what are the stages of writing research

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Overview of research process.

The Research Process

Anything you write involves organization and a logical flow of ideas, so understanding the logic of the research process before beginning to write is essential. Simply put, you need to put your writing in the larger context—see the forest before you even attempt to see the trees.

In this brief introductory module, we’ll review the major steps in the research process, conceptualized here as a series of steps within a circle, with each step dependent on the previous one. The circle best depicts the recursive nature of the process; that is, once the process has been completed, the researcher may begin again by refining or expanding on the initial approach, or even pioneering a completely new approach to solving the problem.

Identify a Research Problem

You identify a research problem by first selecting a general topic that’s interesting to you and to the interests and specialties of your research advisor. Once identified, you’ll need to narrow it. For example, if teenage pregnancy is your general topic area, your specific topic could be a comparison of how teenage pregnancy affects young fathers and mothers differently.

Review the Literature

Find out what’s being asked or what’s already been done in the area by doing some exploratory reading. Discuss the topic with your advisor to gain additional insights, explore novel approaches, and begin to develop your research question, purpose statement, and hypothesis(es), if applicable.

Determine Research Question

A good research question is a question worth asking; one that poses a problem worth solving. A good question should:

• Be clear . It must be understandable to you and to others.
• Be researchable . It should be capable of developing into a manageable research design, so data may be collected in relation to it. Extremely abstract terms are unlikely to be suitable.
• Connect with established theory and research . There should be a literature on which you can draw to illuminate how your research question(s) should be approached.
• Be neither too broad nor too narrow. See Appendix A for a brief explanation of the narrowing process and how your research question, purpose statement, and hypothesis(es) are interconnected.

Appendix A Research Questions, Purpose Statement, Hypothesis(es)

Develop Research Methods

Once you’ve finalized your research question, purpose statement, and hypothesis(es), you’ll need to write your research proposal—a detailed management plan for your research project. The proposal is as essential to successful research as an architect’s plans are to the construction of a building.

See Appendix B to view the basic components of a research proposal.

Appendix B Components of a Research Proposal

Collect & Analyze Data

In Practical Research–Planning and Design (2005, 8th Edition), Leedy and Ormrod provide excellent advice for what the researcher does at this stage in the research process. The researcher now

• collects data that potentially relate to the problem,
• arranges the data into a logical organizational structure,
• analyzes and interprets the data to determine their meaning, 
• determines if the data resolve the research problem or not, and
• determines if the data support the hypothesis or not.

Document the Work

Because research reports differ by discipline, the most effective way for you to understand formatting and citations is to examine reports from others in your department or field. The library’s electronic databases provide a wealth of examples illustrating how others in your field document their research.

Communicate Your Research

Talk with your advisor about potential local, regional, or national venues to present your findings. And don’t sell yourself short: Consider publishing your research in related books or journals.

Refine/Expand, Pioneer

Earlier, we emphasized the fact that the research process, rather than being linear, is recursive—the reason we conceptualized the process as a series of steps within a circle. At this stage, you may need to revisit your research problem in the context of your findings. You might also investigate the implications of your work and identify new problems or refine your previous approach.

The process then begins anew . . . and you’ll once again move through the series of steps in the circle.

Continue to Module Two

Appendix C - Key Research Terms

How To Write A Research Paper

Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + FREE Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | March 2024

For many students, crafting a strong research paper from scratch can feel like a daunting task – and rightly so! In this post, we’ll unpack what a research paper is, what it needs to do , and how to write one – in three easy steps. 🙂 

Overview: Writing A Research Paper

What (exactly) is a research paper.

• How to write a research paper
• Stage 1 : Topic & literature search
• Stage 2 : Structure & outline
• Stage 3 : Iterative writing
• Key takeaways

Let’s start by asking the most important question, “ What is a research paper? ”.

Simply put, a research paper is a scholarly written work where the writer (that’s you!) answers a specific question (this is called a research question ) through evidence-based arguments . Evidence-based is the keyword here. In other words, a research paper is different from an essay or other writing assignments that draw from the writer’s personal opinions or experiences. With a research paper, it’s all about building your arguments based on evidence (we’ll talk more about that evidence a little later).

Now, it’s worth noting that there are many different types of research papers , including analytical papers (the type I just described), argumentative papers, and interpretative papers. Here, we’ll focus on analytical papers , as these are some of the most common – but if you’re keen to learn about other types of research papers, be sure to check out the rest of the blog .

With that basic foundation laid, let’s get down to business and look at how to write a research paper .

Overview: The 3-Stage Process

While there are, of course, many potential approaches you can take to write a research paper, there are typically three stages to the writing process. So, in this tutorial, we’ll present a straightforward three-step process that we use when working with students at Grad Coach.

These three steps are:

• Finding a research topic and reviewing the existing literature
• Developing a provisional structure and outline for your paper, and
• Writing up your initial draft and then refining it iteratively

Let’s dig into each of these.

Need a helping hand?

Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature

As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question . More specifically, that’s called a research question , and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What’s important to understand though is that you’ll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources – for example, journal articles, government reports, case studies, and so on. We’ll circle back to this in a minute.

The first stage of the research process is deciding on what your research question will be and then reviewing the existing literature (in other words, past studies and papers) to see what they say about that specific research question. In some cases, your professor may provide you with a predetermined research question (or set of questions). However, in many cases, you’ll need to find your own research question within a certain topic area.

Finding a strong research question hinges on identifying a meaningful research gap – in other words, an area that’s lacking in existing research. There’s a lot to unpack here, so if you wanna learn more, check out the plain-language explainer video below.

Once you’ve figured out which question (or questions) you’ll attempt to answer in your research paper, you’ll need to do a deep dive into the existing literature – this is called a “ literature search ”. Again, there are many ways to go about this, but your most likely starting point will be Google Scholar .

If you’re new to Google Scholar, think of it as Google for the academic world. You can start by simply entering a few different keywords that are relevant to your research question and it will then present a host of articles for you to review. What you want to pay close attention to here is the number of citations for each paper – the more citations a paper has, the more credible it is (generally speaking – there are some exceptions, of course).

Ideally, what you’re looking for are well-cited papers that are highly relevant to your topic. That said, keep in mind that citations are a cumulative metric , so older papers will often have more citations than newer papers – just because they’ve been around for longer. So, don’t fixate on this metric in isolation – relevance and recency are also very important.

Beyond Google Scholar, you’ll also definitely want to check out academic databases and aggregators such as Science Direct, PubMed, JStor and so on. These will often overlap with the results that you find in Google Scholar, but they can also reveal some hidden gems – so, be sure to check them out.

Once you’ve worked your way through all the literature, you’ll want to catalogue all this information in some sort of spreadsheet so that you can easily recall who said what, when and within what context. If you’d like, we’ve got a free literature spreadsheet that helps you do exactly that.

Step 2: Develop a structure and outline

With your research question pinned down and your literature digested and catalogued, it’s time to move on to planning your actual research paper .

It might sound obvious, but it’s really important to have some sort of rough outline in place before you start writing your paper. So often, we see students eagerly rushing into the writing phase, only to land up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on in multiple

Now, the secret here is to not get caught up in the fine details . Realistically, all you need at this stage is a bullet-point list that describes (in broad strokes) what you’ll discuss and in what order. It’s also useful to remember that you’re not glued to this outline – in all likelihood, you’ll chop and change some sections once you start writing, and that’s perfectly okay. What’s important is that you have some sort of roadmap in place from the start.

At this stage you might be wondering, “ But how should I structure my research paper? ”. Well, there’s no one-size-fits-all solution here, but in general, a research paper will consist of a few relatively standardised components:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology

Let’s take a look at each of these.

First up is the introduction section . As the name suggests, the purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your research paper. There are usually (at least) four ingredients that go into this section – these are the background to the topic, the research problem and resultant research question , and the justification or rationale. If you’re interested, the video below unpacks the introduction section in more detail. 

The next section of your research paper will typically be your literature review . Remember all that literature you worked through earlier? Well, this is where you’ll present your interpretation of all that content . You’ll do this by writing about recent trends, developments, and arguments within the literature – but more specifically, those that are relevant to your research question . The literature review can oftentimes seem a little daunting, even to seasoned researchers, so be sure to check out our extensive collection of literature review content here .

With the introduction and lit review out of the way, the next section of your paper is the research methodology . In a nutshell, the methodology section should describe to your reader what you did (beyond just reviewing the existing literature) to answer your research question. For example, what data did you collect, how did you collect that data, how did you analyse that data and so on? For each choice, you’ll also need to justify why you chose to do it that way, and what the strengths and weaknesses of your approach were.

Now, it’s worth mentioning that for some research papers, this aspect of the project may be a lot simpler . For example, you may only need to draw on secondary sources (in other words, existing data sets). In some cases, you may just be asked to draw your conclusions from the literature search itself (in other words, there may be no data analysis at all). But, if you are required to collect and analyse data, you’ll need to pay a lot of attention to the methodology section. The video below provides an example of what the methodology section might look like.

By this stage of your paper, you will have explained what your research question is, what the existing literature has to say about that question, and how you analysed additional data to try to answer your question. So, the natural next step is to present your analysis of that data . This section is usually called the “results” or “analysis” section and this is where you’ll showcase your findings.

Depending on your school’s requirements, you may need to present and interpret the data in one section – or you might split the presentation and the interpretation into two sections. In the latter case, your “results” section will just describe the data, and the “discussion” is where you’ll interpret that data and explicitly link your analysis back to your research question. If you’re not sure which approach to take, check in with your professor or take a look at past papers to see what the norms are for your programme.

Alright – once you’ve presented and discussed your results, it’s time to wrap it up . This usually takes the form of the “ conclusion ” section. In the conclusion, you’ll need to highlight the key takeaways from your study and close the loop by explicitly answering your research question. Again, the exact requirements here will vary depending on your programme (and you may not even need a conclusion section at all) – so be sure to check with your professor if you’re unsure.

Step 3: Write and refine

Finally, it’s time to get writing. All too often though, students hit a brick wall right about here… So, how do you avoid this happening to you?

Well, there’s a lot to be said when it comes to writing a research paper (or any sort of academic piece), but we’ll share three practical tips to help you get started.

First and foremost , it’s essential to approach your writing as an iterative process. In other words, you need to start with a really messy first draft and then polish it over multiple rounds of editing. Don’t waste your time trying to write a perfect research paper in one go. Instead, take the pressure off yourself by adopting an iterative approach.

Secondly , it’s important to always lean towards critical writing , rather than descriptive writing. What does this mean? Well, at the simplest level, descriptive writing focuses on the “ what ”, while critical writing digs into the “ so what ” – in other words, the implications. If you’re not familiar with these two types of writing, don’t worry! You can find a plain-language explanation here.

Last but not least, you’ll need to get your referencing right. Specifically, you’ll need to provide credible, correctly formatted citations for the statements you make. We see students making referencing mistakes all the time and it costs them dearly. The good news is that you can easily avoid this by using a simple reference manager . If you don’t have one, check out our video about Mendeley, an easy (and free) reference management tool that you can start using today.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. To recap, the three steps to writing a high-quality research paper are:

• To choose a research question and review the literature
• To plan your paper structure and draft an outline
• To take an iterative approach to writing, focusing on critical writing and strong referencing

Remember, this is just a b ig-picture overview of the research paper development process and there’s a lot more nuance to unpack. So, be sure to grab a copy of our free research paper template to learn more about how to write a research paper.

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11.2 Steps in Developing a Research Proposal

Learning objectives.

• Identify the steps in developing a research proposal.
• Choose a topic and formulate a research question and working thesis.
• Develop a research proposal.

Writing a good research paper takes time, thought, and effort. Although this assignment is challenging, it is manageable. Focusing on one step at a time will help you develop a thoughtful, informative, well-supported research paper.

Your first step is to choose a topic and then to develop research questions, a working thesis, and a written research proposal. Set aside adequate time for this part of the process. Fully exploring ideas will help you build a solid foundation for your paper.

Choosing a Topic

When you choose a topic for a research paper, you are making a major commitment. Your choice will help determine whether you enjoy the lengthy process of research and writing—and whether your final paper fulfills the assignment requirements. If you choose your topic hastily, you may later find it difficult to work with your topic. By taking your time and choosing carefully, you can ensure that this assignment is not only challenging but also rewarding.

Writers understand the importance of choosing a topic that fulfills the assignment requirements and fits the assignment’s purpose and audience. (For more information about purpose and audience, see Chapter 6 “Writing Paragraphs: Separating Ideas and Shaping Content” .) Choosing a topic that interests you is also crucial. You instructor may provide a list of suggested topics or ask that you develop a topic on your own. In either case, try to identify topics that genuinely interest you.

After identifying potential topic ideas, you will need to evaluate your ideas and choose one topic to pursue. Will you be able to find enough information about the topic? Can you develop a paper about this topic that presents and supports your original ideas? Is the topic too broad or too narrow for the scope of the assignment? If so, can you modify it so it is more manageable? You will ask these questions during this preliminary phase of the research process.

Identifying Potential Topics

Sometimes, your instructor may provide a list of suggested topics. If so, you may benefit from identifying several possibilities before committing to one idea. It is important to know how to narrow down your ideas into a concise, manageable thesis. You may also use the list as a starting point to help you identify additional, related topics. Discussing your ideas with your instructor will help ensure that you choose a manageable topic that fits the requirements of the assignment.

In this chapter, you will follow a writer named Jorge, who is studying health care administration, as he prepares a research paper. You will also plan, research, and draft your own research paper.

Jorge was assigned to write a research paper on health and the media for an introductory course in health care. Although a general topic was selected for the students, Jorge had to decide which specific issues interested him. He brainstormed a list of possibilities.

If you are writing a research paper for a specialized course, look back through your notes and course activities. Identify reading assignments and class discussions that especially engaged you. Doing so can help you identify topics to pursue.

• Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs) in the news
• Sexual education programs
• Hollywood and eating disorders
• Americans’ access to public health information
• Media portrayal of health care reform bill
• Depictions of drugs on television
• The effect of the Internet on mental health
• Popularized diets (such as low-carbohydrate diets)
• Fear of pandemics (bird flu, HINI, SARS)
• Electronic entertainment and obesity
• Advertisements for prescription drugs
• Public education and disease prevention

Set a timer for five minutes. Use brainstorming or idea mapping to create a list of topics you would be interested in researching for a paper about the influence of the Internet on social networking. Do you closely follow the media coverage of a particular website, such as Twitter? Would you like to learn more about a certain industry, such as online dating? Which social networking sites do you and your friends use? List as many ideas related to this topic as you can.

Narrowing Your Topic

Once you have a list of potential topics, you will need to choose one as the focus of your essay. You will also need to narrow your topic. Most writers find that the topics they listed during brainstorming or idea mapping are broad—too broad for the scope of the assignment. Working with an overly broad topic, such as sexual education programs or popularized diets, can be frustrating and overwhelming. Each topic has so many facets that it would be impossible to cover them all in a college research paper. However, more specific choices, such as the pros and cons of sexual education in kids’ television programs or the physical effects of the South Beach diet, are specific enough to write about without being too narrow to sustain an entire research paper.

A good research paper provides focused, in-depth information and analysis. If your topic is too broad, you will find it difficult to do more than skim the surface when you research it and write about it. Narrowing your focus is essential to making your topic manageable. To narrow your focus, explore your topic in writing, conduct preliminary research, and discuss both the topic and the research with others.

Exploring Your Topic in Writing

“How am I supposed to narrow my topic when I haven’t even begun researching yet?” In fact, you may already know more than you realize. Review your list and identify your top two or three topics. Set aside some time to explore each one through freewriting. (For more information about freewriting, see Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” .) Simply taking the time to focus on your topic may yield fresh angles.

Jorge knew that he was especially interested in the topic of diet fads, but he also knew that it was much too broad for his assignment. He used freewriting to explore his thoughts so he could narrow his topic. Read Jorge’s ideas.

Conducting Preliminary Research

Another way writers may focus a topic is to conduct preliminary research . Like freewriting, exploratory reading can help you identify interesting angles. Surfing the web and browsing through newspaper and magazine articles are good ways to start. Find out what people are saying about your topic on blogs and online discussion groups. Discussing your topic with others can also inspire you. Talk about your ideas with your classmates, your friends, or your instructor.

Jorge’s freewriting exercise helped him realize that the assigned topic of health and the media intersected with a few of his interests—diet, nutrition, and obesity. Preliminary online research and discussions with his classmates strengthened his impression that many people are confused or misled by media coverage of these subjects.

Jorge decided to focus his paper on a topic that had garnered a great deal of media attention—low-carbohydrate diets. He wanted to find out whether low-carbohydrate diets were as effective as their proponents claimed.

Writing at Work

At work, you may need to research a topic quickly to find general information. This information can be useful in understanding trends in a given industry or generating competition. For example, a company may research a competitor’s prices and use the information when pricing their own product. You may find it useful to skim a variety of reliable sources and take notes on your findings.

The reliability of online sources varies greatly. In this exploratory phase of your research, you do not need to evaluate sources as closely as you will later. However, use common sense as you refine your paper topic. If you read a fascinating blog comment that gives you a new idea for your paper, be sure to check out other, more reliable sources as well to make sure the idea is worth pursuing.

Review the list of topics you created in Note 11.18 “Exercise 1” and identify two or three topics you would like to explore further. For each of these topics, spend five to ten minutes writing about the topic without stopping. Then review your writing to identify possible areas of focus.

Set aside time to conduct preliminary research about your potential topics. Then choose a topic to pursue for your research paper.

Collaboration

Please share your topic list with a classmate. Select one or two topics on his or her list that you would like to learn more about and return it to him or her. Discuss why you found the topics interesting, and learn which of your topics your classmate selected and why.

A Plan for Research

Your freewriting and preliminary research have helped you choose a focused, manageable topic for your research paper. To work with your topic successfully, you will need to determine what exactly you want to learn about it—and later, what you want to say about it. Before you begin conducting in-depth research, you will further define your focus by developing a research question , a working thesis, and a research proposal.

Formulating a Research Question

In forming a research question, you are setting a goal for your research. Your main research question should be substantial enough to form the guiding principle of your paper—but focused enough to guide your research. A strong research question requires you not only to find information but also to put together different pieces of information, interpret and analyze them, and figure out what you think. As you consider potential research questions, ask yourself whether they would be too hard or too easy to answer.

To determine your research question, review the freewriting you completed earlier. Skim through books, articles, and websites and list the questions you have. (You may wish to use the 5WH strategy to help you formulate questions. See Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” for more information about 5WH questions.) Include simple, factual questions and more complex questions that would require analysis and interpretation. Determine your main question—the primary focus of your paper—and several subquestions that you will need to research to answer your main question.

Here are the research questions Jorge will use to focus his research. Notice that his main research question has no obvious, straightforward answer. Jorge will need to research his subquestions, which address narrower topics, to answer his main question.

Using the topic you selected in Note 11.24 “Exercise 2” , write your main research question and at least four to five subquestions. Check that your main research question is appropriately complex for your assignment.

Constructing a Working ThesIs

A working thesis concisely states a writer’s initial answer to the main research question. It does not merely state a fact or present a subjective opinion. Instead, it expresses a debatable idea or claim that you hope to prove through additional research. Your working thesis is called a working thesis for a reason—it is subject to change. As you learn more about your topic, you may change your thinking in light of your research findings. Let your working thesis serve as a guide to your research, but do not be afraid to modify it based on what you learn.

Jorge began his research with a strong point of view based on his preliminary writing and research. Read his working thesis statement, which presents the point he will argue. Notice how it states Jorge’s tentative answer to his research question.

One way to determine your working thesis is to consider how you would complete sentences such as I believe or My opinion is . However, keep in mind that academic writing generally does not use first-person pronouns. These statements are useful starting points, but formal research papers use an objective voice.

Write a working thesis statement that presents your preliminary answer to the research question you wrote in Note 11.27 “Exercise 3” . Check that your working thesis statement presents an idea or claim that could be supported or refuted by evidence from research.

Creating a Research Proposal

A research proposal is a brief document—no more than one typed page—that summarizes the preliminary work you have completed. Your purpose in writing it is to formalize your plan for research and present it to your instructor for feedback. In your research proposal, you will present your main research question, related subquestions, and working thesis. You will also briefly discuss the value of researching this topic and indicate how you plan to gather information.

When Jorge began drafting his research proposal, he realized that he had already created most of the pieces he needed. However, he knew he also had to explain how his research would be relevant to other future health care professionals. In addition, he wanted to form a general plan for doing the research and identifying potentially useful sources. Read Jorge’s research proposal.

Before you begin a new project at work, you may have to develop a project summary document that states the purpose of the project, explains why it would be a wise use of company resources, and briefly outlines the steps involved in completing the project. This type of document is similar to a research proposal. Both documents define and limit a project, explain its value, discuss how to proceed, and identify what resources you will use.

Writing Your Own Research Proposal

Now you may write your own research proposal, if you have not done so already. Follow the guidelines provided in this lesson.

Key Takeaways

• Developing a research proposal involves the following preliminary steps: identifying potential ideas, choosing ideas to explore further, choosing and narrowing a topic, formulating a research question, and developing a working thesis.
• A good topic for a research paper interests the writer and fulfills the requirements of the assignment.
• Defining and narrowing a topic helps writers conduct focused, in-depth research.
• Writers conduct preliminary research to identify possible topics and research questions and to develop a working thesis.
• A good research question interests readers, is neither too broad nor too narrow, and has no obvious answer.
• A good working thesis expresses a debatable idea or claim that can be supported with evidence from research.
• Writers create a research proposal to present their topic, main research question, subquestions, and working thesis to an instructor for approval or feedback.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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In this section

Subsections.

• Skip to main content
• Skip to ChatBot Assistant
• Academic Writing
• What is a Research Paper?

Steps in Writing a Research Paper

• Critical Reading and Writing
• Punctuation
• Writing Exercises
• ELL/ESL Resources

A series of steps, starting with developing a research question and working thesis, will lead you through writing a research paper. As you move through these steps and actually create the research paper, you may find that you can't move through all of them in chronological order, and that's o.k. In fact, you may change the order of the steps depending on the subject, your knowledge of the subject, and your sources. For example, sometimes you need to do just a bit of background research and reading before you can develop a research question. Sometimes you need to go back and find additional sources to corroborate your viewpoint. The research writing steps that we offer represent a general, ideal, movement through the research writing process. In reality, writers often repeat or circle back as needed.

Hey, wait a minute . . . why did we say "ideal?" In our opinion, these steps represent the best way to move through the writing process because they ask you to think and develop a research question before you actually do a lot of research. The one big mess that you can get into, as a student, comes from doing too much unfocused research before identifying your own viewpoint, the one that you will eventually need to support. If you do too much unfocused research first, then the tendency is to try to include all of it in the paper. The result is a hodgepodge of information that's not focused, developed fully, or indicative of your own thoughts. It's also not efficient to do too much research before you really know what you're looking for. Try it our way--develop that research question first--to cut out a lot of research paper mess.

These steps will lead you through writing a research paper:

• One Big Mess...
• Developing a Research Question
• Thesis Characteristics
• Finding Sources
• Evaluating Sources
• Taking Notes
• Working with Quotations
• Writing Summaries & Paraphrases
• Building the Essay Draft
• Documentation Formats
• Revising and Proofreading the Draft

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Resources for Writers: The Writing Process

Writing is a process that involves at least four distinct steps: prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing. It is known as a recursive process. While you are revising, you might have to return to the prewriting step to develop and expand your ideas.

• Prewriting is anything you do before you write a draft of your document. It includes thinking, taking notes, talking to others, brainstorming, outlining, and gathering information (e.g., interviewing people, researching in the library, assessing data).
• Although prewriting is the first activity you engage in, generating ideas is an activity that occurs throughout the writing process.
• Drafting occurs when you put your ideas into sentences and paragraphs. Here you concentrate upon explaining and supporting your ideas fully. Here you also begin to connect your ideas. Regardless of how much thinking and planning you do, the process of putting your ideas in words changes them; often the very words you select evoke additional ideas or implications.
• Don’t pay attention to such things as spelling at this stage.
• This draft tends to be writer-centered: it is you telling yourself what you know and think about the topic.
• Revision is the key to effective documents. Here you think more deeply about your readers’ needs and expectations. The document becomes reader-centered. How much support will each idea need to convince your readers? Which terms should be defined for these particular readers? Is your organization effective? Do readers need to know X before they can understand Y?
• At this stage you also refine your prose, making each sentence as concise and accurate as possible. Make connections between ideas explicit and clear.
• Check for such things as grammar, mechanics, and spelling. The last thing you should do before printing your document is to spell check it.
• Don’t edit your writing until the other steps in the writing process are complete.

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The Process of Writing a Research Paper

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Planning the Research Paper

The goal of a research paper is to bring together different views, evidence, and facts about a topic from books, articles, and interviews, then interpret the information into your writing. It’s about a relationship between you, other writers, and your teacher/audience.

A research paper will show two things: what you know or learned about a certain topic, and what other people know about the same topic. Often you make a judgment, or just explain complex ideas to the reader. The length of the research paper depends on your teacher’s guidelines. It’s always a good idea to keep your teacher in mind while writing your paper because the teacher is your audience.

The Process There are three stages for doing a research paper. These stages are:

While most people start with prewriting, the three stages of the writing process overlap. Writing is not the kind of process where you have to finish step one before moving on to step two, and so on. Your job is to make your ideas as clear as possible for the reader, and that means you might have to go back and forth between the prewriting, writing and revising stages several times before submitting the paper.

» Prewriting Thinking about a topic

The first thing you should do when starting your research paper is to think of a topic. Try to pick a topic that interests you and your teacher — interesting topics are easier to write about than boring topics! Make sure that your topic is not too hard to research, and that there is enough material on the topic. Talk to as many people as possible about your topic, especially your teacher. You’ll be surprised at the ideas you’ll get from talking about your topic. Be sure to always discuss potential topics with your teacher.

Places you can find a topic: newspapers, magazines, television news, the World Wide Web, and even in the index of a textbook!

Narrowing down your topic

As you think about your topic and start reading, you should begin thinking about a possible thesis statement (a sentence or two explaining your opinion about the topic). One technique is to ask yourself one important question about your topic, and as you find your answer, the thesis can develop from that. Some other techniques you may use to narrow your topic are: jot lists; preliminary outlines; listing possible thesis statements; listing questions; and/or making a concept map. It also may be helpful to have a friend ask you questions about your topic.

For help on developing your thesis statement, see the English Center Guide to Developing a Thesis Statement .

Discovery/Reading about your topic

You need to find information that helps you support your thesis. There are different places you can find this information: books, articles, people (interviews), and the internet.

As you gather the information or ideas you need, you need to make sure that you take notes and write down where and who you got the information from. This is called “citing your sources.” If you write your paper using information from other writers and do not cite the sources, you are committing plagiarism . If you plagiarize, you can get an “F” on your paper, fail the course, or even get kicked out of school.

CITING SOURCES

There are three major different formats for citing sources. They are: the Modern Language Association (MLA) , the American Psychology Association (APA) , and the Chicago Turabian style . Always ask your teacher which format to use. For more information on these styles, see our other handouts!

ORGANIZING INFORMATION

After you’ve thought, read, and taken notes on your topic, you may want to revise your thesis because a good thesis will help you develop a plan for writing your paper. One way you can do this is to brainstorm — think about everything you know about your topic, and put it down on paper. Once you have it all written down, you can look it over and decide if you should change your thesis statement or not.

If you already developed a preliminary map or outline, now is the time to go back and revise it. If you haven’t developed a map or outline yet, now is the time to do it. The outline or concept map should help you organize how you want to present information to your readers. The clearer your outline or map, the easier it will be for you to write the paper. Be sure that each part of your outline supports your thesis. If it does not, you may want to change/revise your thesis statement again.

» Writing a research paper follows a standard compositional (essay) format. It has a title, introduction, body and conclusion. Some people like to start their research papers with a title and introduction, while others wait until they’ve already started the body of the paper before developing a title and introduction. See this link for more information about writing introductions and conclusions .

Some techniques that may help you with writing your paper are:

• start by writing your thesis statement
• use a free writing technique (What I mean is…)
• follow your outline or map
• pretend you are writing a letter to a friend, and tell them what you know about your topic
• follow your topic notecards

If you’re having difficulties thinking of what to write about next, you can look back at your notes that you have from when you were brainstorming for your topic.

» Revising The last (but not least) step is revising. When you are revising, look over your paper and make changes in weak areas. The different areas to look for mistakes include: content– too much detail, or too little detail; organization/structure (which is the order in which you write information about your topic); grammar; punctuation; capitalization; word choice; and citations.

It probably is best if you focus on the “big picture” first. The “big picture” means the organization (paragraph order), and content (ideas and points) of the paper. It also might help to go through your paper paragraph by paragraph and see if the main idea of each paragraph relates to the thesis. Be sure to keep an eye out for any repeated information (one of the most common mistakes made by students is having two or more paragraphs with the same information). Often good writers combine several paragraphs into one so they do not repeat information.

Revision Guidelines

• The audience understands your paper.
• The sentences are clear and complete.
• All paragraphs relate to the thesis.
• Each paragraph explains its purpose clearly.
• You do not repeat large blocks of information in two or more different paragraphs.
• The information in your paper is accurate.
• A friend or classmate has read through your paper and offered suggestions.

After you are satisfied with the content and structure of the paper, you then can focus on common errors like grammar, spelling, sentence structure, punctuation, capitalization, typos, and word choice.

Proofreading Guidelines

• Subjects and verbs agree.
• Verb tenses are consistent.
• Pronouns agree with the subjects they substitute.
• Word choices are clear.
• Capitalization is correct.
• Spelling is correct.
• Punctuation is correct.
• References are cited properly.

For more information on proofreading, see the English Center Punctuation and Grammar Review .

After writing the paper, it might help if you put it aside and do not look at it for a day or two. When you look at your paper again, you will see it with new eyes and notice mistakes you didn’t before. It’s a really good idea to ask someone else to read your paper before you submit it to your teacher. Good writers often get feedback and revise their paper several times before submitting it to the teacher.

Source: “Process of Writing a Research Paper,” by Ellen Beck and Rachel Mingo with contributions from Jules Nelson Hill and Vivion Smith, is based on the previous version by Dawn Taylor, Sharon Quintero, Robert Rich, Robert McDonald, and Katherine Eckhart.

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Ai, ethics & human agency.

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Information Literacy

Writing process, the writing process – research on composing.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - University of South Florida

The writing process refers to everything you do in order to complete a writing project. Over the last six decades, researchers have studied and theorized about how writers go about their work. They've found that the writing process can be seen in three main ways: (1) a series of steps or stages ; (2) a cognitive, problem-solving activity ; and (3) a creative, intuitive, organic, dialogic process that writers manage by listening to their inner speech and following their felt sense . Learn about scholarship on the writing process so you can understand how to break through writing blocks and find fluency as a writer, researcher, and thought leader.

Synonymous Terms

Composing process.

In writing studies , the writing process may also be known as the composing process . This may be due to the dramatic influence of Janet Emig’s (1971) dissertation, The Composing Processes of Twelfth Graders . Emig’s research employed think-aloud protocols and case-study methods to explore the composing processes of high school students.

Creative Process

In creative writing and literature, the writing process may be known as the creative process .

In the arts and humanities the term creative process is reserved for artistic works, such as paintings, sculptures, performance art, films, and works of literature.

Related Concepts

Composition Studies ; Creativity; Felt Sense ; Growth Mindset ; Habits of Mind ; Intellectual Openness ; Professionalism and Work Ethic ; Resilience ; Self Regulation & Metacognition

What is the Writing Process?

Research on composing processes conducted over the past 60 years has led to three major distinct ways of defining and conceptualizing the writing process:

• prewriting , invention , research , collaboration , planning , designing , drafting , rereading , organizing , revising , editing , proofreading , and sharing or publishing
• The writing process refers to cognitive, problem-solving strategies
• The writing process refers to the act of making composing decisions based on nonrational factors such as embodied knowledge , felt sense , inner speech, and intuition.

1. The writing process refers to writing process steps

The writing process is often characterized as a series of steps or stages. During the elementary and middle-school years, teachers define the writing process simply as prewriting , drafting , revising , and editing . Later, in high-school and college, as writing assignments become more challenging, teachers introduce additional writing steps: invention , research , collaboration , designing , organizing , proofreading , and sharing or proofreading.

2. The writing process refers to Problem-Solving Strategies

As an alternative to imagining the writing process to be a series of steps or stages that writers work through in linear manner, Linda Flower and John Hayes suggested in 1977 that writing should be thought of as a “thinking problem,” a “problem-solving process,” a “cognitive problem solving process,” or a “goal-directed thinking process.”

3. The writing process refers to the act of making composing decisions based on flow, felt sense and other elements of embodied knowledge

For some writers, viewing the writing process as a series of steps or problems feels to mechanistic, impersonal and formulaic. Rather than view that the writing process to be a series of writing steps or problem solving strategies , Sondra Perl , an English professor, suggests that composing is largely a process of listening to one’s felt sense — one’s “bodily awareness of a situation or person or event:

“A felt sense doesn’t come to you in the form of thoughts or words or other separate units, but as a single (though often puzzling and very complex) bodily feeling”. (Gendlin 1981, 32-33)

What are Writing Process Steps?

In elementary and middle schools in the U.S., the writing process is often simplified and presented at four or five key steps: prewriting , writing , revising , and editing –and sometimes and publishing or sharing . As students progress through school, the writing process is presented in increasingly complex ways. By high school, teachers present “the writing process steps” as

• Proofreading
• Sharing – Publishing

Is there one perfect way to work with the writing process?

People experience and define the writing process differently, according to their historical period, literacy history, knowledge of writing tools, media , genres — and more. One of the takeaways from research on composing is that we’ve learned writers develop their own idiosyncratic approaches to getting the work done. When it comes to how we all develop, research , and communicate information , we are all special snowflakes. For example,

• Hemingway was known for standing while he wrote at first light each morning.
• Truman Capote described himself as a “completely horizontal author.” He wrote lying down, in bed or on a couch, with a cigarette and coffee handy.
• Hunter S. Thompson wrote through the nights, mixing drinking and partying with composing
• J.K. Rowling tracked the plot lines for her Harry Potter novels in a data.
• Maya Angelou would lock herself away in a hotel room from 6:30 a.m. to 2 p.m. so she has no distractions.

Furthermore, the steps of the writing process a writer engages in vary from project to project. At times  composing  may be fairly simple. Some situations  require little planning ,  research ,  revising  or  editing , such as

• a grocery list, a to-do list, a reflection on the day’s activity in a journal
• documents you routinely write, such as the professor’s letter of recommendation, a bosses’ performance appraisal, a ground-water engineer’s contamination report.

Over time, writers develop their own unique writing processes. Through trial and error, people can learn what works for them.

Composing  may be especially challenging

• when you are unfamiliar with the  topic ,  genre ,  medium ,  discourse community
• when the thesis/research question/topic  is complicated yet needs to be explained simply
• when you are endeavoring to synthesize other’s ideas and research
• when you don’t have the time you need to perfect the document.

What are the main factors that affect how writers compose documents?

Writers adjust their writing process in response to

• Writers assess the importance of the exigency, the call to write, before commiting time and resources to launching
• the writers access to information
• What they know about the canon, genre, media and rhetorical reasoning
• their writerly background
• the audience
• Writers assess the importance of the exigency, the call to write, before committing time and resources to working on the project.

Why does the writing process matter?

The writing processes that you use to compose documents play a significant role in determining whether your communications are successful. If you truncate your writing process, you are likely to run out of the time you need to write with clarity and authority .

• Studying the writing processes of successful writers can introduce you to new rhetorical moves, genres , and composing processes. Learning about the composing processes of experienced writers can help you learn how to adjust your rhetorical stance and your writing styles to best accomplish your purpose .
• By examining your writing processes and the writing processes of others, you can learn how to better manage your work and the work of other authors and teams.
• By recognizing that writing is a skill that can be developed through practice and effort, you can become more resilient and adaptable in your writing endeavors.

Do experienced writers compose in different ways than inexperienced writers?

Yes. Experienced writers engage in more substantive, robust writing processes than less experienced writers.

• Experienced writers tend to have more rhetorical knowledge and a better understanding of composing steps and strategies than inexperienced writers.
• Experienced writers tend to be more willing than inexperienced writers to make substantive changes in a draft, often making changes that involve rethinking the meaning of a text. Some professional writers may revise a document hundreds of times before pushing send or publishing it.
• Experienced writers engage in revision as an act of internal conversation, a form of inner speech that they have with themselves and an imagined other–the internalized target audience. In contrast, inexperienced writers tend to confuse editing for revision . They tend to make only a few edits to their initial drafts, focusing primarily on surface-level changes such as correcting grammar, spelling, or punctuation errors.
• Experienced writers are adept at working collaboratively, leveraging the strengths of team members and effectively coordinating efforts to produce a cohesive final product. Inexperienced writers may struggle with collaboration, communication, and division of labor within a writing team

What is Process Pedagogy?

Process pedagogy, which is also known as the process movement, emerged in the United States during the late 1960s and early 1970s. In The Making of Knowledge in Composition , Steve North (1987) links the emergence of process pedagogy to

• Sputnik and America’s concern it was falling behind Russia
• the GI Bill and the changing demographics of undergraduate students in the post-war era.

Additionally, process pedagogy emerged in response to dissatisfaction with traditional, product-oriented approaches to teaching writing. In the current-traditional paradigm of writing, the focus of the classroom was on “the composed product rather than the composing process; the analysis of discourse into words, sentences, and paragraphs; the classification of discourse into description, narration, exposition, and argument; the strong concern with usage (syntax, spelling, punctuation) and with style (economy, clarity, emphasis)” (Young, 1978, p. 25).

The process movement reflected a sea change on the part of middle schools, high schools, and universities in the U.S. Traditionally, classroom instruction focused on analysis and critique of the great works of literature: “The student is (a) exposed to the formal descriptive categories of rhetoric (modes of argument –definition, cause and effect, etc. — and modes of discourse — description, persuasion, etc.), (b) offered good examples (usually professional ones) and bad examples (usually his/her own) and (c) encouraged to absorb the features of a socially approved style, with emphasis on grammar and usage. We help our students analyze the product, but we leave the process of writing up to inspiration” (Flower and Hayes, 1977, p. 449).

In contrast to putting the focus of class time on analyzing great literary works,  the canon , process pedagogy calls for teachers to put the emphasis on the students’ writing:

• Students need help with prewriting , invention , research , collaboration , writing , designing , revising , organizing , editing , proofreading , and sharing
• Teachers do not comment on grammar and style matters in early drafts. Instead, they focus on global perspectives . They prioritize the flow of ideas and expression over correctness in grammar and mechanics.
• Students engage in prewriting and invention exercises to discover and develop new ideas
• Students repeatedly revise their works in response to self-critique , peer review , and critiques from teachers
• Teachers should provide constructive feedback throughout the writing process.

What does “teach the process and not the product mean”?

“Teach the process not the product ” is both the title of a Donald Murray (1972) article and the mantra of the writing process movement, which emerged during the 1960s.

The mantra to teach the process not the product emerged in response to the research and scholarship conducted by Donald Murray, Janet Emig, Peter Elbow, Ann Berthoff, Nancy Sommers, Sondra Perl, John Hayes and Linda Flower.

What does it mean to describe the writing process as recursive ?

The term  recursive writing process  simply means that writers jump around from one activity to another when  composing . For instance, when first drafting a document, a writer may pause to reread something she wrote. That might trigger a new idea that shoots her back to Google Scholar or some other database suitable for  strategic searching .

How do researchers study the writing process?

The writing process is a major subject of study of researchers and scholars in the fields of composition studies , communication, writing studies , and AI (artificial intelligence).

The writing process  is something of a black box: investigators can see  inputs  (e.g., time on task) or  outputs  (e.g.,  written discourse ), yet they cannot  empirically observe  the internal workings of the writer’s mind. At the end of the day investigators have to jump from what they observe to making informed guesses about what is really going on in the writer. Even if investigators ask a writer to talk out loud about what they are thinking as they compose , the investigators can only hear what the writer is saying: they cannot see the internal machinations associated with the writer’s thoughts. If a writer goes mute, freezes, and just stares blankly at the computer screen, investigators cannot really know what’s going on. They can only speculate about how the brain functions.

Research Methods

To study or theorize about the writing process, investigators may use a variety of research methods .

Doherty, M. (2016, September 4). 10 things you need to know about banyan trees. Under the Banyan. https://underthebanyan.blog/2016/09/04/10-things-you-need-to-know-about-banyan-trees/

Emig, J. (1967). On teaching composition: Some hypotheses as definitions. Research in The Teaching of English, 1(2), 127-135. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED022783.pdf

Emig, J. (1971). The composing processes of twelfth graders (Research Report No. 13). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Emig, J. (1983). The web of meaning: Essays on writing, teaching, learning and thinking. Upper Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc.

Ghiselin, B. (Ed.). (1985). The Creative Process: Reflections on the Invention in the Arts and Sciences . University of California Press.

Hayes, J. R., & Flower, L. (1980). Identifying the Organization of Writing Processes. In L. W. Gregg, & E. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Cognitive Processes in Writing: An Interdisciplinary Approach (pp. 3-30). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.  

Hayes, J. R. (2012). Modeling and remodeling writing. Written Communication, 29(3), 369-388. https://doi: 10.1177/0741088312451260

Hayes, J. R., & Flower, L. S. (1986). Writing research and the writer. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1106-1113. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.1106

Leijten, Van Waes, L., Schriver, K., & Hayes, J. R. (2014). Writing in the workplace: Constructing documents using multiple digital sources. Journal of Writing Research, 5(3), 285–337. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2014.05.03.3

Lundstrom, K., Babcock, R. D., & McAlister, K. (2023). Collaboration in writing: Examining the role of experience in successful team writing projects. Journal of Writing Research, 15(1), 89-115. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2023.15.01.05

National Research Council. (2012). Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.https://doi.org/10.17226/13398.

North, S. M. (1987). The making of knowledge in composition: Portrait of an emerging field. Boynton/Cook Publishers.

Murray, Donald M. (1980). Writing as process: How writing finds its own meaning. In Timothy R. Donovan & Ben McClelland (Eds.), Eight approaches to teaching composition (pp. 3–20). National Council of Teachers of English.

Murray, Donald M. (1972). “Teach Writing as a Process Not Product.” The Leaflet, 11-14

Perry, S. K. (1996).  When time stops: How creative writers experience entry into the flow state  (Order No. 9805789). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (304288035). https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/when-time-stops-how-creative-writers-experience/docview/304288035/se-2

Rohman, D.G., & Wlecke, A. O. (1964). Pre-writing: The construction and application of models for concept formation in writing (Cooperative Research Project No. 2174). East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.

Rohman, D. G., & Wlecke, A. O. (1975). Pre-writing: The construction and application of models for concept formation in writing (Cooperative Research Project No. 2174). U.S. Office of Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.

Sommers, N. (1980). Revision Strategies of Student Writers and Experienced Adult Writers. College Composition and Communication, 31(4), 378-388. doi: 10.2307/356600

Vygotsky, L. (1962).  Thought and language.  (E. Hanfmann & G. Vakar, Eds.). MIT Press.  https://doi.org/10.1037/11193-000

Related Articles:

Discovering Your Unique Writing Process: A Guide to Self-Reflection

Problem-Solving Strategies for Writers: a Review of Research

The 7 Habits of Mind & The Writing Process

The Secret, Hidden Writing Process: How to Tap Your Creative Potential

The Ultimate Blueprint: A Research-Driven Deep Dive into The 13 Steps of the Writing Process

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• Joseph M. Moxley

Understanding your writing process is a crucial aspect of developing as a writer. For both students and professional writers, reflection on the process of writing can lead to more effective...

Traditionally, in U.S. classrooms, the writing process is depicted as a series of linear steps (e.g., prewriting, writing, revising, and editing). However, since the 1980s the writing process has also...

In contrast to the prevailing view that the writing process refers to writing steps or problem solving strategies, a third view is that the writing process involves nonrational factors, such...

This article provides a comprehensive, research-based introduction to the major steps, or strategies, that writers work through as they endeavor to communicate with audiences. Since the 1960s, the writing process has...

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• Research Guides

6 Stages of Research

• 1: Task Definition
• 2: Information Seeking
• 3: Location & Access
• 4: Use of Information
• 5: Synthesis
• 6: Evaluation

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Ask the Right Questions

The scope of an investigation determines how large or small your investigation will be. Determining the scope of an investigation is the critical first step in the research process because you will know how far and how deep to look for answers. This lesson will teach you how to develop a research question as a way to determine the scope of an investigation.

Click the image to open the tutorial in a new window.

Keyword(s):  5W Criteria, Ask the Right Questions, Guided Inquiry, Information Literacy, Library, New Literacies Alliance, Research as Inquiry, Research Question

Purpose of this guide

The purpose of this guide is to walk you through the 6 stages of writing an effective research paper. By breaking the process down into these 6 stages, your paper will be better and you will get more out of the research experience. 

The 6 stages are:

• Task Definition (developing a topic)
• Information Seeking (coming up with a research plan)
• Location & Access (finding good sources)
• Use of Information (Reading, taking notes, and generally making the writing process easier)
• Synthesis (coming up with your own ideas and presenting them well)
• Evaluation (reflection)

This research guide is based on the Big6 Information Literacy model from  https://thebig6.org/

Task Definition

The purpose of task definition is to help you develop an effective topic for your paper. .

Developing a topic is often one of the hardest and most important steps in writing a paper or doing a research project. But here are some tips:

• A research topic is a question, not a statement. You shouldn't already know the answer when you start researching.
• Research something you actually care about or find interesting. It turns the research process from a chore into something enjoyable and whoever reads your work can tell the difference. 
• Read the assignment before and after you think you have come up with your topic to make sure you are answering the prompt. 

Steps to Developing a Topic

• Assignment Requirements
• General Idea
• Background Research
• Ask Questions
• Topic Question

Read your assignment and note any requirements.

• Is there a required page length?
• How many sources do you need?
• Does the paper have to be in a specific format like APA?
• Are there any listed goals for the topic, such as synthesizing different opinions, or applying a theory to a real-life example?

Formulate a general idea.

• Look at your syllabus or course schedule for broad topic ideas.
• Think about reading assignments or class lectures that you found interesting.
• Talk with your professor or a librarian. 
• Check out social media and see what has been trending that is related to your course. 
• Think about ideas from popular videos, TV shows, and movies.
• Read The New York Times  (FHSU students have free access through the Library)
• Watch NBC Learn (FHSU students have free access through the Library)
• Search your library for relevant journals and publications related to your course and browse them for ideas
• Browse online discussion forums, news, and blogs for professional organizations for hot topics

Do some background research on your general idea.

• You have access to reference materials through the Library for background research.
• See what your course notes and textbook say about the subject.
• Google it. 

Reference e-books on a wide range of topics. Sources include dictionaries, encyclopedias, key concepts, key thinkers, handbooks, atlases, and more. Search by keyword or browse titles by topic.

Over 1200 cross-searchable reference e-books on a wide variety of subjects.

Mind map it.

A mind map is an effective way of organizing your thoughts and generating new questions as you learn about your topic. 

• Video  on how to do a mind map. 
• Coggle Free mind mapping software that is great for beginners and easy to use.
• MindMup Mindmup is a free, easy to use online software that allows you to publish and share your mind maps with others.

Ask Questions to focus on what interests you.

Who?   What?   When?   Where?   Why?

We can focus our ideas by brainstorming what interests us when asking who, what, when where, and why:

Research Question:  Does flexible seating in an elementary classroom improve student focus?

Write out your topic question & reread the assignment criteria.

• Can you answer your question well in the number of pages required? 
• Does your topic still meet the requirements of the paper? Ex: is the question still about the sociology of gender studies and women?
• Is the topic too narrow to find research? 

Developing a Topic Tutorial

The following tutorial from Forsyth Library will walk you through the process of defining your topic. 

• Next: 2: Information Seeking >>
• Last Updated: Mar 29, 2024 11:34 AM
• URL: https://fhsuguides.fhsu.edu/6stages

Ellen Herman

The Stages of Writing Research Papers

1. Identifying and Refining a Researchable Topic or Question

2. Gathering Primary and Secondary Sources

3. Organizing Your Notes and Other Research Information

• What system will you use to keep track of your bibliographies? Your reading notes? The quotations, images, or other specific items that jumped out at you during the course of research? If you are writing about a complex event that unfolds over time, constructing a chronology can be helpful.
• It can be useful to group your materials in a way that relates to your questions and to the story you plan to tell. Try categorizing them so you can easily recall which are more important and which are less important.

4. Outlining

• What relevant background to your subject must your reader have to understand your argument?
• What organizational scheme makes the most sense for your subject and intellectual goals? Chronology is often useful in historical writing, and some historians prize narrative writing. Thematic forms of organization are also very common and can make a lot of sense. If your paper proceeds by way of a comparison, how will that comparison be structured?
• Are there terms you will need to define at the outset? Characters you will need to introduce? Timelines you will need to explain? If so, where should these go?
• Will you be placing your subject in the context of historiography? If so, where in the paper should this be presented? (Some historians devote considerable text to this; some utilize footnotes.) Historiographical questions include: What are the major interpretive debates about your subject? Who are the key commentators on your subject? What makes your approach and argument original and different?
• Balance between general context and the heart of your research. One common error is to get so involved in telling the background story that you forget to mention your actual subject until page 15! Aim for proportionality in your outline. The most important themes and questions should get the most attention and space.
• Balance between more general assertions and concrete evidence and examples to back those assertions up. Another common error is to gravitate toward either overly general or overly detailed writing. The former results in vagueness that cannot sustain an argument. The latter results in failure to develop an argument at all.
• Remember that evidence helps you answer questions about who, what, where, when, and why.
• Be careful not to expect your sources to do more than they can. Use multiple sources to support a claim you think is especially unusual or controversial. Consider tackling the weakness of your sources directly, anticipating obvious criticism rather than ignoring it.

5. Formulating Your Argument

• What exactly is your subject?
• What exactly is your argument (sometimes also called a “thesis”)?
• Your subject and your argument are not identical. Your argument is the original point you are making, the result of all the thinking you have done during the course of research. It is a claim about the significance of a historical subject (or problem or question) and a promise that you will demonstrate that your approach to the subject–your interpretation–is persuasive and compelling. An argument is more than an announcement about what your subject will be. It is an assertion about what your subject means and why it matters.

6. Writing an Introduction

• The introduction should introduce your subject, state your argument, and reveal for the reader what you plan to accomplish in the paper.
• You can also explain briefly why the paper is organized as it is so that the reader will know exactly what to expect. Think of the introduction as a textual map for an intellectual journey.

7. Drafting the Body of Your Paper

8. Writing a Conclusion

• Return to your argument and remind your reader of the most compelling evidence presented to support it.

9. Revising

• Excellent papers are drafted far enough ahead of time so that you have time to re-read, reflect, and revise–all of which will make your paper better than it would have been without revision.
• Consider asking trusted colleagues to read and comment on your work.
• Think about the overall organization of your paper. Does is flow logically and cohere throughout? Are there bumpy spots that need reworking, better transitions, and reorganization?
• Think about each paragraph. Does it go where you say it will go? Do you offer concrete evidence and examples when you make general points? Is the transition from the paragraph before smooth? Is the transition to the next paragraph equally smooth?
• Think about each sentence: grammar, spelling, punctuation, word choice, etc. Ask yourself if your writing is as bold and direct as possible. Be ruthless about eliminating pompous language, jargon, and fussy constructions. They will not impress your reader or do justice to your ideas.

10. Proofreading

• Use your computer’s spell checker, but don’t stop there.
• Many people find that it is easier to catch errors on paper than on a screen.
• Try reading your work aloud. It can be a little embarrassing at first, but it is a great technique for zooming in on errors, weak spots, and awkward phrases.

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2.5: The Main Stages of the Writing Process

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The word “process” itself implies doing things in stages and over time. Applied to writing, this means that as you proceed from the beginning of a writing project through its middle and towards the end, you go through certain definable stages, each of which needs to be completed in order for the whole project to succeed.

Composing is very complex intellectual work consisting of many complex mental activities and processes. As we will see in the next section of this chapter, it is often difficult to say when and where one stage of the writing process ends and the next one begins. However, it is generally agreed that the writing process has at least three discreet stages: invention, revision, and editing. In addition to inventing, revising, and editing, writers who follow the process approach also seek and receive feedback to their drafts from others. It is also important to understand that the writing process is recursive and non-linear. What this means is that a writer may finish initial invention, produce a draft, and then go back to generating more ideas, before revising the text he or she created.

Figure 2.1 - The Writing Process. Source: www.mywritingportfolio.ne t

Invention is what writers do before they produce a first complete draft of their piece. As its name suggests, invention helps writers to come up with material for writing. The process theory states that no writer should be expected to simply sit down and write a complete piece without some kind of preparatory work. The purpose of invention is to explore various directions in which the piece may go and to try different ways to develop material for writing. Note the words “explore” and “try” in the previous sentence. They suggest that not all the material generated during invention final, or even the first draft. To a writer used to product-based composing, this may seem like a waste of time and energy. Why generate more ideas during invention than you can into the paper, they reason?

Remember that your goal during invention is to explore various possibilities for your project. At this point, just about the most dangerous and counter-productive thing you can do as a writer is to “lock in” on one idea, thesis, type of evidence, or detail, and ignore all other possibilities. Such a limited approach is particularly dangerous when applied to research writing. A discussion of that follows in the section of this chapter which is dedicated to the application the process model to research writing. Below, I offer several invention, revision, and editing strategies and activities.

Invention Techniques

These invention strategies invite spontaneity and creativity. Feel free to adjust and modify them as you see fit. They will probably work best for you if you apply them to a specific writing project rather than try them out “for practice’s sake.” As you try them, don’t worry about the shape or even content of your final draft. At this stage, you simply don’t know what that draft is going to look like. You are creating its content as you invent. This is not a complete list of all possible invention strategies. Your teacher and classmates may be able to share other invention ideas with you.

Free-writing

As its name suggests, free writing encourages the writer to write freely and without worrying about the content or shape of the writing. When you free-write, your goal is to generate as much material on the page as possible, no matter what you say or how you say it.

Try to write for five, ten, or even fifteen minutes without checking, censoring, or editing yourself in any way. You should not put your pen or pencil down, or stop typing on the computer, no matter what. If you run out of things to say, repeat “I have nothing to say” or something similar until the next idea pops into your head. Let your mind go, go with the flow, and don’t worry about the end product. Your objective is to create as much text as possible. Don’t even worry about finishing your sentences or separating your paragraphs. You are not writing a draft of your paper. Instead, you are producing raw material for that draft. Later on, you just might find a gem of an idea in that raw material which you can develop into a complete draft. Also don’t worry if anyone will be able to read what your have written—most likely you will be the only reader of your text. If your teacher asks you to share your free writing with other students, you can explain what you have written to your group mates as you go along.

Brainstorming

When brainstorming, you list as quickly as possible all thoughts and ideas which are connected, however loosely, to the topic of your writing. As with free writing, you should not worry about the shape or structure of your writing. Your only concern should be to write as long a list of possibilities as you can. As you brainstorm, try not to focus your writing radar too narrowly, on a single aspect of your topic or a single question. The broader you cast your brainstorming net, the better because a large list of possibilities will give you a wealth of choices when time comes to compose your first draft. Your teacher may suggest how many items to have on your brainstorming list. I usually ask my students to come up with at least ten to twelve items in a five to ten minute long brainstorming session, more if possible.

Mind-Mapping

Mind-mapping, which is also known as webbing or clustering, invites you to create a visual representation of your writing topic or of the problem you are trying to solve through your writing and research. The usefulness of mind-mapping as an invention techniques has been recognized by professionals in many disciplines, with at least one software company designing a special computer program exclusively for creating elaborate mind maps.

Here is how mind-mapping works. Write your topic or questions in the middle of a blank page, or type it in the middle of a computer screen, and think about any other topics or subtopics related to this main topic or question. Then branch out of the center connecting the central idea of your mind map to the other ones. The result should like a spider’s web. The figure is a mind-map I made for the first draft of the chapter of this book dedicated to rhetoric.

This invention strategy also asks the writer to create a visual representation of his or topic and is particularly useful for personal writing projects and memoirs. In such projects, memories and recollections, however vague and uncertain, are often starting points for writing. Instead of writing about your memories, this invention strategy invites you to draw them. The advantage of this strategy is that it allows the writer not only to restore these memories in preparation for writing, but also to reflect upon them. As you know by now, one of the fundamental principles of the process approach to writing is that meaning is created as the writer develops the piece from draft to draft. Drawing elements of your future project may help you create such meaning. I am not particularly good at visual arts, so I will not subject you to looking at my drawings. Instead, I invite you to create your own.

Outlining can be a powerful invention tool because it allows writers to generate ideas and to organize them in a systematic manner. In a way, outlining is similar to mind mapping as it allows you to break down main ideas and points into smaller ones. The difference between mind maps and outlines is, of course, the fact that the former provides a visual representation of your topic while the latter gives you a more linear, textual one. If you like to organize your thoughts systematically as you compose, a good outline can be a useful resource when you begin drafting.

However, it is extremely important to observe two conditions when using outlining as your main invention strategy. The first is to treat your outline as a flexible plan for writing and nothing more. The key word is “flexible.” Your outline is not a rigid set of points which you absolutely must cover in your paper, and the structure of your outline, with all its points and sub-points, does not predetermine the structure of your paper. The second condition follows from the first. If, in the process of writing the paper, you realize that your current outline does not suit you anymore, change it or discard it. Do not follow it devotedly, trying to fit your writing into what your outline wants it to be.

So, again, the outline is you flexible plan for writing, not a canon that you have to follow at all cost. It is hard for writers to create a “perfect” or complete outline before writing because the meaning of a piece takes shape during composing, not before. It is difficult, if not impossible, to know what you are going to say in your writing unless and until you begin to say it. Outlining may help you in planning your first draft, but it should not determine it.

Keeping a journal or a writer’s notebook

Keeping a journal or a writer’s notebook is another powerful invention strategy. Keeping a writer’s journal can work regardless of the genre you are working in. Journals and writer’s notebooks are popular among writers of fiction and creative non-fiction. But they also have a huge potential for researching writers because keeping a journal allows you not only to record events and details, but also to reflect on them through writing. In the chapter of this book dedicated to researching in academic disciplines, I discuss one particular type of writing journal called the double-entry journal. If you decide to keep a journal or a writer’s notebook as an invention strategy, keep in mind the following principles:

• Write in your journal or notebook regularly.
• Keep everything you write—you never know when you may need or want to use it in your writing.
• Write about interesting events, observations, and thoughts.
• Reflect on what you have written. Reflection allows you to make that leap from simple observation to making sense of what you have observed.
• Frequently re-read your entries.

It is hard to overestimate the importance of reading as an invention strategy. As you can learn from the chapters on rhetoric and on reading, writing is a social process that never occurs in a vacuum. To get ideas for writing of your own, you need to be familiar with ideas of others. Reading is one of the best, if not the best way, to get such material. Reading is especially important for research writing. For a more in-depth discussion of the relationship between reading and writing and for specific activities designed to help you to use reading for writing, see Chapter 3 of this book dedicated to reading.

Examining your Current Knowledge

The best place to start looking for a research project topic is to examine your own interests, passions, and hobbies. What topics, events, people, or natural phenomena, or stories interest, concern you, or make you passionate? What have you always wanted to find out more about or explore in more depth?

Looking into the storehouse of your knowledge and life experiences will allow you to choose a topic for your research project in which you are genuinely interested and in which you will,therefore, be willing to invest plenty of time, effort, and enthusiasm. Simultaneously with being interesting and important to you, your research topic should, of course, interest your readers. As you have learned from the chapter on rhetoric, writers always write with a purpose and for a specific audience.

Therefore, whatever topic you choose and whatever argument you will build about it through research should provoke response in your readers. And while almost any topic can be treated in an original and interesting way, simply choosing the topic that interests you, the writer, is not, in itself, a guarantee of success of your research project.

Here is some advice on how to select a promising topic for your next research project. As you think about possible topics for your paper, remember that writing is a conversation between you and your readers. Whatever subject you choose to explore and write about has to be something that is interesting and important to them as well as to you. Remember kairos, or the ability to "be in the right place at the right time, which we discussed in Chapter 1.

When selecting topics for research, consider the following factors:

• Your existing knowledge about the topic
• What else you need or want to find out about the topic
• What questions about or aspects of the topic are important not only for you but for others around you.
• Resources (libraries, internet access, primary research sources, and so on) available to you in order to conduct a high quality investigation of your topic.

Read about and “around” various topics that interest you. As I argue later on in this chapter, reading is a powerful invention tool capable of teasing out subjects, questions, and ideas which would not have come to mind otherwise. Reading also allows you to find out what questions, problems, and ideas are circulating among your potential readers, thus enabling you to better and quicker enter the conversation with those readers through research and writing.

Explore " Writing Activity 2B: Generating Topics " in the "Writing Activities" section of this chapter.

If you have an idea of the topic or issue you want to study, try asking the following questions

• Why do I care about this topic?
• What do I already know or believe about this topic?
• How did I receive my knowledge or beliefs (personal experiences, stories of others, reading, and so on)?
• What do I want to find out about this topic?
• Who else cares about or is affected by this topic? In what ways and why?
• What do I know about the kinds of things that my potential readers might want to learn about it?
• Where do my interests about the topic intersect with my readers’ potential interests, and where they do not?

Which topic or topics has the most potential to interest not only you, the writer, but also your readers?

Designing Research Questions

Assuming that you were able to select the topic for your next research project, it is not time to design some research questions. Forming specific and relevant research questions will allow you to achieve three important goals:

• Direct your research from the very beginning of the project
• Keep your research focused and on track
• Help you find relevant and interesting sources

Do You Know The 7 Steps Of The Writing Process?

How much do you know about the different stages of the writing process? Even if you’ve been writing for years, your understanding of the processes of writing may be limited to writing, editing, and publishing. 

It’s not your fault. Much of the writing instruction in school and online focus most heavily on those three critical steps. 

Important as they are, though, there’s more to creating a successful book than those three. And as a writer, you need to know.   

The 7 Steps of the Writing Process

Read on to familiarize yourself with the seven writing process steps most writers go through — at least to some extent. The more you know each step and its importance, the more you can do it justice before moving on to the next. 

1. Planning or Prewriting

This is probably the most fun part of the writing process. Here’s where an idea leads to a brainstorm, which leads to an outline (or something like it). 

Whether you’re a plotter, a pantser, or something in between, every writer has some idea of what they want to accomplish with their writing. This is the goal you want the final draft to meet. 

With both fiction and nonfiction , every author needs to identify two things for each writing project: 

• Intended audience = “For whom am I writing this?”
• Chosen purpose = “What do I want this piece of writing to accomplish?”

In other words, you start with the endpoint in mind. You look at your writing project the way your audience would. And you keep its purpose foremost at every step. 

From planning, we move to the next fun stage. 

2. Drafting (or Writing the First Draft)

There’s a reason we don’t just call this the “rough draft,” anymore. Every first draft is rough. And you’ll probably have more than one rough draft before you’re ready to publish. 

For your first draft, you’ll be freewriting your way from beginning to end, drawing from your outline, or a list of main plot points, depending on your particular process. 

To get to the finish line for this first draft, it helps to set word count goals for each day or each week and to set a deadline based on those word counts and an approximate idea of how long this writing project should be. 

Seeing that deadline on your calendar can help keep you motivated to meet your daily and weekly targets. It also helps to reserve a specific time of day for writing. 

Another useful tool is a Pomodoro timer, which you can set for 20-25 minute bursts with short breaks between them — until you reach your word count for the day. 

3. Sharing Your First Draft

Once you’ve finished your first draft, it’s time to take a break from it. The next time you sit down to read through it, you’ll be more objective than you would be right after typing “The End” or logging the final word count. 

It’s also time to let others see your baby, so they can provide feedback on what they like and what isn’t working for them.

You can find willing readers in a variety of places: 

• Social media groups for writers
• Social media groups for readers of a particular genre
• Your email list (if you have one)
• Local and online writing groups and forums

This is where you’ll get a sense of whether your first draft is fulfilling its original purpose and whether it’s likely to appeal to its intended audience. 

You’ll also get some feedback on whether you use certain words too often, as well as whether your writing is clear and enjoyable to read. 

4. Evaluating Your Draft

Here’s where you do a full evaluation of your first draft, taking into account the feedback you’ve received, as well as what you’re noticing as you read through it. You’ll mark any mistakes with grammar or mechanics. 

And you’ll look for the answer to important questions: 

• Is this piece of writing effective/ Does it fulfill its purpose?
• Do my readers like my main character? (Fiction)
• Does the story make sense and satisfy the reader? (Fiction)
• Does it answer the questions presented at the beginning? ( Nonfiction )
• Is it written in a way the intended audience can understand and enjoy?

Once you’ve thoroughly evaluated your work, you can move on to the revision stage and create the next draft. 

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5. Revising Your Content

Revising and editing get mixed up a lot, but they’re not the same thing. 

With revising, you’re making changes to the content based on the feedback you’ve received and on your own evaluation of the previous draft. 

• To correct structural problems in your book or story
• To find loose ends and tie them up (Fiction)
• To correct unhelpful deviations from genre norms (Fiction)
• To add or remove content to improve flow and/or usefulness

You revise your draft to create a new one that comes closer to achieving your original goals for it. Your newest revision is your newest draft. 

If you’re hiring a professional editor for the next step, you’ll likely be doing more revision after they’ve provided their own feedback on the draft you send them. 

Editing is about eliminating errors in your (revised) content that can affect its accuracy, clarity, and readability.

By the time editing is done, your writing should be free of the following: 

• Grammatical errors
• Punctuation/mechanical and spelling errors
• Misquoted content
• Missing (necessary) citations and source info
• Factual errors
• Awkward phrasing
• Unnecessary repetition

Good editing makes your work easier and more enjoyable to read. A well-edited book is less likely to get negative reviews titled, “Needs editing.” And when it comes to books, it’s best to go beyond self-editing and find a skilled professional. 

A competent editor will be more objective about your work and is more likely to catch mistakes you don’t see because your eyes have learned to compensate for them. 

7. Publishing Your Final Product

Here’s where you take your final draft — the final product of all the previous steps — and prepare it for publication. 

Not only will it need to be formatted (for ebook, print, and audiobook), but you’ll also need a cover that will appeal to your intended audience as much as your content will. 

Whether you budget for these things or not depends on the path you choose to publish your book: 

• Traditional Publishing — where the publishing house provides editing, formatting, and cover design, as well as some marketing
• Self-Publishing — where you contract with professionals and pay for editing, formatting, and cover design. 
• Self-Publishing with a Publishing Company — where you pay the company to provide editing, formatting, and cover design using their in-house professionals.

And once your book is live and ready to buy, it’s time to make it more visible to your intended audience. Otherwise, it would fail in its purpose, too. 

Are you ready to begin 7 steps of the writing process?

Now that you’re familiar with the writing process examples in this post, how do you envision your own process?

While it should include the seven steps described here, it’ll also include personal preferences of your own — like the following: 

• Writing music and other ambient details
• Writing schedule
• Word count targets and time frames

The more you learn about the finer details of the writing process, the more likely you are to create content your readers will love. And the more likely they are to find it. 

Wherever you are in the process, our goal here is to provide content that will help you make the most of it. 

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Research Process: 8 Steps in Research Process

The research process starts with identifying a research problem and conducting a literature review to understand the context. The researcher sets research questions, objectives, and hypotheses based on the research problem.

A research study design is formed to select a sample size and collect data after processing and analyzing the collected data and the research findings presented in a research report.

What is the Research Process?

There are a variety of approaches to research in any field of investigation, irrespective of whether it is applied research or basic research. Each research study will be unique in some ways because of the particular time, setting, environment, and place it is being undertaken.

Nevertheless, all research endeavors share a common goal of furthering our understanding of the problem, and thus, all traverse through certain primary stages, forming a process called the research process.

Understanding the research process is necessary to effectively carry out research and sequence the stages inherent in the process.

How Research Process Work?

Eight steps research process is, in essence, part and parcel of a research proposal. It is an outline of the commitment that you intend to follow in executing a research study.

A close examination of the above stages reveals that each of these stages, by and large, is dependent upon the others.

One cannot analyze data (step 7) unless he has collected data (step 6). One cannot write a report (step 8) unless he has collected and analyzed data (step 7).

Research then is a system of interdependent related stages. Violation of this sequence can cause irreparable harm to the study.

It is also true that several alternatives are available to the researcher during each stage stated above. A research process can be compared with a route map.

The map analogy is useful for the researcher because several alternatives exist at each stage of the research process.

Choosing the best alternative in terms of time constraints, money, and human resources in our research decision is our primary goal.

Before explaining the stages of the research process, we explain the term ‘iterative’ appearing within the oval-shaped diagram at the center of the schematic diagram.

The key to a successful research project ultimately lies in iteration: the process of returning again and again to the identification of the research problems, methodology, data collection, etc., which leads to new ideas, revisions, and improvements.

By discussing the research project with advisers and peers, one will often find that new research questions need to be added, variables to be omitted, added or redefined, and other changes to be made. As a proposed study is examined and reexamined from different perspectives, it may begin to transform and take a different shape.

This is expected and is an essential component of a good research study.

Besides, examining study methods and data collected from different viewpoints is important to ensure a comprehensive approach to the research question.

In conclusion, there is seldom any single strategy or formula for developing a successful research study, but it is essential to realize that the research process is cyclical and iterative.

What is the primary purpose of the research process?

The research process aims to identify a research problem, understand its context through a literature review, set research questions and objectives, design a research study, select a sample, collect data, analyze the data, and present the findings in a research report.

Why is the research design important in the research process?

The research design is the blueprint for fulfilling objectives and answering research questions. It specifies the methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and analyzing data, ensuring the study is structured and systematic.

8 Steps of Research Process

Identifying the research problem.

The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify a research problem .

A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important phases of the research process, from setting objectives to selecting the research methodology .

But the core question is: whether all problems require research.

We have countless problems around us, but all we encounter do not qualify as research problems; thus, these do not need to be researched.

Keeping this point in mind, we must draw a line between research and non-research problems.

Intuitively, researchable problems are those that have a possibility of thorough verification investigation, which can be effected through the analysis and collection of data. In contrast, the non-research problems do not need to go through these processes.

Researchers need to identify both;

Non-Research Problems

Statement of the problem, justifying the problem, analyzing the problem.

A non-research problem does not require any research to arrive at a solution. Intuitively, a non-researchable problem consists of vague details and cannot be resolved through research.

It is a managerial or built-in problem that may be solved at the administrative or management level. The answer to any question raised in a non-research setting is almost always obvious.

The cholera outbreak, for example, following a severe flood, is a common phenomenon in many communities. The reason for this is known. It is thus not a research problem.

Similarly, the reasons for the sudden rise in prices of many essential commodities following the announcement of the budget by the Finance Minister need no investigation. Hence it is not a problem that needs research.

How is a research problem different from a non-research problem?

A research problem is a perceived difficulty that requires thorough verification and investigation through data analysis and collection. In contrast, a non-research problem does not require research for a solution, as the answer is often obvious or already known.

Non-Research Problems Examples

A recent survey in town- A found that 1000 women were continuous users of contraceptive pills.

But last month’s service statistics indicate that none of these women were using contraceptive pills (Fisher et al. 1991:4).

The discrepancy is that ‘all 1000 women should have been using a pill, but none is doing so. The question is: why the discrepancy exists?

Well, the fact is, a monsoon flood has prevented all new supplies of pills from reaching town- A, and all old supplies have been exhausted. Thus, although the problem situation exists, the reason for the problem is already known.

Therefore, assuming all the facts are correct, there is no reason to research the factors associated with pill discontinuation among women. This is, thus, a non-research problem.

A pilot survey by University students revealed that in Rural Town-A, the goiter prevalence among school children is as high as 80%, while in the neighboring Rural Town-A, it is only 30%. Why is a discrepancy?

Upon inquiry, it was seen that some three years back, UNICEF launched a lipiodol injection program in the neighboring Rural Town-A.

This attempt acted as a preventive measure against the goiter. The reason for the discrepancy is known; hence, we do not consider the problem a research problem.

A hospital treated a large number of cholera cases with penicillin, but the treatment with penicillin was not found to be effective. Do we need research to know the reason?

Here again, there is one single reason that Vibrio cholera is not sensitive to penicillin; therefore, this is not the drug of choice for this disease.

In this case, too, as the reasons are known, it is unwise to undertake any study to find out why penicillin does not improve the condition of cholera patients. This is also a non-research problem.

In the tea marketing system, buying and selling tea starts with bidders. Blenders purchase open tea from the bidders. Over the years, marketing cost has been the highest for bidders and the lowest for blenders. What makes this difference?

The bidders pay exorbitantly higher transport costs, which constitute about 30% of their total cost.

Blenders have significantly fewer marketing functions involving transportation, so their marketing cost remains minimal.

Hence no research is needed to identify the factors that make this difference.

Here are some of the problems we frequently encounter, which may well be considered non-research problems:

• Rises in the price of warm clothes during winter;
• Preferring admission to public universities over private universities;
• Crisis of accommodations in sea resorts during summer
• Traffic jams in the city street after office hours;
• High sales in department stores after an offer of a discount.

Research Problem

In contrast to a non-research problem, a research problem is of primary concern to a researcher.

A research problem is a perceived difficulty, a feeling of discomfort, or a discrepancy between a common belief and reality.

As noted by Fisher et al. (1993), a problem will qualify as a potential research problem when the following three conditions exist:

• There should be a perceived discrepancy between “what it is” and “what it should have been.” This implies that there should be a difference between “what exists” and the “ideal or planned situation”;
• A question about “why” the discrepancy exists. This implies that the reason(s) for this discrepancy is unclear to the researcher (so that it makes sense to develop a research question); and
• There should be at least two possible answers or solutions to the questions or problems.

The third point is important. If there is only one possible and plausible answer to the question about the discrepancy, then a research situation does not exist.

It is a non-research problem that can be tackled at the managerial or administrative level.

Research Problem Examples

Research problem – example #1.

While visiting a rural area, the UNICEF team observed that some villages have female school attendance rates as high as 75%, while some have as low as 10%, although all villages should have a nearly equal attendance rate. What factors are associated with this discrepancy?

We may enumerate several reasons for this:

• Villages differ in their socio-economic background.
• In some villages, the Muslim population constitutes a large proportion of the total population. Religion might play a vital role.
• Schools are far away from some villages. The distance thus may make this difference.

Because there is more than one answer to the problem, it is considered a research problem, and a study can be undertaken to find a solution.

Research Problem – Example #2

The Government has been making all-out efforts to ensure a regular flow of credit in rural areas at a concession rate through liberal lending policy and establishing many bank branches in rural areas.

Knowledgeable sources indicate that expected development in rural areas has not yet been achieved, mainly because of improper credit utilization.

More than one reason is suspected for such misuse or misdirection.

These include, among others:

• Diversion of credit money to some unproductive sectors
• Transfer of credit money to other people like money lenders, who exploit the rural people with this money
• Lack of knowledge of proper utilization of the credit.

Here too, reasons for misuse of loans are more than one. We thus consider this problem as a researchable problem.

Research Problem – Example #3

Let’s look at a new headline: Stock Exchange observes the steepest ever fall in stock prices: several injured as retail investors clash with police, vehicles ransacked .

Investors’ demonstration, protest and clash with police pause a problem. Still, it is certainly not a research problem since there is only one known reason for the problem: Stock Exchange experiences the steepest fall in stock prices. But what causes this unprecedented fall in the share market?

Experts felt that no single reason could be attributed to the problem. It is a mix of several factors and is a research problem. The following were assumed to be some of the possible reasons:

• The merchant banking system;
• Liquidity shortage because of the hike in the rate of cash reserve requirement (CRR);
• IMF’s warnings and prescriptions on the commercial banks’ exposure to the stock market;
• Increase in supply of new shares;
• Manipulation of share prices;
• Lack of knowledge of the investors on the company’s fundamentals.

The choice of a research problem is not as easy as it appears. The researchers generally guide it;

• own intellectual orientation,
• level of training,
• experience,
• knowledge on the subject matter, and
• intellectual curiosity.

Theoretical and practical considerations also play a vital role in choosing a research problem. Societal needs also guide in choosing a research problem.

Once we have chosen a research problem, a few more related steps must be followed before a decision is taken to undertake a research study.

These include, among others, the following:

• Statement of the problem.
• Justifying the problem.
• Analyzing the problem.

A detailed exposition of these issues is undertaken in chapter ten while discussing the proposal development.

A clear and well-defined problem statement is considered the foundation for developing the research proposal.

It enables the researcher to systematically point out why the proposed research on the problem should be undertaken and what he hopes to achieve with the study’s findings.

A well-defined statement of the problem will lead the researcher to formulate the research objectives, understand the background of the study, and choose a proper research methodology.

Once the problem situation has been identified and clearly stated, it is important to justify the importance of the problem.

In justifying the problems, we ask such questions as why the problem of the study is important, how large and widespread the problem is, and whether others can be convinced about the importance of the problem and the like.

Answers to the above questions should be reviewed and presented in one or two paragraphs that justify the importance of the problem.

As a first step in analyzing the problem, critical attention should be given to accommodate the viewpoints of the managers, users, and researchers to the problem through threadbare discussions.

The next step is identifying the factors that may have contributed to the perceived problems.

Issues of Research Problem Identification

There are several ways to identify, define, and analyze a problem, obtain insights, and get a clearer idea about these issues. Exploratory research is one of the ways of accomplishing this.

The purpose of the exploratory research process is to progressively narrow the scope of the topic and transform the undefined problems into defined ones, incorporating specific research objectives.

The exploratory study entails a few basic strategies for gaining insights into the problem. It is accomplished through such efforts as:

Pilot Survey

A pilot survey collects proxy data from the ultimate subjects of the study to serve as a guide for the large study. A pilot study generates primary data, usually for qualitative analysis.

This characteristic distinguishes a pilot survey from secondary data analysis, which gathers background information.

Case Studies

Case studies are quite helpful in diagnosing a problem and paving the way to defining the problem. It investigates one or a few situations identical to the researcher’s problem.

Focus Group Interviews

Focus group interviews, an unstructured free-flowing interview with a small group of people, may also be conducted to understand and define a research problem .

Experience Survey

Experience survey is another strategy to deal with the problem of identifying and defining the research problem.

It is an exploratory research endeavor in which individuals knowledgeable and experienced in a particular research problem are intimately consulted to understand the problem.

These persons are sometimes known as key informants, and an interview with them is popularly known as the Key Informant Interview (KII).

Reviewing of Literature

A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his interest that has not been researched so far.

Such a review provides exposure to a larger body of knowledge and equips him with enhanced knowledge to efficiently follow the research process.

Through a proper review of the literature, the researcher may develop the coherence between the results of his study and those of the others.

A review of previous documents on similar or related phenomena is essential even for beginning researchers.

Ignoring the existing literature may lead to wasted effort on the part of the researchers.

Why spend time merely repeating what other investigators have already done?

Suppose the researcher is aware of earlier studies of his topic or related topics . In that case, he will be in a much better position to assess his work’s significance and convince others that it is important.

A confident and expert researcher is more crucial in questioning the others’ methodology, the choice of the data, and the quality of the inferences drawn from the study results.

In sum, we enumerate the following arguments in favor of reviewing the literature:

• It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the recent past.
• It helps the researcher discover what others have learned and reported on the problem.
• It enables the researcher to become familiar with the methodology followed by others.
• It allows the researcher to understand what concepts and theories are relevant to his area of investigation.
• It helps the researcher to understand if there are any significant controversies, contradictions, and inconsistencies in the findings.
• It allows the researcher to understand if there are any unanswered research questions.
• It might help the researcher to develop an analytical framework.
• It will help the researcher consider including variables in his research that he might not have thought about.

Why is reviewing literature crucial in the research process?

Reviewing literature helps avoid duplicating previous work, discovers what others have learned about the problem, familiarizes the researcher with relevant concepts and theories, and ensures a comprehensive approach to the research question.

What is the significance of reviewing literature in the research process?

Reviewing relevant literature helps formulate the problem, understand the background of the study, choose a proper research methodology, and develop coherence between the study’s results and previous findings.

Setting Research Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal statement of the problem leading to research objectives .

An objective will precisely say what should be researched, delineate the type of information that should be collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the study. A well-formulated, testable research hypothesis is the best expression of a research objective.

A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supported by empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.

Step #4: Choosing the Study Design

The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering research questions .

It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and analyzing the collected data. There are four basic research designs that a researcher can use to conduct their study;

• experiment,
• secondary data study, and
• observational study.

The type of research design to be chosen from among the above four methods depends primarily on four factors:

• The type of problem
• The objectives of the study,
• The existing state of knowledge about the problem that is being studied, and
• The resources are available for the study.

Deciding on the Sample Design

Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of sampling is that it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or portions (called a sample) of a universe (called population) to conclude the whole population.

It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the population is included.

Such a complete enumeration is referred to as a census.

A population is the total collection of elements we wish to make some inference or generalization.

A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected to represent that population. If certain statistical procedures are followed in selecting the sample, it should have the same characteristics as the population. These procedures are embedded in the sample design.

Sample design refers to the methods followed in selecting a sample from the population and the estimating technique vis-a-vis the formula for computing the sample statistics.

The fundamental question is, then, how to select a sample.

To answer this question, we must have acquaintance with the sampling methods.

These methods are basically of two types;

• probability sampling , and
• non-probability sampling .

Probability sampling ensures every unit has a known nonzero probability of selection within the target population.

If there is no feasible alternative, a non-probability sampling method may be employed.

The basis of such selection is entirely dependent on the researcher’s discretion. This approach is called judgment sampling, convenience sampling, accidental sampling, and purposive sampling.

The most widely used probability sampling methods are simple random sampling , stratified random sampling , cluster sampling , and systematic sampling . They have been classified by their representation basis and unit selection techniques.

Two other variations of the sampling methods that are in great use are multistage sampling and probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling .

Multistage sampling is most commonly used in drawing samples from very large and diverse populations.

The PPS sampling is a variation of multistage sampling in which the probability of selecting a cluster is proportional to its size, and an equal number of elements are sampled within each cluster.

Collecting Data From The Research Sample

Data gathering may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any defined population. There are many ways to collect data. The approach selected depends on the objectives of the study, the research design, and the availability of time, money, and personnel.

With the variation in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the method of data collection also varies .

The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured interview .

Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys. Data can also be collected by using self-administered questionnaires . Telephone interviewing is another way in which data may be collected .

Other means of data collection include secondary sources, such as the census, vital registration records, official documents, previous surveys, etc.

Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions , Key Informant Interview ( KII), and observational studies.

Process and Analyze the Collected Research Data

Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data . Data are edited to ensure consistency across respondents and to locate omissions if any.

In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies unclear and inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the data also need coding.

Because it is impractical to place raw data into a report, alphanumeric codes are used to reduce the responses to a more manageable form for storage and future processing.

This coding process facilitates the processing of the data. The personal computer offers an excellent opportunity for data editing and coding processes.

Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developing summaries, searching for patterns, and applying statistical techniques for understanding and interpreting the findings in light of the research questions.

Further, based on his analysis, the researcher determines if his findings are consistent with the formulated hypotheses and theories.

The techniques used in analyzing data may range from simple graphical techniques to very complex multivariate analyses depending on the study’s objectives, the research design employed, and the nature of the data collected.

As in the case of data collection methods, an analytical technique appropriate in one situation may not be suitable for another.

Writing Research Report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report, Disseminating and Utilizing Results

The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a proposal or research proposal.

A research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, offer, and a statement of intent or commitment from an individual researcher or an organization to produce a product or render a service to a potential client or sponsor .

The proposal will be prepared to keep the sequence presented in the research process. The proposal tells us what, how, where, and to whom it will be done.

It must also show the benefit of doing it. It always includes an explanation of the purpose of the study (the research objectives) or a definition of the problem.

It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details the procedures utilized at each stage of the research process.

The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results and draw conclusions.

To this end, it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings and recommendations to administrators, policymakers, and program managers to make a decision.

There are various research reports: term papers, dissertations, journal articles , papers for presentation at professional conferences and seminars, books, thesis, and so on. The results of a research investigation prepared in any form are of little utility if they are not communicated to others.

The primary purpose of a dissemination strategy is to identify the most effective media channels to reach different audience groups with study findings most relevant to their needs.

The dissemination may be made through a conference, a seminar, a report, or an oral or poster presentation.

The style and organization of the report will differ according to the target audience, the occasion, and the purpose of the research. Reports should be developed from the client’s perspective.

A report is an excellent means that helps to establish the researcher’s credibility. At a bare minimum, a research report should contain sections on:

• An executive summary;
• Background of the problem;
• Literature review;
• Methodology;
• Discussion;
• Conclusions and
• Recommendations.

The study results can also be disseminated through peer-reviewed journals published by academic institutions and reputed publishers both at home and abroad. The report should be properly evaluated .

These journals have their format and editorial policies. The contributors can submit their manuscripts adhering to the policies and format for possible publication of their papers.

There are now ample opportunities for researchers to publish their work online.

The researchers have conducted many interesting studies without affecting actual settings. Ideally, the concluding step of a scientific study is to plan for its utilization in the real world.

Although researchers are often not in a position to implement a plan for utilizing research findings, they can contribute by including in their research reports a few recommendations regarding how the study results could be utilized for policy formulation and program intervention.

Why is the dissemination of research findings important?

Dissemination of research findings is crucial because the results of a research investigation have little utility if not communicated to others. Dissemination ensures that the findings reach relevant stakeholders, policymakers, and program managers to inform decisions.

How should a research report be structured?

A research report should contain sections on an executive summary, background of the problem, literature review, methodology, findings, discussion, conclusions, and recommendations.

Why is it essential to consider the target audience when preparing a research report?

The style and organization of a research report should differ based on the target audience, occasion, and research purpose. Tailoring the report to the audience ensures that the findings are communicated effectively and are relevant to their needs.

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Promoting Preschoolers’ Emergent Writing

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Emergent writing is young children’s first attempts at the writing process. Children as young as 2 years old begin to imitate the act of writing by creating drawings and symbolic markings that represent their thoughts and ideas (Rowe & Neitzel 2010; Dennis & Votteler 2013). This is the beginning of a series of stages that children progress through as they learn to write (see “Stages of Emergent Writing”). Emergent writing skills, such as the development of namewriting proficiency, are important predictors of children’s future reading and writing skills (National Center for Family & Literacy 2008; Puranik & Lonigan 2012).

Teachers play an important role in the development of 3- to 5-year-olds’ emergent writing by encouraging children to communicate their thoughts and record their ideas (Hall et al. 2015). In some early childhood classrooms, however, emergent writing experiences are almost nonexistent. One recent study, which is in accord with earlier research, found that 4- and 5-year-olds (spread across 81 classrooms) averaged just two minutes a day either writing or being taught writing (Pelatti et al. 2014). This article shares a framework for understanding emergent writing and ties the framework to differentiating young children’s emergent writing experiences.

Understanding emergent writing

Researchers and educators often use the term emergent literacy to define a broad set of language and literacy skills focused primarily on the development and significance of emergent reading skills. To better understand writing development—and to support teachers’ work with young children—researchers have proposed a framework to explain emergent writing practices (Puranik & Lonigan 2014). The framework is composed of three domains: conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and generative knowledge.

Conceptual knowledge includes learning the function of writing. In this domain, young children learn that writing has a purpose and that print is meaningful (i.e., it communicates ideas, stories, and facts). For example, young children become aware that the red street sign says Stop and the letters under the yellow arch spell McDonald’s . They recognize that certain symbols, logos, and markings have specific meanings (Wu 2009).

Generative knowledge describes children’s abilities to write phrases and sentences that convey meaning. It is the ability to translate thoughts into writing that goes beyond the word level (Puranik & Lonigan 2014). During early childhood, teachers are laying the foundation for generative knowledge as children learn to express themselves orally and experiment with different forms of written communication, such as composing a story, writing notes, creating lists, and taking messages. Children can dictate words, phrases, or sentences that an adult can record on paper, or they can share ideas for group writing.

Developing conceptual, procedural, and generative knowledge of writing

Children gain knowledge of and interest in writing as they are continually exposed to print and writing in their environment. There are multiple strategies teachers can use to scaffold children’s writing, such as verbally reminding children to use writing in their classroom activities and providing appropriate writing instructions (Gerde, Bingham, & Wasik 2012). By being aware of children’s current fine motor abilities and their progress in emergent writing, teachers can use a mix of strategies to foster growth in each child’s zone of proximal development (Vygotsky 1978).

Practicing name writing

One of the first words children usually learn to write is their first name (Both-de Vries & Bus 2008). Name writing increases children’s conceptual and procedural knowledge. Names are meaningful to children, and preschoolers typically are interested in learning to write the letters in their name, especially the first letter (Both-de Vries & Bus 2008). Namewriting proficiency provides a foundation for other literacy knowledge and skills; it is associated with alphabet knowledge, letter writing, print concepts, and spelling (Cabell et al. 2009; Drouin & Harmon 2009; Puranik & Lonigan 2012).

Preschoolers benefit from daily writing experiences, so it is helpful to embed writing in the daily routine, such as having children write (or attempt to write) their names at sign-in and during choice times. Be sensitive to preschoolers’ varying levels of fine motor skills and promote the joy of experimenting with the art of writing, regardless of a child’s current skill level. Encourage invented spelling (Ouellette & Sénéchal 2017) and attempts at writing letters or letter-like symbols.

As Ms. Han’s preschoolers enter the classroom, they sign in, with parental support, by writing their names on a whiteboard at the classroom entrance. Children in Ms. Noel’s classroom go to a special table and sign in as they enter the room. Ms. Patel instructs her preschoolers to answer the question of the day by writing their names under their chosen answers. Today, the children write their names to answer the question “What are your favorite small animals—piglets, ducklings, or kittens?” Juan and Maria help their friends read the question and write their names under the appropriate headings. Pedro writes Pdr under the piglets heading, Anthony writes his complete name under ducklings, and Tess writes the letter T under kittens. In Mr. Ryan’s class, children write their names during different activities. Today, children sign in as they pretend to visit the doctor in one learning center and sign for a package delivery in another. Meanwhile, Tommy walks around the room asking other preschoolers to sign their names in the autograph book he created in the writing center.

Tips for teachers

• Develop a sign-in or sign-out routine that allows children to write, or attempt to write, their names each day. In some classrooms, or for some children, the routine may begin with writing the first letter instead of the whole name or with scribbling letterlike symbols.
• Use peer helpers to aid children with the name-writing process.
• Model writing your name and promote name-writing activities in several centers through the day, such as having children sign their name as they write a prescription or when they complete a painting.

Learning from teacher modeling

When Ms. Noel sits with the children during snack, she talks with them about the different foods they like to eat. Ben tells her he likes chicken. She writes on a small whiteboard, “Ben likes chicken.” She asks Ben to read the phrase to a friend. Later, Ben writes the phrase himself.

Mr. Ryan conducts a sticky note poll. He creates a giant spiderweb and writes the question, “Are you afraid of spiders? Yes or no.” He gives the children sticky notes so each can write either yes or no and then place it on the giant web. This activity is followed by a discussion of spiders.

• Explicitly model writing by showing the writing process to children and thinking aloud while writing. Instead of writing the question of the day or the morning message before the children arrive, write it in front of them.
• ​Label specific items in the room, and draw children’s attention to the written words. Write out functional phrases on signs related to routines, such as “Take three crackers” or “Wash hands before eating,” then read and display the signs.
• ​Have the children paint large classroom signs related to themes being explored, such as the National Weather Station, Snack Bar, Public Library, or Entomology Center.

Writing throughout the day

Preschoolers enjoy experimenting with the writing process. Emergent writing experiences can include spontaneous writing during center time and teacherguided writing activities. Writing can become an important component of every learning center in the preschool classroom (Pool & Carter 2011), especially if teachers strategically place a variety of writing materials throughout the classroom and offer specific guidance on using the materials (Mayer 2007). (See “Learning Centers: Adding Meaningful Writing Materials and Literacy Props.”)

Teachers can intentionally promote peer-to-peer scaffolding by having children participate in collaborative writing experiences. Read-alouds are also a wonderful means of promoting writing; there are a number of stories that feature characters in books writing letters, stories, messages, and lists (see “Books That Promote Writing”). Model writing stories, making lists, or labeling objects, and then encourage your preschoolers to write a response letter to a character in a story, create their own storybook, or write a wish list or a shopping list. Such a variety of writing experiences will also build their generative knowledge of writing.

Ms. Han has strategically placed a variety of writing materials throughout the classroom—a scientific journal in the discovery area so children can record their observations and ideas; a graph paper notebook in the block area for drafting blueprints with designs and words; and a receipt book, paper, and markers in the dramatic play area. Savannah sits at the discovery center looking at a classroom experiment. Ms. Han asks, “Savannah, could you write about your observations in our science journal?” Savannah begins writing in the journal.

Three boys are playing in the block area. Ms. Han asks, “What are you building?” Marcus replies, “We are going to build a rocket ship.” Ms. Han says, “Could you create a blueprint of your rocket and then build it?” The boys eagerly begin drawing a plan. Several children in the dramatic play center are drawing different types of flowers for a flower market. Ms. Han says, “In a flower market, signs tell customers what is for sale and how much it costs. Would you like to create some signs?” The children readily agree and start to create signs.

• Strategically place writing materials, such as sticky notes, small chalkboards, whiteboards, envelopes, clipboards, journals, stencils, golf pencils, markers, and various types, sizes, and colors of paper throughout the classroom.
• Provide specific teacher guidance to scaffold children’s writing. While some children may be off and running with an open-ended question, others might be better supported if the teacher helps write their ideas—at least to get them started.
• Create writing opportunities connected to your current classroom themes or topics of interest. Involve the children in collaborative writing projects, such as creating a diorama after a farm visit and making labels for the different animals and the barn. With teacher support, the class could also develop a narrative to describe their farm visit.

Home–school connection

Ms. Noel wants to strengthen home–school connections with the families in her program. She decides to introduce the children to Chester (a stuffed teddy bear). She tells the children that Chester wants to learn more about what the children do at home and to go on some weekend adventures. She says, “Each weekend, Chester will travel home with a child in our class. During the time Chester stays at your house, take pictures of the activities you do with Chester and write about them in the Chester Weekend Adventures journal. At the beginning of the week, bring Chester and the journal back to school to share what you did. We will put Chester and the journal in the classroom library when he is not on a visit, so everyone can see where he has been.” The children are excited about taking Chester home and writing about their adventures.

• Find writing opportunities that strengthen home–school connections. For example, encourage families to create books at home related to a particular theme or a specific topic. Invite children to share their books with the class and then add them to the library.
• Invite families to share the types of writing activities their children engage in at home. Encourage parents to establish routines that include writing lists, messages, stories, and letters.
• Give families postcards to mail to friends in other states and countries. Have them ask their friends to mail a reply to the preschool class. Create a display of the return messages and postcards.

Teachers play an important role in promoting emergent writing development by scaffolding writing activities that engage young children in building their conceptual, procedural, and generative knowledge. Writing can easily be embedded in daily routines as children write their names, engage in learning centers, practice writing for a purpose based on teacher and peer models, and contribute to group writing activities. Be intentional during interactions with children and incorporate best practices. Promote the development of emergent writing—and emergent literacy—by implementing purposeful strategies that encourage writing in the classroom and at home. Teachers who provide young children with a diverse array of early writing experiences lay the foundation for kindergarten readiness. 

Authors’ note:  A special thanks to all of the teachers who participated in the Striving Readers Literacy Program and shared their literacy ideas. Thanks to Barbara Berrios for sharing the Chester Bear idea.

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Ouellette, G., & M. Sénéchal. 2017. “Invented Spelling in Kindergarten as a Predictor of Reading and Spelling in Grade 1: A New Pathway to Literacy, or Just the Same Road, Less Known?” Developmental Psychology 53 (1): 77–88.

Pelatti, C.Y., S.B. Piasta, L.M. Justice, & A. O’Connell. 2014. “Language- and Literacy-Learning Opportunities in Early Childhood Classrooms: Children’s Typical Experiences and Within-Classroom Variability.” Early Childhood Research Quarterly 29 (4): 445–56.

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Photographs: pp. 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, courtesy of the authors; p. 74, © iStock

Teresa A. Byington, PhD, is an associate professor and extension specialist in early childhood education at the University of Nevada, Reno–Cooperative Extension. Her expertise includes early childhood language and literacy, social-emotional development, and professional development of teachers (coaching and training). [email protected]

YaeBin Kim, PhD, is an associate professor and extension specialist at the University of Nevada, Reno–Cooperative Extension. Her areas of specialization include emergent language and literacy, parenting education, and child development. [email protected]

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• Published: 06 May 2024

Development and implementation of personal learning environment-based writing for publication scaffolding platform for Ph.D. Students

• Xiaoshu Xu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0667-4511 1 ,
• Jia Liu 2 ,
• Yunfeng Zhang 3 &
• Huanhuan Zhang 4  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  576 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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This research tackles the challenges Ph.D. students face in academic publishing, which are not fully addressed by existing support systems. It introduces the personal learning environment-based writing for publication (PLE-WfP) platform, created to offer extensive support in academic writing and publication. Developed and tested over ten months with thirteen Year 1 Ph.D. Chinese students at a Thai university, the platform uses a mixed-methods approach encompassing development, intervention, and feedback analysis through reflective diaries. The PLE-WfP platform, structured in individual, group, and submission stages, guides students from beginning writing to collaborative research and final publication, addressing common publishing challenges. Participants expressed a strong preference for the platform’s personalized assistance over conventional methods, highlighting its relevance, adaptability, promptness, and thoroughness. The importance of the academic community in enhancing collaborative writing, confidence, emotional regulation, and resource sharing was also emphasized. This study highlights the need for emotional and financial support in addition to cognitive and technical assistance in academic writing. By providing a novel scaffolding approach, this research contributes valuable insights and solutions to the academic community, demonstrating significant theoretical and practical benefits for global academic discourse.

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Introduction.

Since the early 2000s, there has been a growing trend in universities worldwide to mandate publications in highly-ranked, English-medium journals indexed in recognized citation databases (Cho, 2009 ; Lei & Hu, 2019 ; Maher & Fallucca, 2013 ). This shift has significantly impacted novice researchers, including doctoral candidates, who are often required to publish in these journals as a prerequisite for degree completion and to secure their place in academic communities.

Ph.D. students navigating the ‘publish or perish’ culture in academia face significant pressures. Challenges include the lack of a structured mentoring system (Ramsay et al., 2014 ), unfamiliarity with publishing protocols, inadequate institutional backing, and language obstacles (Lua & Hyland, 2016 ). In response, social sciences and humanities have seen a rise in co-authorship as a means to alleviate these publication pressures (Ossenblok & Verleysen, 2014 ).

In the realm of English for Research Publication Purposes (ERPP), these students face complex issues. They must grapple with maintaining linguistic accuracy and adhering to the conventions of academic discourse (Khany et al., 2018 ), while also mastering the structure and logic of scientific argumentation (Shuhui & Weicheng, 2011 ). Non-native English speakers, in particular, encounter significant socialization challenges, navigating not just the language, but also the intricacies of scholarly communication (Cargill & O’Connor, 2006 ). These academic hurdles are further intensified by practical issues such as managing time, finances, and emotional well-being (Flowerdew, 2012 ), and the critical need for constructive relationships between advisors and students (Huang, 2010 ).

In response to these challenges, various support mechanisms have been implemented by research institutions. These include short-term publication courses and longer-term writing support groups (Mathew et al., 2006 ), English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Research Publication Purposes (ERPP) courses (Li & Flowerdew, 2020 ), one-on-one mentorship (Busse et al., 2022 ), and multiple source-based writing tasks (Allagui, 2023 ). Additionally, Personal Learning Environments (PLEs) have been promoted to assist students (Drajati & Wisudawati, 2020 ). Yet, there remains a scarcity of research on the use of PLEs in scaffolding Ph.D. students’ writing for publication. Some studies have utilized software tools like Blackboard to deliver course materials tailored to various learning styles (Beth et al., 2015 ; Bolsen et al., 2016 ; Alzahrani & Aljraiwi, 2017 ).

Addressing this research gap, this study contributes to both the theoretical and empirical understanding of using a PLE approach for scaffolding Ph.D. students’ writing for publication. The paper raises two critical research questions:

How can Personal Learning Environments be developed and implemented to scaffold Ph.D. students’ Writing for Publication?

What are students’ perceptions of the PLE-WfP platform?

By exploring these questions, this research aligns with the frameworks proposed by Murray ( 2002 ) and Matthew et al. (2006), incorporating a weekly online academic writing course and the innovative PLE-based writing scaffolding platform, the PLE-WfP, to support Ph.D. students in publishing in international peer-reviewed journals. Leveraging the scaffolding theory, this study not only designed the PLE-WfP platform but also rigorously evaluated its effectiveness through an analysis of reflective diaries, providing insights into Ph.D. students’ perceptions of the platform. Our investigation delves into the ongoing discourse on the effectiveness of various scaffolding methods, including writing courses and groups, in the context of publication writing. Furthermore, we offer a detailed overview of the construction and implementation of the PLE-WfP platform, underscoring its potential to enhance the quality, quantity, and competence of Ph.D. students’ publications.

Context of the study

The personal learning environments-based writing for publication (PLE-WfP) project was conceived to specifically assist Ph.D. students with the complexities of academic writing and publication. This initiative is a collaborative effort between Stamford International University in Thailand and the World Sports Publisher, reflecting a unique synergy between academic and publishing expertise. The project is distinguished by its comprehensive support structure, encompassing both empirical research assistance and financial aid for article processing charges (APC), demonstrating a commitment to alleviating common obstacles faced by doctoral candidates.

The personal learning environment-based writing for publication (PLE-WfP) platform merges individualized learning with group knowledge creation through its unique application of scaffolding theory. It is structured into three phases: individual, group, and submission services, each designed to support different stages of the academic publishing process. By utilizing interactive tools like Wikis, blogs, and Google Docs, the platform moves beyond traditional academic formats to a more dynamic, collaborative approach, reflecting the shift towards inclusive and participatory digital academic practices.

This platform embeds Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) within personal learning environments (PLEs), promoting a learner-centered strategy where digital tools aid the progression from simple to complex research tasks. This aligns individual efforts with collective scholarly work, fostering both personal and academic growth.

A key feature of the PLE-WfP platform is its emphasis on mentorship, particularly from experienced mentors at a partnering Thai university. This introduces a combination of global and local academic perspectives, enhancing traditional mentorship methods with personalized, context-sensitive support. The platform’s approach to authorship promotes active student involvement, positioning Ph.D. students as primary authors to enhance ownership and responsibility, supported by faculty co-authors.

The platform’s effectiveness is evidenced by the successful submission of 11 manuscripts to international peer-reviewed journals, including publications in prestigious Scopus-indexed journals. The PLE-WfP’s comprehensive approach integrates academic, emotional, and financial support, setting a new benchmark in support for doctoral students and addressing the complex challenges of academic publishing. This holistic strategy makes the PLE-WfP an innovative and effective tool in doctoral education and academic writing support.

Literature review

Challenges at three levels in english for research publication purposes.

The landscape of English for Research Publication Purposes (ERPP), a critical subset of English for Academic Purposes (EAP), is marked by its unique demands on researchers. This specialized domain requires a deep understanding of academic norms and linguistic precision. Khany et al. ( 2018 ) outline seven essential elements of ERPP, emphasizing the need for criticality, voice, and objectivity. Their work suggests a structured approach to ERPP education, contrasting with Shuhui and Weicheng ( 2011 ) who provide a more holistic view, integrating discourse structure and scientific reasoning into ERPP competence. This contrast illuminates the debate between a structured, skills-based approach and a more integrated, holistic understanding of academic writing. Additionally, Hartley’s ( 2008 ) description of scientific writing complements these perspectives by underscoring the necessity of an impersonal, objective stance, thus highlighting the multifaceted nature of ERPP challenges.

The literature reveals a consensus on the correlation between English proficiency and scholarly productivity, as illustrated by Richards ( 2017 ). Yet, this relationship is nuanced by the barriers non-native speakers face, documented extensively by Burrough-Boenisch ( 2003 ) and Gosden ( 2003 ). The specific challenges of writing introductions and discussions, as identified by Cargill and O’Connor ( 2006 ), point to a broader issue of academic socialization, where non-native speakers struggle with not only language but also with engaging in scholarly discourse. Flowerdew ( 2012 ) extends this discussion to the practical hurdles of time, cost, and emotional stress, painting a comprehensive picture of the non-native English-speaking researcher’s predicament.

Huang ( 2010 ) provides an in-depth look at the challenges faced by Ph.D. students, such as academic writing skill improvement and the dynamics between advisors and students. This insight into Ph.D. students’ experiences adds depth to the discussion on ERPP challenges, revealing layers of complexity involving cultural, psychological, and institutional factors.

Enhancing the writing for publication competence through interventions

Effective strategies for enhancing writing for publication proficiency are multifaceted, addressing individual, group, and external challenges. At the individual level, the critique by Keen ( 2007 ) on the pragmatic shortcomings of traditional academic writing literature illuminates a gap between theoretical guidance and real-world application. This critique starkly contrasts with the approach advocated by Busse et al. ( 2022 ), who emphasize a personalized, needs-based analysis before training, suggesting a pivot towards more tailored and practical writing support solutions.

In direct response to Keen’s criticisms, the practical steps toward developing referencing skills and utilizing writing software are underscored as essential individual strategies. This methodological individualism contrasts with the communal strategies found in group-level interventions, suggesting a dialectical relationship between personal skill development and collaborative learning environments.

At the group level, the effectiveness of writing support structures is highlighted by McGrail and Rickard ( 2006 ), who argue that writing groups form the cornerstone of effective writing intervention, a sentiment echoed by Kempenaar and Murray ( 2018 ). This collective approach starkly differs from individual strategies, highlighting the synergistic effects of group dynamics on writing proficiency. The multifaceted approach is recommended by McGrail and Rickard ( 2006 ) contrasts with the more structured, hierarchical framework of academic writing instruction, such as the IMRaD format emphasized by Willison ( 2012 ). This comparison underscores a tension between structured academic formats and the fluid, dynamic nature of collaborative writing groups.

Willison’s ( 2012 ) advocacy for structured article construction using the IMRaD format introduces another layer of complexity, juxtaposing the structured academic rigor against the organic, community-driven approaches of writing groups and mentorship programs. This highlights the ongoing debate between traditional and progressive pedagogical approaches in academic writing.

Furthermore, the situated learning approach, supported by Cargill and O’Connor ( 2013 ) and Maher and Fallucca ( 2013 ), reinforces the value of immersive, context-specific learning environments. This method contrasts with more conventional, didactic learning strategies, suggesting that real-world engagement and community integration offer significant benefits for developing academic writing competence.

Externally, the necessity of supporting academic writing beyond the academic institution is addressed by Busse et al. ( 2022 ), who emphasize the importance of resources like open-access publication fees and reliable internet access. This perspective is complemented by the findings of Moore ( 2003 ) and Murray and Newton ( 2020 ), who underscore the value of structured writing retreats in enhancing writer well-being, motivation, and productivity. The contrast between these external supports and the internal, personal, and group-level interventions underscores the holistic nature of academic writing challenges and the diverse strategies required to address them.

The literature collectively emphasizes the necessity for a comprehensive, multilevel approach to support academic writing and publication efforts. The contrast between individual skill development, collaborative learning experiences, and the provision of external resources highlights the complexity of academic writing challenges and the varied strategies required to overcome them. This multifaceted approach underscores the importance of addressing writing for publication competence from multiple angles, ensuring a holistic support system for academic writers aiming for successful publication outcomes.

Rise of collaborative writing in academic research

Collaborative writing has increasingly become a staple in academic research, marking a significant shift from traditional, solitary writing endeavors. This trend is well documented by Çakır et al. ( 2019 ), Kuld and O’Hagan ( 2018 ), and Kwiek ( 2020 ), who note the rise in interdisciplinary collaborations and publications co-authored by multiple researchers. The movement towards this collaborative paradigm encompasses a variety of practices, from writing support groups to interactive writing workshops, each with unique benefits and challenges.

Contrasting sharply with the traditional model of the solitary researcher, collaborative writing introduces a dynamic where the sum is greater than its parts. Hollis ( 2001 ) identifies this synergy, noting an increase in academic productivity and publication output as a key benefit of collaborative efforts. Yet, this raises questions about the quality of collaboration versus individual efforts. Are more publications necessarily indicative of higher-quality, or does the collaborative process introduce complexities that affect the research’s integrity?

This model proves particularly advantageous for novice writers, as highlighted by Albarran and Scholes ( 2005 ). The mentorship aspect of collaboration allows less experienced writers to learn from their more seasoned counterparts, a dynamic that not only aids skill development but also ensures more equitable workload distribution. This mentor-mentee relationship within collaborative frameworks contrasts with the isolation often experienced in solo writing, suggesting a significant shift in how academic knowledge and practices are transmitted.

However, collaborative writing’s benefits extend beyond mere productivity and mentorship. Hollis ( 2001 ) suggests that collaborative efforts often result in higher-quality research, though this claim invites scrutiny. What defines “quality” in this context, and how does collaboration enhance it? Furthermore, Murray ( 2020 ) emphasizes the role of collaborative writing in breaking down professional barriers and fostering a culture of shared knowledge and constructive feedback. This aspect introduces a social dimension absent from individual writing, suggesting that the collaborative model not only impacts output but also shapes the academic community’s ethos.

Yet, this shift towards collaborative writing is not without its challenges. The transition from individual to collective writing involves navigating group dynamics, aligning disparate research agendas, and managing contributions equitably. These complexities contrast with the direct control and singular focus associated with individual writing projects.

It becomes clear that collaborative writing embodies a nuanced balance between enhancing academic productivity and navigating the inherent challenges of teamwork. The transition from solitary to collaborative academic writing reflects broader shifts in the research landscape, emphasizing the importance of adaptability, shared expertise, and the collective advancement of knowledge. As the academic community continues to grapple with these changes, the evolving practices of collaborative writing will likely play a pivotal role in shaping future research paradigms.

Impact of personal learning environments on collaborative learning

The path to academic publishing is riddled with obstacles, especially for early-career researchers like Ph.D. students. The gap between their current academic literacy skills and the demands of scholarly communication is stark and problematic (Scholtz, 2016 ). While traditional educational frameworks may fall short, the literature suggests targeted interventions and support structures are vital for mitigating the inherent pressures of publication (Kramer & Libhaber, 2016 ; McGrail & Rickard, 2006 ). Against this backdrop, personal learning environments (PLEs) are posited as innovative solutions, bridging the gap between student capabilities and the requisites of academic writing and publication.

PLEs have gained traction for their ability to tailor learning experiences to individual needs, contrasting sharply with the one-size-fits-all approach of traditional academic settings (Dabbagh & Kitsantas, 2012 ). The personalized, service-oriented nature of PLEs supports a decentralized model of learning, diverging from the centralized, often rigid structures of classroom-based education. This individual-centric versus institution-centric dichotomy underscores a significant shift in educational paradigms, particularly relevant in the context of academic writing.

However, the effectiveness of PLEs in fostering academic writing and publishing success raises questions about the extent to which these environments can replicate or surpass the mentorship and structured learning found in conventional academic settings. The PLE-WfP platform seeks to address these concerns by offering a more nuanced, holistic approach tailored specifically to the needs of Ph.D. students. This platform extends beyond the mere provision of collaborative tools to encompass mentorship, real-time feedback, and emotional and financial support, addressing the multifaceted nature of academic challenges beyond cognitive and technical hurdles.

In conclusion, while PLEs, exemplified by the PLE-WfP platform, offer promising advancements in personalized and collaborative academic writing support, their effectiveness compared to traditional educational structures warrants careful consideration. The integration of individualized tools with comprehensive mentorship and support mechanisms represents a significant evolution in addressing the needs of Ph.D. students. By juxtaposing these modern, digital solutions against traditional academic training methods, the academic community can better understand the potential and limitations of PLEs in facilitating successful scholarly publishing.

Interplay of scaffolding and zone of proximal development

In enhancing L2 writing skills, scaffolding serves as a foundational strategy, providing structured support to help non-native speakers develop in both composition and language use. Grounded in Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, established in the 1970s, scaffolding involves strategies like detailed feedback, collaborative assignments, and the gradual introduction of complex linguistic structures, thus building upon the learner’s existing knowledge and encouraging their advancement (Ferris, 2003 ; Lantolf, 2000 ). Beyond mere language enhancement, scaffolding promotes confidence and independence among students, enabling them to approach writing tasks with greater self-reliance (Swain, 2005 ; Applebee & Langer, 2011 ). By breaking down the writing process into manageable sections and providing personalized support, scaffolding assists students in navigating the challenges of second-language writing, leading to significant improvements in writing proficiency and overall language abilities (Cumming, 2001 ; Myers et al., 2016 ).

This concept aligns with the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which highlights the discrepancy between what learners can accomplish on their own and what they can achieve with expert guidance. Scaffolding, by its dynamic nature, facilitates this transition, offering temporary support that diminishes as the learner’s proficiency increases, thereby enabling them to undertake tasks they previously could not handle independently (Gonulal & Loewen, 2018 ; Piamsai, 2020 ). This approach is particularly effective in L2 writing, where it significantly enhances learning outcomes and overall performance by effectively bridging the gap between learners’ current abilities and their potential competencies.

Hammond and Gibbons ( 2005 ) highlight the importance of the interaction between instructors and students in the scaffolding process, asserting that while structured materials are necessary, the reciprocal, supportive dialogue between educator and learner is fundamental. In writing education, scaffolding manifests in various forms, including content, structural, and linguistic scaffolding as identified by Choi and Wong ( 2018 ). Cotterall and Cohen ( 2003 ) further elaborate on the key components of academic essay scaffolding, emphasizing structured essay formats, staged instruction, language support, and consistent feedback mechanisms.

Empirical studies have underscored the significant impact of instructional scaffolding on enhancing students’ writing skills and sub-skills (Melrose & Park, 2013 ; Piamsai, 2020 ). These studies point to improvements in writing fluency, accuracy, and the facilitation of meaningful interactions between teachers and students, alongside the provision of constructive peer feedback (Spycher, 2017 ). Scaffolding, therefore, not only elevates the overall quality of writing but also heightens students’ awareness of the writing process.

Nevertheless, the literature suggests that the scope of scaffolding in writing should transcend cognitive and skill-based support. As argued by Afitska ( 2016 ) and Hasan and Karim ( 2019 ), scaffolding in L2 writing should also address the unique linguistic challenges faced by non-native speakers, providing nuanced support in areas such as grammar, vocabulary, and discourse structure. This aligns with the notion that scaffolding for publication should constitute a comprehensive system (Yeh & Yang, 2011 ), encompassing every stage of the research process, from topic selection to addressing reviewers’ comments and managing the emotional and financial aspects associated with academic publication.

Research methods

This study, approved by the Institutional Academic Board of a Thai University, adopted a mixed-methods design to evaluate the effectiveness of the personal learning environment-based writing for publication (PLE-WfP) platform for Year-1 Ph.D. students. This approach was selected to merge qualitative depth with quantitative breadth, offering a comprehensive view of the platform’s influence on academic publishing.

The research involved three key instruments: platform development, aimed at constructing a supportive space that facilitates students’ transition from novice to adept academic writers. This process involved creating a structured environment with phases tailored to individual learning, collaborative work, and preparation for submission, aimed at improving students’ writing skills and publication outcomes.

The intervention experiment was conducted to observe the platform’s impact on students’ writing and publishing abilities. This phase included practical engagement with the PLE-WfP, workshops, peer reviews, and mentorship, focusing on enhancing student’s understanding of academic writing and the publication process.

Lastly, the reflective writing task required students to maintain diaries detailing their experiences and progress while using the platform. This task aimed to gather qualitative data on the student’s personal and academic development, providing insights into the platform’s utility and the students’ evolving research competencies.

Participants and recruitment

Participants were 13 first-year Ph.D. students specializing in educational leadership, and three supervisors, all recruited via email from the university. The students, aged between 27–32 and primarily teachers or administrators from mainland China, had varying levels of English proficiency and writing experience. This purposive sampling, aligned with qualitative research guidelines suggesting data saturation typically occurs with six to 12 interviews (Guest & Bunce, 2006 ), was intended to provide in-depth insights into the participants’ experiences with the PLE-WfP platform. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, with forms available in both Chinese and English.

Research design and epistemology

The study’s design was exploratory and descriptive, focusing on describing the implementation process of the PLE-WfP platform and exploring its impacts on the participants’ writing skills and publication efforts. The research followed an interpretivist epistemology, seeking to understand the subjective experiences and meanings that the participants attributed to their use of the PLE-WfP platform.

Instruments

The central element of our qualitative analysis was the reflective diaries kept by participants, acting as a key instrument to understand Ph.D. students’ experiences with the PLE-WfP platform. These diaries, subjected to structured coding, contained five targeted questions aimed at eliciting detailed insights into the platform’s scaffolding effectiveness, challenges faced, and its impact on their academic writing and publication endeavors. The questions were as follows:

Compared to the lecture approach in thesis writing courses, which do you find more helpful: personalized guidance (from topic selection to writing) or traditional lectures? Which method do you prefer and why?

Regarding the improvement of your thesis writing and publishing abilities, what support do you find in the lecture-based writing courses, and what problems exist?

In terms of enhancing your thesis writing and publishing abilities, what do you consider the advantages of personalized guidance? In what areas could it be improved?

Regarding the enhancement of your thesis writing and publishing abilities, do you find the construction of an academic community (thesis guidance groups, paper teamwork, etc.) helpful? In what aspects does it provide help?

If developing an online personalized academic guidance platform, what services, plugins, and resources do you think are necessary to effectively enhance your thesis writing abilities?”

Research procedure

The study was structured in three phases: The first phase was platform construction. This phase involved detailing the development of the PLE-WfP platform, focusing on its three stages—individual service, group service, and submission service. Each stage was designed to cater to different aspects of the publication process.

The second phase was the experiment or implementation of the PLE-WfP platform. The PLE-WfP platform’s implementation starts with participant orientation, highlighting collaborative writing’s role in academic publishing. Students then partake in a two-month online writing course focused on educational leadership, followed by collaborative manuscript drafting using the platform’s tools. Subsequently, students choose research topics, submit proposals, and form teams for collaborative research with supervisor guidance. In the final stages, they refine and submit manuscripts, navigating the review process with continued platform support, including financial assistance for accepted papers, ensuring end-to-end backing.

The third phase was reflective diary collection and analysis: The study leveraged reflective diaries to delve into Ph.D. students’ experiences with the PLE-WfP platform, aiming to fill the research void in scaffolding for publication. Participants were prompted to document their journey two weeks before the end of the 10-month project, culminating with in-depth reflections prompted by five targeted questions. These questions were crafted to elicit comprehensive insights into the efficacy of the platform’s scaffolding, the challenges faced, and the overall developmental impact on their academic writing and publication process. An in-depth thematic analysis was conducted on the diary entries to extract significant themes.

Data analysis

The reflective journals were analyzed using Braun and Clarke’s ( 2006 ) coding method. Initially, codes were developed and refined by both researchers, leading to independent thematic analysis. After extensive review and discussion, themes were adjusted and a second coding cycle was completed, achieving over 90% agreement on themes and codes, resulting in a finalized set of well-defined themes.

During coding, we incorporated specific metrics and observational protocols to document and assess the emotional and other non-cognitive facets influencing collaborative practices. These included qualitative assessments of diary entries for expressions of stress, motivation, and community feeling among participants, enhancing our understanding of the scaffolded support’s emotional dimensions.

Supervisory team

The supervisory team, comprising three scholars from varied academic fields, was instrumental in guiding the research and publication process. The team included a Thai female Ph.D. supervisor with 20 years of research experience, a male postgraduate supervisor from Macao with a decade of experience, and a female Ph.D. supervisor and international journal editor from mainland China with eight years of research experience.

Ethical considerations

The study adhered to ethical guidelines, with informed consent obtained from all participants. Participants were assured of confidentiality and were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time.

Construction of the PLE-WfP platform

The PLE-WfP platform, designed to facilitate the paper publication process, is structured into three distinct stages: individual service, group service, and submission service, each targeting specific aspects of the publication journey. The subsequent sections provide a detailed account of the activities associated with each stage, as depicted in Fig. 1 .

Source: self-made. This diagram describes the detailed activities associated with the four states of the paper publication through the PLE-WfP platform.

State 1: membership registration and self-assessment on the PLE-WfP platform

Step 1 Register and self-test. Upon accessing the PLE-WfP platform, researchers must register as members to initiate or join projects. The registration process involves filling out a form detailing their academic background, including current occupation, education, research disciplines, and areas of expertise. Following this, registrants complete a self-assessment of academic maturity, typically through a checklist, to evaluate their proficiency with fundamental research tools like SPSS and NVivo. This collected data is then integrated into their portfolios on the platform.

Step 2 System scaffolding learning material. The system then will scaffold online academic research materials according to the results of the self-tests. The researchers can select the recommended materials in their space:

Reference: video, academic paper, weblink

Research tools and tutorials: analytical tools (based on open source and free software)

Journal Paper structure template

Research proposal template

Step 3 Basic academic literacy test. Upon completing their self-study of the online academic learning materials, members are expected to undergo a basic academic literacy assessment on the platform. The assessment mainly focuses on testing their comprehension of reference styles, citations, plagiarism, ethics, and other relevant topics.

Step 4 Develop a research proposal. After passing the basic academic literacy test, members can proceed to write or revise their research proposals, integrating feedback from the instructor team. Upon approval of these proposals, they are eligible to form research groups and engage in one-on-one consultations with instructors for further guidance. They also have the opportunity to utilize the discussion board for additional support. Furthermore, following proposal approval, members can apply for research funding, including resources for activities like administering questionnaires.

//Pass d: //write research proposal

//Finish e: //Evaluation: Readiness (to form team) → checklist

//Pass f: //One to one consultation, //Discussion Board

//Pass f://Apply for research funds

State 2: project initiation and research group building

If a researcher decides to initiate a project, they assume the role of the project owner, taking on the responsibility of assembling the research group. Notably, each project is limited to a single project owner. Researchers also have the flexibility to join existing teams by evaluating and selecting from the proposals approved by the instructor team. Additionally, there is no restriction on the number of projects a researcher can participate in. The steps involved in initiating a project are detailed in the subsequent table (Tables 1 – 3 ).

State 3: project development and manuscript preparation on the PLE-WfP platform

Once the research team is formed, the project owner is tasked with fostering team cohesion and assisting in manuscript preparation. Following multiple rounds of discussions and revisions, the manuscript reaches a stage ready for review. The first level of review is undertaken by the instructor team. An external review, though optional, may be pursued depending on the manuscript’s quality and the prestige of the target journal.

State 4: manuscript submission and publication process on the PLE-WfP platform

After addressing feedback from initial or external reviewers, research groups prepare to submit their manuscripts. Before submission, each group member must confirm their authorship and readiness to proceed with the final version. Additionally, they can access online resources to refine their understanding of the journal submission process. The PLE-WfP platform offers services such as journal matching and formatting upon request. When receiving reviewer feedback, it is incumbent upon all group members to collaboratively revise the manuscript. The platform provides templates for responding to reviewer comments and drafting ethics committee approval letters. Following necessary revisions, the manuscript enters the publication phase. If submitting to open-access journals, project owners can apply for article processing charges (APC) funding by submitting the journal acceptance letter, the published paper, and the APC receipt. The World Sports University’s academic committee then allocates funds based on the journal’s indexing, supporting the project owners in covering publication costs.

Implementation of the PLE-WfP platform

At the beginning of the PLE-WfP project, participants are thoroughly briefed on the platform’s functionality and objectives, with a particular focus on the significance of collaborative writing in the challenging publication process, which often includes cycles of rejection and revision. The initial phase of the project involves a comprehensive 48-hour online journal writing course, extending over two months, that concentrates on developing writing skills and structural knowledge, with a specific focus on educational leadership. Following the course, students engage in collaborative manuscript drafting on the PLE-WfP platform, utilizing its various scaffolding features for support.

During the research proposal stage, Ph.D. students choose topics within the realm of educational leadership and receive evaluative feedback from supervisors on their viability and design. After confirming their topics, students enter a three-week phase for conducting and adjusting their literature review, culminating in a five-week deadline to submit a 3000-word research proposal via the PLE-WfP platform.

Following the uploading of proposals, the project initiation phase commences. In this stage, students have the option to establish or become part of research teams, engaging in a reciprocal selection process with supervisors. Each team, guaranteed to have a supervisor as a co-author, allocates clear roles and responsibilities to ensure fair contribution and authorship. This team-building process on the platform leads to collaborative efforts under guided supervision.

In the project development phase, supervisors play a pivotal role in monitoring the progress of the manuscript. They contribute insights during the literature review, data collection, analysis, and discussion stages. Concurrently, team members are encouraged to provide constructive feedback and are responsible for endorsing the final manuscript before its submission to a peer-reviewed journal.

The concluding phase of the project involves the submission and publication of the manuscript. During this critical period, supervisors are urged to provide unwavering emotional support to the team, particularly in instances of manuscript rejection. Upon acceptance by a journal, the World Sports Publisher facilitates the payment of article processing charges (APC), in line with the pre-established funding budgets. This final stage is designed to maintain consistent support for the participants, accommodating the diverse requirements of various academic journals throughout the publication process (see Fig. 2 ).

Source: self-made. This diagram describes the detailed activities associated with the implementation of the PLE-WfP platform.

Result of the reflective diary

The data from students’ reflective journals were transcribed and stored in consecutively numbered Microsoft Word files within a designated ‘Students’ Reflective Journal’ folder. The coding process, involving the first and second authors, adhered to the steps outlined by Braun and Clarke ( 2006 ). Initially, the first author reviewed the textual content, creating an initial set of codes. These codes were then discussed and refined by both researchers, leading to the formation of potential themes. Following this, each researcher independently conducted a thematic analysis using the initial codes. This stage was crucial for ensuring a rigorous and unbiased interpretation of the data.

Subsequent discussions between the coders led to over 92% agreement on the identified themes, codes, and references, demonstrating a high level of inter-coder reliability. Discrepancies were resolved through thorough comparison and discussion, resulting in the redefinition of some codes and the recategorization of certain themes. A second round of coding was then carried out based on these revised themes. The outcome of this process was a finalized set of themes and codes (see Table 4 below).

Question 1: preference for personalized writing guidance over lecture approach

Reflective journal analysis revealed a strong preference among participants for personalized writing guidance over the lecture-based approach. Key themes identified were relevance, customization, timeliness, reduction in stress, and comprehensiveness.

Firstly, participants expressed a clear preference for the tailored support provided by the PLE-WfP platform, especially valued during the critical research proposal stage. One student described the contrast with lecture-based guidance, stating, “When I encountered problems in writing, such as difficulties in choosing a topic, the supervisors of the personalized writing guidance platform were always able to give targeted advice, which enabled me to choose a topic successfully. And you can hardly get such specific guidance from the lectures.”

The second key advantage is the platform’s capability to offer highly customized support tailored to the unique research interests and challenges of each individual. Participants appreciated the customized assistance, with one noting, “Personalized writing guidance can be tailored to my research problems.” This adaptability extended beyond the initial stages, deeply influencing the quality and detail of their research proposals.

The third benefit is the immediacy of feedback from the platform, improving time management and the efficiency of academic writing. “The platform is designed in such a way that the tutor quickly understands the student’s specific situation and always gives prompt advice when I need it,” reported a participant, underlining the benefits of real-time interaction.”

A more supportive and less stressful writing environment was a noted benefit. “The immediate feedback and encouragement from the platform significantly eased my anxiety during the writing process,” shared a participant. This reflects the platform’s effectiveness in mitigating the common pressures associated with academic writing.

Finally, the platform’s holistic approach was recognized for covering all aspects of academic writing and publication. “The platform helps us a lot in all aspects of paper writing. Furthermore, the publication funding support is a great help for our ongoing research,” a participant observed, highlighting the extensive nature of the support provided.

These perspectives collectively underscore the tailored, timely, and comprehensive support provided by the PLE-WfP platform, distinguishing it as a highly effective tool for academic writing and publication.”

Question 2: perceived limitations of lecture-based instruction

Most participants recognized the value of paper-writing lectures, particularly for gaining insights into current research trends, understanding theoretical frameworks, and learning specific research methodologies. They especially appreciated the resources, materials, and firsthand publication experiences shared by experts and scholars in these lectures.

While lectures were found to help provide theoretical knowledge, they were less effective in addressing practical writing issues. The general format of the lectures was seen as insufficient for individual student needs. Echoing this sentiment, one participant expressed, “I often felt as though I only half-understood the lectures, and communication with the lecturer was not convenient due to the large audience. Therefore, I did not find the paper writing lectures particularly beneficial to my own writing needs.”

Question 3: advantages of personalized guidance for skill enhancement

All participants acknowledged the significant role of the PLE-WfP platform in enhancing their writing for publication skills. The findings align with previous research by Melrose and Park ( 2013 ) and Piamsai ( 2020 ), particularly regarding the benefits of timeliness and customization in academic writing support. Additionally, many participants emphasized the significant impact of personalized guidance on their confidence and emotional well-being, echoing findings from Yantraprakorn and Darasawang ( 2013 ). For example, a participant shared, “I used to feel very anxious when writing academic papers, but the communication in the platform built my confidence and increased my motivation. I think emotional support like this is crucial for new academics.” This underscores Amanda’s ( 2018 ) assertion that academic writing encompasses cognitive, social, and emotional processes.

In terms of enhancement, a notable number of participants suggested further development of the PLE-WfP platform to better support team research and collaborative writing. One participant proposed more frequent group interactions to cultivate a conducive academic environment and expand students’ horizons. Another recommended integrating authors with similar research interests on the platform for more effective discussion on research questions, methods, and progress.

Question 4: impact of constructing an academic community

The establishment of an academic community was highly valued by participants. The benefits derived from being part of an academic community are threefold. First, the provision of emotional support emerges as a primary benefit. This sentiment was captured by a participant who stated, “Scientific research and academic writing are very boring; thus, the support and encouragement of academic community members is a very important spiritual pillar that makes me feel that I am not alone.”

Moreover, such communities are instrumental in enhancing collaborative writing endeavors. A participant reflected on this advantage, noting, “Personally, my ability to independently analyze and process data is relatively weak, and the academic writing team solves this problem very well. Working together improves writing efficiency, and effectively shortens the writing and publication cycle.”

Lastly, the function of academic communities extends to the facilitation of resource sharing and networking. They forge a confluence of individuals from varied scholarly fields, creating a fertile ground for the interchange of academic materials. This encompasses the latest in research developments to specialized knowledge in writing techniques. This utility of academic networks is underlined in Daly’s ( 2010 ) study, which emphasizes the significance of both close and distant connections within these networks for the efficient exchange of resources.

Question 5: enhancements for the PLE-WfP platform

Participants pinpointed several specific enhancements for the PLE-WfP platform. Firstly, participants stressed the necessity for robust technical support within the platform. Essential features identified include live streaming capabilities, online meeting functions, and the ability to share resources and engage in real-time chat. The addition of relevant plugins was also recommended to enhance functionality. Secondly, they highlighted the importance of the development of services that support the growth of academic communities. Participants suggested creating a dedicated space within the platform that allows researchers with similar interests to connect and partake in scholarly discussions. Thirdly, the feedback indicated a clear demand for a well-structured online scaffolding system. This system should support users throughout all stages of the academic writing process. Key components include guidance on topic selection, assistance with conducting literature searches, and support in the writing, revision, and publication phases.

The responses underscored the need for a holistic scaffolding approach, incorporating a range of academic navigation tools. For instance, one participant proposed the following: “The platform can develop more complete academic navigation functions that students can choose the corresponding functions according to their needs, such as topic selection help, literature search, text editing.”

In sum, the in-depth interviews reveal that academic writing is an all-encompassing process, requiring comprehensive scaffolding support at every stage. This study also brings to light the often-overlooked importance of emotional and financial support, as well as the value of academic community engagement, thus filling a gap in the existing literature on academic writing support.

Result of the publication

Through the engagement with the PLE-WfP platform, 13 participants collectively achieved a noteworthy level of success in academic publishing. Specifically, the project facilitated the submission of 11 manuscripts to international peer-reviewed journals, underscoring the project’s role in promoting research dissemination and scholarly communication among the participants.

Of these submissions, four have been accepted and published in prestigious Scopus-indexed journals, a testament to the quality and relevance of the research produced. This success rate highlights not only the participants’ improved writing and research capabilities but also the effectiveness of the PLE-WfP platform in guiding and supporting users through the complexities of academic writing and the publication process.

The findings of this study offer valuable insights into the preferences and perceptions of Year-1 Ph.D. students at a Thai university regarding academic writing and publication support systems. These results build upon previous research, aligning closely with works by Strobl et al. ( 2019 ) and Wu et al. ( 2013 ) while also delving into personalized academic support. The specific elements highlighted by participants—relevance, customization, timeliness, stress reduction, and comprehensiveness—underscore the importance of tailored assistance throughout the academic writing process.

First, the study’s results reveal a strong preference among learners for personalized writing guidance over lecture-based approaches, citing benefits such as relevance, customization, and reduced stress. This preference highlights the importance of tailored support in shaping perceptions of L2 academic writing, which is supported by the research done by Busse et al. in 2022. Conversely, limitations of lecture-based instruction underscore the need for platforms addressing practical writing issues.

Second, participants attribute their enhanced writing skills and confidence to personalized guidance, emphasizing the impact of timeliness and customization. Engagement with an academic community through the platform is valued for emotional support and collaborative opportunities, contributing to positive perceptions of L2 academic writing, which is highlighted in Willison’s ( 2012 ) study.

Moreover, our investigation reaffirms the significance of emotional support in academic writing, echoing the sentiments of Huerta et al. ( 2017 ) and Laursen et al. ( 2017 ). It also sheds light on the necessity for structured emotional and financial support mechanisms within academic writing platforms, an area relatively underexplored in existing literature. Its commitment to fostering collaborative learning environments and community engagement, combined with a structured project development framework, marks a significant step forward in meeting the diverse needs of doctoral students, as highlighted by Joseph Jeyaraj et al. ( 2022 ) and Li ( 2023 ). These findings underscore the multifaceted hurdles faced by young academics and emphasize the importance of support systems that address psychological and logistical barriers alongside skill enhancement.

Suggestions for platform enhancements, including technical support and community development, reflect learners’ desire for user-friendly, collaborative platforms. Overall, writing platform construction significantly influences perceptions of L2 academic writing and enhances learners’ writing competence.

However, it’s crucial to acknowledge the limitations of our study, particularly its focus on a specific demographic, which may limit the generalizability of the results to broader contexts. Engaging in a reflective dialogue, we must consider how these insights might vary across different cultural or academic settings. Future research should aim to broaden the spectrum of understanding by exploring the platform’s effectiveness and adaptability across diverse academic landscapes.

Conclusion and future study

The imperative to publish in prestigious academic journals presents significant challenges for early-career researchers, particularly Ph.D. students, exacerbating the pressure to bridge the gap between nascent academic skills and the rigorous expectations of scholarly communication. In addressing these challenges, this study pioneers the integration of personal learning environment (PLE) concepts through the development of the PLE-WfP platform, grounded in the principles of scaffolding theory and the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The findings underscore the platform’s effectiveness in addressing the multifaceted needs of novice researchers by offering comprehensive support that extends beyond traditional academic aid.

Crucially, the PLE-WfP platform provides a revolutionary scaffolding system that not only addresses content, structural, and linguistic support but also delves into the critical yet often neglected emotional and financial realms of academic writing. This inclusive approach marks a departure from piecemeal strategies, heralding a holistic solution tailored to the intricate landscape of academic writing challenges faced by Ph.D. students.

Theoretically, this research enhances the scaffolding theory and ZPD within the context of academic writing, extending their applicability to the nuanced ecosystem of PLEs. This fusion of theoretical frameworks with the practical necessities of doctoral scholarship enriches our understanding of how various forms of support can be synergistically employed to reinforce academic writing and publishing skills, broadening the scope of these theories beyond traditional educational boundaries.

Practically, the PLE-WfP platform exemplifies an innovative approach to surmounting the hurdles encountered by emerging scholars. Its comprehensive design sets a new standard for academic support systems, offering a template that, if adopted, could significantly boost the support structure for Ph.D. students, thereby potentially increasing their publication output and success rates.

However, it’s important to note the limitations of this study. The research primarily focuses on first-year Ph.D. students from Stamford International University in Thailand, which may restrict the broader applicability of the findings. Future research could enhance the platform’s universality by examining its effectiveness across diverse academic cultures and stages of doctoral study. Additionally, the study mainly utilized information from students’ academic diaries, which might have led to overlooked data. A more detailed analysis could unveil deeper insights into student behaviors, emotional states, and external influences on their academic journey. Such findings could inform the development of more tailored features for the PLE-WfP platform. Further, the incorporation of alternative research methodologies, such as learning analytics, could offer further insights into the efficacy and impact of the PLE-WfP platform, validating its role in supporting emerging scholars in the competitive arena of academic publishing.

Data accessibility and transparency statement

The data supporting this study, available as supplementary files with the manuscript, consists of reflective diaries from 13 first-year Ph.D. students in educational leadership. These diaries, analyzed through structured coding, include responses to five targeted questions assessing the effectiveness of the personal learning environments-based writing for publication (PLE-WfP) platform. This analysis provides a comprehensive review of the platform’s role in aiding academic writing and publication, highlighting its impact, the challenges faced by users, and its overall utility in facilitating doctoral students’ publication endeavors.

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XX conceptualized the project, performed the analysis, developed the methodology, provided resources, managed the software, and co-authored the original draft; JL partnered in conceptualization, took part in the investigation, co-designed the methodology, and co-wrote the original draft; HZ engaged in formal analysis, carried out research validation, and contributed to the manuscript’s review and editing; YZ participated in the investigation, collaborated in validation, and played a role in manuscript editing.

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Ethical considerations for this study were strictly adhered to, following guidelines from Stamford International University in Thailand’s Institutional Academic Board. The need for local ethical approval was driven by participant recruitment from Stamford International University and the collaboration with the World Sports Publisher for the PLE-WfP project, aimed at assisting Ph.D. students with academic writing and publication. Emphasizing local ethical standards was essential for protecting participant welfare and rights. A detailed application covering the study’s aims, methods, potential risks, and protective measures for participants was submitted to the university’s IRB. Following a comprehensive review, the IRB granted approval (SIU202302), acknowledging the study’s ethical integrity and dedication to maintaining participant dignity and confidentiality.

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Xu, X., Liu, J., Zhang, Y. et al. Development and implementation of personal learning environment-based writing for publication scaffolding platform for Ph.D. Students. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 576 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03094-2

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[ question ], what are the activities that make up your research process.

There are a bunch of activities that I engage in when doing research. These include but are not limited to:

• Figuring out the best thing to do.
• For the last 3 months I have been working maybe 50 hours per week by meeting with people and doing stream-of-thought reasoning. That was very productive. Probably in large part because of this.
• Even when working alone I try to use this. The main thing that holds me back from using it all the time when working alone is that it can be quite awkward.
• Check if my understanding is good enough yet to write a post.
• Helps remove the awkwardness when talking to yourself (because you are not).
• I mainly use whiteboards when I am still at the stage of being confused.
• Similar to forcing yourself to explain something in natural language.
• Notice where you are confused by not being able to express something.
• I rarely do this because it is so slow, probably because I have not acquired sufficient software engineering skills yet.
• I expect that writing programs can be very useful for getting observations that you could not easily generate in your head. E.g. Mandelbrot did make plot fractals.
• Writing down things that we have figured out on a whiteboard or any other process in rough notes.
• Writing a distillation of the thing I have figured out, such that I can understand these notes 1 year from now.
• Reflecting on how it went.
• Writing public posts, that convey concepts to other people.

My main questions are:

• What research processes do you use?
• When do you use them?
• What do you get out if it goes well?

Also, feel free to mention great posts about this. I am most interested in processes that you personally use on a regular basis.

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