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Getting a CELTA Pass A: Example CELTA Lesson Plans & Assignments 👨🏻‍🏫

Here’s everything I learned in the process of earning CELTA’s top grade, plus something you won’t find elsewhere: Pass-A-quality example lesson plans, assignments, and more.

Are you doing a CELTA course and shooting for an A? Or just want to learn more about what it takes? You’re in the right place.

I’ll start by being more pessimistic, but then I’ll dial it back. First, here’s Jo Gakonga with a short summary of the CELTA assessment guidelines :

Jenna Cody also has a great write-up about her experience getting a Pass A, and how difficult/intense it was.

Both Jo and Jenna want you to know that you probably shouldn’t be aiming for a Pass A. Jo starts out with this line: “The rather harsh truth that you might not want to hear is that you’re almost certain not to get a Pass A at CELTA. They don’t give that very easily.” And here’s Jenna: “I highly doubt that someone on the CELTA course with zero teaching experience could get a Pass A unless they were preternaturally talented or had some indirect experience.” Then there are Cambridge’s published grade stats , broken down by country and year. The 2019 results show that 6.5% of students got a Pass A, and in 2018 it was 5.4%.

So how hard is it? Getting a Pass A will take a lot of work, but I think everything above paints too pessimistic a picture. I got it without any teaching experience, and I don’t think I’m that talented. There are lots of things you can do to improve your odds, and I’m here to help!

My first advantage was that I did a semi-full-time six week course, and I wasn’t working while doing it. Four week courses are probably the most common, and the limited time is why CELTA is described by almost all students as intense. I was very grateful for the extra two weeks in my course, and it definitely gave me more time to polish everything I did. So for starters, don’t do a four week course if you can help it. However, in order to find a course with a longer schedule, you might need to shop around internationally…

Choosing a CELTA Training Center

It used to be that you had to do the course in person. Covid changed that. Now you can shop around internationally and attend online, choosing the center that fits your budget, ideal start date, course duration, and time zone. CELTA is highly standardized and teaching centers get close scrutiny from Cambridge, so I’m guessing that tutors in most centers are at least decent. And no matter where you take the course, your tutors and students will all be speaking English.

I went with International House Mexico . In addition to being one of the best priced centers in the world, their time zone is friendly for US students, and most of their instructors turned out to be excellent.

Note that many companies teach Cambridge’s CELTA course, which was confusing to me at first when trying to choose where to take it. The biggest players are International House and Teaching House , both of which have many locations around the world. But there are many other training centers and universities that also teach CELTA. Cambridge’s official site can help you sort through them all by country and city, but its UX is not great. StudyCELTA has an easier to use search that lets you find places based on CELTA course type (online intensive, online part time, online blended, full time face to face, or part time face to face) and course starting date, but they only show testing centers that they partner with. I used a mix of both websites to narrow down my choices.

Example Materials

Probably one of the more useful things you can do (even more than giving yourself extra time for the course) is to learn from high quality examples. CELTA tutors will conduct some demo classes and probably give you example materials for some (but not all) assignments, along with example teaching practice (TP) lesson plans from a prior student or two at their center. You should definitely learn from those! However, the quality of the written materials may vary. Some will definitely not be at Pass A level. So here I’m providing examples of my own work to give you ideas about how to approach and structure things and give you a sense of the level of work that will be needed. If this helps you, please let me know in the comments!

These are meant to be examples only. Don’t use any parts of them directly. Cambridge holds the submissions of all past CELTA students, including me, and they put assignments (and possibly other work) through plagiarism detectors. They’ll deny you a certification at the end of the course if they detect that you reused someone else’s work.

CELTA Assignment 1: Focus on the Learner (FOL)
CELTA Assignment 2: Language Related Tasks (LRT) — Includes tutor feedback
CELTA Assignment 3: Language Skills and Related Tasks (LSRT) — Includes tutor feedback
CELTA Assignment 4: Lessons from the Classroom (LFC) — Includes tutor feedback
CELTA TP6 Lesson Plan: Functional Language
TP7 Print Sheet — Streamlined copy that I used as my reference during class
CELTA TP8 Lesson Plan: Writing — Includes tutor feedback
CELTA Self Evaluation for TP6
CELTA Self Evaluation for TP7

Hopefully, yours come out better than mine!

Although your written materials might help push you over the edge from a regular Pass into Pass B or Pass A , of course they’re not everything. Being an effective teacher during your teaching practices is the baseline, and is at least as important. So I’ve got more tips…

This will mean an additional 45+ minutes of prep for each lesson, but I found it so beneficial that I stuck with it every time. During every dry run, my first pass was somewhat rough and I was able to make adjustments that made it better the second time around when I had real students. It helped me understand where things weren’t working and also where I needed to shorten things to stay within the available time.
Your first few dry runs will also be good opportunities to make sure you’re fully comfortable with any tools you’ll need like Zoom whiteboards/breakout rooms, Google Slides/Forms/Jamboards, etc.
After submitting a TP lesson plan, prepare a streamlined version that you can print in advance of your lesson (see the example I included above). This printout should be easy to read at a glance and exclude any fluff you won’t need during the lesson (references, detailed language analysis, etc.).
Incorporate any feedback tutors give you into your very next TP if possible, or as soon as appropriate. They want to see you show growth and responsiveness to feedback during the course. If your style or preferred teaching methodologies are different than theirs, that’s fine to go back to after the CELTA course. In the meantime, you should follow the opinionated approach that you’re paying them to teach you.
Participate at least a little in post-TP peer feedback, and write meaningful self evaluations. Both are expected for students with high grades. To make self evals easier to write, I waited until getting TP feedback from my tutors and incorporated parts of their feedback into what I wrote.
It’s okay to ask more questions about assignments since that’s not held against you in the same way.
For me, my tutor said that if I was scored then, I’d probably get a Pass B. He also gave helpful tips on where to focus to continue doing better.
After my next TP, I asked if I’d made enough progress on the areas he mentioned to be on track for Pass A, and I got even more advice.
I was told that Pass A students typically include lots of scripting in their TP lesson plans, including for any instructions, transitions between lesson stages, ICQs (instruction checking questions), and CCQs (concept checking questions). Make sure your scripts are concise and use appropriately graded language for the level of your students. I started out a bit wordy, and continually got feedback about reducing TTT (teacher talking time).
Learn everything you can about your language focus for the lesson, and make sure to include a language analysis table or section in every lesson plan. In addition to this being important for higher grades, the time I spent on this helped me several times with questions from students. I had solid answers for them as a result of the research I’d done beforehand, even when I hadn’t intended to include the more detailed coverage in the lesson.
Since all assignments are allowed to be resubmitted once, CELTA tutors stress that failing an assignment on the first try is no big deal and that you can think of the first submission as a draft that you’ll get feedback on before submitting the final version. But I wouldn’t rely on this. Based on what I gathered from them, getting a Pass B will be hard if you need to resubmit more than one assignment, and Pass A might not be possible with any resubmissions. Take extra time before submitting to get your polish in on the first try.
One of my tutors said assignments have a 10% word count leeway, so there’s no need to spend extra time e.g. shaving off a few more words if you’re over the limit. But you might want to confirm with your own tutors beforehand that it’s okay to rely on this.
Be organized and on time for everything. My recommendation: Prepare a detailed checklist each week of everything you need to do that week (see the example below). The schedule given to me by IH Mexico was kind of a mess—it was hard to follow and too high level for me. Partly as a result, my peer that I worked most closely with occasionally prepared for the wrong things or didn’t realize an assignment was due until the last minute. My checklists made it much easier for me and made me feel good about completing even small things that I’d then get to check off.

Following is my checklist for week five that I wrote in Evernote (which lets you easily create lists with checkboxes). I marked things to show up live for (Zoom calls) with 🎙️, and deadlines with ⏰.

🎙️ Monday 11am: Live group class
Read tutor feedback for LRT assignment
Read guided lesson plan
Read examples and references
Read my prep notes from 12/04
Review demo lesson
⏰ Wednesday 2 hr before: Submit final online
Prepare print sheet
Read my prep notes from 12/04 and 12/09
⏰ Friday 2 hr before: Submit final online
Dry run beforehand
⏰ Thursday: Write and submit self evaluation
Read tutor feedback
Guided lesson planning session for next week
⏰ Saturday: Write and submit self evaluation
Unit 14: Correction
Unit 18: Lesson Planning 2
Unit 19: Writing
Unit 20: Recording & Recycling Language
Observation: Task-based learning: Justin Vollmer (1 hr online)
Ask tutor about delta between my current performance and Pass A
Read instructions
Read suggested resources and examples
Fill in CELTA-5 info for the week
Finish draft of to-do list for week 6

If any of this helped you, let me know! And feel free to share your own advice.

Are you preparing for CELTA? Then check out my post on the best English teaching books to help you prepare.

17 thoughts on “Getting a CELTA Pass A: Example CELTA Lesson Plans & Assignments 👨🏻‍🏫”

This is amazing! Thank you so much for your insight and all the detail you included! I start my CELTA this coming Monday! I’m also doing it with IH Mexico City, but I’m taking the part time course, so it will be spread out over 12 weeks. Fingers crossed!

Go get ’em, Pedro!

Hello! Cheers, i took my CELTA with IH Izmir i just completed my TP8 today im just hoping for the best although i must say the assignments really did my braincells dirty

Cheers, Dion! Congrats on completing the course. I liked the assignments (partly because I like writing generally), but they did take a lot of time.

Hello Steven!

I cannot adequately express how thankful I am to you for writing this article and including the resources above. I have been looking for an encouraging article from a CELTA graduate who passed with an A but had no prior teaching experience.

I saw your comment on Lao Ren Cha’s Blogspot page, and it nearly brought tears to my eyes. It has been so discouraging to continuously read about how one must settle for a ‘pass’ if they have no prior teaching experience.

My goal is an A pass as well, and I will religiously follow the advice here.

Thank you, thank you, thank you!

Thelma, it’s great to hear this was helpful! Clearly, you’re highly motivated and ambitious, and I’m sure you’ll have great advice to share with others after you’re done. Wishing you the best!

Thank you very much, Steven! I appreciate the encouragement!

I hope you are well.

I have returned to thank you for providing examples of your work. It really helped me to put my best foot forward during the course. I have just received my recommended grade and it’s a PASS B. What was that saying about the best laid plans of mice and men? 😀

Nonetheless, thank you so much for this helpful article and the examples. Much appreciated!

Congrats, Thelma! Pass B is dope! I know you were hoping for the A, but I think B is equal to A in terms of opening a few more doors for people without prior teaching experience. You’ll be a badass teacher. 😀

Thank you for the encouragement! Much appreciated!

Thank you so much for the tips and details of lesson plans. I am doing Celta and it’s taking a toll on my health. I can’t grasp evrrything,it’s just too hectic to do TP today and then prepare for next TP the day after next plus not forgetting assignments etc.. i am sure if one can learn all in 4 weeks ?

Thank you so much for writing this article! It’s absolutely fantastic and filled with a lot of extremely useful information. I’ll be starting a 4 weeks CELTA program in April 2023 (didn’t have the option of a semi-full time unfortunately) and was wondering about the TP sessions for each skill…will the course tutors give us specific topics to teach or do we get to select which texts/books to teach students for these sessions? For example, for planning and teaching reading skills, do we get to decide what to teach within this for the teaching practice session to fulfill the language skills related task?

Thanks in advance!

Thanks, Babloo! In my case at least, the reading class was TP1, and because it was earlier in the course there was more guidance on the topic and what to include. I was given a section from an English coursebook to extract the reading material from.

This is so useful, thank you. Apologies if you’ve already said elsewhere and I missed it… how much experience did you have with the English International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) before starting CELTA? Thanks!

None. I learned it as much as I needed to during the course. You indirectly raise a good point, though, that it would be very helpful to gain at least basic knowledge of the English IPA beforehand.

Heyaaaa, just wanted to say that 2 years later this post is still very extremely much… SUPER helpful!! Especially the attached samples, carried me through. I’m in my final two weeks of (part-time) CELTA. (fingers crossed).

Dear Steven Levithan, I would like to express my deepest gratitude for sharing your valuable experiences regarding the CELTA course. Your approach and the exchange of ideas and information reflect your distinguished and noble character, which is highly appreciated and deserving of recognition. I have a few questions about the lesson plans you’ve designed. Firstly, are the topics of these plans requested by teachers, or do you select them personally? Secondly, after designing these plans, is it necessary to execute them live in the classroom? Lastly, during the live execution of these plans in class, is it permissible to use the template of the lesson plan, or should they be presented from memory? I would appreciate a comprehensive explanation, as well as any additional advice you may have for the first and second weeks of the course that I should implement or observe in the classroom. Thank you for your guidance and support. Sincerely, Hamid

CELTA Course Assignments: Step-by-step Guide with Real Examples

CELTA course assignments are a mystery for many people. Everyone who applies for a CELTA course has heard about them, but not many know what to expect.

In fact, I see many people online posting for help with them as they feel there is not enough time to do them properly and they are often confused by the instructions.

For this reason, I wanted to go through the basics of the CELTA course assignments and explain what you can expect. However, I should tell you early on: every CELTA course centre has slightly different assignments.

Yes, they follow the Cambridge CELTA standards but CELTA centres use their own specific requirements. This depends on what they feel is the best way for you to show what you have learnt on the CELTA course.

CELTA Course Assignments: What are they?

There are 4 CELTA course assignments, which are as follows:

Assignment 1: Focus on the learner
Assignment 2: Language related tasks
Assignment 3: Language skills related task
Assignment 4: Lessons from the classroom

As mentioned above, these are different for each CELTA centre so it is hard to go into too much detail here. Instead, I will give you a brief overview and some links to examples of these CELTA course assignments, available for free online (but don’t pay for any!).

A word of warning: online examples are not guaranteed to be of high quality. They are simple tasks past CELTA trainees have uploaded to various websites.

You might also find that the assignment you are given is very different to any of the sample CELTA course assignments linked to below. With that in mind, it’s important to think about these assignments in terms of broad concepts, rather than specific points.

CELTA Course Assignment 1: Focus on the Learner

In general, this CELTA assignment asks you to comment on one student, or learner, from the group you are teaching. The assignment is essentially a needs analysis for that student.

For this assignment, you have to focus on their background, and strengths and weaknesses in learning English. You should also give suggestions for them to improve. To get a good grade on this assignment, you will also need to refer to some CELTA books (in brief) about teaching English.

Much of your assignment will also be based on an interview you do with a particular student. Remember to organise the interview early on in your CELTA course! And no, it won’t be anything like the CELTA course pre-interview task !

The word count for this assignment could be something like the following:

Learner Background: 300-350 words
Analysis of the student’s language problems: 300-350 words
Suggested activities for them improve their English: 300-350 words

What you write under each section will be based on your interview with them and what you have seen them do in class. Keep a close eye on them to help you here!

Hopefully you can now see clearly why this assignment is called ‘ focus on the learner’ !

For a more detailed look, check this article I wrote dedicated specifically to the Focus on the Learner Assignment
Or check out the CELTA Survival Guide Ebook by CELTA Helper

CELTA Course Assignment 2: Language Related Tasks

For the second assignment on your course, you will need to focus on language skills and awareness.

Many people get really worried about this assignment, but you don’t need to! This is where you need to remember that the CELTA course is for people with little or no experience.

For the above, your tutors will not expect you to have a very high level knowledge of English. Just remember to follow the assignment instructions and do your best!

If you take good notes during the ‘input sessions’ on your CELTA course, these will be particularly helpful here (make sure you are taking notes you can read and understand afterwards!)

Regarding specific tasks, you will be given examples of language to work with and you will need to cover specific aspects of these.

You will likely have to explain, with examples, the following for each piece of vocabulary you are given:

Conveying meaning
Checking understanding
Pronunciation
Form (or sometimes called ‘part of speech’)
Anticipated problems & solutions

Remember, it is for you to show what you have learnt up to this point. With this in mind, you should be able to find help or a guide in your notes from the input sessions you have already had.

You should also write your own example sentences – don’t be tempted to use the ones from the dictionary!

Another section of this assignment will be dedicated to grammar.

Much of what you need to do in this section will be similar to the vocabulary section. You might need more background here, so I would suggest you do some reading before starting the course.

Reading relevant books will help you to save time later on and build your confidence throughout the course.

Some good books to help you here will be:

Advanced Grammar in Use
Practical English Usage
Grammar for English Language Teachers
(NB: all of the above are affiliate links).

For a much more in-depth look at this, be sure to check out my dedicated article for CELTA assignment 2 here (with worked examples!)

CELTA Course Assignment 3: Language Skills Related Tasks

These tasks will be based on an authentic piece of English language . You should have quite a bit of flexibility here to chose this, for example you could use many different types of sources such as articles, songs, videos, and so on.

With that authentic piece of language, you can then think about what you want the students to learn and make the tasks around this. You will need to explain why you have chosen this task, but this will be quite brief.

You need to do some reading for this task as it asks you to explain how to teach different skills in English.

Think about the skills as follows:

Receptive skills : reading and listening
Productive skills : writing and speaking

To apply what you have read, you will likely need to create possible exercises, or tasks, for each of these skills.

For every task you make for the skills above, you will need to give your reasoning, or rationale, for including this task in your lesson.

For example, you could possibly the students to read to get the general idea of the text (reading for gist), as your first reading task. Then, follow this with comprehension questions on the text they have read. It doesn’t have to all be about incredible tasks here, simple ones work well, too.

There are many different ways to approach this, but try to keep your aims and objectives clear in your mind at all times. If you do this, you will be fine!

CELTA Course Assignment 4: Lessons from the Classroom

As this assignment comes at the end of the course, it is mostly reflecting on what you have done.

You need to follow the instructions carefully (again!) to get a good grade. You will also need to think about things like your observations of the trainers, your peers and your own observed lessons.

This time, you will need to write about your own strengths and weaknesses. There will also be room for you to write about your development as a teacher.

Other points which might be included in assignment 4 are things like classroom management and lesson planning, among others!

It really does cover a wide range of topics, so look at what your CELTA centre wants you to do. Then all you have to do is follow what they ask for!

It might help to keep some sort of diary throughout the CELTA course to write assignment 4. It would certainly save you any time in thinking about what to write later on.

Imagine how you will feel at the end of the course; your brain might be ready to shut down!

Hence, diary notes could save you some mental energy here, with templates for this and much more included in the CELTA Student Notebook and Diary that I have made and put on Amazon – check it out now for more!

Remember to also check out my dedicated post on the Lessons from the Classroom Assignment here for an in-depth guide to everything you need!

Below is also a very detailed Slideshare presentation by Jo Gakonga of ELT Planning, an experienced EFL teacher and teacher trainer who has a fantastic website. It explains the main elements of the ‘lessons from the classroom’ assignment in detail.

Useful Links

Focus on the learner – assignment 1.

One example of the ‘Focus on the Learner’ assignment can be found on Scribd.com here

CELTA Course Assignment 2: Language Related Task

An example of the Language Related Task CELTA course assignment can be found here on scribd.com .

CELTA Course Assignment 3: Language Skills Related Task

A downloadable example of the CELTA course assignment 3 is available on Academia.edu – note that you will need to sign in with a Google or Facebook account to download the example CELTA assignment, but it is a safe site.

CELTA Course Assignment 4: Lessons from the classroom

There are many of these available online but this assignment is very personal. It’s all about you and your learning.
These assignments are helpful for an idea of what to expect, but not more than that.
Again from Academia.edu, you can download a version of CELTA course assignment 4 by signing in for free . You can also click on the image below to view it.

CELTA Course Assignments: Any more questions?!

So, I think I have covered all the main points above.

If you need extra help with your CELTA course, check out the CELTA Course Student Notebook and Diary by CELTA Helper over on Amazon .

This handy notebook is designed with ready-made templates to make your CELTA course that much easier, giving you space to record all your key notes without you having think about how to organise or record your notes – just fill in the templates for things like observed lessons, planning, reflective diary (especially helpful for the final assignment) and more. I designed it to help CELTA course students get through the course – perhaps it can help you, too.

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The assignment writing samples we provide help you by showing you versions of the finished item. It’s like having a picture of the cake you’re aiming to make when following a recipe.

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The Writing Center • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that they will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove their point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, they still have to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and they already know everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality they expect.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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CELTA lessons from the classroom Assignment (4).pdf

Related Papers

Patrick T. Randolph

A key element in vocabulary instruction is to get the students to “feel” the vocabulary and make it a part of their new language identity; that is, helping the students to “own” the terms is a top priority of language instructors. Using verbpathy as a tool meets this goal. The idea of using verbpathy in vocabulary instruction is to encourage the students to develop a feel for how terms can and should be used in both spoken and written work. By asking the students if a term has a “positive feel,” a “negative feel,” or a “neutral feel,” the students start to develop an intuitive command of the vocabulary. Moreover, while working on the verbpathy of words, students make their own unique associations and connections with the terms and relate them to their own lives. Research in neuroscience tells us that the more associations students make, the better they learn (Jensen, 2008; Medina, 2009; Willis, 2006).

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In this reflective biography I will write about the various methodologies I have used in ESL classrooms. I acquired some of these concepts whilst doing the CELTA and TEFL course, others were achieved whilst peer observing teachers, and some were acquired through further reading; specifically books written by Scrivener and Harmer. As an EFL instructor, I have adapted my teaching methodologies according to my learners' needs as I have taught both upper and lower levels. I always create a comfortable and safe environment for all learners where the classroom is also goal driven and learner oriented. I always take my learners' needs into consideration. This is sometimes done by creating a survey of the students' learning expectations and their interests and then by making student profiles for them. One way in which I integrate learner needs in the class is by writing lesson objectives on the board and then guiding them to review the objectives before and after the lesson. I also take whole class goals into consideration when planning activities for my lessons. Additionally, I also take the learners' culture and native language into consideration within the teaching process. As an EFL instructor, I am flexible within my teaching methodologies and roles depending on the learners' stages within the process of their second language acquisition. For example with the very low levels that I taught who were at the pre-production stage, I acted as an initiator as they are mostly in the 'silent period' but are able to use 'formulaic expressions'. As Ellis also stated regarding the studies that Krashen cites, " the learners were not, in fact, completely silent, but often produced some formulaic expressions " (Ellis, R. 2008 p.74). I therefore had to ensure that I kept the class going as the learners had very little or no previous knowledge of the L2 and could not work independently. Contrastingly, when teaching the advanced learners I had to provide them with opportunities that involved meaningful learning and make the class more student-centered. In addition, I tend to provide the learners with scaffolded learning which is " the process by which one speaker assists another speaker to perform a skill that they are unable to perform independently " (Ellis, R. 2008 p.235). I use this kind of technique so that the input is more intelligible and accessible. For instance, I sometimes use texts that have been adapted for their level along with think-alouds or paraphrasing strategies.

Language Awareness

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This action research looks into the usefulness of different strategies to enhance communication in the English language classroom in Uruguayan Middle School State classrooms. By reviewing the theoretical background of ELT methodology before the advent of the CLT emergence, the study puts into practice traditional and current strategies to foster communication in the classrooms. This research is based not only on the contributions from several published theories but also on the learnings gained from interviewing different college methodology professors and national language teaching authorities. Results show that using these strategies can increase language interaction (both prompted and spontaneous) by more than 200% reaching even 400% by the end of the study.

NEW ACADEMIA: An International Journal of English Language, Literature and Literary Theory

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Different theories of language entail different methods of learning language and different points of view of grammar. In essence, language theories are grammatical theories. Grammar is the system of a language. Grammar is often defined by people as the "rules" of a language; but in fact, no language has rules. In language teaching techniques, grammar teaching has varied over time and has been changed from conventional to modern/current approaches. The teaching of grammar is a dynamic operation. Expression of associations and functional forms of statements is perfected by grammar.Based on modern approaches to grammar education, language teaching, which is based on a functional-semantic approach, is helpful because this approach systematizes language and aims to master the richness of language.The structural approach is focused on grammar and linguistic awareness opposed to the structural approach. In a structural approach, learners can only learn grammar, but they cannot use skills successfully in their conversation, and their degree remains the same as in the laws of grammar. This hinders the exploration of the richness of the language.In addition to this, dialogue instruction has a significant function. Drilling, eliciting and asking philosophical questions by communicative awareness-raising exercises is important in the teaching process.

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Examining Sample Assignment 4: Reflection

Patricia Lynne

We’ve looked at writing assignments that emphasize different aspects of Bloom’s Taxonomy, with one exception: metacognitive knowledge. Yet, I have said that metacognition shows up frequently in certain types of assignments.

This assignment is a final reflection for a portfolio in my first-year writing class. Students submit two revised final papers, plus a reflection. I’m only giving you the instructions for the reflection part of the assignment.

Your reflection introduces and explains both of the papers in your portfolio and your writing in general. That is, this document is both a self-assessment and a reflection on your writing this semester. It should include in some form the following information:

How do these essays demonstrate that you have met the course goals?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the essays?
To what extent are you satisfied with these essays as representative of your writing ability?
What have you learned from working with these essays?
How has your writing changed, and where do you see those changes?
What new ways of writing have you tried, and what did you learn from those attempts?
Have you learned anything in particular about your writing process?

I strongly recommend that you refer directly and substantively to the course goals in your reflection, as these are the concepts that have been driving your work (and my planning) for the term.

You may feel free to cover issues and ideas beyond these questions, and you should not feel the need to answer all of them (although you must address both major parts above). You should choose the elements that are most relevant to your writing for the semester and deal specifically with those. In addition, you should feel free to talk about problems and successes common to both of the essays you have chosen to include.

Examining the Verbs in Key Sentences

Here are the sentences that let us know what we are supposed to be doing in this assignment:

Write a reflection that introduces your portfolio and discusses your work in this course for the term.

The larger part should focus on the specific essays you have selected and how those pieces demonstrate that you have met the goals for the course.

In addition, you should discuss your writing process generally and the progress you have made this semester….

This assignment has two other elements that make it different from the ones we’ve examined in previous chapters. First, it includes a lot of questions guiding us through thinking about the course and our work, but as the assignment says, we do not have to answer all of the questions. Second, and related to the first point, there are a number of statements that indicate we have a range of choices:

Choose which questions you’d like to deal with, including none at all.
Add aspects of the course and your writing that aren’t suggested by the questions if you’d like.
Feel free to talk about both successes and issues in your writing.

I’m not marking the verbs here, but these elements help us understand the task.

Applying Bloom

What does this assignment ask us to do? We actually have a sentence that names the task in two parts:

…[T]his document is both a self-assessment and a reflection on your writing this semester.

The verb here (“is”) doesn’t help us, but this sentence identifies the two parts of the work: assess and reflect if we convert those nouns into verbs.

Before jumping into the next section, take what you know about the task in the sample assignment and see which types of knowledge and which cognitive processes you believe the assignment is looking for.

After you read the rest of this chapter, decide whether or not you agree with my analysis.

Kinds of Cognitive Processes

Let’s look at those verbs to understand the cognitive processes involved. We are being asked to reflect as we introduce our work and discuss it. We should focus on the essays we have selected for our portfolio and how those demonstrate that we have met the course goals. We should discuss our process.

Remembering is more important here than in the other assignments we’ve examined. Not everything that we reflect on will exist in some form that we can look up. And if we look at the grid of Bloom’s Taxonomy , we see that at the intersection of remember and metacognitive knowledge, we are doing tasks like identifying strategies—in this case, strategies that have worked for us, or not. Still, remembering isn’t central to this assignment.

How much we demonstrate our understanding and how much we analyze depends on the questions that we choose to focus on in our reflection. These aren’t explicitly part of the assignment, though. Similarly, creating is a part of the assignment primarily through the freedom we have to choose what we would like to present and how we do that.

Applying , however, is part of this assignment because we are asked to demonstrate how we have met the course goals using our portfolio essays. Whenever we are asked to use one thing to help explain another, we’re in the realm of application.

Evaluating is a primary task in this assignment—and in many reflective assignments. Reflections ask you to judge, for example, your progress or your work or your learning. It is not enough to describe your work; you must also assess it.

Kinds of Knowledge

And the key sentences, as always, also point to the kinds of knowledge we are supposed to demonstrate in the assignment.

Any time a professor is asking you to reflect, they are asking for metacognitive knowledge. You might reference specific factual elements or describe key concepts or processes, but in a reflection, these types of knowledge are all in the service of metacognition. What have you learned? How do you know that you have learned that? How does this learning connect with other ideas and information that you have? Why are these ideas and connections important? These are metacognitive questions.

In this assignment, we will also use factual knowledge (for example, about the course goals or our own writing), and when we talk about our writing process, we would use our procedural knowledge of what writing processes can look like. We might even use conceptual knowledge as we explain how we learned about characteristics of a good thesis statement or a strong body paragraph.

But these are all secondary. Metacognition is central here.

Putting It Together

This assignment asks us to evaluate our work according to the course goals and according to our own sense of what has been most important to our learning. These rely heavily on metacognitive knowledge and on the tasks of applying and evaluating .

Thus, the intellectual work of this assignment is to demonstrate our own awareness of our performance in the course, specifically examined in relation to an external system (the course goals) and an internal one (our own sense of our accomplishments).

Share This Book

4 Celta Assignment

Assignment 4 – Lessons from the Classroom The woods are lovely, dark and deep, But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep. I decided to take the CELTA because it seemed like a fairly easy way to make some money while I traveling. However, a mere month’s exposure to teaching has given me the confidence to pursue teaching English as a serious career alternative, should I ever get sick of political antics and swindlers’ conspiracies. All through my life, people told me I would make a decent teacher. Now, I believe it.

I believe it because I have braved the utterly nerve-racking schedule of assignment submissions and lesson planning and teaching without falling apart. Though I learned a lot from our wonderful trainers (full credits to Gabbi and Maureen) and my absolutely wonderful classmates, I really have miles to go before I sleep (literally). A month is a very short time to learn something but it is admirable that all of us have had such a tremendous growth curve. Personally, I know I have become much more confident about standing in front of a classroom full of students and talking about the finer points of the English language.

Don’t waste your time! Order your assignment!

Not many noticed it, but I avoided writing anything on the board the first afternoon we had Teaching Practice (TP) because my hands were shaking so vigorously. I have definitely come a long way since then. I have learned a lot from the critique and feedback by classmates and tutors, observation of peers and experienced teachers, and from self-reflection. I discovered the very first day that it was important to establish a good rapport with the students and be comfortable talking with them.

Observing Darin during his first lesson taught me a very valuable lesson – I learned it was important to engage students in conversation rather than assume the role of a traditional teacher. Though Maureen commented on June 23, the first day of TP, that I established a good rapport with the students, I really feel that I felt more comfortable from the second lesson onwards. Observing Porter in the first week of the class was a big bonus. He was so much at ease in class, so much at home. He made the students feel comfortable and involved his Advanced English students in the process of teaching and learning.

I worked hard on planning from the beginning and mostly produced solid plans. On June 2, Maureen mentioned that I had a very detailed lesson plan and good language analysis. I adjusted well to the different levels of students within the class. When I was teaching elementary level classes, I made it a point to explain concepts to the weakier students and help them during the tasks if they had any difficulty. After Teaching Practice on June 26, my classmates who had observed me teaching commented that I had monitored weaker students like Carlos and Jessica well throughout the class.

I think I did well in class management from the beginning. I made sure I kept all students on their toes and working hard. From the first week, when Maureen commented that I managed my classes well, till the third week, when Gabi as well as my classmates commented that I taught a good lesson to one truant students – I think my class management skills have only improved. From the beginning of Teaching Practice, both Maureen and Gabi commented that I successfully established a good rapport with the students.

On the first day, Maureen wrote in my Teaching Practice Evaluation, “You established a nice rapport with the students, very friendly and confident. ” When we switched levels, Gabi wrote in my Evaluation, “You built a good rapport with your new SS. ” Even though I have switched to the Intermediate level, some of the Elementary level students often come up to me with doubts and questions. I have to mention that observing Darin while he taught was a fantastic experience because he has always establishes such a comfortable rapport with his students.

I had a problem with excessive TTT from the very beginning. I think a major reason for this is that the Indian educational system tends to have very teacher-centered classrooms. from the beginning, the tutors and my classmates have pointed out that I need to reduce TTT and make the lessons more student-centered. Though I have tried hard to do this, I still have a long way to go before I become a minimalist talker. I do earnestly believe that student-centered learning is far more effective.

It was great to observe Porter because it showed how minimalist TTT can be super effective in the classroom. Porter allowed the students to lead classroom discussion and complete his sentences. He elicited a lot of information without being verbose. I analyzed language items well before presenting them in class. On June 24, Maureen commented that I had a “detailed analysis of the grammar operation of the target language. ” In the beginning, I had some trouble organizing the stages of clarification of meaning and grammar form. However, I think I improved significantly in latter classes.

On July 2, when I taught relative classes, Maureen said that I used effective CCQs and did a “thorough analysis of the form and meaning. ” I did help students with improving their pronunciation by doing both choral and individual oral drilling. However, I think this is one area in which I have a lot to improve. I have tried to correct students’ pronunciation errors, especially at the intermediate level, but I think I should do more of this. Fernanda consistenly drills the students a lot and tells me that it is very important for them to repeat the sounds again and again before they can be comfortable with them.

I think I did well in giving students practice in receptive skills of reading and listening during my lessons. On June 26 Maureen commented, “I think students received some useful reading comprehension practice, and you adapted the materials creatively. ” I do have a problem with linking the stages during receptive skills lessons. As Gabi commented on July 8, I need to link tasks more clearly so students know why they are doing the activities you ar giving them. I haven’t done a very good job at providing productive practice to students because I don’t time my lessons too well.

Most often, students don’t have enough time for speaking or writing at the end of the lesson. Wilson did a fantastic job at timing his lesson on July 14 – the students had more than 15 minutes of freer speaking practice at the end of his lesson. My goals for the future are to make my lesson more student centered, to reduce TTT and to improve my timing. These have been my most significant weaknesses throughout the course. I need ot hold back and let go of my control over the class. This will help me reduce TTT while at the same time making the lesson more student-centered.

To achieve this aim, I will let the students discuss everything before I step in with suggestions and clarifications. This will also make the lesson more interactive and fun for the students. I will work hard to be economical with my instructions and explanations by planning my lesson to the last detail. Timing the lesson is also a matter of careful planning. I also need to be very aware of the ticking clock. With this aim in mind, I will invest in a large clock placed strategically in the classroom so I can’t miss it.

How to cite this assignment

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CS 2110: Object-Oriented Programming and Data Structures

Assignment 4: formula evaluation.

Programming languages give us as programmers the ability to evaluate mathematical expressions like a calculator, including expressions that involve variables. The language’s compiler translates the formula into instructions that a computer’s CPU can execute. But what if we want our program’s users to be able to type in their own expressions at runtime and have them be evaluated? Their formula will be user input (a String ), not source code, so we’ll need our program to evaluate it step-by-step with the help of appropriate data structures.

As an application, let’s once again consider spreadsheets. Some cells contain plain text or numbers, but other cells may specify a formula that should be used to compute its value, taking as input the values of other cells. For example, in Microsoft Excel, the formula =A1+B1 means that the cell’s value should be the sum of the values in row 1, columns A & B (see figure).

In this assignment, you will write an application that evaluates postfix formulas in spreadsheets saved in CSV format. Along the way you will develop an interactive calculator to help build intuition for the data structures involved. This project involves a lot of Java classes; some of them will be given to you (in which case you must study their specifications as a client ), while others you will develop from scratch. As usual, you will write JUnit test cases for all of your code, annotated with human-readable assertions of specifications.

Learning Objectives

Leverage subtype polymorphism to represent expression trees containing multiple kinds of nodes.
Process tree data structures recursively.
Report and respond to failed operations using exceptions.
Write tests (using lambdas) that expect exceptions to be thrown.
Use classes from a third-party library.

Recommended schedule

Start early. This is a big assignment! Office hours and consulting hours are significantly quieter shortly after an assignment is released than closer to the deadline. We recommend spreading your work over at least 5 days. Here is an example of what that schedule could be:

Day 1: Read this handout and open the project in IntelliJ. Confirm that the test suites compile and run. Part I—Test and implement eval() and opCount() for all Expression classes. Write “stubs” for all other Expression methods so that your code compiles and your tests can run.
Day 2: Part I continued—Test and implement infixString() and postfixString() for all Expression classes. Then test and implement equals() (which will come in handy for future tests).
Day 3: Part II—Test and implement RpnParser , then perform further testing by using RpnCalc to interact with your expression trees.
Day 4: Part III—Return to your Expression classes and test and implement dependencies() and optimize() . Use RpnCalc to see this functionality in action.
Day 5: Part IV—Implement CsvEvaluator . Test it both with the provided unit tests and with the provided CSV files. Try creating and evaluating a few spreadsheets of your own.

Note that this schedule does not include the challenge extensions. If you plan on tackling these, be sure to leave an extra couple of days at the end of your schedule.

Collaboration policy

On this assignment you may work together with one partner. Having a partner is not needed to complete the assignment: it is definitely do-able by one person. Nonetheless, working with another person is useful because it gives you a chance to bounce ideas off each other and to get their help with fixing faults in your shared code. If you do intend to work with a partner, you must review the syllabus policies pertaining to partners under “programming assignments” and “academic integrity.”

Partnerships must be declared by forming a group on CMSX before starting work. The deadline to form a CMS partnership is Friday, March 22 . After that, CMSX will not allow you to form new partnerships on your own. You may still email your section TA (CCing your partner) to form a group late, but a 5 point penalty will be applied. This is to make sure you are working with your partner on the entire assignment, as required by the syllabus, rather than joining forces part way through.

As before, you may talk with others besides your partner to discuss Java syntax, debugging tips, or navigating the IntelliJ IDE, but you should refrain from discussing algorithms that might be used to solve the problems, and you must never show your in-progress or completed code to another student who is not your partner. Consulting hours are the best way to get individualized assistance at the source code level.

Frequently asked questions

Note: This assignment includes some “challenge extensions” that are worth very few points but will provide a lot of additional practice for students who choose to tackle them. Do not feel discouraged if you don’t have time to try these challenges—you can still earn an ‘A’ grade without attempting them at all. If you do attempt them, course staff will only be able to provide limited debugging assistance.

If needed, there will be a pinned post on Ed where we will collect any clarifications for this assignment. Please review it before asking a new question in case your concern has already been addressed. You should also review the FAQ before submitting to see whether there are any new ideas that might help you improve your solution.

Remember that the student handbook outlines requirements that apply to all assignments in this course. Please ensure that your submission complies with these to avoid deductions during grading.

Assignment overview

For this assignment you will be creating three Java classes from scratch (representing polymorphic expression tree nodes) and completing two applications: an interactive calculator and a spreadsheet formula evaluator .

Make sure to open the “a4” folder as a project in IntelliJ following the procedure from previous assignments (this is extra important for this assignment, as it depends on a third-party library in the “lib” folder). If IntelliJ complains about standard Java classes, try “File | Repair IDE” and advance it through “step 3”. Here is a brief tour of what you’ll find inside your project:

Whew! Your programs are getting bigger! Fortunately, you only need to worry about submitting 4 of these files (plus 3 new ones you will create).

Note that achieving reasonable coverage of the expression classes requires a lot of test cases. But each one only needs a couple lines of code, and we have provided English descriptions of the cases that you need.

Part I: Expression nodes

Expression trees.

As discussed in lecture 14, a tree is a natural data structure for representing mathematical expressions, since operands and function arguments are themselves subexpressions. Consider the expression $2 \cdot (y - 1) + 3$. The operands to the multiplication operator are the constant $2$ and the subexpression $(y - 1)$. And the whole subexpression $2 \cdot (y - 1)$ serves as the first operand to the addition operator. These hierarchical relationships form a tree as shown in the figure, which each node containing either a constant, a variable, or an operator.

Expressions are evaluated recursively: an operator node recursively evaluates its left operand, then its right operand, and then combines those returned values to produce its result. An operator always has two children (its left and right operands), but in this assignment we will also support function nodes, like sin() and cos() , that have a single child (their argument subexpression).

To review mathematical expressions and their representation as trees, see the following textbook sections:

Segment 5.5 (Using a Stack to Process Algebraic Expressions), focusing on 5.17–5.18
Chapter 24, 24.22–24.24 (Expression Trees)

Reverse Polish notation (RPN)

We are used to writing mathematical expressions in “infix” notation, like 2*(y - 1) + 3 . However, this notation requires knowing the precedence of each operator (e.g., multiplication/division before addition/subtraction), and parentheses are often required to achieve the desired order of operations. Parsing such expressions in software is, consequently, a little tricky. But there is another way to write expressions that never requires parentheses, corresponding to a postorder traversal of the corresponding expression tree. This is called “postfix notation,” a.k.a. “reverse Polish notation” (RPN).

As an example, the previous expression would be written in RPN as 2 y 1 - * 3 + . For this assignment, all formulas typed into your calculator or saved in spreadsheets will be in reverse Polish notation.

Here are some correspondences between our infix and RPN notations:

Note that, to eliminate any possibility of ambiguity, every binary operation is enclosed in parentheses in our infix notation.

Our Expression interface

Our expression trees will be composed of polymorphic nodes implementing the Expression interface. This means that each node could have a different class, each one specializing Expression in a particular way (i.e., constant numbers vs. binary operators). For example, the expression $1 - 2 \sin^2(y / 2)$ would be represented by the following tree, where “C” indicates a Constant node, “V” indicates a Variable node, “A” indicates an Application node, and “O” indicates an Operation node:

Here is a class diagram showing the methods required by Expression and the fields of the concrete classes that you’ll be writing:

Expressions can be evaluated, they can count how many operations are required to evaluate them, and they can write themselves in infix or postfix notation. Read the specifications in “Expression.java” for the specifics.

The Constant class has been written for you. It represents a single number, stored in its value field.

Define public classes Variable , Application , and Operation implementing the Expression interface in new corresponding “.java” files. Start by creating “stubs” for each of the required methods (IntelliJ can do this for you; see below). Declare the fields that will represent each class’s state according to the class diagram above, then define constructors to initialize those fields. (You may order your constructor parameters however you like, so long as their interpretation is clear from their specifications. There is a small advantage to following the order of the fields in the diagram above, as that will match some test templates we provide to you.)

You can choose whether to implement all the methods in one class before moving on to the next one, or whether to implement one method at a time across all of the classes. We recommend the latter, as it will enable you to test each operation on arbitrary expressions as you go.

Here is a brief overview of these three classes. These descriptions should be enough for you to write specialized specifications for eval() , opCount() , infixString() , postfixString() , and equals() in each class. The remaining operations will be discussed later.

Variable nodes

These represent a named variable (like $y$) in an expression; their state is simply the variable’s name. Variables are useful because they allow us to write down an expression without yet knowing the values of all of the terms. For example, in our spreadsheet formulas, variables with names like “B1” will refer to values in other cells of the spreadsheet. To evaluate expressions containing variables, a client must pass in a VarTable containing the values of those variables.

Like constants, variable nodes are leaf nodes and have no children. When evaluated, they return the value of their variable (if it exists in the VarTable ), or else they throw an UnboundVariableException . We do not consider this lookup to be an “operation” as counted by opCount() . When a variable is written as a string, a variable is simply represented by its name, regardless of notation (infix vs. postfix).

Since variable nodes are leaves, two of them are equal if they represent the same variable name.

Application nodes

These represent the application of a function to an argument ; the argument can be any non-empty subexpression. For example, the expression $\sin(y / 2)$ expresses the application of the $\sin()$ function to the subexpression $y / 2$. The argument is stored as a single child Expression node. The function to call is an instance of our UnaryFunction class, which can be evaluated on a numeric argument by calling its apply() method. UnaryFunction can also report its name so we know how to identify the function in a string.

To evaluate an Application node, it should evaluate its argument child, then apply its function to that value and return the result. Calling its function counts as one “operation”. In infix notation, an Application is represented by the name of its function, followed by the infix representation of its argument, enclosed in parentheses. For example, the expression above would be written as "sin((y / 2))" (note the double parentheses—one pair for the function application, and one pair for the Operation argument, to be discussed next). In postfix notation, an Application is represented by its argument’s postfix string, followed by the function name with a "()" suffix (this is to distinguish functions from variables). E.g., "y 2 / sin()" .

Two Application nodes are equal if their functions and arguments are equal.

Operation nodes

These represent the binary operators common in arithmetic: addition ( + ), subtraction ( - ), multiplication ( * ), division ( / ), and exponentiation ( ^ ). Their operands are stored as two child Expression nodes, distinguishing between left and right (since subtraction, division, and exponentiation are not commutative). The operator is an instance of our Operator class, which can be evaluated on numeric operands by calling its operate() method. Operator can also report its symbol so we know how to identify it in a string.

To evaluate an Operation node, it should evaluate both of its operand children, then combine those value with its operator and return the result. This counts as one “operation”. In infix notation, an Operation is always enclosed in parentheses, and its operands are separated from its operator symbol by spaces. What we would write mathematically as $(2 y + 1)^3$ should be expressed as the string "(((2 * y) + 1) ^ 3)" . To express an Operation in postfix notation, simply perform a postorder traversal, as discussed in lecture for binary trees. The same expression in postfix notation would be "2 y * 1 + 3 ^" .

Two Operation nodes are equal if their operator and operands are equal.

Note: you should not need to do any dynamic type queries (i.e., instanceof , getClass() , casting) when implementing the behavior of the various expression nodes (other than in equals() , where our usual template is fine). Nor should you need to write any loops. Rely on recursion and subtype polymorphism and trust your child nodes to do the right thing.

Testing expressions

“ExpressionTest.java” declares nearly 50 unit tests for the various Expression classes. About half of the tests have been implemented for you, while you are responsible for implementing the remaining ones. As usual, we strongly recommend implementing (or uncommenting) the tests related to the behavior you are about to implement. Writing (or reading) the test case will clarify the function’s specification for you, and seeing the case change from “fail” to “pass” provides a reward when your method implementation is on the right track. And if a test doesn’t turn green, you know exactly which code must be at fault.

Each case is annotated with a @DisplayName() that describes the behavior being tested. The description gives the context, identifies the operation being performed, and specifies the expected result. It is hopefully clear how each case relates to the specifications of a class’s methods; occasionally these descriptions may even help clarify a dense specification.

For each case that says fail(); // TODO , you are responsible for replacing this stub with a test implementation that meets the criteria described by the @DisplayName() . You are encouraged to copy-paste portions of other tests to speed up this process as long as the result is consistent with the test description.

Some tests have already been implemented but have been commented out. This is because we did not specify the constructor signatures for your Expression classes. You must uncomment each of these cases and adjust the constructor invocations (if necessary) so that the tests run.

Despite the relatively large number of tests in this suite, it probably still does not provide 100% line coverage of your classes (though hopefully it covers at least 90%). Furthermore, it does not come close to testing all possible combinations of node types, operators, functions, and variable names. But writing clear specifications at the interface level, then testing that each component meets those specifications individually, is still critical for avoiding bugs when composing software modules in arbitrary ways like this.

Testing exceptions

Since some of the methods promise to throw an exception under certain conditions, you should include tests that check whether an exception is thrown as specified. The JUnit function assertThrows() is the right tool for the job, but it works a little differently than other JUnit assertions. You must specify the expected exception’s Class object, and you must defer execution of the exception-throwing code using an anonymous function .

Let’s take testEvalUnbound() in VariableExpressionTest as an example. When eval() is called on a Variable expression expr , we expect it to throw an UnboundVariableException if the variable’s name is not in the provided VarTable argument. This behavior is tested using the following code:

We’ll come back to anonymous functions in more detail later in the course, but for now you can use them in this idiomatic way by just putting () -> in front of expressions whose evaluation needs to be deferred.

Part II: Parsing RPN expressions

As you likely concluded from your testing, assembling expression trees from individual nodes is tedious. We need a way to parse a postfix expression string, provided by a user, and return the corresponding expression tree (this is basically the inverse of the postfixString() methods you implemented earlier). This is the job of RpnParser.parse() .

Implementing this parser is the most important part of the assignment. Since we didn’t dictate the order of constructor arguments for your Expression classes, the only way our autograder will be able to create expression nodes is by parsing expression strings using your RpnParser . It will also probably be the longest method you write for this assignment.

Given an expression in RPN, you build the expression tree from the bottom up using the following procedure:

Initialize a Stack of expression nodes.
If the token is a number or a variable name, push a corresponding leaf node onto the stack.
If the token is an operator or a function name, pop the appropriate number of operands/arguments off of the stack, construct a new interior node with the operation and arguments, and push the new node onto the stack.
Assuming the expression is valid, there will be one node left on the stack. This is the root of the expression tree.

Playing with an RPN calculator can help build your intuition for this procedure.

In RpnParser.parse() , we start you off with a few key elements: an empty stack of Expression nodes and an iteration over Token s. The tokens are created by splitting the expression string at whitespace, then determining whether each substring is a number, an operator, a function call (ending in "()" ), or a variable name (any other string). Each token will therefore be one of the following subclasses of Token (the Token. prefix just indicates that they were defined as nested classes in the same file):

Token.Number
Token.Operator (note: this is not the same class as Operator )
Token.Function
Token.Variable

As described by the TODO, you should query the dynamic type of each token yielded by the iteration (using instanceof ), then take the appropriate action for each kind. If you ever need to pop more expressions off the stack than are available, you should throw IncompleteRpnException ; likewise if, at the end of the procedure, there is not exactly one Expression remaining. Note that each subclass of Token defines some useful behavior, accessible via appropriate casting. For example, a Token.Operator can give you its corresponding Operator object via opValue() . Functions, however, must be looked up from the funcDefs argument provided by the client (this is to support user-defined functions , one of the challenge extensions).

Implement your parser , then test it against the cases in RpnParserTest . Note that this testing is deliberately incomplete. Heed the advice in the comments add additional test cases to ensure that your parser is working as expected. There are plenty of examples of postfix expressions in this handout that you can use.

Part III: Calculator functionality

Once your parser is implemented, you can interact with your expressions using the RpnCalc calculator app. This calculator has already been implemented (except for a few advanced functions left as challenges), so go ahead and run it and type help to see the commands that are available. The calculator remembers the last expression that was entered, so if you do not provide a new expression with each command, it will reuse the old one (the square brackets around [<expr>] in the help message indicate that the argument is optional).

Type eval 2 1 1 0 + + + to evaluate $2 + 1 + 1 + 0$. Type infix to print the expression in infix notation. Type opcount to count the number of operations needed to evaluate it. To exercise variables and functions, try set pi 3.1415926535897932 , then eval pi 2 / sin() .

The file “calc-commands.txt” contains another sequence of calculator commands. To run them all at once, you can pass the filename as a program argument to RpnCalc . However, it will crash when trying to run the deps and optimize commands if you still have stubs in your expression classes. Let’s fix that.

Variable dependencies

If a formula gets very long, it might be handy to know all of the variables it depends on. Since the same variable may appear in multiple subexpressions, a Set of variable names is the appropriate ADT to represent this information (so duplicates are not repeated).

Implement the dependencies() method in all of your Expression classes. A Variable node depends on itself. All other nodes interior nodes depend on the union of their children’s dependencies (this is all you need to know to document the refined specs for each class). Your implementation must be recursive and, as before, should not do any runtime type checking on Expression s. You are allowed to use Set , HashSet , and/or TreeSet from java.util to implement this. Be aware that the convenient Set.of() methods produce unmodifiable sets, so if you need to add more elements, you’ll need to construct a new set of a concrete class that you can add to.

Optimization

If a formula contains a lot of operations, it can be expensive to evaluate it over and over again (as you might do when graphing a function, for example). But if a subexpression only depends on constants or variables whose values are known and fixed, then the value of that subexpression won’t change with repeat evaluations. Therefore, we can replace the subtree representing that subexpression with a constant node to avoid having to recompute the operations. This is an optimization known as constant folding .

Implement the optimize() method in all of your Expression classes. A Variable can only be optimized if it has an assigned value in the provided variable table, in which case it optimizes to a Constant ; otherwise, it optimizes to itself. An Application or Operation node can be fully optimized to a Constant if its children can all be evaluated to yield a number. But even if a child subtree depends on an unbound variable, the parent node can still be partially optimized by creating a new copy whose children are replaced with their optimized forms. These rules should be sufficient for you to document the refined specs for each class. If you have any doubts about the expected behavior, take a look at the test cases.

As an example, optimizing the expression $(x + 2 \cdot 3) / (y - 1)$ when $y$ is assigned the value $2$ yields the simpler expression $(x + 6)/1$:

Assignment metadata

You’ve made great progress! At this point, you can fill in some of the fields in “reflection.txt”. Enter your name and NetID (both partners if working in a group), then answer the verification questions using RpnCalc .

Part IV: Spreadsheet evaluator

Now that you have a working RPN expression evaluator, let’s put it to work evaluating spreadsheet formulas. The CsvEvaluator application should read the rows and columns of a spreadsheet saved in a CSV file and copy them in CSV format to System.out . But when it encounters a cell whose value starts with an equals sign, = , it should parse the remainder of that cell’s value as an RPN formula, evaluate it, and print that value instead. If the formula cannot be evaluated for any reason, it should be replaced by #N/A in the output.

A spreadsheet formula may refer to values in other cells by using their column–row coordinates as variables in the expression. For example, the formula in the Excel screenshot at the start of this handout would be written as =A1 B1 + , where A1 refers to the cell in the first column (A) of the first row, while B1 refers to the cell in the second column (B) of the first row. Formulas may refer to cells containing either numbers or other formulas, but for simplicity, a formula may only refer to cells on previous rows or cells on the same row but in previous columns (lifting this restriction requires computing a “topological ordering” of formulas, which you will learn how to do later in the course).

Here is an example of the program’s input and output, shown as tables (the row and column headers would not be included in the CSV output):

The main() method of CsvEvaluator has been written for you. Your task is to implement evaluateCsv() according to its specifications. But in order to do so, you’ll first want a helper function to convert between column numbers and column letters.

Column labels

Traditionally, spreadsheet columns are labeled by letters, rather than numbers. The first column is labeled ‘A’, the second column is labeled ‘B’, etc. If more than 26 columns are used, a second letter is added: ‘AA’ is 27, ‘AB’ is 28, and so on. To convert a column position into its label, we need to represent the number in this base-26 numeral system. But because there is no letter corresponding to 0, the process is a little bit different.

Expressing integers in different bases is a classic (exam) problem with a recursive solution. First, the number $n$ is divided by the base $b$, yielding an integer quotient $q$ and a remainder $r$. These obey the relationship $n = q b + r$, subject to $0 \leq r \leq b-1$. The ones digit of the representation is then the remainder $r$, and the rest of the digits are simply the base-$b$ representation of the quotient, $q$. The base case is when the quotient is 0, in which case no more digits should be written to the left.

But the column labeling scheme is what’s known as a “ bijective numeral system ”, which do not use a 0 digit (the number 0 itself is written as the empty string). The algorithm is very similar to that for positional notation, except that the “quotient” $q^\prime$ is defined slightly differently: it is the largest integer that, when multiplied by the base $b$, is strictly less than $n$ (recall that a normal quotient is the largest integer that, when multiplied by $b$, is less than or equal to $n$). The relationship between the quotient and remainder is the same as before, meaning that now $1 \leq r^\prime \leq b$.

With this in mind, implement colToLetters() to recursively convert column positions to labels. Note that this will require converting integers to characters; thankfully, Latin letters in alphabetical order correspond to consecutive integers in Unicode. Therefore, to find, e.g., the 5th letter in the alphabet (which is 4 letters after ‘A’), one can write (char)('A' + 4) .

Working with CSV files

As mentioned in A3, writing a robust parser for CSV files requires a lot of attention to detail in order to accommodate strings that contain commas or newlines. Rather than reinventing the wheel, we should take advantage of solutions that other programmers have already written and tested. To do so, this assignment includes a third-party dependency , a free and open-source class library named “ Apache Commons CSV ”.

CsvEvaluator has already done the work of setting up this library and creating a CSVParser to read the user’s input file and a CSVPrinter to print a CSV file to the console. Your solution will need to iterate over the rows and cells of the input (each row is an instance of CSVRecord ) and print rows of cells to the printer.

While you may use any of the methods provided by these classes, the following ones are sufficient to get the job done:

Note that, unlike in A3, there is no need to read the whole file into a list-of-lists or equivalent data structure. Since formulas can only depend on previous cells, you can write each cell as soon as you have read it. This approach is known as “ online ” processing.

The included CsvEvaluatorTest provides reasonably good coverage of both colToLetters() and evaluateCsv() . It also comments on cases that are known to not be covered by these tests. It is up to you to determine which of these situations might pose a risk to your implementation and to add additional tests as appropriate. You do not need to submit these tests, but that does not make them any less essential to confidently delivering a working solution.

For an end-to-end test of the whole application, try running it with the program argument “pizza.csv”. The output should match the contents in “pizza-out.csv”.

Part V: Challenge extensions

The last few points of the assignment are reserved for challenge tasks. These require a significant amount of effort for relatively few points and are intended as additional exercise for students who complete the rest of the assignment ahead of schedule. It is okay to attempt none of the challenge tasks ; they are not included in the recommended schedule. If you do not want to attempt a challenge, there is no need to upload the corresponding file.

Alternative VarTable implementation (3 points)

You have used the MapVarTable class when writing test cases for expression nodes and when implementing the calculator and spreadsheet evaluator. As its name suggests, it is implemented using a Java HashMap . But the methods in Expression accept any implementation of the VarTable interface, meaning you can use an alternative class instead.

Implement a class named TreeVarTable that implements the VarTable interface using a binary search tree data structure (see Chapter 26). All related code must go in the file “TreeVarTable.java” and must be appropriately documented. You must implement your own tree from scratch (using Java’s TreeMap does not qualify, nor may you copy-paste the textbook or lecture demo implementations). Be sure to test your class thoroughly with a JUnit test suite (which you do not need to submit). Your class must have a default constructor that yields an empty map.

You may use your TreeVarTable class instead of MapVarTable throughout the rest of the assignment (as a form of end-to-end testing), but we do not necessarily recommend submitting this, as any bugs in your TreeVarTable would then count against the code that depends on it.

Additional calculator functionality (2 points)

Implement the following additional features in RpnCalc , replacing their corresponding TODOs:

tabulate <var> <lo> <hi> <n> [<expr>] : Evaluate the current expression ( expr if provided, otherwise the previously set expression) n times, varying the value of variable var between lo and hi . Print a line for each evaluation containing the current value of var followed by the value of the expression.

Example—tabulate the expression $x^2$ for $x$ in the range of 0 to 4:

After executing this command, var should have the value hi .

def <name> <var> [<expr>] : Define a new function named name that will evaluate the current expression ( expr if provided, otherwise the previously set expression) with variable var set to the function’s argument. This function can then be used in future expressions. Unlike variables, functions may not be redefined (attempting to do so is a user error and should be reported as such). Additionally, an expression used to define a function may not depend on any variables other than var (the def command handler should check this).

Example—define a function sqr() that squares its argument, then use it in an expression:

If the user makes an error in invoking one of these commands, your command handler should print a helpful error message to System.err and return (it should not propagate any exceptions). Note that Scanner ’s exceptions are unchecked, so you’ll need to study its documentation to know what to catch.

Return to “reflection.txt”, estimate the amount of time you spent on this assignment, and answer the reflection question. Then submit the following files:

Variable.java
Application.java
Operation.java
ExpressionTest.java
RpnParser.java
CsvEvaluator.java
reflection.txt
RpnCalc.java (no need to submit if not attempting challenge extension)
TreeVarTable.java (no need to submit if not attempting challenge extension)

You hopefully wrote additional test cases for RpnParser and CsvEvaluator to improve your confidence in your solution, but those tests will not be submitted.

Smoketesting

The smoketester will check the following:

Your Expression classes, ExpressionTest suite, and RpnParser will be compiled together, since constructors are not part of the Expression interface.
Does your ExpressionTest suite pass when used to test your own implementations of the Expression classes?
Does your RpnParser pass the test cases included in the release code?
What is the output of RpnCalc when executing the commands in “calc-commands.txt”?
Does your CsvEvaluator pass the test cases included in the release code?
What is the output of CsvEvaluator when evaluating “pizza.csv”, and does it differ from “pizza-out.csv”?

When it comes time to grade your submission, the autograder will additionally check at least the following:

Do your implementations of the Expression classes, as created by RpnParser , pass our full test suite?
Do your RpnParser , RpnCalc , and CsvEvaluator pass our full test suites?
Do your challenge extensions pass our corresponding test suites?

As usual, manual grading will check for compliance with implementation constraints as well as adherence to good coding style.

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Examining Sample Assignment 1: Summary and Analysis

In this chapter and in the next three, I walk through example assignments and how you might analyze them to better understand your task.

This assignment comes from one of my first-year writing classes. It’s a fairly typical early assignment in my first-year writing classes, one that asks students to read a text and engage with it in some way. In this case, the readings include the same one I use as a model in the first section of this book , though the actual assignment differs a bit.

The ability to read critically and summarize accurately is a crucial academic skill. The ability to use ideas from one text to guide understanding in another text is similarly crucial. This assignment helps you practice both of these skills.

Your summary will need to explain the key concepts in Mitchell’s article and to explain the main points in the article that you choose to work with. In class, we will work specifically on critical reading strategies to understand how authors make claims and connect those claims to one another. We will also work on techniques for writing strong summaries that accurately represent an author’s work.

Your summaries of these texts should be between 300 and 400 words of your final paper.

In this part of your paper, you will make connections between Mitchell’s concepts and the specific situation described in the article you have chosen. Specifically, you must try to explain the situation in your article using the terms “segregated coexistence” and “living in community” as Mitchell explains them. Think about questions like the following:

Does the article you have chosen describe a situation that could be considered “segregated coexistence”? If so, what is that situation and how well does it align with “segregated coexistence” as Mitchell describes it?
Similarly, does the article you have chosen describe a situation that could be considered “living in community”? If so, what is that situation and how well does it align with “living in community” as Mitchell describes it?
Are there ways in which Mitchell’s terms don’t apply or don’t cover the issue well enough? How so?

Note that this part of your paper should be between 400 and 500 words long, longer than your summaries. While accurately summarizing is important, readers at the college level are more interested in seeing your thinking, so this part should be longer than your summary.

When I comment on your summary and analysis, I will be looking to see how well you have met the goals of the assignment. That is, I will be looking for how accurately and thoroughly you have summarized the articles and how well you have explained and provided support for your analysis. If you only provide summaries of the articles without analysis, your project will not be successful. Instead, your project should demonstrate your critical reading and thinking skills.

Your summary and analysis will also need to meet the standard expectations of good college-level academic writing, which we will be working on during the term. Your purpose and focus will need to be clear and well explained. You will need to provide your reader with sufficient detail in your summary and your response so that your explanations are clear and thorough. You will also need to provide structural cues that enable your reader to follow the logic of your thinking. And your prose will need to be well written both stylistically and grammatically.

Examining the Verbs in Key Sentences

When I read this assignment, I find three key sentences that tell us what we’re supposed to do in this assignment.

Before going on, try to find the key sentences in the Summary and Analysis assignment. Then, read on to see if you agree with my choices.

Let’s look at them.

First Sentence for Examination

To start, there is a sentence summarizing the assignment at the top. Sentences pulled out like this are often important:

Summarize the ideas of “segregated coexistence” and “living in community” from Mitchell’s essay and analyze how those ideas apply to the situation described in an additional article (see sources below).

The verbs here are pretty direct: summarize and analyze.

What are you summarizing? Mitchell’s ideas
What are you analyzing? How those ideas apply to the situation in the second article you have chosen

Second Sentence for Examination

There’s another key sentence at the beginning of the “Summaries” section:

Your summary will need to explain the key concepts in Mitchell’s article and to explain the main points in the article that you choose to work with.

The verbs here are less helpful, at least until we look at the words around them.

When someone tells you that you “will need” to do something, you know that they mean that you “must” do it. If we substitute “must” for “will need,” we get a bit more help:

Your summary must explain the key concepts in Mitchell’s article and must explain the main points in the article that you choose to work with.

“Choose” is not terribly important for our purposes because it’s just identifying the second source that we are working with. “Explain,” however, seems to be very important.

Here we get a focus for our summary work:

Explain the key concepts in Mitchell’s article (which have been identified in the first sentence we analyzed)
Explain the main points in the article we’ve chosen

In this sentence, we have more detail about what “summarizing” looks like for this assignment.

Third Sentence for Examination

To understand the “analyzing” part of the assignment, we have a couple of sentences at the beginning of the “Analysis” section. I’m including two sentences since the second sentence begins with “specifically,” which indicates that it’s providing more detail about the first:

In this part of your paper, you will make connections between Mitchell’s concepts and the specific situation described in the article you have chosen . Specifically, you must try to explain the situation in your article using the terms “segregated coexistence” and “living in community” as Mitchell explains them.

These verbs require a bit of adjustment before our task will be clear. “Will make” doesn’t tell us much without the following word “connections,” without which we don’t know what we are making. However, “will make connections” can also be understood as simply “connect.” Here’s the sentence with this adjustment (eliminating a few more words to make the sentence grammatically correct:

In this part of your paper, you will connect Mitchell’s concepts and the specific situation described in the article you have chosen . Specifically, you must try to explain the situation in your article using the terms “segregated coexistence” and “living in community” as Mitchell explains them.

Similarly, “must try” doesn’t help us until we look at the words that tell us what we are trying to do. In this case, “must try to explain” is the idea we need to focus on. “Must try” in this sentence is an indication that our professor wants us to make effort, but explaining is really the work here:

In this part of your paper, you will connect Mitchell’s concepts and the specific situation described in the article you have chosen . Specifically, you must explain the situation in your article using the terms “segregated coexistence” and “living in community” as Mitchell explains them.

As with the sentence earlier, “have chosen” just indicates our second article, which is why I skipped that one.

The last “explains” is worth looking at in a bit more detail. In this case, the verb is not about your doing the explaining, but rather the fact that Mitchell has done some. From this sentence, we know that we must use the two identified terms in the same way that Mitchell does.

So, in the analysis part of our paper, we need to do the following:

Connect Mitchell’s concepts, which we summarized in the summary section of the paper, to the situation in our second article.
To do this effectively, we need to use Mitchell’s terms.

Applying Bloom

Having done this analysis, we now have a better sense of the intellectual work of this assignment:

Summary Part 1: Explain Mitchell’s key ideas
Summary Part 2: Explain the main points in our second article
Analysis: Use Mitchell’s ideas to explain the situation in our second article.

After you read the rest of this chapter, decide whether or not you agree with my analysis.

Kinds of Cognitive Processes

First, the verbs.

The summary section of the assignment focused on explaining the key ideas in both articles. It can be helpful to move “up” the pyramid or the side of the grid with the cognitive processes to help us figure this out.

We aren’t being asked to remember, since we can look up the information, but we are being asked to understand both Mitchell’s concepts and the main points from the second article. Notice that on the grid version, summarizing appears at the intersection of factual knowledge and the cognitive process of understanding.

When we look at connections, though, “understanding” doesn’t seem to be enough. Yes, we have to understand, but we’re trying to make those connections (remember the original wording?), and “understanding” seems to be more about making sense of ideas that others have already put together.

The next step is “ applying .” If we look only at the grid, applying doesn’t seem to work, but the pyramids explain this one a bit differently. If applying means to “use information in new situations” or “use information in a new (but similar) form,” the term seems to work, right? The assignment asks us to use Mitchell’s terms to explain the situation in the second article. That sounds like an application to me!

But what about “analysis” in the title of the assignment? Look at the explanation of analyzing on the grid: “Break material into constituent parts and determine how parts relate to one another and to an overall structure of purpose.” Similarly, the pyramids describe analyzing as making connections and exploring relationships.

We aren’t doing this kind of work if we look only at Mitchell’s article; there, we are simply explaining what Mitchell means (i.e., summarizing). But when we get to the second article, we have to do more than just apply Mitchell’s terms. We have to divide up the ideas in that article into ideas that are connected to “segregated coexistence” and ideas that are connected to “living in community.”

To do this successfully, we need to explain how these connections work. This means that it’s not enough to identify specific ideas as either one or the other. We also need to make those connections clear to our reader. Those explanations are kinds of analysis .

The verbs in the assignment do not ask us to make arguments or critique ideas, so Bloom’s “evaluate” doesn’t apply in this assignment. Similarly, we aren’t really “creating” something new, beyond the vague idea that what we write should be in our own words for the most part. These two cognitive processes don’t apply much, if at all, here.

To summarize, looking at the verbs and assignment, we seem to be working in the cognitive realms of understanding, applying, and analyzing.

Kinds of Knowledge

While the verbs tell us about the cognitive processes that we are being asked to use, the examination of those key sentences can also help us focus on the information that we will need to complete the task. While much of this was obvious as we explored the verbs, I’ll break it down a bit here to complete the example.

In this case, we will need to know/understand the following:

Mitchell’s key terms (“segregated coexistence” and “living in community”)
The main ideas in our second article
The connections between Mitchell’s concepts and the ideas in our second article

The first two would be factual knowledge, according to Bloom’s Taxonomy. We should be able to go to the article and find those ideas. We aren’t developing those terms or ideas; we are simply recording them. To do that, we have to understand them, but that’s a cognitive process, and we’ll come back to that in a minute.

The connections, however, aren’t factual. Our chosen article doesn’t use Mitchell’s terms directly, so we have to create those connections ourselves. If you look at the descriptions, you’ll see that this type of knowledge is called “ conceptual ,” which specifically is about organizing factual knowledge.

I don’t see anything here that is asking us to work with procedural (how to) knowledge or metacognition (thinking about thinking), so we are just working with the first two types of information.

Putting It Together

In this assignment, we are being asked to use factual and conceptual knowledge to understand, apply, and analyze.

The assignment comes in two parts. The first part is focused on summarizing Mitchell’s two key concepts and the main points from the second article. This part, then, stays firmly in the factual realm. We’re not supposed to talk about our opinions of any of these ideas or start making connections between them in this section. If we fail to present the factual information (e.g., we are missing one summary or the other; or we misread the article so our summary isn’t accurate), we will not succeed at this part. Also, because this is the more basic part of the assignment (lower on the pyramids and grid), if we don’t do this part accurately, odds are good that our analysis part won’t be as successful as we would like.

The second part, what the assignment calls “analysis,” is really a combination of applying and analyzing. We have to understand the main points, too, but mostly, we would do that in the first part of the assignment. In the “analysis,” we need to explain how the ideas in the second article can be categorized using Mitchell’s terms. We’re applying Mitchell, but we also have to explain if our assignment is going to be successful.

At this point, I have beaten this assignment into submission, but I’m hoping you can see the value in taking an assignment apart like this.

Reading and Writing Successfully in College: A Guide for Students Copyright © 2023 by Patricia Lynne is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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