. Firstly, the researcher often acts as a facilitator during interviews or focus groups, creating a comfortable environment that encourages participants to share their thoughts candidly. This role requires active listening and the ability to ask probing questions that elicit deeper insights. Secondly, the researcher may also serve as an analyst, meticulously examining and interpreting the qualitative data collected to identify patterns and themes.

Additionally, the researcher role can include being a participant observer, immersing themselves within the study context to gain firsthand experience. This enables a richer understanding of the participants' perspectives. Another significant role is that of a storyteller, where the researcher crafts narratives that effectively communicate the findings to diverse audiences. By fulfilling these roles, researchers enhance the reliability and depth of qualitative research, ensuring that the insights gained are meaningful and actionable.

Case Study of an Ethnographic Researcher Role

The researcher role in ethnographic studies is pivotal for gathering in-depth insights into specific cultural or social groups. Ethnographic researchers immerse themselves in these environments, often participating in daily activities and building trust with individuals. This process allows researchers to collect rich qualitative data, revealing patterns, behaviors, and values that are often overlooked in traditional research methods.

In this case study, the role of the researcher transcends merely observing. It involves active engagement and meaningful interactions with participants. Researchers must remain adaptable, sensitive to the dynamics of social settings, and aware of how their presence may influence the environment. Their experience shapes the analysis and interpretation of data, providing a nuanced understanding of the subject matter. This comprehensive approach ensures that the insights gained are both authentic and relevant, ultimately enriching the overall findings of the research project.

Case Study of a Phenomenological Researcher Role

The role of the researcher in a phenomenological study is central to understanding human experiences. A phenomenological researcher is deeply involved in capturing participants' lived experiences, interpreting their meanings, and providing rich, detailed insights. This entails building trust and rapport with participants, ensuring they feel comfortable to share their stories openly. Active listening and empathetic engagement are essential skills for creating an environment conducive to genuine expression.

Moreover, researchers must reflect continuously on their own perspectives, recognizing how personal biases might influence data interpretation. Maintaining a reflexive stance allows researchers to remain aware of their impact on the research process. Through careful data collection and analysis, a phenomenological researcher can unveil profound insights that contribute significantly to qualitative research. This intricate balance between personal involvement and professional detachment defines the researcher role within phenomenological studies.

Conclusion: Reflections on the Researcher Role in Qualitative Research

The researcher role in qualitative research goes beyond merely collecting data; it involves actively engaging with participants while balancing objectivity and subjectivity. As a researcher, one must reflect on their influences, biases, and perspectives, ensuring they do not skew the findings. Maintaining openness and self-awareness can lead to richer insights and a deeper understanding of the data.

Ultimately, the researcher’s role is to create a trustworthy environment where participants feel comfortable sharing their stories. This fosters genuine interactions that result in meaningful data. By embracing this complex role, researchers can contribute valuable knowledge and perspectives to their field, enriching the qualitative landscape.

Turn interviews into actionable insights

On this Page

Steps for Identifying Qualitative Research Type of Data Collected

You may also like, stages of coding in qualitative research: what to expect.

Types of Coding in Grounded Theory: What You Should Know

Steps for coding qualitative data: a complete guide.

Unlock Insights from Interviews 10x faster

• Request demo
• Get started for free

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on September 5, 2024.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Bhandari, P. (2024, September 05). What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 13, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-research/

Is this article helpful?

Pritha Bhandari

Other students also liked, qualitative vs. quantitative research | differences, examples & methods, how to do thematic analysis | step-by-step guide & examples, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Eur J Gen Pract
• v.24(1); 2018

Series: Practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 3: Sampling, data collection and analysis

Albine moser.

a Faculty of Health Care, Research Centre Autonomy and Participation of Chronically Ill People , Zuyd University of Applied Sciences , Heerlen, The Netherlands

b Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Department of Family Medicine , Maastricht University , Maastricht, The Netherlands

Irene Korstjens

c Faculty of Health Care, Research Centre for Midwifery Science , Zuyd University of Applied Sciences , Maastricht, The Netherlands

In the course of our supervisory work over the years, we have noticed that qualitative research tends to evoke a lot of questions and worries, so-called frequently asked questions (FAQs). This series of four articles intends to provide novice researchers with practical guidance for conducting high-quality qualitative research in primary care. By ‘novice’ we mean Master’s students and junior researchers, as well as experienced quantitative researchers who are engaging in qualitative research for the first time. This series addresses their questions and provides researchers, readers, reviewers and editors with references to criteria and tools for judging the quality of qualitative research papers. The second article focused on context, research questions and designs, and referred to publications for further reading. This third article addresses FAQs about sampling, data collection and analysis. The data collection plan needs to be broadly defined and open at first, and become flexible during data collection. Sampling strategies should be chosen in such a way that they yield rich information and are consistent with the methodological approach used. Data saturation determines sample size and will be different for each study. The most commonly used data collection methods are participant observation, face-to-face in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. Analyses in ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and content analysis studies yield different narrative findings: a detailed description of a culture, the essence of the lived experience, a theory, and a descriptive summary, respectively. The fourth and final article will focus on trustworthiness and publishing qualitative research.

Key points on sampling, data collection and analysis

• The data collection plan needs to be broadly defined and open during data collection.
• Sampling strategies should be chosen in such a way that they yield rich information and are consistent with the methodological approach used.
• Data saturation determines sample size and is different for each study.
• The most commonly used data collection methods are participant observation, face-to-face in-depth interviews and focus group discussions.
• Analyses of ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and content analysis studies yield different narrative findings: a detailed description of a culture, the essence of the lived experience, a theory or a descriptive summary, respectively.

Introduction

This article is the third paper in a series of four articles aiming to provide practical guidance to qualitative research. In an introductory paper, we have described the objective, nature and outline of the Series [ 1 ]. Part 2 of the series focused on context, research questions and design of qualitative research [ 2 ]. In this paper, Part 3, we address frequently asked questions (FAQs) about sampling, data collection and analysis.

What is a sampling plan?

A sampling plan is a formal plan specifying a sampling method, a sample size, and procedure for recruiting participants ( Box 1 ) [ 3 ]. A qualitative sampling plan describes how many observations, interviews, focus-group discussions or cases are needed to ensure that the findings will contribute rich data. In quantitative studies, the sampling plan, including sample size, is determined in detail in beforehand but qualitative research projects start with a broadly defined sampling plan. This plan enables you to include a variety of settings and situations and a variety of participants, including negative cases or extreme cases to obtain rich data. The key features of a qualitative sampling plan are as follows. First, participants are always sampled deliberately. Second, sample size differs for each study and is small. Third, the sample will emerge during the study: based on further questions raised in the process of data collection and analysis, inclusion and exclusion criteria might be altered, or the sampling sites might be changed. Finally, the sample is determined by conceptual requirements and not primarily by representativeness. You, therefore, need to provide a description of and rationale for your choices in the sampling plan. The sampling plan is appropriate when the selected participants and settings are sufficient to provide the information needed for a full understanding of the phenomenon under study.

Sampling strategies in qualitative research. Based on Polit & Beck [ 3 ].

Some practicalities: a critical first step is to select settings and situations where you have access to potential participants. Subsequently, the best strategy to apply is to recruit participants who can provide the richest information. Such participants have to be knowledgeable on the phenomenon and can articulate and reflect, and are motivated to communicate at length and in depth with you. Finally, you should review the sampling plan regularly and adapt when necessary.

What sampling strategies can I use?

Sampling is the process of selecting or searching for situations, context and/or participants who provide rich data of the phenomenon of interest [ 3 ]. In qualitative research, you sample deliberately, not at random. The most commonly used deliberate sampling strategies are purposive sampling, criterion sampling, theoretical sampling, convenience sampling and snowball sampling. Occasionally, the ‘maximum variation,’ ‘typical cases’ and ‘confirming and disconfirming’ sampling strategies are used. Key informants need to be carefully chosen. Key informants hold special and expert knowledge about the phenomenon to be studied and are willing to share information and insights with you as the researcher [ 3 ]. They also help to gain access to participants, especially when groups are studied. In addition, as researcher, you can validate your ideas and perceptions with those of the key informants.

What is the connection between sampling types and qualitative designs?

The ‘big three’ approaches of ethnography, phenomenology, and grounded theory use different types of sampling.

In ethnography, the main strategy is purposive sampling of a variety of key informants, who are most knowledgeable about a culture and are able and willing to act as representatives in revealing and interpreting the culture. For example, an ethnographic study on the cultural influences of communication in maternity care will recruit key informants from among a variety of parents-to-be, midwives and obstetricians in midwifery care practices and hospitals.

Phenomenology uses criterion sampling, in which participants meet predefined criteria. The most prominent criterion is the participant’s experience with the phenomenon under study. The researchers look for participants who have shared an experience, but vary in characteristics and in their individual experiences. For example, a phenomenological study on the lived experiences of pregnant women with psychosocial support from primary care midwives will recruit pregnant women varying in age, parity and educational level in primary midwifery practices.

Grounded theory usually starts with purposive sampling and later uses theoretical sampling to select participants who can best contribute to the developing theory. As theory construction takes place concurrently with data collection and analyses, the theoretical sampling of new participants also occurs along with the emerging theoretical concepts. For example, one grounded theory study tested several theoretical constructs to build a theory on autonomy in diabetes patients [ 4 ]. In developing the theory, the researchers started by purposefully sampling participants with diabetes differing in age, onset of diabetes and social roles, for example, employees, housewives, and retired people. After the first analysis, researchers continued with theoretically sampling, for example, participants who differed in the treatment they received, with different degrees of care dependency, and participants who receive care from a general practitioner (GP), at a hospital or from a specialist nurse, etc.

In addition to the ‘big three’ approaches, content analysis is frequently applied in primary care research, and very often uses purposive, convenience, or snowball sampling. For instance, a study on peoples’ choice of a hospital for elective orthopaedic surgery used snowball sampling [ 5 ]. One elderly person in the private network of one researcher personally approached potential respondents in her social network by means of personal invitations (including letters). In turn, respondents were asked to pass on the invitation to other eligible candidates.

Sampling is also dependent on the characteristics of the setting, e.g., access, time, vulnerability of participants, and different types of stakeholders. The setting, where sampling is carried out, is described in detail to provide thick description of the context, thereby, enabling the reader to make a transferability judgement (see Part 3: transferability). Sampling also affects the data analysis, where you continue decision-making about whom or what situations to sample next. This is based on what you consider as still missing to get the necessary information for rich findings (see Part 1: emergent design). Another point of attention is the sampling of ‘invisible groups’ or vulnerable people. Sampling of these participants would require applying multiple sampling strategies, and more time calculated in the project planning stage for sampling and recruitment [ 6 ].

How do sample size and data saturation interact?

A guiding principle in qualitative research is to sample only until data saturation has been achieved. Data saturation means the collection of qualitative data to the point where a sense of closure is attained because new data yield redundant information [ 3 ].

Data saturation is reached when no new analytical information arises anymore, and the study provides maximum information on the phenomenon. In quantitative research, by contrast, the sample size is determined by a power calculation. The usually small sample size in qualitative research depends on the information richness of the data, the variety of participants (or other units), the broadness of the research question and the phenomenon, the data collection method (e.g., individual or group interviews) and the type of sampling strategy. Mostly, you and your research team will jointly decide when data saturation has been reached, and hence whether the sampling can be ended and the sample size is sufficient. The most important criterion is the availability of enough in-depth data showing the patterns, categories and variety of the phenomenon under study. You review the analysis, findings, and the quality of the participant quotes you have collected, and then decide whether sampling might be ended because of data saturation. In many cases, you will choose to carry out two or three more observations or interviews or an additional focus group discussion to confirm that data saturation has been reached.

When designing a qualitative sampling plan, we (the authors) work with estimates. We estimate that ethnographic research should require 25–50 interviews and observations, including about four-to-six focus group discussions, while phenomenological studies require fewer than 10 interviews, grounded theory studies 20–30 interviews and content analysis 15–20 interviews or three-to-four focus group discussions. However, these numbers are very tentative and should be very carefully considered before using them. Furthermore, qualitative designs do not always mean small sample numbers. Bigger sample sizes might occur, for example, in content analysis, employing rapid qualitative approaches, and in large or longitudinal qualitative studies.

Data collection

What methods of data collection are appropriate.

The most frequently used data collection methods are participant observation, interviews, and focus group discussions. Participant observation is a method of data collection through the participation in and observation of a group or individuals over an extended period of time [ 3 ]. Interviews are another data collection method in which an interviewer asks the respondents questions [ 6 ], face-to-face, by telephone or online. The qualitative research interview seeks to describe the meanings of central themes in the life world of the participants. The main task in interviewing is to understand the meaning of what participants say [ 5 ]. Focus group discussions are a data collection method with a small group of people to discuss a given topic, usually guided by a moderator using a questioning-route [ 8 ]. It is common in qualitative research to combine more than one data collection method in one study. You should always choose your data collection method wisely. Data collection in qualitative research is unstructured and flexible. You often make decisions on data collection while engaging in fieldwork, the guiding questions being with whom, what, when, where and how. The most basic or ‘light’ version of qualitative data collection is that of open questions in surveys. Box 2 provides an overview of the ‘big three’ qualitative approaches and their most commonly used data collection methods.

Qualitative data collection methods.

What role should I adopt when conducting participant observations?

What is important is to immerse yourself in the research setting, to enable you to study it from the inside. There are four types of researcher involvement in observations, and in your qualitative study, you may apply all four. In the first type, as ‘complete participant’, you become part of the setting and play an insider role, just as you do in your own work setting. This role might be appropriate when studying persons who are difficult to access. The second type is ‘active participation’. You have gained access to a particular setting and observed the group under study. You can move around at will and can observe in detail and depth and in different situations. The third role is ‘moderate participation’. You do not actually work in the setting you wish to study but are located there as a researcher. You might adopt this role when you are not affiliated to the care setting you wish to study. The fourth role is that of the ‘complete observer’, in which you merely observe (bystander role) and do not participate in the setting at all. However, you cannot perform any observations without access to the care setting. Such access might be easily obtained when you collect data by observations in your own primary care setting. In some cases, you might observe other care settings, which are relevant to primary care, for instance observing the discharge procedure for vulnerable elderly people from hospital to primary care.

How do I perform observations?

It is important to decide what to focus on in each individual observation. The focus of observations is important because you can never observe everything, and you can only observe each situation once. Your focus might differ between observations. Each observation should provide you with answers regarding ‘Who do you observe?’, ‘What do you observe’, ‘Where does the observation take place?’, ‘When does it take place?’, ‘How does it happen?’, and ‘Why does it happen as it happens?’ Observations are not static but proceed in three stages: descriptive, focused, and selective. Descriptive means that you observe, on the basis of general questions, everything that goes on in the setting. Focused observation means that you observe certain situations for some time, with some areas becoming more prominent. Selective means that you observe highly specific issues only. For example, if you want to observe the discharge procedure for vulnerable elderly people from hospitals to general practice, you might begin with broad observations to get to know the general procedure. This might involve observing several different patient situations. You might find that the involvement of primary care nurses deserves special attention, so you might then focus on the roles of hospital staff and primary care nurses, and their interactions. Finally, you might want to observe only the specific situations where hospital staff and primary care nurses exchange information. You take field notes from all these observations and add your own reflections on the situations you observed. You jot down words, whole sentences or parts of situations, and your reflections on a piece of paper. After the observations, the field notes need to be worked out and transcribed immediately to be able to include detailed descriptions.

Further reading on interviews and focus group discussion.

Qualitative data analysis.

What are the general features of an interview?

Interviews involve interactions between the interviewer(s) and the respondent(s) based on interview questions. Individual, or face-to-face, interviews should be distinguished from focus group discussions. The interview questions are written down in an interview guide [ 7 ] for individual interviews or a questioning route [ 8 ] for focus group discussions, with questions focusing on the phenomenon under study. The sequence of the questions is pre-determined. In individual interviews, the sequence depends on the respondents and how the interviews unfold. During the interview, as the conversation evolves, you go back and forth through the sequence of questions. It should be a dialogue, not a strict question–answer interview. In a focus group discussion, the sequence is intended to facilitate the interaction between the participants, and you might adapt the sequence depending on how their discussion evolves. Working with an interview guide or questioning route enables you to collect information on specific topics from all participants. You are in control in the sense that you give direction to the interview, while the participants are in control of their answers. However, you need to be open-minded to recognize that some relevant topics for participants may not have been covered in your interview guide or questioning route, and need to be added. During the data collection process, you develop the interview guide or questioning route further and revise it based on the analysis.

The interview guide and questioning route might include open and general as well as subordinate or detailed questions, probes and prompts. Probes are exploratory questions, for example, ‘Can you tell me more about this?’ or ‘Then what happened?’ Prompts are words and signs to encourage participants to tell more. Examples of stimulating prompts are eye contact, leaning forward and open body language.

Further reading on qualitative analysis.

What is a face-to-face interview?

A face-to-face interview is an individual interview, that is, a conversation between participant and interviewer. Interviews can focus on past or present situations, and on personal issues. Most qualitative studies start with open interviews to get a broad ‘picture’ of what is going on. You should not provide a great deal of guidance and avoid influencing the answers to fit ‘your’ point of view, as you want to obtain the participant’s own experiences, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings. You should encourage the participants to speak freely. As the interview evolves, your subsequent major and subordinate questions become more focused. A face-to-face or individual interview might last between 30 and 90 min.

Most interviews are semi-structured [ 3 ]. To prepare an interview guide to enhance that a set of topics will be covered by every participant, you might use a framework for constructing a semi-structured interview guide [ 10 ]: (1) identify the prerequisites to use a semi-structured interview and evaluate if a semi-structured interview is the appropriate data collection method; (2) retrieve and utilize previous knowledge to gain a comprehensive and adequate understanding of the phenomenon under study; (3) formulate a preliminary interview guide by operationalizing the previous knowledge; (4) pilot-test the preliminary interview guide to confirm the coverage and relevance of the content and to identify the need for reformulation of questions; (5) complete the interview guide to collect rich data with a clear and logical guide.

The first few minutes of an interview are decisive. The participant wants to feel at ease before sharing his or her experiences. In a semi-structured interview, you would start with open questions related to the topic, which invite the participant to talk freely. The questions aim to encourage participants to tell their personal experiences, including feelings and emotions and often focus on a particular experience or specific events. As you want to get as much detail as possible, you also ask follow-up questions or encourage telling more details by using probes and prompts or keeping a short period of silence [ 6 ]. You first ask what and why questions and then how questions.

You need to be prepared for handling problems you might encounter, such as gaining access, dealing with multiple formal and informal gatekeepers, negotiating space and privacy for recording data, socially desirable answers from participants, reluctance of participants to tell their story, deciding on the appropriate role (emotional involvement), and exiting from fieldwork prematurely.

What is a focus group discussion and when can I use it?

A focus group discussion is a way to gather together people to discuss a specific topic of interest. The people participating in the focus group discussion share certain characteristics, e.g., professional background, or share similar experiences, e.g., having diabetes. You use their interaction to collect the information you need on a particular topic. To what depth of information the discussion goes depends on the extent to which focus group participants can stimulate each other in discussing and sharing their views and experiences. Focus group participants respond to you and to each other. Focus group discussions are often used to explore patients’ experiences of their condition and interactions with health professionals, to evaluate programmes and treatment, to gain an understanding of health professionals’ roles and identities, to examine the perception of professional education, or to obtain perspectives on primary care issues. A focus group discussion usually lasts 90–120 mins.

You might use guidelines for developing a questioning route [ 9 ]: (1) brainstorm about possible topics you want to cover; (2) sequence the questioning: arrange general questions first, and then, more specific questions, and ask positive questions before negative questions; (3) phrase the questions: use open-ended questions, ask participants to think back and reflect on their personal experiences, avoid asking ‘why’ questions, keep questions simple and make your questions sound conversational, be careful about giving examples; (4) estimate the time for each question and consider: the complexity of the question, the category of the question, level of participant’s expertise, the size of the focus group discussion, and the amount of discussion you want related to the question; (5) obtain feedback from others (peers); (6) revise the questions based on the feedback; and (7) test the questions by doing a mock focus group discussion. All questions need to provide an answer to the phenomenon under study.

You need to be prepared to manage difficulties as they arise, for example, dominant participants during the discussion, little or no interaction and discussion between participants, participants who have difficulties sharing their real feelings about sensitive topics with others, and participants who behave differently when they are observed.

How should I compose a focus group and how many participants are needed?

The purpose of the focus group discussion determines the composition. Smaller groups might be more suitable for complex (and sometimes controversial) topics. Also, smaller focus groups give the participants more time to voice their views and provide more detailed information, while participants in larger focus groups might generate greater variety of information. In composing a smaller or larger focus group, you need to ensure that the participants are likely to have different viewpoints that stimulate the discussion. For example, if you want to discuss the management of obesity in a primary care district, you might want to have a group composed of professionals who work with these patients but also have a variety of backgrounds, e.g. GPs, community nurses, practice nurses in general practice, school nurses, midwives or dieticians.

Focus groups generally consist of 6–12 participants. Careful time management is important, since you have to determine how much time you want to devote to answering each question, and how much time is available for each individual participant. For example, if you have planned a focus group discussion lasting 90 min. with eight participants, you might need 15 min. for the introduction and the concluding summary. This means you have 75 min. for asking questions, and if you have four questions, this allows a total of 18 min. of speaking time for each question. If all eight respondents participate in the discussion, this boils down to about two minutes of speaking time per respondent per question.

How can I use new media to collect qualitative data?

New media are increasingly used for collecting qualitative data, for example, through online observations, online interviews and focus group discussions, and in analysis of online sources. Data can be collected synchronously or asynchronously, with text messaging, video conferences, video calls or immersive virtual worlds or games, etcetera. Qualitative research moves from ‘virtual’ to ‘digital’. Virtual means those approaches that import traditional data collection methods into the online environment and digital means those approaches take advantage of the unique characteristics and capabilities of the Internet for research [ 10 ]. New media can also be applied. See Box 3 for further reading on interview and focus group discussion.

Can I wait with my analysis until all data have been collected?

You cannot wait with the analysis, because an iterative approach and emerging design are at the heart of qualitative research. This involves a process whereby you move back and forth between sampling, data collection and data analysis to accumulate rich data and interesting findings. The principle is that what emerges from data analysis will shape subsequent sampling decisions. Immediately after the very first observation, interview or focus group discussion, you have to start the analysis and prepare your field notes.

Why is a good transcript so important?

First, transcripts of audiotaped interviews and focus group discussions and your field notes constitute your major data sources. Trained and well-instructed transcribers preferably make transcripts. Usually, e.g., in ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, and content analysis, data are transcribed verbatim, which means that recordings are fully typed out, and the transcripts are accurate and reflect the interview or focus group discussion experience. Most important aspects of transcribing are the focus on the participants’ words, transcribing all parts of the audiotape, and carefully revisiting the tape and rereading the transcript. In conversation analysis non-verbal actions such as coughing, the lengths of pausing and emphasizing, tone of voice need to be described in detail using a formal transcription system (best known are G. Jefferson’s symbols).

To facilitate analysis, it is essential that you ensure and check that transcripts are accurate and reflect the totality of the interview, including pauses, punctuation and non-verbal data. To be able to make sense of qualitative data, you need to immerse yourself in the data and ‘live’ the data. In this process of incubation, you search the transcripts for meaning and essential patterns, and you try to collect legitimate and insightful findings. You familiarize yourself with the data by reading and rereading transcripts carefully and conscientiously, in search for deeper understanding.

Are there differences between the analyses in ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, and content analysis?

Ethnography, phenomenology, and grounded theory each have different analytical approaches, and you should be aware that each of these approaches has different schools of thought, which may also have integrated the analytical methods from other schools ( Box 4 ). When you opt for a particular approach, it is best to use a handbook describing its analytical methods, as it is better to use one approach consistently than to ‘mix up’ different schools.

In general, qualitative analysis begins with organizing data. Large amounts of data need to be stored in smaller and manageable units, which can be retrieved and reviewed easily. To obtain a sense of the whole, analysis starts with reading and rereading the data, looking at themes, emotions and the unexpected, taking into account the overall picture. You immerse yourself in the data. The most widely used procedure is to develop an inductive coding scheme based on actual data [ 11 ]. This is a process of open coding, creating categories and abstraction. In most cases, you do not start with a predefined coding scheme. You describe what is going on in the data. You ask yourself, what is this? What does it stand for? What else is like this? What is this distinct from? Based on this close examination of what emerges from the data you make as many labels as needed. Then, you make a coding sheet, in which you collect the labels and, based on your interpretation, cluster them in preliminary categories. The next step is to order similar or dissimilar categories into broader higher order categories. Each category is named using content-characteristic words. Then, you use abstraction by formulating a general description of the phenomenon under study: subcategories with similar events and information are grouped together as categories and categories are grouped as main categories. During the analysis process, you identify ‘missing analytical information’ and you continue data collection. You reread, recode, re-analyse and re-collect data until your findings provide breadth and depth.

Throughout the qualitative study, you reflect on what you see or do not see in the data. It is common to write ‘analytic memos’ [ 3 ], write-ups or mini-analyses about what you think you are learning during the course of your study, from designing to publishing. They can be a few sentences or pages, whatever is needed to reflect upon: open codes, categories, concepts, and patterns that might be emerging in the data. Memos can contain summaries of major findings and comments and reflections on particular aspects.

In ethnography, analysis begins from the moment that the researcher sets foot in the field. The analysis involves continually looking for patterns in the behaviours and thoughts of the participants in everyday life, in order to obtain an understanding of the culture under study. When comparing one pattern with another and analysing many patterns simultaneously, you may use maps, flow charts, organizational charts and matrices to illustrate the comparisons graphically. The outcome of an ethnographic study is a narrative description of a culture.

In phenomenology, analysis aims to describe and interpret the meaning of an experience, often by identifying essential subordinate and major themes. You search for common themes featuring within an interview and across interviews, sometimes involving the study participants or other experts in the analysis process. The outcome of a phenomenological study is a detailed description of themes that capture the essential meaning of a ‘lived’ experience.

Grounded theory generates a theory that explains how a basic social problem that emerged from the data is processed in a social setting. Grounded theory uses the ‘constant comparison’ method, which involves comparing elements that are present in one data source (e.g., an interview) with elements in another source, to identify commonalities. The steps in the analysis are known as open, axial and selective coding. Throughout the analysis, you document your ideas about the data in methodological and theoretical memos. The outcome of a grounded theory study is a theory.

Descriptive generic qualitative research is defined as research designed to produce a low inference description of a phenomenon [ 12 ]. Although Sandelowski maintains that all research involves interpretation, she has also suggested that qualitative description attempts to minimize inferences made in order to remain ‘closer’ to the original data [ 12 ]. Descriptive generic qualitative research often applies content analysis. Descriptive content analysis studies are not based on a specific qualitative tradition and are varied in their methods of analysis. The analysis of the content aims to identify themes, and patterns within and among these themes. An inductive content analysis [ 11 ] involves breaking down the data into smaller units, coding and naming the units according to the content they present, and grouping the coded material based on shared concepts. They can be represented by clustering in treelike diagrams. A deductive content analysis [ 11 ] uses a theory, theoretical framework or conceptual model to analyse the data by operationalizing them in a coding matrix. An inductive content analysis might use several techniques from grounded theory, such as open and axial coding and constant comparison. However, note that your findings are merely a summary of categories, not a grounded theory.

Analysis software can support you to manage your data, for example by helping to store, annotate and retrieve texts, to locate words, phrases and segments of data, to name and label, to sort and organize, to identify data units, to prepare diagrams and to extract quotes. Still, as a researcher you would do the analytical work by looking at what is in the data, and making decisions about assigning codes, and identifying categories, concepts and patterns. The computer assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDAS) website provides support to make informed choices between analytical software and courses: http://www.surrey.ac.uk/sociology/research/researchcentres/caqdas/support/choosing . See Box 5 for further reading on qualitative analysis.

The next and final article in this series, Part 4, will focus on trustworthiness and publishing qualitative research [ 13 ].

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the following junior researchers who have been participating for the last few years in the so-called ‘Think tank on qualitative research’ project, a collaborative project between Zuyd University of Applied Sciences and Maastricht University, for their pertinent questions: Erica Baarends, Jerome van Dongen, Jolanda Friesen-Storms, Steffy Lenzen, Ankie Hoefnagels, Barbara Piskur, Claudia van Putten-Gamel, Wilma Savelberg, Steffy Stans, and Anita Stevens. The authors are grateful to Isabel van Helmond, Joyce Molenaar and Darcy Ummels for proofreading our manuscripts and providing valuable feedback from the ‘novice perspective’.

Disclosure statement

The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the paper.

•  Sign into My Research
•  Create My Research Account
• Company Website
• Our Products
• About Dissertations
• Español (España)
• Support Center

Find your institution

Examples: State University, [email protected]

Other access options

• More options

Select language

• Bahasa Indonesia
• Português (Brasil)
• Português (Portugal)

Welcome to My Research!

You may have access to the free features available through My Research. You can save searches, save documents, create alerts and more. Please log in through your library or institution to check if you have access.

Translate this article into 20 different languages!

If you log in through your library or institution you might have access to this article in multiple languages.

Get access to 20+ different citations styles

Styles include MLA, APA, Chicago and many more. This feature may be available for free if you log in through your library or institution.

Looking for a PDF of this document?

You may have access to it for free by logging in through your library or institution.

Want to save this document?

You may have access to different export options including Google Drive and Microsoft OneDrive and citation management tools like RefWorks and EasyBib. Try logging in through your library or institution to get access to these tools.

• Document 1 of 1
• More like this
• Scholarly Journal

The role of the researcher in qualitative research and researcher diaries

No items selected.

Please select one or more items.

Select results items first to use the cite, email, save, and export options

[[missing key: loading-pdf-error]] [[missing key: loading-pdf-link]]

Nitel araştırmaların çoğalmasıyla beraber nitel araştırmacının sorumluluklarının da vurgulanması gündeme gelmektedir. Nitel araştırmacının nicel araştırmacıdan farklı rol ve sorumluluklara sahip olması beklenmektedir. Nitel araştırmanın etkin ve yararlı olması büyük ölçüde araştırmacının becerisine bağlıdır. Çünkü nicelden farklı olarak nitel araştırmalarda; araştırmacı sadece veri toplayıp çeşitli yöntemlerle analiz edip raporlama yapmamakta; araştırmanın kurgusuna dahil olup, empati kurmakta kimi zaman katılımcılarla beraber olay ve olguları deneyimlemekte ve bu sayede kazandığı bakış açısıyla sonuçları yorumlamaktadır. Araştırmacı günlüklerinin önemi tam da bu noktada ortaya çıkmaktadır. Araştırmacı, veri kaynağı ve kendisini bir üst bakışla değerlendirme kanalı olarak araştırmacı günlüklerini kullanabilmektedir. Günlüklerin, araştırma sürecinin nasıl yaşandığının bir anlamda içsel sunumunu ortaya koymaları bakımından sürece ve ürüne yönelik katkıları bulunmaktadır. Araştırmacı, çalışmasının bağlamını yansıtabilmek adına günlüğündeki alıntıları kullanarak yaşanılanların aktarımında projeksiyon görevini gerçekleştirirken; günlüğün geçmişe yönelik analize tabi tutulabilecek ürün olması önemli bir yardımcıdır. Araştırmacı günlükleri betimsel detayları yansıtmasının ötesinde, nitel araştırmalarda önemli olan “inandırıcılık” kavramının sağlanmasında da çok önemli bir veri kaynağıdır. Bu araştırmada nitel çalışmalarda araştırmacı günlüklerinin önemi ve gerekliliği tartışılmaktadır.

Alternate abstract:

With the proliferation of qualitative research, the responsibilities of the qualitative researcher are also emphasized. The qualitative researcher is expected to have different roles and responsibilities than the quantitative researcher. The effectiveness and usefulness of qualitative research largely depend on the researcher's skill. Because, unlike quantitative, in qualitative research, the researcher does not only collect data but also analyzes and reports with various methods, participates in the construction of the research, empathizes, sometimes experiences events and phenomena with the participants and interprets the results from the perspective he has gained in this way. The importance of researcher diaries emerges at this point. The researcher can use the researcher's diaries as a data source and as a channel for self-evaluation. The diaries contribute to the process and the product by revealing an internal presentation of how the research process was experienced. In order to reflect the context of his/her work, the researcher uses the quotes from his/her diary while performing the projection task in the transfer of experiences; It is an important help that the diary is a product that can be subjected to retrospective analysis. Beyond reflecting descriptive details, researcher diaries are also a very important data source in providing the concept of "credibility", which is important in qualitative research. This study discusses the importance and necessity of researcher diaries in qualitative studies.

You have requested "on-the-fly" machine translation of selected content from our databases. This functionality is provided solely for your convenience and is in no way intended to replace human translation. Show full disclaimer

Neither ProQuest nor its licensors make any representations or warranties with respect to the translations. The translations are automatically generated "AS IS" and "AS AVAILABLE" and are not retained in our systems. PROQUEST AND ITS LICENSORS SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIM ANY AND ALL EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMITATION, ANY WARRANTIES FOR AVAILABILITY, ACCURACY, TIMELINESS, COMPLETENESS, NON-INFRINGMENT, MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. Your use of the translations is subject to all use restrictions contained in your Electronic Products License Agreement and by using the translation functionality you agree to forgo any and all claims against ProQuest or its licensors for your use of the translation functionality and any output derived there from. Hide full disclaimer

Suggested sources

• About ProQuest
• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Cookie Policy

Problem of Practice Resources, EdD-LOC Program

• Literature Review
• Theoretical Frameworks
• Baylor EdD-LOC POP Examples

Researcher Positionality

• Instruments, Tests, & Measures
• Data Analysis
• Zotero This link opens in a new window

Researcher Perspective

Researcher positionality generally refers to what researchers know and believe about the world around them and is shaped by their experiences in social and political contexts. A researcher’s positionality shapes their interpretations, understandings, and beliefs about their own research, but also about other’s research. Positionality, therefore, is achieved through the disclosure of one’s background and experiences, but also through reflexivity in which the researcher understands how this plays a role in the research design and process (Tufford & Newman, 2012; Relles, 2016). “A researcher's background and position will affect what they choose to investigate, the angle of investigation, the methods judged most adequate for this purpose, the findings considered most appropriate, and the framing and communication of conclusions" (Malterud, 2001, p. 483-484). An important component of researcher positionality involves carefully identifying and articulating the nature of the relationship between the researcher and the research phenomenon, site, and participants.

Questions to consider in developing your own researcher perspective/positionality statement.

• How do you understand the research process and knowledge? (paradigm)
• Who are you, and what is your relationship to the research?
• What are your beliefs about this topic?
• Why are you personally interested in this study?
• Any history or personal interaction with this topic?
• What is your connection to your participants or site? Do you share any commonalities, identities, or experiences with your participants?
• What are your hopes for this study?
• How does your perspective and worldview inform your theoretical/conceptual framework?
• Is there anything else that is important for the reader to know about you?
• << Previous: Baylor EdD-LOC POP Examples
• Next: Instruments, Tests, & Measures >>
• Last Updated: Aug 12, 2024 12:05 PM
• URL: https://libguides.baylor.edu/eddpop

University Libraries

One Bear Place #97148 Waco, TX 76798-7148

(254) 710-6702

   Ask a Question

Copyright © Baylor® University . All rights reserved.

Report It | Title IX | Mental Health Resources | Anonymous Reporting | Legal Disclosures

Psychological resilience and valued living in difficult times: mixed method research in cultural context

• Published: 12 September 2024

Cite this article

• Feyza Topçu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5853-2670 1 &
• Mehmet Dinç   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9544-8999 1  

2 Altmetric

Valued living involves aligning one’s actions with one’s personal values, which can contribute to mental strength and psychological resilience. The present study aimed to examine the importance of living a valued life in maintaining mental strength, particularly during challenging times. In addition, it identifies the culturally relevant values that strengthen adults. Our study used both quantitative and qualitative methods. In the quantitative phase, 493 adults completed the following scales Valued Living Questionnaire (VLQ), Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale Short Form (CD-RISC-10), and Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21). We calculated Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient and used structural equation modeling (SEM) to conduct the path analysis. For the qualitative phase, we recruited 15 participants from a larger quantitative sample based on their scores obtained on administered scales and conducted in-depth interviews along with researcher’s journal and memos. Based on our quantitative findings, this study indicates that the concept of valued living serves as a mediating factor between psychological resilience and mental health outcomes. In our qualitative analysis, we identified certain values (e.g., acceptance, love, and goodwill) that serve to empower adults during challenging periods. The findings of this study are deemed to serve as a reference for the formulation and implementation of interventions intended to strengthen psychological resilience, from the viewpoints of both mental health specialists and psychological counselors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Role of Values and Resilience in Well-Being among Individuals Affected by the Fukushima Disaster

Valued living in daily experience: relations with mindfulness, meaning, psychological flexibility, and stressors.

Is Resilience the Bridge Connecting Social and Family Factors to Mental Well-Being and Life Satisfaction?

Explore related subjects.

• Artificial Intelligence

Data availability

The data sets used in the study can be provided upon request to the corresponding author.

Ağırkan, M., & Kağan, M. (2017). Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Değer Yönelimleri Ile Psikolojik Dayanıklılık Düzeyleri Arasındaki İlişki. Erzincan Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi , 19 (3), 225–245. https://doi.org/10.17556/erziefd.335063

Article   Google Scholar  

Ahmadi, N., Ahmadi, F., Erbil, P., & Cetrez, Ö. A. (2016). Religious meaning-making coping in Turkey: A study among cancer patients. Illness Crisis & Loss , 27 (3), 190–208.

Ahmadi, F., Erbil, P., Ahmadi, N., & Cetrez, Ö. A. (2019). Religion, culture and meaning-making coping: A study among cancer patients in Turkey. Journal of Religion and Health , 58 , 1115–1124.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Boer, D., & Fischer, R. (2013). How and when do personal values guide our attitudes and sociality? Explaining cross-cultural variability in attitude-value linkages. Psychological Bulletin , 139 (5), 1113–1147. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031347

Bojanowska, A., & Piotrowski, K. (2021). Two levels of personality: Temperament and values and their effects on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Current Psychology , 40 , 1185–1193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-0043-0

Campbell-Sills, L., & Stein, M. B. (2007). Psychometric analysis and refinement of the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC): Validation of a 10-item measure of resilience. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies , 20 (6), 1019–1028. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20271

Carvalho, S. A., Xavier, A., Gillanders, D., Pinto-Gouveia, J., & Castilho, P. (2021). Rumination and valued living in women with chronic pain: How they relate to the link between mindfulness and depressive symptoms. Current Psychology , 40 , 1411–1419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-0052-z

Ceary, C. D., Donahue, J. J., & Shaffer, K. (2019). The strength of pursuing your values: Valued living as a path to resilience among college students. Stress and Health , 35 (4), 532–541. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2886

Çekici, F., Aydın-Sünbül, Z., Malkoç, A., Aslan-Gördesli, M., & Arslan, R. (2018). Değer Odaklı Yaşam Ölçeği: Türk kültürüne uyarlama, geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Electronic Turkish Studies , 13 (19), 459–471. https://doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.14094

Cénat, J. M., Kouamou, L. N., Farahi, S. M. M. M., Darius, W. P., Dalexis, R. D., Charles, M., & Kogan, C. S. (2022). Perceived racial discrimination, psychosomatic symptoms, and resilience among black individuals in Canada: A moderated mediation model. Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 163 , 111053. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2022.111053

Chow, K. M., Tang, W. K. F., Chan, W. H. C., Sit, W. H. J., Choi, K. C., & Chan, S. (2018). Resilience and well-being of university nursing students in Hong Kong: A cross-sectional study. BMC Medical Education , 18 (1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-018-1119-0

Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety , 18 , 76–82. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.10113

Cooley, S. J., Quinton, M. L., Holland, M. J. G., Parry, B. J., & Cumming, J. (2019). The experiences of homeless youth when using strengths profiling to identify their character strengths. Frontiers in Psychology , 10 , 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02036

Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2015). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (4th ed.). SAGE.

Google Scholar  

Creswell, J. W., & Plano-Clark, V. L. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (1th ed.). SAGE.

Creswell, J. W., & Plano-Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). SAGE.

Creswell, J. W., & Plano-Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). SAGE.

Cross, S. E. (1995). Self-construals, coping, and stress in cross-cultural adaptation. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology , 26 (6), 673–697.

Deng, J., Zhou, R., & Yan, L. (2019). The relationship between conscience and subjective well-being among junior high school students: Mediator role of social support. Advances in Psychology , 9 (7), 1230–1239. https://doi.org/10.12677/ap.2019.97151

Eldem, E. (2013). Istanbul as a cosmopolitan city. In A. Quayson, & G. Daswani (Eds.), A companion to diaspora and transnationalism (pp. 212–230). Blackwell.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

EVS/WVS. (2022). European Values Study and World Values Survey: Joint EVS/WVS 2017–2022 Dataset (Joint EVS/WVS). JD Systems Institute & WVSA. Dataset Version 4.0.0. https://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSEVSjoint2017.jsp

Färber, F., & Rosendahl, J. (2018). The association between resilience and mental health in the somatically ill: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International , 115 (38), 621–627. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2018.0621

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Farnsworth, J. K., Drescher, K. D., Evans, W., & Walser, R. D. (2017). A functional approach to understanding and treating military-related moral injury. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science , 6 (4), 391–397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2017.07.003

Fischer, A. H., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2000). The relation between gender and emotions in different cultures. In A. Fischer (Ed.), Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 71–94). Cambridge University Press.

Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist , 56 (3), 218. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218

Gentili, C., Rickardsson, J., Zetterqvist, V., Simons, L. E., Lekander, M., & Wicksell, R. K. (2019). Psychological flexibility as a resilience factor in individuals with chronic pain. Frontiers in Psychology , 10 , 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02016

Greene, J. C. (2007). Mixed methods in social inquiry . Jossey-Bass.

Hall, N. A., Everson, A. T., Billingsley, M. R., & Miller, M. B. (2021). Moral injury, mental health and behavioural health outcomes: A systematic review of the literature. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy , 29 (1), 92–110. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2607

Hanel, P. H., Maio, G. R., Soares, A. K., Vione, K. C., de Holanda Coelho, G. L., Gouveia, V. V., & Manstead, A. S. (2018). Cross-cultural differences and similarities in human value instantiation. Frontiers in Psychology , 9 , 366179. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00849

Hayes, S. C. (2005). Get out of your mind and into your life: The new acceptance and commitment therapy . New Harbinger.

Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (3rd ed.). Mc Graw-Hill.

Howell Smith, M. C., Babchuk, W. A., Stevens, J., Garrett, A. L., Wang, S. C., & Guetterman, T. C. (2020). Modeling the use of mixed methods–grounded theory: Developing scales for a new measurement model. Journal of Mixed Methods Research , 14 (2), 184–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/155868981987259

Kaya, F., & Odacı, H. (2021). Connor-Davidson Psikolojik Sağlamlık ölçeği kısa Formu: Türkçe’ye uyarlama, geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. HAYEF: Journal of Education , 17 (2), 38–54. https://doi.org/10.5152/hayef.2021.20029

Kim, H. Y. (2013). Statistical notes for clinical researchers: Assessing normal distribution (2) using skewness and kurtosis. Restorative Dentistry & Endodontics , 38 (1), 52–54. https://doi.org/10.5395/rde.2013.38.1.52

Kuhar, M., & Zager Kocjan, G. (2022). Adverse childhood experiences and somatic symptoms in adulthood: A moderated mediation effects of disturbed self-organization and resilient coping. Psychological Trauma: Theory Research Practice and Policy , 14 (8), 1288–1298. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001040

Kuzulugil, Ş. (2010). A classification of Turkish cultural values . ICSS 2010 Proceedings.

Lazarus, R. S. (2000). Toward better research on stress and coping. American Psychological Association , 55 (6), 665–673. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.6.665

Lijadi, A. A. (2019). W hat are universally accepted human values that define ‘a good life’? Historical perspective of value theory. IIASA Working Paper . IIASA.

Lipowski, Z. J. (1988). Somatization: The concept and its clinical application. American Journal of Psychiatry , 145 (11), 1358–1368.

Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and anxiety inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33 (3), 335–343.

Maercker, A., Zhang, X. C., Gao, Z., Kochetkov, Y., Lu, S., Sang, Z., & Margraf, J. (2015). Personal value orientations as mediated predictors of mental health: A three-culture study of Chinese, Russian, and German university students. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology , 15 (1), 8–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2014.06.001

Martin, F., & Oliver, T. (2019). Behavioral activation for children and adolescents: A systematic review of progress and promise. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry , 28 , 427–441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-018-1126-z

Masten, A. S. (2014). Ordinary magic: Resilience in development . Guilford.

Miller, J. G. (1997). Cultural conceptions of duty. In D. Munro, J. E. Schumaker, & S. C. Carr (Eds.), Motivation and culture (pp. 178–192). Routledge.

Miller, A. N., & Orsillo, S. M. (2020). Values, acceptance, and belongingess in graduate school: Perspectives from underrepresented minority students. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science , 15 , 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2020.01.002

Motti-Stefanidi, F. (2018). Resilience among immigrant youth: The role of culture, development and acculturation. Developmental Review , 50 , 99–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2018.04.002

Ostermann, M., Huffziger, S., Kleindienst, N., Mata, J., Schmahl, C., Beierlein, C., & Lyssenko, L. (2017). Realization of personal values predicts mental health and satisfaction with life in a German population. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 36 (8), 651–674. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2017.36.8.651

Özcan, B., & Bulus, M. (2022). Protective factors associated with academic resilience of adolescents in individualist and collectivist cultures: Evidence from PISA 2018 large scale assessment. Current Psychology , 41 (4), 1740–1756. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02944-z

Özgen, N. (2015). Demographic development and some cultural characteristics of Anatolian Circassians. In E. Efe, M. Ayışığı, Ö. Düzbakar, & M. Arslan (Eds.), Turkey at the Beginning of 21st Century: Past and present (pp. 394–422). St. Kliment Ohridski University Press Sofia.

Patterson, J. H., Collins, L., & Abbott, G. (2004). A study of teacher resilience in urban schools. Journal of Instructional Psychology , 31 (1), 3–11.

Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification . Oxford University Press.

Plumb, J. C., Stewart, I., Dahl, J., & Lundgren, T. (2009). In search of meaning: Values in modern clinical behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst , 32 , 85–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03392177

Ran, L., Wang, W., Ai, M., Kong, Y., Chen, J., & Kuang, L. (2020). Psychological resilience, depression, anxiety, and somatization symptoms in response to COVID-19: A study of the general population in China at the peak of its epidemic. Social Science & Medicine , 262 , 113261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113261

Ruiz, F. J., Suárez-Falcón, J. C., Segura‐Vargas, M. A., & ve Gil‐Luciano, B. (2021). Psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Valuing Questionnaire in Colombian clinical and nonclinical samples. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 78 (2), 233–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23212

Sahare, P., & Kotnala, A. (2022). Effectiveness of spiritual augmented psychotherapy on resilience and conscience on juvenile delinquents. Yoga Mimamsa , 54 (2), 56–61. https://doi.org/10.4103/ym.ym_124_22

Schwartz, S. H. (2012). An overview of the Schwartz theory of basic values. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture , 2 (1), 2307–0919. https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1116

Sebre, S., Miltuze, A., & Bite, I. (2014). Resilience in relation to self-direction values and anxious/depressed symptoms across the life span. Poster session presentation at the meeting of the 16th European Conference on Developmental Pscyhology, Switzerland .

Shim, M., Johnson, B., Bradt, J., & Gasson, S. (2021). A mixed methods–grounded theory design for producing more refined theoretical models. Journal of Mixed Methods Research , 15 (1), 61–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689820932311

Siegmann, P., Teismann, T., Fritsch, N., Forkmann, T., Glaesmer, H., Zhang, X. C., & Margraf, J. (2018). Resilience to suicide ideation: A cross-cultural test of the buffering hypothesis. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy , 25 (1), e1–e9. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2118

Skevington, S. M., & The WHOQOL SRPB Group. (2020). Is culture ımportant to the relationship between quality of life and resilience? Global ımplications for preparing communities for environmental and health disasters. Frontiers in Psychology , 11 , 1492. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01492

Tajul Ariffin, A. H., Khaiyom, A., J. H., & Md Rosli, A. N. (2022). Islam, Iman, and Ihsan: The role of religiosity on quality of life and mental health of muslim undergraduate students. IIUM Medical Journal Malaysia , 21 (3), 146–154. https://doi.org/10.31436/imjm.v21i3

Tanyu, M., Spier, E., Pulizzi, S., Rooney, M., Sorenson, I., & Fernandez, J. (2020). Improving education outcomes for students who have experienced trauma and/or adversity. OECD Education Working Papers , 242 . https://doi.org/10.1787/54d45980-en

Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2009). Foundations of mixed methods research: Integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches in the social and behavioral sciences . Sage.

Triandis, H. C. (2001). Individualism-collectivism and personality. Journal of Personality , 69 (6), 907–924. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.696169

Tunç, H., Morris, P. G., Kyranides, M. N., McArdle, A., McConachie, D., & Williams, J. (2023). The relationships between valued living and depression and anxiety: A systematic review, meta -analysis, and metaregression. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science , 28 , 102–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2023.02.004

Ungar, M., Liebenberg, L., & Brown, M. (2005). The International resilience project. In M. Ungar (Eds.), Handbook for working with children and youth: Pathways to resilience across cultures and contexts (pp. 211–229). Sage.

Ungar, M., & Theron, L. (2020). Resilience and mental health: How multisystemic processes contribute to positive outcomes. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7 (5), 441–448. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30434-1

Ungar, M., Theron, L., Murphy, K., & Jefferies, P. (2021). Researching multisystemic resilience: A sample methodology. Frontiers in Psychology , 11 , 607994. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.607994

Williams, K. E., Ciarrochi, J., & Heaven, P. C. (2015). Relationships between valued act ion and well-being across the transit ion from high school to early adulthood. The Journal of Positive Psychology , 10 (2), 127–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.920404

Wilson, K. G., & Murrell, A. R. (2004). Values work in acceptance and commitment therapy: Setting a course for behavioral treatment. In S. C. Hayes, V. M. Folette, & M. Linehan (Eds.), Mindfulness and acceptance: Expanding the cognitive behavioral tradition (Vol. 151, p. 120). Guilford Press.

World Population Review (2024). Religion by country 2024 . Retrieved July 11, 2024, from https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/religion-by-country

Wright, M. O. D., Masten, A. S., & Narayan, A. J. (2013). Resilience processes in development: Four waves of research on positive adaptation in the context of adversity. In S. Goldstein, & R. B. Brooks (Eds.), Handbook of Resilience in Children (pp. 15–37). Springer.

Xie, Q., & Wong, D. F. K. (2020). Culturally sensitive conceptualization of resilience: A multidimensional model of Chinese resilience. Transcultural Psychiatry , 58 (3), 323–334. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461520951306

Yang, Y. (2020). Daily stressor, daily resilience, and daily somatization: The role of trait aggression. Personality and Individual Differences , 165 , 110141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110141

Yaşaroğlu, C. (2013). Türkiye’deki hayat bilgisi ile singapur’daki vatandaşlık ve ahlak eğitimi derslerinin değerler eğitimi bağlamında karşılaştırılması. Journal of Turkish Studies , 8 (8), 1453–1461.

Yeh, C. J., Arora, A. K., & Wu, K. A. (2006). A new theoretical model of collectivistic coping. In P. T. P. Wong, & L. C. J. Wong (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural perspectives on stress and coping (pp. 55–72). Springer.

Yıldırım, A., Boysan, M., & Kefeli, M. C. (2018). Psychometric properties of the Turkish version of the Depression anxiety stress Scale-21 (DASS-21). British Journal of Guidance & Counselling , 46 (5), 582–595. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2018.1442558

Yılmaz, G. (2019). Being immigrant in a Conflict-Ridden Society. In G. Yılmaz, İ. D. Karatepe, & T. Tören (Eds.), Integration through Exploitation: Syrians in Turkey (pp. 11–127). Rainer Hampp.

Zümbül, S. (2021). Coping: A holistic review. İnönü University Journal of the Faculty of Education , 22 (1), 109–143. https://doi.org/10.17679/inuefd.688844

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank all participating for their effort.

This research is not supported by any side.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Psychology, Faculty of Economic Administrative and Social Sciences, Hasan Kalyoncu University, Havalimanı Yolu Üzeri 8. Km, Şahinbey/Gaziantep, Turkey

Feyza Topçu & Mehmet Dinç

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by [Feyza Topçu]. The first draft of the manuscript was written by [Feyza Topçu], [Mehmet Dinç] and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Feyza Topçu or Mehmet Dinç .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. The present study was approved by the Hasan Kalyoncu University Graduate Education Institute Ethics Committee.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Consent to publish

Competing interests.

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic Supplementary Material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material (DOCX 15.4 KB)

Rights and permissions.

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Topçu, F., Dinç, M. Psychological resilience and valued living in difficult times: mixed method research in cultural context. Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06552-x

Download citation

Accepted : 11 August 2024

Published : 12 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06552-x

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Valued living
• Psychological resilience
• Mental health
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research