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168 Current International Relations Research Topics For Any Level

Are you a student looking for intriguing international relations research topics? Look no further! In this blog post, we have created a list of 168 unique and thought-provoking research topics in the field of international relations that should help students get an A+ on their next paper.

Whether you’re studying political science, international affairs or related disciplines, this comprehensive list covers a wide range of fascinating subjects. From global governance to security issues, diplomacy, human rights, and more, these topics are designed to inspire your research and help you delve deeper into the complexities of international relations. So, grab your notepad and get ready to explore these captivating research ideas!

A Word On International Relations Theses

International relations is the study of interactions between nations and global actors. It examines politics, economics, security, and culture, exploring how countries cooperate, conflict and shape global dynamics. If you’re about to start working on a thesis in international relations and you are wondering what to include in your paper, here is a short explanation of each of the mandatory chapters:

Introduction: The opening section that presents the research problem, objectives, and significance of the study. Literature Review: A comprehensive review of existing scholarly works related to the research topic, providing a context for the study. Methodology: Describes the research design, data collection methods, and analytical techniques used to address the research questions or hypotheses. Findings: Presents the empirical results or outcomes of the research, often supported by data, analysis, and interpretation. Discussion: Analyzes and interprets the findings in relation to the research objectives, drawing connections to existing literature and providing insights. Conclusion: Summarizes the main findings, highlights the contributions to the field, and suggests avenues for future research. References: Lists all the sources cited in the thesis following a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA).

Now, it’s time to deliver on our promise and give you the list of international relations research paper topics. Choose the one you like the most:

Easy International Relations Research Topics

Explore our list of easy international relations research topics that will help you understand global politics and analyze the dynamics of international relations with ease

The impact of globalization on state sovereignty and international relations
Analyzing the role of non-state actors in global governance structures
The influence of soft power in shaping international relations and diplomacy
Exploring the relationship between human rights and international relations
Examining the dynamics of economic interdependence in international relations
The role of international organizations in promoting peace and security
Assessing the impact of climate change on international relations and cooperation
Analyzing the role of regional integration in shaping global politics
The implications of cyber warfare for international relations and national security
Examining the challenges and opportunities of humanitarian intervention in international relations
Analyzing the role of ideology in shaping state behavior in international relations
Exploring the impact of migration and refugee crises on international relations
Assessing the role of international law in resolving conflicts and promoting peace
Investigating the role of intelligence agencies in shaping international relations

International Relations Thesis Topics

Our wide range of international relations thesis topics will guide you towards developing a strong research question, conducting in-depth analysis, and contributing to the field with your original research:

Power dynamics and the balance of power in international relations
Exploring the role of diplomacy in conflict resolution and peacebuilding
The impact of nuclear proliferation on international security and non-proliferation regimes
Analyzing the role of international institutions in managing global crises
The influence of nationalism on interstate relations and regional cooperation
Examining the role of international norms and human rights in shaping foreign policy
Assessing the impact of economic globalization on state sovereignty in international relations
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and international relations
Exploring the concept of hegemony and its implications for international relations
The role of gender in international relations and its impact on policy-making
Analyzing the role of intelligence agencies in shaping international relations
The implications of emerging technologies on international security and arms control
Examining the role of media and propaganda in international conflicts and public opinion
The impact of regional integration on state behavior and international cooperation

Advanced International Relations Topics For Research

Dive into complex issues, explore cutting-edge theories, and unravel the intricate dynamics of global affairs with our advanced international relations topics for research:

China’s global rise and its power dynamics
Non-traditional security threats in international relations
AI and warfare: Implications for international security
Climate change, conflict, and forced migration in international relations
Religion and politics in international relations
Populism’s impact on global governance and international relations
Social movements and civil society in shaping international relations
Pandemics and international cooperation: Implications for global governance
Cultural diplomacy and soft power in international relations
Information warfare and disinformation in international relations
Regional powers shaping global security dynamics
Responsibility to protect and humanitarian interventions in international relations
Resource scarcity and environmental degradation in international relations
Migration and refugee crises’ impact on global stability

International Relations Research Questions

Our carefully curated list of international relations research questions will inspire critical thinking and promote meaningful discussions:

How does power transition theory explain shifts in global power dynamics?
What are the implications of the rise of non-state actors on traditional state-centric international relations theories?
How do identity politics and nationalism shape interstate conflicts?
What are the factors influencing state compliance with international human rights norms?
How does globalization impact state sovereignty?
What are the challenges of multilateralism in addressing global issues?
How does public opinion influence state behavior in international relations?
What are the causes and consequences of failed states in international relations?
How does the distribution of power in international institutions affect their legitimacy?
What are the implications of emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence, on international security?
How do regional conflicts and security dilemmas impact regional integration efforts?
What are the root causes of terrorism?
How does economic interdependence shape interstate relations and global governance structures?
What are the challenges of global environmental governance in addressing climate change?

International Relations Paper Topics

Choose one of our international relations paper topics that resonate with your interests and embark on an enriching research journey:

The role of ideology in shaping state behavior in international relations
Analyzing the impact of economic sanctions on diplomatic relations between countries
The role of media and propaganda in influencing public opinion in international conflicts
Exploring the relationship between globalization and cultural identity in international relations
The implications of cybersecurity threats on national security and international relations
Assessing the role of intelligence agencies in gathering and analyzing international intelligence
Analyzing the impact of regional organizations on regional conflicts and cooperation in international relations
The influence of international trade agreements on global economic and political relations
Exploring the dynamics of nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation in international relations
The role of international law in resolving territorial disputes and promoting peace
Non-state actors in international relations: Influence and challenges
Conflict resolution mechanisms: Negotiation, mediation, and peacebuilding approaches
Diplomatic immunity: Balancing immunity with accountability in international relations
The impact of global pandemics on international cooperation and security

Engaging Topic Ideas About International Relations

Are you seeking engaging and captivating topic ideas for your international relations research? Choose one of these engaging topic ideas about international relations:

Global governance and international organizations in addressing global challenges.
Nationalism’s impact on international relations and global cooperation.
Soft power in shaping international perceptions and relations.
Regional conflicts’ implications for global stability and security.
Cyber warfare: Assessing evolving cyber threats in international relations.
Media’s role in international relations: Influence, propaganda, and disinformation.
Economic interdependence: Opportunities and risks in global relations.
Diplomacy in the digital age: Challenges of virtual diplomacy.
Global migration and refugee crises: Humanitarian and political dimensions.
Human rights in international relations: Promoting universal rights.
Terrorism’s impact on global security and counterterrorism efforts.
Environmental diplomacy: Addressing global environmental challenges.
Religion’s role in international relations.
Regional power dynamics: Influence of major powers in different regions

Interesting International Relations Research Paper Topics

Uncover fascinating research paper topics in international relations that will captivate your readers and showcase your analytical skills. Use one of these interesting international relations research paper topics:

Populism’s rise and its impact on international relations and global governance
Climate change’s geopolitical implications: Conflicts, migrations, and resource competition
Hybrid warfare: Analyzing blurred lines between conventional and unconventional threats
Technology’s impact on diplomacy and the future of diplomatic practices
Nuclear energy diplomacy: Balancing peaceful uses and proliferation concerns
Soft power and cultural industries’ influence in international relations
Politics of humanitarian aid: Challenges and ethical considerations
Media framing’s impact on public opinion in international conflicts
International cooperation in space exploration and its geopolitical implications
Diaspora communities’ role in shaping international relations and global politics
Migration policies and human rights: Balancing border control and human dignity
Global health governance: Cooperation, challenges, and pandemic responses
Environmental peacebuilding: Addressing conflicts over natural resources and degradation
Economic sanctions: Effectiveness and ethical implications in international relations

Political Science Dissertation Topics

Our list of political science dissertation topics will provide you with a solid foundation for developing a unique research proposal and making a significant contribution to the field:

The role of political ideologies in foreign policy and international relations.
National security strategies and state behavior in international relations.
Global governance and collective decision-making challenges in international institutions.
Public opinion’s influence on foreign policy and international relations.
Identity politics and intergroup relations in international contexts.
Humanitarian interventions and the responsibility to protect.
Geopolitics and resource conflicts: Strategic importance of natural resources.
International law’s role in shaping state behavior and resolving conflicts.
Comparative political systems in international relations.
Political leadership’s impact on diplomatic relations and cooperation.
International development assistance: Aid effectiveness and challenges.
Non-state actors in global politics: Influence, networks, power dynamics.
Intelligence agencies in international intelligence gathering and analysis.
Political parties and foreign policy shaping

Current International Relations Topics For Research Paper

Stay up to date with the latest developments in global politics by exploring our selection of current international relations topics for research paper writing :

Emerging technologies’ impact on global security and power dynamics.
Transnational threats: Terrorism, crime, and cyber challenges in focus.
Regional integration in globalization: Achievements, limitations, and prospects.
Trade wars: Implications for global economy and cooperation.
Disinformation and fake news: Influence on international politics and public opinion.
Climate change negotiations: Progress and challenges in combating global warming
Cybersecurity and emerging threats in international relations.
Regional power dynamics in the Middle East: Implications for global security
Global responses to the COVID-19 pandemic: Cooperation and challenges
Climate change mitigation and adaptation in international policy
Rising nationalism and its impact on international cooperation
Humanitarian crisis in Yemen: International responses and challenges
Technology and the future of warfare: Implications for global security
The Belt and Road Initiative: Assessing its impact on international relations

Awesome Research Topics For International Relations

Our awesome research topics for international relations allow you to explore diverse areas of global politics and contribute to the field with your exceptional research:

NGOs’ role in shaping international policies and agendas
Humanitarian interventions and the responsibility to protect: Effectiveness and ethics
Cybersecurity challenges in international relations: Risks and responses
Global migration governance: Policies and implications
Globalization vs national sovereignty: Impacts on state behavior
China’s Belt and Road Initiative: Geopolitical influence and challenges
Nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation: Effectiveness of treaties
Gender in international relations: Impact of norms and policies
Post-colonial perspectives in international relations: Power dynamics and legacies
Climate justice and international cooperation: Addressing climate change
Regional organizations in global governance and international relations
Politics of humanitarian intervention: Strategies and outcomes
Political economy of international trade: Impact of policies and agreements
Populism’s impact on democracy and international relations

Controversial International Relations Topics

Delve into the realm of controversy and discourse with our thought-provoking controversial international relations topics:

Drones in targeted killings: Legal and ethical implications
Nuclear energy and non-proliferation: Benefits and risks
Intervention in state sovereignty: Legitimacy and consequences
Ethics of economic sanctions: Effectiveness and impact on civilians
Cyber warfare and international norms: Regulating cyber conflicts
Climate change’s impact on national security and conflicts
Intelligence agencies in covert operations and international relations
Politics of humanitarian aid: Motivations and challenges
Ethics of military intervention: Justifications and consequences
Politics of regime change: Motivations and implications
Media bias’s impact on international perceptions and diplomacy
Private military companies: Challenges and accountability
Politics of disarmament and arms control: Progress and challenges
Corporate interests’ influence on foreign policy and relations

Best International Relations Topics For 2023

Stay ahead of the curve with our selection of the best international relations topics for 2023. These carefully curated topics reflect the current trends, emerging challenges and pressing issues:

COVID-19 pandemic’s implications on global politics and international relations
Rise of populism and its impact on democracy and international cooperation
Cybersecurity challenges in a hyper-connected world: Risks and responses
Future of international cooperation in addressing global challenges and conflicts
Climate change and security: Implications for international relations and stability
Evolving role of regional powers in shaping global politics and relations
Technological advancements’ impact on state power and international relations
Global governance reform: Restructuring international institutions
Social media’s role in shaping international perceptions and political movements
Challenges and prospects of nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation
Intersection of artificial intelligence and international relations
Impact of trade wars on global economic relations and cooperation
Geopolitical tensions in the Arctic: Resource competition and influence
Future of multilateralism: Relevance and effectiveness in a changing world

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How do I choose a research topic in international relations?

Consider your interests, current events, and gaps in existing literature to identify an area of focus. Brainstorm potential topics and ensure they align with your research objectives.

What makes a strong international relations research paper?

A strong research paper includes a well-defined research question, solid theoretical framework, rigorous analysis, credible sources, and logical structure. It should also contribute to the existing body of knowledge.

How can I narrow down my international relations research topic?

Consider specific regions, actors, theories, or policy areas within international relations. Narrowing down your topic will allow for a more focused and manageable research paper.

Can I use case studies in my international relations research paper?

Yes, case studies can be valuable in providing empirical evidence and in-depth analysis. They help illustrate theoretical concepts and offer real-world examples to support your arguments.

40+ Best International Relations Research Topics: Global Dynamics Unveiled

Post author By admin
November 11, 2023

Explore the complex landscape of global affairs with our curated list of International Relations Research Topics. Delve into pressing issues, emerging trends, and fresh perspectives that shape the world stage.

Uncover the latest insights and navigate the intricacies of international diplomacy through innovative research avenues.

Embarking on the captivating odyssey of “International Relations Research Topics” is akin to donning the explorer’s hat in a vast, interconnected world.

As our globe tightens its bonds, the study of international relations becomes not just relevant but essential. In this article, we embark on a journey that doesn’t merely skim the surface; it delves deep into the beating heart of themes that intrigue scholars and mold the very narrative of our shared global drama.

Imagine traversing the echoes of historical events, resonating through the grand halls of diplomacy. Picture grappling with the contemporary puzzles that carve the geopolitical landscape, and unraveling the theoretical frameworks that scaffold our comprehension of international relations.

From the intricate dance of negotiation to the mosaic of global governance complexities, we’re set to embark on a thrilling adventure, spanning disciplines, cultures, and the sands of time.

So, fasten your seatbelts as we navigate the twists and turns of international relations research. Join us in dissecting real-world challenges through illuminating case studies and peering into the crystal ball of future trends that will shape the diplomatic stage.

The realm of international relations research isn’t just a scholarly pursuit; it’s a journey into the heart of human interaction on the international stage, a quest that promises both revelations and solutions.

Get ready for an expedition that transcends borders and plunges into the pulse of our shared global destiny.

Together, let’s unravel the dynamic and ever-evolving world of international relations research—a journey that promises not just academic enlightenment but a deeper understanding of the threads that weave our world together.

Table of Contents

International Relations Research Topics

Check out international relations research topics:-

Theories of International Relations

Power Dynamics Unveiled : Investigate the role of power in international relations and how realist perspectives shape foreign policy.

The Promise of Cooperation : Explore the principles of liberalism and how they influence diplomatic collaboration and international organizations.

Constructivism

Beyond Structures : Delve into the impact of ideas, norms, and identities on international relations, challenging traditional structural perspectives.

Critical Theories

Deconstructing Narratives : Examine critical approaches to IR, questioning established norms and advocating for social justice in global relations.

Foreign Policy

The united states’ foreign policy.

Evolution and Trends : Analyze the historical shifts and current trends in U.S. foreign policy, exploring its global implications.

China’s Foreign Policy

Rising Dragon : Investigate China’s geopolitical strategy, economic diplomacy, and its role in shaping international relations.

Russia’s Foreign Policy

Eurasian Ambitions : Explore Russia’s geopolitical objectives, alliances, and its impact on regional and global stability.

The European Union’s Foreign Policy

Unity in Diversity : Assess the coherence and challenges of the EU’s foreign policy, considering its unique supranational structure.

The Foreign Policy of the Middle East

Navigating Complexity : Examine the intricate foreign policies of Middle Eastern nations, addressing regional conflicts and global interactions.

International Law

The role of international law in the international system.

Legal Frameworks : Investigate the impact and effectiveness of international legal systems in governing state behavior.

The Sources of International Law

Foundations Unveiled : Explore the historical and contemporary sources influencing the development of international legal principles.

The Enforcement of International Law

Legal Realities : Assess the mechanisms and challenges in enforcing international law, addressing issues of compliance and accountability.

The Development of International Law

Evolutionary Trajectories : Trace the historical evolution of international law, analyzing its adaptive nature in response to global changes.

The Future of International Law

Innovations and Challenges : Speculate on the future directions and innovations in international law amidst evolving global dynamics.

International Organizations

The united nations.

Global Governance : Examine the role, challenges, and effectiveness of the United Nations in addressing global issues and conflicts.

The World Trade Organization

Trade Diplomacy : Assess the impact of the WTO on global trade dynamics, exploring its role in shaping economic relations.

The International Monetary Fund

Economic Stabilization : Investigate the IMF’s influence on global financial stability, economic development, and its role in financial crises.

The World Bank

Development Finance : Examine the World Bank’s role in funding development projects and its impact on global economic disparities.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Collective Security : Analyze NATO’s evolving role in ensuring collective defense and maintaining regional and global security.

International Security

Nuclear weapons.

Arms Control Dilemmas : Explore the challenges of nuclear disarmament, arms control agreements, and the geopolitical implications of nuclear arsenals.

Global Threats : Investigate the causes, dynamics, and counterterrorism strategies in response to global terrorist threats.

Cyberwarfare

Virtual Battlefields : Examine the evolving landscape of cyber threats, state-sponsored cyber operations, and diplomatic responses.

Climate Change

Security Implications : Assess the security challenges posed by climate change, including resource scarcity, migration, and conflict risks.

Global Health Security : Explore the intersection of international relations and global health, focusing on pandemic preparedness and response.

International Development

The causes of poverty.

Structural Analysis : Investigate the root causes of poverty globally, examining the role of economic, social, and political factors.

The Impact of Globalization

Global Dynamics : Analyze the effects of globalization on economic, social, and political dimensions, considering both positive and negative impacts.

The Role of Aid

Humanitarian Assistance : Examine the effectiveness of international aid in promoting development, addressing crises, and reducing poverty.

The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

Civil Society Actors : Assess the contributions and challenges of NGOs in international development and diplomacy.

The Future of International Development

Sustainable Goals : Speculate on the future trajectories of international development, considering global challenges and innovative solutions.

International Political Economy

The global economy.

Economic Governance : Evaluate the structures and governance of the global economy, addressing issues of economic inequality and trade imbalances.

Trade Diplomacy Trends : Investigate emerging trends in global trade diplomacy, trade agreements, and their impact on national economies.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) : Examine the role of FDI in shaping international economic relations, focusing on its impact on host and home countries.

Financial Governance : Assess the role of international financial institutions and governance mechanisms in maintaining global financial stability.

Development

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) : Explore the progress and challenges in achieving the SDGs, considering their impact on global economic relations.

International Environmental Politics

Global Responses : Evaluate international efforts to address climate change, analyzing agreements, policies, and the role of state and non-state actors.

Biodiversity

Conservation Challenges : Examine global initiatives and challenges in preserving biodiversity, considering the impact on ecosystems and human societies.

Cross-Border Impacts : Analyze international frameworks and strategies for addressing transboundary pollution, emphasizing cooperative solutions.

Water Resources

Hydro-Diplomacy : Investigate the geopolitical dimensions of water scarcity, transboundary water management, and the potential for conflict or cooperation.

Global Energy Security : Assess the geopolitics of energy resources, exploring the impact on international relations and national security.

International Human Rights

The universal declaration of human rights.

70 Years On : Reflect on the achievements and challenges in upholding the principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

The Role of Human Rights Organizations

Advocacy and Impact : Assess the contributions and limitations of human rights organizations in promoting and protecting human rights globally.

The Challenges of Human Rights Protection

Contemporary Dilemmas : Examine current challenges and dilemmas in the protection of human rights, considering cultural, political, and legal perspectives.

The Future of Human Rights

Emerging Harmonies : Identify and analyze emerging human rights issues globally and explore diplomatic strategies for advancing human rights advocacy worldwide.

Future Trends

Check out the future trends:-

Diplomacy in the Digital Age

Cybersecurity Adventures: In an era of technological leaps, the specter of cyber threats looms large. Future international relations will be in the trenches, figuring out the playbook for norms, treaties, and group huddles to fend off cyber villains and safeguard our digital fortresses.

Guardians of Global Wellness

Pandemic Odyssey: The seismic impact of COVID-19 sounded the alarm for robust global health governance.

Imagine this: a future where nations join hands in a symphony of collaboration, fine-tuning pandemic preparedness, orchestrating vaccine ballets, and addressing health inequalities on the grand stage of global solidarity.

Environmental Diplomacy

Climate Crusaders: Brace yourself for a climate showdown! As the world heats up, international relations will groove to the beat of urgent climate action.

Imagine a dance floor where negotiations, agreements, and collaborations bust moves to mitigate environmental threats and jive with the rhythm of a changing climate.

Regional Power Play

Shapeshifting Dynamics: A plot twist is brewing as regional powers in Asia and Africa steal the spotlight, reshaping the global stage.

The future of international relations will be a blockbuster, navigating the rise of these regional superheroes alongside the traditional titans of global influence.

Tech-Driven Humanitarianism

Aid’s Tech Symphony: When humanitarian crises strike, enter the tech virtuosos! Drones, artificial intelligence, and other tech marvels take center stage, orchestrating a symphony of innovation to respond to crises and deliver assistance with superhero efficiency.

Cosmic Diplomacy

Space Odyssey Unleashed: As we soar into the cosmos, international relations will boldly go where no treaties have gone before.

Picture diplomatic efforts navigating the vast expanse of space, establishing norms, agreements, and governance frameworks for our cosmic endeavors.

Economic Resilience Revolution:

Economic Tango Redefined: The aftermath of global economic shocks reshapes the dance floor of economic alliances and trade relationships.

Future international relations will spin into action, crafting moves to enhance economic resilience and foster cooperation in an ever-changing economic landscape.

Digital Frontier Governance:

Regulating the Digital Wild West: Get ready for a showdown in the digital saloon! The digital realm takes the spotlight in international relations, where future trends include crafting international regulations, treaties, and norms to tame the digital frontier, ensuring data privacy and the ethical use of emerging technologies.

Migration Marvels:

Demographic Jigsaw: Demographic changes and migration challenges become key players in the international relations saga.

Nations collaborate on an epic script, developing comprehensive policies that address the impacts of migration on societies, economies, and the geopolitics stage.

Multilateral Makeover

Global Governance Remix: The future sees multilateral institutions donning a new look to tackle contemporary challenges.

Efforts to reform and adapt global governance structures take center stage, promising an international relations blockbuster that shapes the world’s destiny.

What are good topics for research in international relations?

Check out some of good topics for research in international relations:-

Digital Battlegrounds: Navigating Cybersecurity Challenges in Global Diplomacy

Unraveling the influence of cyber threats on shaping diplomatic relations and the imperative for a united front in the realm of cybersecurity.

China’s Global Odyssey: Decoding the Belt and Road Initiative

Embarking on an exploration of the economic, political, and geopolitical ripple effects stemming from China’s grand infrastructure and development venture.

Angels in Conflict: Humanitarian Interventions Unveiled

Delving into the intricacies of international humanitarian interventions, weighing their effectiveness against the ethical backdrop in conflict-ridden territories.

Climate Avengers: Global Governance Confronts Climate Change

Surveying the battlefield of climate change, evaluating the triumphs and tribulations of international agreements and organizations in fostering sustainability.

Beyond Borders: The Dance of Non-State Actors in Global Affairs

Spotlighting the silent influencers – NGOs, multinational corporations, and other non-state actors – and deciphering their impact on the world stage.

Refugee Realities: An International Collaboration Saga

Unmasking the challenges and collaborative opportunities on the global stage as nations grapple with the escalating refugee crisis .

Energy Chess: Geopolitics in Resource Distribution

Tracing the geopolitical moves dictated by the control and distribution of energy resources, a chess game shaping international relations.

Populism’s Echo: Global Diplomacy in the Age of Charismatic Leaders

Analyzing the crescendo of populist movements and leaders, exploring their influence on international relations, alliances, and diplomatic dynamics.

Nuclear Shadows: Proliferation Puzzles and Global Security

Assessing the shadow cast by nuclear weapons proliferation and unraveling strategies for global disarmament.

Multilateralism Unveiled: Charting the Future Course

Lifting the curtain on the role and relevance of multilateral institutions in the ever-evolving landscape of international relations, envisioning potential reforms.

Regional Harmony: Dynamics of Integration Explored

Unlocking the impact of regional organizations, like the European Union or ASEAN, on stability, economic collaboration, and political cohesion.

Soft Whispers: Cultural Influence in Global Affairs

Deciphering the art of soft power, cultural sway, and the dance of public diplomacy on the grand stage of international relations.

Trade Winds of Change: Global Commerce Post-Pandemic

Navigating the reshaped tides of global trade and supply chains in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Rights Under Fire: Human Rights Amidst Conflict

Assessing the safeguarding of human rights in the tumult of conflict zones, and exploring avenues for accountability and justice.

AI on the Frontlines: Warfare in the Age of Artificial Intelligence

Probing the ethical, legal, and strategic battlegrounds of integrating artificial intelligence into military operations and the face of warfare.

These topics now come alive with a touch of intrigue and exploration!

What topics do international relations students study?

Embarking on the adventure of international relations studies is like diving into a treasure trove of global complexities. A

s students navigate this dynamic field, they encounter a fascinating array of subjects that mirror the intricate dance of nations.

Here’s a sneak peek into the captivating topics that typically grace the desks of international relations students:

Global Political Economy

Unraveling the intricate threads of international trade, finance, and economic jamborees, exploring the rollercoaster ride of globalization, development dramas, and economic sagas.

Delving into the legal labyrinths that regulate the cosmic ballet between states, organizations, and individuals on the world stage—think treaties, human rights, and diplomatic choreography.

Security Studies

Analyzing the kaleidoscope of global security, from military acrobatics and conflict resolution gymnastics to the starring role of international organizations in the grand spectacle of peacekeeping.

Comparative Politics

Comparing political systems worldwide, a bit like political Tinder, but for countries—swipe left for autocracy, swipe right for democracy.

Diplomacy and Negotiation

Mastering the art and strategy of diplomacy—picture a chessboard where countries make their moves with diplomatic finesse, negotiating checkmates and stalemates.

Foreign Policy Analysis

Playing detective in the realm of global decision-making—think Sherlock Holmes meets geopolitics, dissecting the motives and influences behind a nation’s foreign policy.

Touring the bureaucratic wonders of global organizations like the United Nations, where policies are debated, resolutions are passed, and diplomatic handshakes abound.

Human Rights and Global Governance

Championing the cause of human rights on the world stage, a bit like the Avengers, but for justice, with discussions on global governance challenges thrown in.

Crisis Management

Learning the ABCs of handling international crises—from humanitarian dramas to political cliffhangers, because sometimes the world feels like a suspenseful blockbuster.

Area Studies

Taking a deep dive into the soul of specific regions or countries, unraveling their histories, cultures, political intrigues, and international relations soap operas.

These are just a few teasers from the thrilling curriculum that shapes international relations students into global aficionados, ready to decode the world’s greatest mysteries and challenges.

What are the main issues of international relations?

Embarking on the labyrinthine journey of international relations is like diving headfirst into a riveting saga filled with complex challenges and diplomatic intricacies. Here’s a closer look at the pulse-quickening issues that keep the global stage buzzing with anticipation:

Global Security and Conflict

Imagine the ongoing chess game of maintaining global peace, tackling conflicts, and deftly sidestepping the landmines of potential new hostilities.

Economic Inequality and Globalization

Imagine a high-stakes tightrope walk, balancing the pursuit of economic growth with the tightrope of fair wealth distribution in our interconnected, globalized world.

Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability

Feel the urgency of a call to arms against climate change, championing environmental protection, and orchestrating a symphony of international cooperation for sustainable development.

Human Rights Violations

Enter the battlefield of justice, where the quest to protect and champion human rights clashes with discrimination, persecution, and the shadows of injustice.

Global Health Challenges

Witness the epic quest against pandemics, the noble pursuit of equal healthcare, and the captivating dance where global health meets the intricate steps of international relations.

Nuclear Proliferation

Imagine delicate diplomatic waltz around the possession and potential use of nuclear weapons, involving disarming maneuvers, non-proliferation treaties, and diplomatic pirouettes.

Terrorism and Transnational Crime

Navigate the thrilling world of international intrigue where the threat of terrorism and cybercrime lurk, challenging the boundaries of nations.

Migration and Displacement

Step into the multifaceted dance of human migration, refugees seeking a new rhythm, and the drama of how these moves impact host countries and global stability.

Nationalism and Populism

Experience the resurgence of nationalist and populist movements, an unfolding drama influencing both domestic and international political stages.

Technological Advancements and Governance

Dive into the riveting tale of rapid technological advances, where cybersecurity challenges and the regulation of emerging technologies take center stage.

Public Health Crises

Respond to the urgent call of global health crises, epitomized by the dramatic plot twists of events like the COVID-19 pandemic.

Diplomatic Tensions and Alliances

Feel the diplomatic tension in the air, where alliances are forged and strained, as the geopolitical script continually rewrites itself.

These are not just global issues; they’re the characters and plotlines that make the grand narrative of international relations a thrilling and ever-evolving spectacle. Get ready for the next episode!

What are the topics of the International Relations Journal?

The International Relations Journal is like a treasure trove, unlocking the secrets of the ever-evolving world of international relations.

It’s a captivating journey through a kaleidoscope of topics, where the academic spotlight shines on:

Dive into the drama of war, the chessboard of nuclear politics, and the backstage workings of global peacekeepers.

Get tangled in the web of globalization’s impact on world economies, the intricate dance of international trade, and the role of financial bigwigs.

Embark on a legal odyssey, exploring the origins and applications of international law, dissecting treaties, and scrutinizing institutions like the International Court of Justice.

Take a cross-cultural road trip, comparing political systems, dissecting the birth and demise of democracies and autocracies, and peeking into the political economy and social policies across the globe.

International Relations Theory

Dip your toes into the sea of theories, from the hard-hitters like realism and liberalism to the avant-garde worlds of constructivism, critical theory, and postmodernism.

International History

Time-travel through historical sagas of diplomacy, the rollercoaster of war, the rise and fall of empires, and the game-changers like the Cold War, 9/11, and the transformative waves of the Arab Spring.

This isn’t just a journal; it’s a vibrant marketplace of ideas, where scholars and enthusiasts alike gather to decipher the complex symphony that is international relations.

In the captivating realm of international relations research, these topics serve as portals into the heart of our global narrative, inviting curious minds to embark on a journey through the complexities that define our interconnected world.

From the intriguing dance of technological diplomacy to the pressing challenges posed by climate change, each research avenue beckons exploration and deeper understanding.

As we navigate this intellectual landscape, the rise of artificial intelligence’s impact on global affairs, China’s ascendancy reshaping geopolitical dynamics, and the imperative for collective action on climate-related issues emerge as pivotal subjects.

These aren’t just topics; they are doorways into a world where every inquiry contributes to the ever-evolving story of our shared human experience.

The future of democracy faces crossroads, and the ethical dimensions of technology on human rights challenge us to contemplate the intersection of progress and ethical responsibility.

The multifaceted facets of international security weave a narrative that transcends borders, reminding us of our interconnected destinies.

As scholars and enthusiasts delve into these topics, the journal of international relations becomes not just a source of knowledge but a compass, guiding us through the intricate and dynamic terrain of our global society.

The landscape of international relations research is an open invitation to unravel, question, and actively participate in the ongoing dialogue that shapes our world. It’s a vibrant tapestry waiting to be explored by those curious enough to seek, understand, and contribute to the rich mosaic of our interconnected reality.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the key theoretical frameworks in international relations research.

International relations research draws on various theoretical frameworks, including realism, liberalism, and constructivism. Each offers unique perspectives on global affairs.

How does cultural diplomacy impact international relations?

Cultural diplomacy plays a crucial role in shaping international perceptions. It fosters understanding between nations and influences public opinion, contributing to soft power dynamics.

What are the pressing contemporary issues in international relations research?

Contemporary issues include geopolitical tensions, global health crises, and environmental challenges. Researchers delve into these topics to offer insights and solutions.

How does global governance contribute to international stability?

Global governance, facilitated by international organizations, contributes to stability by providing mechanisms for collaboration, conflict resolution, and the pursuit of common goals.

What role do case studies play in international relations research?

Case studies provide a practical application of theoretical frameworks to real-world scenarios. They offer nuanced insights into diplomatic challenges and successes.

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200+ International Relations Research Topics: Finding Your Niche

International relations, as a field of study, is dynamic, complex, and ever-evolving. It encompasses the intricate web of relationships, both cooperative and contentious, between nations and the multifaceted issues that shape our global landscape.

The research conducted in this field is crucial for understanding the world we live in, as it sheds light on the forces that influence diplomacy, trade, security, and human rights on an international scale.

If you’re embarking on a journey into the world of international relations research, you’ve made an exciting choice. Choosing the right research topic is the critical first step in this endeavor. Your topic sets the direction for your research, influences the questions you seek to answer, and determines the potential impact of your work.

In this blog, we’ll explore the art of selecting international relations research topics, providing guidance and inspiration to help you find your niche in this fascinating field.

As you delve into the intricate realm of international relations research, ensure your journey is guided by precision and expertise. Our service stands ready to support your quest for knowledge, providing invaluable assistance in analyzing the complexities that shape our global landscape.

How to Select International Relations Research Topics?

Table of Contents

Identifying Your Interests and Passion

One of the most crucial factors in selecting a research topic is your personal interest and passion. Your enthusiasm for a particular subject will drive your research forward and keep you motivated throughout the process. Do you have a keen interest in global security, international organizations, diplomacy, economic issues, or human rights?

Reflect on your own experiences, background, and the topics that resonate with you. Your passion will make your research more meaningful and engaging.

Relevance and Timeliness of the Topic

Relevance and timeliness are essential considerations when choosing an international relations research topic. The world is constantly changing, and certain issues gain prominence while others recede.

Researching a timely topic ensures that your work remains current and contributes to the ongoing discourse. Pay attention to recent global events, emerging challenges, and evolving policies to identify topics that are both relevant and in demand.

Scope and Feasibility of Research

The scope and feasibility of your research topic are practical aspects to consider. Your topic should be manageable within the resources and time frame available to you.

Evaluate the availability of data, access to experts or primary sources, and the potential for conducting fieldwork if necessary. An overly ambitious or overly narrow topic can pose challenges, so strike a balance that aligns with your research capabilities.

200+ International Relations Research Topics: Category-Wise

International relations encompass a wide array of subjects. To help you get started, let’s explore some broad categories with examples of specific research topics within each:

Security and Conflict

Nuclear proliferation’s effects on international security
The role of intelligence agencies in international security
Cybersecurity threats and state responses
Arms control agreements and their effectiveness
The implications of military interventions in Syria
The dynamics of terrorism and its evolving nature
Nuclear disarmament efforts in the 21st century
The influence of non-state actors in international conflicts
The rise of hybrid warfare and its impact on global stability
Regional security dynamics in East Asia
The impact of emerging technologies (AI, drones) on military strategies
Proxy wars and their implications for global security
The role of international organizations in peacekeeping missions
The evolution of counter-terrorism strategies post-9/11
The relationship between arms sales and international conflict
Religious and ethnic tensions in the aftermath of the Cold War
The influence of climate change on security and resource conflicts
Space militarization and its impact on international relations
The role of private military companies in modern conflicts
The politics of nuclear non-proliferation agreements
Artificial intelligence’s place in combat in the future
The South China Sea presents issues for maritime security
The impact of proxy warfare in the Middle East
Emerging security threats in the Arctic region
The role of intelligence sharing in counter-terrorism efforts
The use of military drones and their legal and ethical implications
Disarmament and arms control in space
The militarization of the internet and its consequences
The psychology of conflict and the role of perception in international relations
The implications of bioterrorism in the 21st century

Global Governance and International Organizations

The effectiveness of the United Nations in promoting peace
The European Union’s place in world politics
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and their influence on international policy
The impact of regional organizations on international relations
The World Commerce Organization’s (WTO) function in international commerce
Interventions for humanitarian causes and the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) principle
The relevance of international law in a changing world order
Climate agreements and their influence on international cooperation
Global governance challenges in the 21st century
The role of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in addressing war crimes
The effectiveness of the African Union in addressing regional conflicts
The impact of the G20 on global economic governance
The role of BRICS in reshaping international power dynamics
The United Nations Security Council reform and its challenges
The influence of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on economic policies
Multilateral trade negotiations and their implications for developing nations
The World Health Organization (WHO) and global health governance
International cooperation in space exploration and resource management
The role of global think tanks in shaping international policies
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and their progress
The African Union’s role in addressing conflicts in Africa
The effectiveness of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)
The influence of regional organizations on global governance
The impact of the Paris Agreement on climate change mitigation
The role of the International Labor Organization (ILO) in workers’ rights
International responses to global health crises like pandemics
The influence of non-state actors in shaping international policies
The United Nations’ approach to peacebuilding and state-building
The role of informal summits in diplomatic negotiations
Global governance challenges in the era of AI and automation

Diplomacy and Foreign Policy

Public diplomacy and soft power in the digital age
Economic Diplomacy and China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)
The role of diplomacy in resolving the North Korea crisis
Diplomatic efforts in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict
Cultural diplomacy and its impact on international relations
Track II diplomacy and its role in conflict resolution
The influence of diplomacy on international trade agreements
The role of diplomats in shaping foreign policy
Diplomatic relations between the United States and Russia
The art of diplomatic negotiation and its strategies
Track I diplomacy and official government-to-government negotiations
The impact of diplomacy on the Iran nuclear deal
The role of cultural diplomacy in enhancing international relations
The diplomacy of humanitarian aid distribution in conflict zones
Bilateral vs. multilateral diplomacy in addressing global issues
The role of diaspora communities in shaping a nation’s foreign policy
The impact of social media on modern diplomatic efforts
Diplomatic tensions between the United States and China
The influence of political ideology on foreign policy decisions
Diplomatic relations and the recognition of states and governments
Public diplomacy and cultural exchange programs in international relations
Diplomatic negotiations in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict
Diplomatic efforts in resolving territorial disputes in the South China Sea
The role of diplomacy in addressing humanitarian crises
Environmental diplomacy and international climate agreements
The impact of economic diplomacy on trade negotiations
Track III diplomacy and its contribution to conflict resolution
The diplomacy of arms control agreements
Mediation and conflict resolution in the Balkans
The role of secret diplomacy in shaping international events

International Political Economy

The impact of trade wars on global economic stability
The role of multinational corporations in shaping international economic policy
Sustainable development goals and their impact on international economic relations
Economic sanctions and their effectiveness as a foreign policy tool
Currency manipulation and its effects on international trade
The role of global financial institutions in economic governance
The economic consequences of Brexit for the UK and the EU
The globalization of supply chains and its implications for international trade
The economics of energy security in international relations
The role of international aid in promoting economic development
The economics of international migration and its impact on host countries
The Belt and Road Initiative’s influence on global trade routes
Trade disputes and the role of the World Trade Organization (WTO)
The economic implications of Brexit on the European Union and the UK
The role of sovereign wealth funds in international investment
Currency exchange rate policies and their effects on trade balances
The global impact of commodity price fluctuations
Economic sanctions and their consequences for target nations
The role of corporate social responsibility in international business
The digital economy and international taxation challenges
The economic consequences of trade disputes between the U.S. and China
The role of trade agreements in promoting sustainable development
Currency manipulation and its impact on exchange rates
The geopolitics of energy resources and energy security
The role of the World Bank in global economic development
Economic dimensions of transnational crime and organized crime networks
The influence of economic inequality on international relations
The economic implications of Brexit on the European Union
Economic cooperation and conflict in the Arctic region
The economic aspects of humanitarian aid and development assistance

Human Rights and Humanitarian Issues

The responsibility to protect (R2P) and intervene in cases of mass atrocities
Human rights violations in conflict zones and international responses
Refugee crises and their impact on international relations
Humanitarian interventions and the ethics of foreign aid
Gender-based violence in conflict and post-conflict settings
The role of international organizations in advancing human rights
The impact of the International Criminal Court (ICC) on accountability
The plight of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in international relations
Child soldiers and their rehabilitation in post-conflict societies
Access to healthcare as a human rights issue in global politics
The effectiveness of international human rights tribunals
LGBTQ+ rights as a human rights issue in international politics
Cultural relativism and its challenges in human rights discourse
Human rights implications of mass surveillance and privacy violations
Environmental rights and the impact of climate change on vulnerable communities
The role of social media in human rights advocacy and reporting
The responsibility of states to prevent and addressing human trafficking
Indigenous rights and the struggle for self-determination
The ethics of humanitarian aid distribution in conflict zones
Child protection in armed conflicts and the impact on child soldiers
The impact of human rights education on global awareness
Human rights violations in conflict zones and the responsibility to protect
The role of international criminal tribunals in achieving justice
Minority rights and ethnic conflicts in international relations
The protection of cultural heritage during armed conflicts
Environmental rights and environmental justice in international law
The challenges of upholding human rights during counterterrorism efforts
The role of international organizations in addressing gender-based violence
Refugee Protection and the Global Compact on Refugees
The ethics of drone warfare and targeted killings in international law

Miscellaneous Topics

The role of religion in international conflicts and diplomacy
Soft power and its impact on international relations
International perspectives on immigration and border security
The influence of social media on global political movements
Diaspora communities and their role in shaping foreign policy
Environmental security and the nexus between climate change and conflict
The role of historical memory and collective trauma in international relations
Trade-offs between national security and civil liberties
The relationship between education and global citizenship
Ethical considerations in humanitarian interventions and disaster relief efforts

International Law

The role of customary international law in modern diplomacy
State sovereignty and the responsibility to protect (R2P) doctrine
The impact of international law on territorial disputes
The legal dimensions of cyber warfare and cybersecurity
The development of international environmental law and conservation efforts
The role of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in dispute resolution
International law and the protection of cultural heritage during conflict
The challenges of enforcing international law in the face of non-compliance
The impact of international treaties on environmental protection
The role of regional human rights courts in international law

Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding

Track I and Track II diplomacy in peace negotiations
The role of truth and reconciliation commissions in post-conflict societies
Conflict resolution in the context of ethnic and religious conflicts
The impact of third-party mediation in international conflicts
The effectiveness of economic incentives in peace negotiations
The role of civil society in conflict resolution and peacebuilding
The challenges of post-conflict justice and reconciliation
The influence of transitional justice mechanisms in post-conflict societies
The contribution of peacekeeping missions to conflict prevention
Reconciliation and post-conflict healing processes in divided societies

International Security and Defense

The impact of emerging technologies on military strategies
The role of intelligence agencies in shaping national security policies
The ethics of autonomous weapons systems in modern warfare
Nuclear deterrence and its relevance in contemporary international relations
Civil-military relations in democratic and authoritarian regimes
The effectiveness of arms control agreements in preventing conflict
Defense policy and military spending in international politics
The role of military alliances and collective defense agreements
Asymmetric warfare and strategies for countering non-state actors
The ethics of military interventions in humanitarian crises

Humanitarian Interventions and Disaster Relief

The challenges of humanitarian access in conflict zones
The ethics of humanitarian intervention in sovereign states
Disaster risk reduction and international cooperation in disaster response
The role of humanitarian organizations in refugee crises
The use of technology in disaster response and early warning systems
Humanitarian financing and funding mechanisms for crisis response
The protection of civilians in armed conflicts and humanitarian law
The impact of climate change on disaster risk and response
The role of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)
The humanitarian impact of landmines and explosive remnants of war

Research Methodology: International Relations Research Topics

Once you’ve chosen your research topic, you’ll need to consider the methodology you’ll employ to investigate it.
Your methodology includes the research methods you’ll use, data collection techniques, and ethical considerations.
Ensure that your chosen methods align with the nature of your research topic and the questions you seek to answer.

Selecting the right international relations research topics is a crucial step in your academic or professional journey. Your chosen topic will shape your research, drive your passion, and contribute to the ever-expanding field of international relations.

As you explore the vast landscape of potential topics, remember to consider your interests, the relevance of your topic, and the feasibility of your research. In doing so, you’ll embark on a rewarding journey of discovery and contribute to our collective understanding of the complex world of international relations.

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International Relations Dissertation Topics and Titles – Free Advice

Published by Owen Ingram at January 9th, 2023 , Revised On May 2, 2024

Introduction

International relations studies the relationships between different countries, economies, regions, and governments whilst considering the importance of trade, economic relations, foreign policies, international security, and diplomacy.

International relations do not focus on a single country but discuss how a particular event or incident affects countries in one or more regions. Thus, each country needs to ensure that its international and economic relations with other countries are valuable and longstanding.

International relations are essential to understanding current political events and their impact on different countries. Whether it is the world war, oil crisis, 9/11, Brexit, or any other major event, the subject of international relations explores them in detail and provides insight into how they will affect other countries.

Studying international relations helps us understand how the world operates, how countries connect, and how they are affected by policy changes in another country or when a major incident occurs.

To help you get started with brainstorming for international relations topic ideas, we have developed a list of the latest topics that can be used for writing your dissertation.

These topics have been developed by PhD qualified writers of our team , so you can trust to use these topics for drafting your dissertation.

You may also want to start your dissertation by requesting a brief research proposal from our writers on any of these topics, which includes an introduction to the topic, research question, aim and objectives, literature review, and the proposed methodology of research to be conducted. Let us know if you need any help in getting started.

Check our dissertation examples to get an idea of how to structure your dissertation .

Review the full list of dissertation topics here.

Topic: 2: Russia vs. Ukraine a Geostrategic or Ideological Conflict? An Analysis to Identify the Actual Cause of Russia-Ukraine from Geostrategic and Ideological Lenses

Research Aim: This study intends to analyse the actual cause of Russia-Ukraine from geostrategic and ideological lenses. It will be a comparative study using various international relations (IR) lenses such as realism, liberalism, geostrategic, geo-economics, geo-political, etc., to show which lens finds appropriate reasoning for the Russia-Ukraine going to war. Moreover, it will identify various economic, political, and social forces driving this war. Lastly, it will find out who will be the prime beneficiary of this war other than Russia.

Topic: 3: Political Economy of Global Terrorism- An Assessment of the Political and Economic Forces Behind Global Terrorism

Research Aim: This research sheds light on the political and economic forces behind global terrorism. It will find how various political and economic powers, such as states, organisations, business groups, politicians, etc., deliberately promote terrorism for their political and financial motives. It will use various case studies such as terrorism in Pakistan and other developing countries and significant conflicts such as Israel-Palestine, Russia-Ukraine, etc. Moreover, it will show how small governments can create a political-economic-security framework to avoid terrorism for the benefit of foreign powers.

Topic: 4: The Role of Western Powers in Israel-Palestine- A Third World Country Viewpoint

Research Aim: This research assesses the role of Western powers such as the US, UK, and EU in the Israel-Palestine conflict from a third-world country viewpoint, such as India, Pakistan, etc. It will show how third-world countries evaluate this conflict on political, economic, social, and national security bases. Moreover, it will show what lessons these countries can learn from this conflict to save themselves from significant future disputes and formulate their foreign policy according to these lessons. Lastly, it shows which side these countries take in Israel-Palestine and on which grounds.

Topic: 5: Why the Middle East is Crucial for the West? A Geo-economic and Geostrategic Analysis

Research Aim: This research will show why the Middle East is crucial for the West through a geo-economic and geostrategic analysis. It will find why Western powers, such as the US, Europe, etc., invaded the Middle East from a geo-economic and geostrategic lens. It will show what these powers gained and lost in these invasions. And do geo-economic and geostrategic factors incentivize Western powers to invade the Middle East again? Lastly, how can the Middle East protect its rights and gains in the future by applying geo-economic and geostrategic analysis?

Topic 6: Impact of Terrorism and Religion on Relations between Afghanistan and US

This research analyses the dynamics between terrorism and religion and their influence on the bilateral relations between Afghanistan and the United States, to understand how these factors have shaped diplomatic, political, and socio-cultural interactions.

Topic 7: An Analysis of the Afghanistan Peace Process

This study critically examines the complexities and challenges of the Afghanistan peace process. It focuses on understanding the various stakeholders involved, their motivations, the negotiation dynamics, and the impact of historical, political, and socio-cultural factors on the prospects for sustainable peace and stability in the region.

Topic 8: The Role of the Arab Nations in the Israel - Palestine Conflict

The research investigates the role of Arab nations in the Israel-Palestine conflict. It focuses on their historical, political, diplomatic, and socio-cultural contributions, interventions, and impact on the conflict dynamics and the prospects for peace in the region.

Topic 9: The Effect of USMCA on International Trade

The study explores the effect of the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) on international trade. The research investigates USMCA’s impact on its economic, political, and social implications for the member countries and the broader global trade landscape.

Topic 10: An Analysis of Women's Participation in International Relations

This study critically analyses the participation of women in the field of international relations. It examines the factors influencing their involvement, the challenges they face, the contributions they make, and the implications for global governance, diplomacy, and security.

Topic 11: An Analysis of the Failure of the UN's Nuclear Disarmament Plans

The study analyses the factors contributing to the failure of the United Nations’ nuclear disarmament plans. It examines the historical attempts, diplomatic challenges, political obstacles, and the role of state actors, non-state actors, and international power dynamics in hindering progress toward global nuclear disarmament goals.

Topic 12: An Investigation of How the Syrian Crisis Turned Into A Civil War

The research aims to investigate the complex factors and events that led to the transformation of the Syrian crisis into a civil war, examining socio-political, historical, economic, and regional dynamics, as well as the roles of state and non-state actors, to gain insights into the escalation and perpetuation of the conflict.

COVID -19 International Relations Research Topics

Topic: 1: international relations and covid-19.

Research Aim: This study will address the geopolitical issues and International relations during COVID-19

Topic: 2: COVID-19 is a geopolitical instrument

Research Aim: COVID -19 has disturbed everything from health to the world’s economy, and it has also created tensions among the nations of the world. This study will identify whether Coronavirus is a geopolitical instrument or not.

Topic: 3: International Relations Scholars and COVID-19

Research Aim: This study will reveal the opinions and role of International relations scholars and COVID-19

Topic: 4: Meta-geopolitics and COVID-19

Research Aim: This study will focus on the meta-geopolitics during the COVID-19 crisis

Topic: 5: The global order post Coronavirus pandemic

Research Aim: This study will predict the global order of the Coronavirus pandemic, including international relations, geopolitics, and geo-economics after COVID-19.

International Relations Research Topics

Conflicts between india and china.

Research Aim: This research aims to address the conflicts between India and China, the history and current situation of the two nations, and their government’s role.

Organisation of Islamic cooperation during the pandemic

Research Aim: This research aims to conduct an in-depth study on the contribution of the organisation of Islamic cooperation during a pandemic

New immigration rules of the UK

Research Aim: This research aims to highlight the new immigration rules of the UK and their impacts on immigrants.

China’s economic growth- Its impact on the world

Research Aim: This research aims to highlight the impact of China’s economic growth on the world

The role of the UN in resolving the Indo-Pak conflict in Kashmir

Research Aim: This research aims to address the role of the UN in resolving the Indo-Pak conflict on the matter of Kashmir

9/11: How has it Shaped International Trade between the West and the Arab Countries?

Research Aim: There is no doubt that 9/11 is one of the major incidents that shook the entire world. An attack on the twin towers killed hundreds and left thousands injured. Loss of lives, property, and money were not the only losses resulting from this incident.

With Al-Qaeda accepting the attack’s responsibility, the American government cut ties with many countries responsible for funding the terrorist organisation. The country initiated the war on terror shortly after the incident; however, the effects were experienced worldwide and long-term.

This dissertation will focus on how trade was affected by post 9/11 and how the US ties with the Arab world were severely affected.

China’s Growth as the Superpower: Is the US threatened?

Research Aim: China is the next superpower; there is no second thought about it. However, the growth of this economic giant has left huge gaps in the international trade market. With America being the superpower for ages, the country is now threatened with China’s economic progress.

The two countries may have good terms on the surface; however, they compete on a whole new level in the international market. This research will talk about China’s progress, how the country has evolved as a superpower, and how it poses a threat to the United States of America. All aspects, including trade, policy framing, etc., will be discussed to provide a detailed analysis.

How Can ResearchProspect Help?

ResearchProspect writers can send several custom topic ideas to your email address. Once you have chosen a topic that suits your needs and interests, you can order for our dissertation outline service , which will include a brief introduction to the topic, research questions , literature review , methodology , expected results , and conclusion . The dissertation outline will enable you to review the quality of our work before placing the order for our full dissertation writing service !

Does Germany’s Foreign Policy Influence the Rest of Europe?

Research Aim: Germany dominates the European Union. Policies, tariffs, currency, trade, international business, etc., are designed keeping in mind Germany. This research will discuss how the European Union is dominated by Germany, particularly after the Brexit.

Every country can draft policies considering its economic position and ties with other countries. However, the European Union has to consider Germany while formulating any new foreign policy. The dissertation will discuss why this happens and how European countries draft their foreign policy considering Germany.

Exploring the Causes of Conflicts between the African Nations and their Relationships with the West

Research Aim: African countries have suffered a lot over the last several centuries. Some countries are poor and do not have enough resources to provide facilities to the country’s people, while the rest do not enjoy healthy political relations with the rest of the world.

Many African countries have different policies compared to the Western world, which is why conflicts arise. Moreover, racial discrimination is another major factor why the two regions have never shared healthy relations.

This research will investigate the underlying reasons for conflicts between the African and the Western world and how they can be bridged.

Is Africa a Concern for the Western World?

Research Aim: A few African nations are rich in natural resources but in political turmoil, so other countries have always tried to take advantage of them. However, all international trades must be conducted concerning foreign policies in place. It is only through international trade laws that such businesses must avoid any unfair and biased distribution.

Unfortunately, the western world has always dominated the African nations and have barely given them their right. This thesis will explore the notion that western countries always try and find a way to dominate the African countries even when they deserve a larger share of the pie.

Russia and the Western World: A look into History

Research Aim: The relations between Russia and the Western world, specifically the US, are known worldwide. The Cold War and the aftermath of the war will all be discussed in detail in this dissertation. Many histories and international relations experts believe that the cold war has not ended and is going on to date. This notion will be researched, discussed, and analysed in this research to provide a complete insight into the current political situation. However, a major part of the thesis will focus on the history of these countries and the events.

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China’s Economic Growth – The Effects and Consequences on the World

Research Aim: China is taking over the world – this is a fact. Whether a country or a nation accepts it or not, China is slowly making its way to becoming a superpower. Be it technology, daily products, banking, financial services, or any other thing. China has outclassed all other countries of the world.

Considering China’s rapid progress, many countries have accepted China as the future superpower and tried to maintain a good relationship. However, on the other hand, other countries do not accept China as the next superpower and are ready to fight for it.

An example is the United States, the current superpower and is not ready to lose China. This research will discuss China’s impact on its products and services and its consequences of becoming an economic superpower.

The Role of United Nations in Resolving the Arab-Israel Conflict

Research Aim: The Arab-Israel Conflict is an ancient battle. The war broke out for reasons that are not to all and is still going on to date. However, the stance of the Arab countries has not changed since Israel first started to occupy Arab lands.

The Arab world does not accept Israel as a state. Instead, it has been termed as a terrorist funding state. Moreover, the Israel-Palestine conflict has added fuel to the fire. Many Muslim countries, until now, are not ready to accept Israel. This research will talk about the conflict and how the United Nations have played their part in bridging the gap between the two nations.

Understanding the Role of the EU in International Relations

Research Aim: European Union is a critical region in trade, business, political relations, etc. Thus, the region has tremendous effects on the international relations of the world.

This thesis will discuss the role of the European Union in international relations, how European Union is a key player in international politics, and how other nations should work on their policies and frameworks to develop healthy relations with the EU.

Assessing the Role of the United Nations as a Law Enforcement Agency

Research Aim: The United Nations is an organisation formed to help countries and regions resolve conflicts between them. Issues such as Kashmir (India-Pakistan) and Israel-Palestine are longstanding and must be solved by the United Nations. There is a complete framework that forms the basis of the actions and decisions taken by the United Nations.

Votes are collected from the members on a particular issue, and then a decision or a statement is issued over the conflict. This research will assess the role of the United Nations in resolving world conflicts and how successful or unsuccessful the organisation has been in resolving world conflicts.

Important Notes:

As a student of international relations looking to get good grades, it is essential to develop new ideas and experiment with existing international relations theories – i.e., to add value and interest to your research topic.

International relations are vast and interrelated to many other academic disciplines like politics , law , geopolitics , history , and even business . That is why it is imperative to create an international relations dissertation topic that is particular and sound and actually solves a practical problem that may be rampant in the field.

We can’t stress how important it is to develop a logical research topic based on your entire research. There are several significant downfalls to getting your topic wrong: your supervisor may not be interested in working on it, the topic has no academic creditability, the research may not make logical sense, and there is a possibility that the study is not viable.

This impacts your time and efforts in writing your dissertation , as you may end up in a cycle of rejection at the initial stage of the dissertation. That is why we recommend reviewing existing research to develop a topic, taking advice from your supervisor, and even asking for help in this particular stage of your dissertation.

Keeping our advice in mind while developing a research topic will allow you to pick one of the best international relations dissertation topics that fulfil your requirement of writing a research paper and adds to the body of knowledge.

Therefore, it is recommended that when finalizing your dissertation topic, you read recently published literature to identify gaps in the research that you may help fill.

Remember- dissertation topics need to be unique, solve an identified problem, be logical, and be practically implemented. Please look at some of our sample international relations dissertation topics to get an idea for your own dissertation.

How to Structure Your Dissertation on International Relations

A well-structured dissertation can help students to achieve a high overall academic grade.

A Title Page
Acknowledgments
Declaration
Abstract: A summary of the research completed
Table of Contents
Introduction : This chapter includes the project rationale, research background, key research aims and objectives, and the research problems. An outline of the structure of a dissertation can also be added to this chapter.
Literature Review : This chapter presents relevant theories and frameworks by analysing published and unpublished literature on the chosen research topic to address research questions . The purpose is to highlight and discuss the selected research area’s relative weaknesses and strengths whilst identifying any research gaps. Break down the topic and key terms that can positively impact your dissertation and your tutor.
Methodology : The data collection and analysis methods and techniques employed by the researcher are presented in the Methodology chapter, which usually includes research design , research philosophy, research limitations, code of conduct, ethical consideration, data collection methods, and data analysis strategy .
Findings and Analysis : The findings of the research are analysed in detail in the Findings and Analysis chapter. All key findings/results are outlined in this chapter without interpreting the data or drawing any conclusions. It can be useful to include graphs, charts, and tables in this chapter to identify meaningful trends and relationships.
Discussion and Conclusion : The researcher presents his interpretation of the results in this chapter and states whether the research hypothesis has been verified or not. An essential aspect of this section of the paper is to link the results and evidence from the literature. Recommendations with regard to the implications of the findings and directions for the future may also be provided. Finally, a summary of the overall research, along with final judgments, opinions, and comments, must be included in the form of suggestions for improvement.
References : This should be completed following your University’s requirements
Bibliography
Appendices : Any additional information, diagrams, and graphs used to complete the dissertation but not part of the dissertation should be included in the Appendices chapter. Essentially, the purpose is to expand the information/data.

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140+ international relations dissertation topics to research.

September 7, 2021

International relation reflects how sovereign states in the world relate with each other through decisions that are influenced by non-governmental organizations on politics, economics, and security. The discipline covers a wide area of subjects such as law, geography, history, politics, and economics.

Most students of international relations work as diplomats, protecting the interest of their countries abroad by representing them in trade agreements, security reach, and other consular services. Therefore, any topics in international relations usually demonstrate the political reach of a country, its legal stand, and economic power.

In this article, we’ll look at the most interesting international relations dissertation topics. We’ll explore topics under terrorism, human rights, politics, and other international relations thesis topics. If you’ve ever been looking for where to get international relations research topics that score you high grades, this article is for you. So, continue reading.

Interesting International Relations Dissertation Topics

International relation is an interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on the relationships between countries. More importantly, students get to explore global issues and solve them scientifically. Looking for general international relations PhD ideas and topics? Take a look at these interesting topics below.

The world since the first man landed on the moon.
Nuclear weapons and cyberwars: the new war language.
The implications of online petitions in international relations.
The impacts of the Big Tech on world trade and economy.
The effects of technological laws on foreign trade and investment.
Explain international relations theories and relate them to the realism of state cooperation.
Conduct an analysis of the 9/11 terrorist attack on the US and how it shapes the Afghan War.
Discuss how the United Nations has failed in discharging its duties?
Explore the implications of the different diplomatic laws among the G7 countries.
What are the implications of the Abraham Accord between Israel and Arab nations?
Nuclear Weapons: Analyze Iran and North Korea’s nuclear weapons and impact on global peace.
Explain how the pandemic influenced global trade and international relations.
What are the positive and negative impacts of the surge in western cultural adoption in underdeveloped countries?
Discuss the influence of the United States on global laws, markets, and relations.
Has the UN been partial in the development of laws and support?
Illustrate the factors that led to the fall of the Soviet Union and how they shape modern policies.
Evaluate the cultural impacts of international relations on developing countries.
Obama, Trump, and Biden: explain how each president oversaw the Afghan War.
Describe the contribution of major religions to modern-day international agreements.
Effect of mass migration from developing countries to diversity in the European Union.
Discuss the International Criminal Court has always been partial in the discharge of justice.
Cybersecurity and the role of Interpol: Modalities, threat, and significance.
The China-India foreign policy: What should be done and how to go about it.
Why Africa is finding it difficult to maintain international relations and how it can be helped.
The threats and importance of international labour in global trade.

Terrorism Dissertation Ideas and Topics to Research

The very act of terrorism is to create fear within individuals everywhere in the world for global benefits. Counterterrorism and antiterrorism are military tactics, strategies, and trade enforcements countries carry out to prevent terrorism. Find below a list of terrorism dissertation ideas under international relations.

Impact of the Afghan War on international relations.
Discuss how the Afghan-US War was lost long before Biden.
How is the Taliban a terrorist group?
The value of defence in terrorism wars.
What emotions bind terrorists to extremist groups?
Effect of religious extremism on terrorism.
The significant relationship between terrorism and military functioning.
Terrorism and the long history of World Wars.
The Coronavirus pandemic is an act of terrorism.
A critical review of how terrorism affects global trade.
Roles of colonial and anticolonial laws in past and future terrorism.
Terrorist trends from the past to the present.
Modalities of regional nationalism towards effective counterterrorism.
How transnational relations influence the rise of terrorism.
A critical review and study of Turkish terrorism in History.
A critical assessment and review of American terrorism.
A critical review and study of English terrorism in History.
A critical assessment and review of Nazi terror.
Effect of extremism on foreign direct investments and international banking.
How terrorism influences international banking decisions across several countries.
The challenges of counterterrorism in underdeveloped countries.
Terrorism, technology, and the use of military force.
The consequences of terrorism using Afghanistan and Syria as examples.
Impacts of terrorism on global trade and global warming.
How the Blockchain industry affects counterterrorism strategies.

Politics Dissertation Ideas in International Relations

Since no country exists in isolation of others, every political decision is therefore probed to ensure peaceful coexistence among countries in the world. The following contains a list of politics and international relations dissertation topics.

Political influence of cyberterrorists on international trade.
Is cyberterrorism a form of political extremism?
Terrorism informatics and impact on political relations.
COVID-19 pandemic as an instrument of geopolitics.
The UN role in the resolution of the Indo-Pak conflict.
9/11 and influence on trade between the US and Middle Belt.
German foreign policy and impact on the rest of Europe.
German domination of the EU and impact on the formulation of foreign policies.
How underdeveloped countries are threats to political forwardness.
Russia and the USA: Review and assessment of political history.
Effects and consequences of nuclear weapons to global politics.
Role of the UN in the resolution of Pakistan-Israel relations.
A critical review of the political role of the UN in civil wars.
Application of cyber-political theories to international relations.
Role of international relations on the politics of military functioning.
How the West and Russia shape the modern perspective of political history.
China and the West: A critical analysis of major political decisions then and now.
The Chinese economy is a threat to modern world power and security.
The Chinese economy is needed in modern world power and security.
Questioning the political neutrality of the UN’s major decisions.
Political theories and the changing norms of international relations.
The geopolitics of the West in the Afghan War.
Consequences of the geopolitics of the West in the surge of terrorism and extremism.
A critical review and assessment of the political relations between the US and the Arabs.
The uprising of the Middle East against the US.

Human Rights Dissertation Topics

Human rights are the fundamental rights of every human that must be protected by all countries. These rights shape international relations decisions and agreements to trade and power. The rights further embody the dignity that every human should be accorded. Here are common human rights dissertation topics and research ideas.

Revisioning women’s rights in the Middle East.
An in-depth assessment of the historical context of human rights.
Universal human rights: the theoretical and practical.
Why democratic human rights cannot work in Africa.
Human rights in major religions: Islam and Christianity.
Impacts of the modern perspective of human rights.
Historical reforms on human rights then and now.
Human rights and westernism: differences and similarities.
Human rights as a major determiner of world poverty.
Gender inequality and the concept of human rights.
African leadership as a major influence on human rights.
A critical assessment of China’s political human rights.
Terrorist and extremist impacts on fundamental rights.
The rations and sentiments of western human rights.
Do human rights treaties foster respect among countries?
Exploring the ten commandments for human rights.
Human rights in war-ravaged countries: Syria and Afghanistan.
The struggle for human rights in Africa and the Middle East.
Taiwan and China: Human rights as major political concerns.
North Korea and the effects of human rights protectionism.
Why cybersecurity is a concern of human rights.
Technology and privacy: the end of human rights.
Human rights crisis in the West through the impact of racism.
The fundamental rights of women in Saudi Arabia.
Rights of humans during wars and Western passivity.

International Relations Economics Dissertation Topics

Economics is the business of goods, needs, and survival. Every country is motivated by self-sufficiency and needs sustenance, hence economics is an integrative study in international relations. If you are looking to write on international relations economics dissertation topics, here are popular ones that guarantee you top grades.

The implication of the Blockchain industry on international trade and relations.
Impacts of taxation on trade agreement and security.
The impact of tax on world poverty alleviation systems.
The implication of internet banking on global terrorism.
Investigating the relationship between trade and war.
Effect of UN economic policies on global trade relations.
Impact of trade liberalization on the global employment rate.
Global inflation and effect on world immigration policies.
The oil sector and the agricultural sector and their influence on regional and international conflict.
Impact of the oil industry on environmental globalization.
Role of insurance policies and companies on global trade.
Effects of cashless policy on cybersecurity and terrorism.
A critical study of the determinants of foreign investment policy.
An analysis of the global population on financial technology.
Impact of agricultural imperialism on trade and global warming.
How regional agricultural economic policies lead to global war and threat.
Role of the UN in facilitating effective global trade policies.
The rise of global trade monopoly: A case of the Big Tech.
An analysis of technological revolution and impact on global sustainability.
Does technological monopoly suggest global western economic monopoly?
Effect of cryptocurrency on economic disinformation and misinformation.
Global economic relations twenty years from now.
The neutrality of the UN in the performance of world trade liberalization.
The significant relationship between the financial sector and world poverty index.
The significant relationship between global poverty index and terrorism.

Globalization Topics and Ideas in International Relations

When countries begin to operate within their sovereign rights and other countries’ sovereign rights for mutual benefits, it is known as globalization. The world today is linked as if it is a single entity by telecommunications. Here are globalization topics and ideas in international relations you should be looking at for grades.

Threats and impacts of globalization on Africa.
The social and political implications of globalization.
Why globalization is a western concept.
Why globalization is not just a western concept.
The drive for world power and globalization as a tool.
The energy consequences of globalization.
Globalization and the erosion of natural languages.
The psychological impacts of globalization and foreign cultures.
Globalization: theory, practice, ethics, and implications.
The implicit concept of globalization is an assimilation strategy of western power.
How globalization influences terrorism, counterterrorism, and military functioning.
The drive for global power and authority: trade wars and the rise of nuclear weapons.
Globalization: why world international relations tomorrow is not a guarantee.
The global market is a myth.
Media and technology: Two major factors that decide the global market and globalization culture.
The globalization of law, culture, economy, and education.
History of globalization beyond the internet.
The making and remaking of globalization twenty years from now.
Challenges of technology and globalization in the Middle East and Africa.
The erosion of diversity through the implications of world trade, global laws, and international relations.
A critical review and assessment of world religions on global warming and trade.
Globalization: A comparative assessment of the US and China global market strategies.
Globalization in the 20th century and how it shaped modern global decisions.
The psychological impacts of international trade agreements on national citizens.
Globalization is the end of international relations.

Does Your International Relations Essay Need Improving?

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The Effects of Wars: Lessons from Ukraine

Reductive approaches must be replaced with a more comprehensive integrated analysis to learn lessons essential to preventing comparable conflicts.

Between Myth and Reality: Soviet Legacies in the Russian Arctic

While seven of the eight Arctic states are NATO members, Russia is still a significant opponent in the region due to the size of its northern coastline and historical conditions.

Opinion – Reflecting on Hiroshima

The expansion of the worldwide peace movement is evidence of the continuing dialogue concerning “museums of war and peace” and Hiroshima/Nagasaki days are at the heart of that conceptualization.

Iran’s West Asian Neo-Empire: Armed and Ready

The Islamic Republic and its liegemen are preparing to sustain a multifront war against the US, Israel, and Arab foes.

US-China Dynamics: Competition, Conflict or Cooperation?

The ‘US-China Dynamics’ article series explores whether both states can be geopolitical and economic competitors, yet jointly maintain global order.

US-China Power Struggle or Peaceful Coexistence: Will it Avoid the Thucydides Trap?

If a rising China challenges the US in a traditional power struggle, the Thucydides Trap may play out through economic and political manoeuvring, espionage and proxy wars.

The Populist Potential of the US and its Fragile Grip on the International System

Donald Trump would likely destroy any chance of ‘sharing hegemony’ with China by bringing more instability and uncertainty into US policymaking.

Coexisting Influence: The Sino-American Competition in Europe

China’s diplomatic and economic growth in Europe may stand as an example of how it may exert influence in regions not as historically and institutionally dominated by the US.

Russia’s Reaction to US-China Competition in Central Asia

The United States needs to clearly state the connection of Central Asia to its grand strategy, focusing on the foreign policy goal of engaging with the region.

The US-Iran-China Nexus: Towards a New Strategic Alignment

The restoration of the JCPOA provides the best bet America has for tackling the Chinese challenge to the US-dominated global hierarchy.

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IR Theory and the Core–Periphery Structure of Global IR: Lessons from Citation Analysis

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Thomas Risse, Wiebke Wemheuer-Vogelaar, Frank Havemann, IR Theory and the Core–Periphery Structure of Global IR: Lessons from Citation Analysis, International Studies Review , Volume 24, Issue 3, September 2022, viac029, https://doi.org/10.1093/isr/viac029

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This article contributes to two debates about international relations (IR) as a discipline: first, how global is IR, and how is it structured? Second, what is the state of theory in IR? We conducted (co-) citation analyses of both Web of Science (WoS) and—for the first time— non-WoS publications from Europe, North America, Latin America, Africa, and Asia. With regard to the first question, we find that global IR resembles a core–periphery structure as a “hub and spoke” system whereby transatlantic core nodes are interconnected to each other and to some periphery nodes, while the periphery nodes are connected to the core but not to each other. IR scholarship in the periphery quotes the transatlantic theory cluster but is not linked to each other, not even in the same region. Knowledge produced in the periphery has to go through the transatlantic core in order to be recognized globally. As to the transatlantic core, we identify two major (co-) citation clusters: one committed to IR theory-building across issue areas from a variety of perspectives and the other focused on security studies with a strong emphasis on quantitative methods. With regard to the second question, global IR hangs together through references to the IR theory cluster consisting of North American and European authors who appear to define what IR theory is. Scholars in the periphery refer to this transatlantic IR theory cluster when engaging in theory-building. IR theories have become rather diverse and pluralistic, even in the core. While scholars still refer to the big “isms,” they use them around the globe in a synthesizing manner.

Este artículo contribuye a dos debates sobre las Relaciones Internacionales (RR. II.) como disciplina. En primer lugar, ¿qué alcance tienen las RR. II. y cómo están estructuradas? En segundo lugar, ¿cuál es el estado de la teoría en las RR. II.? Hemos realizado análisis de (co)citación tanto de la Web of Science (WoS) como, por primera vez, de publicaciones que no pertenecen a la WoS de Europa, América del Norte, América Latina, África y Asia. En cuanto a la primera pregunta, observamos que las RR. II. mundiales se asemejan a una estructura núcleo-periferia como un sistema de “eje y radio” en el que los nodos del núcleo transatlántico están interconectados entre sí y con algunos nodos de la periferia, mientras que los nodos de la periferia están conectados con el núcleo, pero no entre sí. Los estudiosos de las RR. II. en la periferia citan al grupo de teoría transatlántica, pero no están vinculados entre sí, ni siquiera en la misma región. El conocimiento producido en la periferia tiene que pasar por el núcleo transatlántico para ser reconocido mundialmente. En cuanto al núcleo transatlántico, identificamos dos grandes grupos de (co)citación: uno comprometido con la construcción de la teoría de las RR. II. en todas las áreas temáticas desde una variedad de perspectivas, y el otro centrado en los estudios de seguridad con un fuerte énfasis en los métodos cuantitativos. En cuanto a la segunda cuestión, las RR. II. mundiales se unen a través de las referencias al grupo de teoría de las RR. II. formado por autores norteamericanos y europeos que parecen definir lo que es la teoría de las RR. II. Los estudiosos de la periferia se remiten a este grupo de teoría de las RR. II. transatlánticas cuando se dedican a la elaboración de teorías. Las teorías de las RR. II. se han vuelto bastante diversas y pluralistas, incluso en su núcleo. Aunque los estudiosos siguen refiriéndose a los grandes “ismos”, los utilizan en todo el mundo de forma sintetizada.

Cet article contribue à deux débats sur les relations internationales (RI) en tant que discipline: D'abord, à quel point les RI sont-elles mondiales et comment sont-elles structurées? Et ensuite, quel est l’état de la théorie en RI? Nous avons mené des analyses de (co-)citations de publications du Web of Science (WoS) et - pour la première fois - de publications hors de WoS provenant d'Europe, d'Amérique du Nord, d'Amérique latine, d'Afrique et d'Asie. Pour ce qui est de la première question, nous constatons que les RI mondiales semblent avoir une structure de type centre/périphérie, comme un système « hub and spoke », où les nœuds centraux transatlantiques sont interconnectés entre eux et avec certains nœuds de la périphérie, tandis que les nœuds de la périphérie sont connectés au centre, mais pas entre eux. Les recherches en RI de la périphérie citent le faisceau de théories transatlantiques, mais ne sont pas liées les unes aux autres, y compris lorsqu'elles proviennent de la même région. Les connaissances produites dans la périphérie doivent passer par le centre transatlantique pour être reconnues mondialement. Concernant le centre transatlantique, nous avons identifié deux groupes majeurs de (co-)citations: l'un se consacre à l’élaboration des théories des RI dans différents domaines d'intérêt en se basant sur diverses perspectives, et l'autre se concentre sur les études de sécurité en mettant fortement l'accent sur les méthodes quantitatives. Pour ce qui est de la deuxième question, les RI mondiales se maintiennent par le biais de références au groupe consacré à l’élaboration de théories de RI qui est composé d'auteurs nord-américains et européens qui semblent définir ce qu'est la théorie des RI. Les chercheurs de la périphérie font référence à ce groupe transatlantique consacré à l’élaboration des théories lorsqu'ils s'engagent dans l’élaboration d'une théorie. Les théories des RI sont devenues plutôt diversifiées et pluralistes, même au centre. Bien que les chercheurs fassent toujours référence aux grands « ismes », ils les utilisent dans le monde entier de manière synthétique.

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Introduction to IR Research

In the department of international relations.

The greatest achievement is that the research clusters have brought together the academics and research students within and outside the LSE, breaking silos and resulting in an ever greater visibility to the cutting-edge social sciences research led by the IR Department.

International Relations at LSE is one of a handful of large IR Departments in the UK. Its scale means that the research interests of its staff are wide-ranging, covering most aspects of the subject, and reflecting the rich choice of subjects on offer in its teaching.

The department prides itself on the linkage between its research and its teaching at all levels from undergraduate to research students. Individual scholarship remains the dominant mode of research, though there are some clusters of individuals who work in similar areas. The Department has particular strengths in Political Theory, International Relations Theory, International Political Economy, and European Studies. As well as Europe, its area specialists cover Russia, Central, Northeast and Southeast Asia, the USA, South America, the Middle East and Africa. Other areas of research strength include foreign policy analysis, nationalism, religion, historical sociology, international environmental politics and international security. Many individuals contribute to more than one of these subjects, and there is quite a lot of linkage with colleagues in the Departments of Government and International History, as well as through the many research Centres in the LSE.

In line with these research strengths, the Department recruits about a dozen research students annually, and hosts Millennium , which is run by postgraduate students. The Department's research engages not only with academic debates, but also those on public policy, the latter particularly though the Department's involvement in LSE IDEAS . In the 2021 Research Excellence Framework in which our research was submitted with the Department of Government to the Politics and International Studies Unit of Assessment, over 90 percent of its research was rated either world leading or internationally excellent in terms of originality, significance and rigour.

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See our new books and other staff publications on LSE Research Online for further information on work from members of the Department.

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Archival research on integrated reporting: a systematic review of main drivers and the impact of integrated reporting on firm value

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Published: 25 May 2021
Volume 26 , pages 997–1061, ( 2022 )

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Patrick Velte ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5960-8449 1

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Integrated reporting (IR) represents an innovative approach to business reporting especially by Public Interest Entities (PIEs). In addition to financial capital, the integrated report includes material information about manufactured, intellectual, human, social and relational, and natural capitals. Although there has been a steady growth in empirical IR research, there is—as yet—no literature review on the business case for IR. Thus, the purpose of this study is to convey a detailed understanding of the governance-, (non) financial performance-, and reporting-related determinants of IR and its contribution to firm value in line with the business case argument. To do so, we selected 85 quantitative peer-reviewed archival studies on that topic. We have then differentiated said studies between those that focus on IR adoption versus those that focus on IR quality, with a legitimacy- and stakeholder-theory-based framework. This differentiation is crucial, to stress the challenges of greenwashing policies and information overload. Here, in contrast to former literature reviews on IR, we provide new insights into this emerging research topic and concentrate on archival IR research. We are also interested in recent moderator- and mediator analysis in archival IR research since the business case argument for IR may require a specific environment, in addition to the main variables we have included. We likewise give a detailed overview of included variables and proxies and compare their main statistical effects. Our literature review demonstrates that (1) board composition and (2) stakeholder pressure positively influence IR quality; whereas (3) (non) financial performance leads to increased IR adoption and quality. We also find that both IR adoption and IR quality are linked with positive consequences on firm valuation, as they lead to higher total performance measures. Last but not least, this analysis includes useful recommendations for future IR research.

Integrated reporting: boon or bane? A review of empirical research on its determinants and implications

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1 Introduction

Since the last financial crisis in 2008/2009, classical financial reporting has been widely criticised by shareholders and other stakeholder groups. Financial reports cannot explain the rising value gap between the balanced equity and the firm value of Public Interest Entities (PIEs). As a reaction, stakeholders are demanding reporting on non-financial aspects of PIEs, such as environmental or social information (Kolk & van Tulder, 2010 ; Seuring & Mueller, 2008 ). Many PIEs have thus decided to implement stand-alone Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) reports as a complement to traditional financial reports (e.g., balance sheets). The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) Standards describe CSR reports as a “best practice” by international PIEs (KPMG 2017 ). Yet the usefulness of non-financial reporting for decision-making has been discussed critically, due to greenwashing policy and information overload (see Huang & Watson, 2015 ). Financial and CSR information are usually not linked within business reporting. Thus, stakeholders’ interest in connecting these elements—ideally within one (integrated) report—is often not realised.

In light of these challenges, the International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC) published a first version of a principle-based framework concept for integrated reporting (IR) (IIRC, 2013 ). In line with an integrated thinking approach and a focus on the materiality principle, IR requires a clear link between financial, manufactured, intellectual, human, social and relationship and natural capitals (IIRC, 2013 ). Thus, IR focusses on two “classical” economic-related capital items (financial and manufactured capitals); two social dimensions (human, social and relationship capitals); intellectual capital; and one environmental dimension (natural capital). The integrated thinking approach assumes a clear connectivity among these six capitals (IIRC, 2013 ). The IIRC ( 2013 ) defines an integrated report as “concise information about how an organisation’s strategy, governance, performance and prospects, in the context of its external environment, lead to the creation of value over the short, medium and long term.“

Separate CSR reporting and IR are totally different concepts with regard both to their reporting structure and to their main target groups. CSR reports represent an information tool for all relevant stakeholders. Meanwhile, the IIRC stresses in its IR framework (IIRC, 2013 ) that IR should primarily address investors, since this can support top management to implement IR without being confronted with various conflicts of interests among other stakeholder groups. Yet IR is not useful just for shareholders; it can also be useful for other stakeholders (Eccles & Krzus, 2015 ). We thus regard IR as a stakeholder tool in this analysis.

Internationally, IR adoption is still voluntary for all companies with the exception of South Africa. While IR has gained some relevance in business practice (KPMG 2017 ), many resources are needed to adopt it. IR is thus mainly restricted to capital market firms. The current international regulatory discussion on climate change reporting implies that IR may replace CSR reporting in the long run as climate risks should be integrated into risk management systems and financial reports (Eccles & Krzus, 2019 ). In recent years, IR has gained great importance in empirical research. While some literature reviews have been conducted on IR (e.g., de Villiers et al., 2017b ; Kannenberg & Schreck, 2019 ; Velte & Stawinoga, 2017a ; Vitolla et al., 2019a ), we still lack a systematic understanding of governance, reporting and performance as main determinants and of their consequences on firm value from an archival -based research methodology. In this literature review, we rely on the business case for IR and assume that a proper IR may lead to positive firm valuation by the capital market and other stakeholders (Schaltegger et al., 2019 ; Carroll and Shaban 2010 ). Greenwashing and information overload are not just crucial challenges in CSR reporting, but may also be related to IR. We are thus not only interested in the consequences of IR on firm value. We also analyse, whether specific monitoring tools (governance) or firm-related incentives ([non] financial reporting and performance) drive the management decision to implement IR and to ensure its high quality, in line with stakeholders’ interests. Prior research designs and topics are heterogeneous and complex, stressing the ambiguity of the impact of both governance-related and financial determinants and consequences. The previous literature reviews also lack a clear separation amongst the different IR proxies in archival research. In our literature review, we make a clear distinction between IR adoption and IR quality as the two most important proxies in IR archival research. As IR adoption is mostly voluntary worldwide, it is questionable whether certain governance-, performance-, and reporting-related aspects may strengthen the management decision to implement IR or whether IR adoption will lead to improved firm value. Here, since we have preferred to integrate the challenges of greenwashing and information overload in our analysis, the choice of IR adoption is not adequate. Instead, IR quality is more useful as the main proxy. This is because companies’ motivation to engage in greenwashing behaviour and information overload should be decreased by an increased quality of IR. In terms of our research methodology, archival research is the most important method in analysing the business case for IR. Since other research methods, such as interviews, are not comparable for our vote counting technique, we focus here on empirical-quantitative (archival) studies. Prior reviews have also lacked a focus on moderator and mediator analysis in IR research. Yet moderators and mediators may be crucial to our archival IR research, as there may be a need for additional firm-specific attributes to strengthen or weaken our business case argument. A significant impact of selective determinants on IR, and their consequences on firm value, may only be found through the recognition of other moderators or mediators. Thus, the reliability of the knowledge we uncover regarding the business case for IR will be complemented by our separate recognition of those aspects. To achieve these aims, we will evaluate 85 archival studies on IR in this paper. We have established three main research questions:

Do governance, (non) financial performance and reporting drive IR adoption (quality)?

Does IR adoption (quality) lead to increased firm valuation (total performance measures, stock liquidity, cost of capital, and expected future cash flows)?

Which moderators and mediators contribute to archival IR research?

Given the recent widespread interest in IR, scientists’ and other experts’ commentary on the current trends and deduction of the key research gaps within IR from an international viewpoint have become increasingly vital. To conduct a systematic literature review, we first scanned business ethics and sustainability, management, finance, and accounting journals—stressing the interdisciplinary nature of archival IR research and the increased relevance of this topic and chosen research method. Our research results, illustrating the main determinants and consequences of IR, are also useful for practitioners; they can increase practitioners’ motivation to adopt IR, along with discussing measures to increase its quality. The results of our analysis are also relevant for (inter)national standard setters, as they may develop further regulations on (non) financial reporting.

Our results suggest that determinants are divided into governance-, (non) financial reporting and performance variables—on the one hand—and consequences of IR on firm value on the other hand. More specifically, firm-related governance determinants are mainly linked with (1) board composition, (2) ownership structure, and (3) stakeholder pressure. Country-related governance determinants differ along with regimes, regarding (1) civil law, (2) degree of legal enforcement, (3) level of investor protection, and (4) cultural aspects.

In our review, we also integrate (non) financial performance and reporting as possible drivers of IR adoption (quality). The consequences of IR on firm value will be structured in (1) total performance measures (e.g., Tobin’s Q); (2) stock liquidity (e.g., bid-ask-spread as inverse proxy); (3) cost of capital; and (4) expected future cash flows (e.g., analyst forecast accuracy). Our results indicate that board composition and stakeholder pressure, as subgroups of corporate governance, are significantly positively related with IR quality. (Non) financial performance also leads to increased IR adoption and quality. We also stress that both IR adoption and quality are connected with higher firm values, based on total performance measures. Overall, our literature review extends and complements the state of knowledge on archival IR research.

Our analysis is structured as follows. First, we present a theoretical foundation to deduct our main determinants and consequences on firm value (Sect. 2 .), wherein we rely on IR adoption and IR quality as key IR proxies ( 2.1 ) along with legitimacy theory ( 2.2 ) and stakeholder theory ( 2.3 ). Next, we determine our IR research framework and introduce our research methods (Sect. 3 ). This paper focusses on the findings of our literature review (Sect. 4 ), wherein we differentiate between bibliometric and content analyses of our included studies ( 4.1 ), corporate governance determinants ( 4.2 ), country-related governance determinants ( 4.3 ), (non) financial performance and reporting ( 4.4 ), IR consequences on firm value ( 4.5 ), moderator and mediator analysis ( 4.6 ), and results ( 4.7 ). The review then considers the limitations of the existing research and makes a useful contribution for future research activities in this field (Sect. 5 ), based on the structure of determinants and consequences. Section 6 provides a conclusion to our analysis.

2 Theoretical foundation

2.1 ir adoption and ir quality.

We have stressed that IR and CSR reporting represent different concepts. In this literature review, only archival studies on IR, according to the IIRC framework (IIRC, 2013 ), are included, to ensure the comparability of research results. IR adoption is one of the most important IR proxies, since IR is still voluntary from an international perspective. One exception is South Africa, where about 500 firms listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange must prepare an integrated report according to the King III Code. Many countries’ financial regimes have implemented mandatory full or partial CSR reporting since the financial crisis of 2008/2009; IR can fulfil those mandatory regulatory requirements for CSR reporting (e.g., within the European Union). While CSR reporting and IR are different concepts, CSR reporting is a basic requirement for future IR adoption. Thus, the quality of CSR reports may have a strong impact on IR quality. IR quality can usually be evaluated via a content analysis of the various integrated reports and scoring methods. In South Africa, the Big Four audit firm EY regularly grants awards on IR quality; this information is also useful for IR analyses (Wang et al., 2020 ). Along with IR adoption, IR assurance by an external party is also voluntary from an international perspective (Velte & Stawinoga, 2017a ). The goal of IR assurance is to increase IR quality and firm reputation, in line with stakeholders’ interests. Companies can choose between different IR assurors (e.g. audit firms or strategic consultant firms) and different assurance levels (limited versus reasonable level).

Merely adopting IR is not enough; IR quality is essential. An increased heterogeneity of practical IR strategies can be noted, which reduces comparability among companies (Flower, 2015 ). While IR should overcome the risks of greenwashing and information overload, that are attributed to stand-alone CSR reports, there are many elements of IR adoption and quality that are still up to managers’ discretion (Flower, 2015 ). IR may also be used for symbolic management activities, as opposed to upholding stakeholders’ interests. For these reasons, IR quality is most useful as the key variable in our literature review—in comparison to IR adoption as a dummy variable. IR quantity may be also relevant for information needs. We do not focus on IR quantity proxies in our literature review since we assume a rather low validity of this proxy, in view of the following. As IR is linked to the materiality principle, it is a major challenge to prevent of the provision of boilerplate and solely qualitative information (Gerwanski et al., 2019 ). A special disclosure practice is not stated in the IIRC framework. In business practice, two different disclosure options are stated: first, there is the option of a “summary IR”, wherein all related (non) financial reports still exist and the IR complements the other reports. The second option is that of a real integration of the former stand-alone financial and non-financial reports into “one report”. Neither a too short nor a too long IR is useful for shareholders and other stakeholders. There seems to be an “optimal” length for an integrated report, rather than a minimum–maximum decision or a linear relationship. Prior research does not analyse this relationship, but assumes a linear link. The optimal length of an integrated report is connected with other firm-specific determinants, such as industry, size, and business model; it is not comparable between firms or specific time frames.

2.2 Legitimacy theory

2.2.1 governance, (non) financial performance and reporting as determinants of ir.

Prior empirical research on IR has included a variety of different theories (e.g., legitimacy theory, stakeholder (agency) theory, institutional theory, and resource dependency theory) (Velte & Stawinoga, 2017a , b ). Velte and Stawinoga ( 2017a , b ) differentiate between research on the market-, organisational- and individual or group decision-making level; the authors state that legitimacy theory and stakeholder (agent) theory are the most important theories in archival IR research. In line with this, we explicitly rely on legitimacy theory as our main theory in this literature review. Legitimacy theory describes either a substantial or a symbolic use of IR by top managers. A symbolic use of IR is linked with greenwashing behaviour and information overload; this strategy should met with an increased scepticism among shareholders and other stakeholder groups. We use stakeholder theory as an additional theory, to stress that a successful business case for IR should be clearly linked to the information needs of stakeholders. The board of directors and stakeholders should put pressure on executives to increase their IR strategies. Governance mechanisms as monitoring tools and (non) financial incentives may also be helpful to put pressure on the management to increase their IR efforts.

Legitimacy theory assumes that firms have implicit social contracts with the society in which they operate. These social contracts (Shocker & Sehti, 1973 ) should motivate top management to comply with a society’s specific values, norms and boundaries by implementing adequate sustainability structures and processes (Dowling & Pfeffer, 1975 ). Firm’s long-term existence is linked to its ability to meet society’s sustainability goals. If legitimacy gaps are noted, firms should be requested to adopt legitimating strategies (Fernando & Lawrence, 2014 ). According to legitimacy theory, firms change their reporting strategy to enhance their decision usefulness in line with stakeholders’ information needs. Classical financial reporting does not guarantee an appropriate information basis for stakeholders. Since traditional balance sheets, according to (international) accounting standards, do not provide the broadest and most relevant variety of non-financial aspects, real firm value and balanced equity usually diverge. Separate CSR reporting, as a complement to financial reporting, is a first step to reaching legitimacy. However, since the financial crisis of 2008/2009, there is an increased risk of greenwashing policy and information overload in CSR reporting (Mahoney et al., 2013 ). Stakeholders expect improved connectivity among a firm’s various financial and non-financial capitals, e.g., social or intellectual capital The main goal of IR, according to the IIRC framework (IIRC, 2013 ), is a clear integrated thinking process and a holistic view of the firm in value creation. The risks of greenwashing and information overload can also be related to IR in view of disclosure practices or different materiality judgments. Governance structure, for example, board effectiveness, has a major impact on IR strategies (Velte & Stawinoga, 2017a ). Boards and other governing mechanisms should put pressure on top management to implement IR and to guarantee an appropriate IR quality. Strong governance mechanisms may reduce greenwashing policies and increase firm reputation, according to legitimacy theory. Here, we differentiate between firm-related governance (corporate governance) and country-related governance factors in line with prior literature on related research items (e.g., Velte et al., 2020 ). Firm-related determinants mainly represent corporate governance variables that should motivate top management to adopt IR and to increase its quality. These determinants should enhance firms’ legitimacy toward stakeholders’ demands around connecting financial and CSR reporting. The following subgroups can be found:

Board composition (e.g., board diversity, board independence);

Ownership structure (e.g. institutional ownership); and

Stakeholder pressure (e.g. by employees, customers).

Powerful shareholders and stakeholders should motivate top management to adopt IR and to increase its quality; this contrasts with situations in which there are powerful and opportunistic top managers and low levels of stakeholder influence.

Country-related determinants are linked to public awareness of IR. Governments should also motivate firms to change their business (reporting) strategies towards IR. These regimes can be categorised into:

existence of a civil law regime (with a stakeholder perspective), in comparison to a case law regime (with a focus on shareholders’ demands);

strength of legal enforcement (indicating the influence of shareholders and other stakeholder groups on firms’ compliance);

degree of shareholder rights (indicating the influence of shareholders on the board of directors and thus increased investor protection rules); and

cultural aspects, mainly based on Hofstede (power distance, masculinity versus feminism, individualism versus collectivism, long term orientation, indulgence).

The promotion of a stakeholder environment should lead to higher levels of IR adoption and increased IR quality, in comparison with regimes focussing on shareholders and opportunistic management behaviour.

In line with governance as a monitoring tool, top managers may be influenced by certain firm-specific incentives. To successfully implement IR, a company must invest significant internal resources and engage in a clear change process that effects every business department. IR requires a great deal of time and financial resources. As a first step, classical financial reporting should be augmented by a stand-alone CSR report. If a firm has not yet implemented CSR reporting over the previous years, it doesn’t make sense for said firms to immediately adopt IR. Learning effects within non-financial reports and the (non) financial performance of the firm should influence management decisions around IR (Gerwanski et al., 2019 ):

performance (both financial and CSR performance); and

reporting (both financial and CSR reporting).

In summary and in line with legitimacy theory, we state that governance, (non) financial performance, and reporting variables will mainly influence a firm’s IR adoption (quality) to gain legitimacy. Yet a firm’s IR (adoption) may also be limited to symbolic CSR-related activities or to providing “boilerplate” information, according to legitimacy theory. IR can be used as a simple marketing tool to attract new shareholders and other stakeholders, without any clear change in the firm’s management control system (Velte & Stawinoga, 2017a ). Governance-related monitoring and (non) financial incentives may be too low or ineffective to shift the reporting behaviour of top managers from the symbolic use of IR to its application as a substantial business strategy.

2.2.2 IR-related consequences on firm value

According to legitimacy theory and the business case argument for IR, the adoption (and quality) of IR should lead to improved firm reputation and trust from stakeholders (Dowling & Pfeffer, 1975 ). A firm with a successful IR strategy may receive (non) financial benefits (e.g., increased cash flows, liquidity) and thus improve its firm value. Stakeholders may use IR to assess the quality of CSR management, and related firm risks. If stakeholders are convinced that the management strategy is effective—and if they expect a low probability of greenwashing policy and information overload—they tend to reward firms with a lower risk premium and thus increased firm value. As IR should decrease the value gap between balanced equity and firm value, the increased connectivity of the six capitals noted in the IIRC framework should be value relevant for the capital market (Obeng et al., 2020a ). Thus, IR can increase the information basis for shareholders and other stakeholders and support these groups in their decision-making, along with guaranteeing the efficiency of the capital market. As we are interested in the consequences of IR adoption (quality) on firm value and we note a great variety of related proxies, we rely on Barth et al. ( 2017 ) to structure the key output variables. Barth et al. ( 2017 ) identify two channels (capital market and real effects) through which IR is linked with firm value. The capital market channel relates to increased information for capital providers, while the real effect channel relates to increased internal decision-making by the management. The authors disaggregate firm value into three main components: (stock) liquidity, cost of capital, and expected future cash flows (Barth et al., 2017 ). (Stock) liquidity and cost of capital are capital market effects. Expected future cash flows may relate to both capital market and real effects. Legitimacy theory assumes that the implementation of high-quality IR may increase liquidity and share prices and decrease the cost of capital due to a reduced investor risk premium (Barth et al., 2017 ). We thus make a distinction between the following proxies of firm value:

total performance measures (e.g., Tobin’s Q);

liquidity (e.g., bid-ask-spreads as inverse measure);

cost of capital; and

expected future cash flows (e.g., analyst forecast accuracy).

Improved firm valuation is realistic only, if shareholders and other stakeholders trust IR. If IR is used merely as a “symbolic” marketing tool and greenwashing and information overload are not restricted, the stock market may react with an inconclusive or even negative valuation of the firm.

As legitimacy theory may relate to either a symbolic or a substantial use of IR adoption (quality), we complement our theoretical foundation by applying stakeholder theory in the following section.

2.3 Stakeholder theory

Legitimacy theory and stakeholder theory can be classified as complementary theories, when it comes to explaining the informational interests of IR for shareholders and other stakeholder groups. Stakeholder theory assumes that top managers will prevent possible greenwashing behaviour. According to stakeholder theory (Freeman, 1984 ), a firm must fulfil the expectations of different stakeholder groups (Freeman et al., 2010 ). These demands are multiple and are also linked with conflicts of interest (Fernando & Lawrence, 2014 ). To solve these problems, based on a successful stakeholder management system, firms must systematically identify the legitimate claims of heterogeneous stakeholder groups regarding their business strategies (Freeman, 1984 ). As we have noted, shareholders and stakeholders question the decision-usefulness of financial reporting and of stand-alone CSR reporting due to greenwashing and information overload (Mahoney et al., 2013 ). The disclosure of clearly connected financial and non-financial information in IR, per legitimacy theory, can lead to substantive change processes within a firm (Graßmann et al., 2019 ). But, as noted, IR can also be used as a marketing tool or as merely a “symbolic” action. A clear focus on stakeholder management systems, in line with stakeholder theory, will increase the probability of a substantive use of IR (Freeman et al., 2010 ). Stakeholder theory posits that the information disclosed in integrated reports should reflect stakeholders’ interests and that firms should try to respond to the heterogeneous expectations of different stakeholder groups (Eccles & Krzus, 2015 ). Effective IR procedures require appropriate governance systems. The recognition of board effectiveness, monitoring of shareholders, and stakeholder pressure reduces the risk of a symbolic use of IR. It also increases the probability of a substantive use of IR, as a medium for an integrated thinking approach (Graßmann et al., 2019 ). Country-specific governance factors should also influence management’s willingness to implement IR and to increase its quality. A substantive IR strategy will also be significantly influenced by financial determinants, e.g., (non) financial performance and reporting experiences which are most relevant in the early phase of IR adoption. Stakeholder awareness is an extremely sensitive topic in firms with dynamic performance and reporting development (Freeman et al., 2010 ). Learning effects on (non) financial reporting and a stabile performance situation within a firm will promote IR adoption (Gerwanski et al., 2019 ). If stakeholders trust the management’s IR strategy, then IR may also lead to higher firm value.

Overall, we assume that governance, (non) financial performance and reporting will promote a firm’s decision to prepare IR and to increase the quality of IR. This is based on legitimacy theory, in combination with stakeholder theory. We further assume that IR adoption and IR quality will strengthen stakeholder trust and decrease conflicts of interest, leading to a positive impact on firm value. Thus, according to stakeholder theory, we neglect the risks of a symbolic use of IR for the implementation of our research framework in Sect. 3 . We then compare this assumption with the empirical results in our literature review in Sect. 4 .

3 IR research framework and method

Here, we focus on the approach to IR put forth by the IIRC, which developed the IR concept and published its first official IR framework in December 2013 (IIRC, 2013 ). The second edition of the IIRC framework with small modifications has been published in January 2021. The IIRC framework is principle-based, allowing significant room for managerial discretion in the preparation process of an IR. Principle-based reporting cannot prevent the risk of heterogeneity and limited comparability. The risks of information overload for stakeholders and greenwashing policies can be decreased via a detailed quantitative explanation of the value gap between balanced equity and firm value, as well as of the materiality principle, in line with stakeholders’ interests.

In line with this understanding of IR, Fig. 1 gives an overview of our research framework. The goal of our literature review is to offer a detailed analysis of the economic influences on, and relationships with IR. More specifically, we differentiate between IR adoption and IR quality in view of the heterogeneity of IR variables. Figure 1 stresses that our analysis is linked with:

corporate governance- related determinants on IR;

country-related governance factors of IR;

( non ) financial performance and reporting as determinants of IR; and

consequences of IR on firm value .

Archival research on integrated reporting

Empirical research on IR is confronted with a heterogeneity of collected data, study designs, theoretical foundations, and analytical methods. This leads to studies that are largely disjointed. Literature reviews represent an innovative and relevant research method for scholars, practitioners, and regulators seeking to decrease research complexity (Torraco, 2005 ; Webster & Watson, 2002 ). Our literature review is based on established processes (Denyer & Tranfield, 2009 ). First, we extracted our research objective. Recent last years have seen an increased number of literature reviews, based on both conceptual and empirical IR results (e.g., de Villiers et al., 2017a ). Yet no literature review has previously concentrated on the business case for IR and on archival research regarding the implementation of governance-related monitoring tools, (non) financial incentives and their implications for firm valuation. We see a major research gap on this topic, as regulators, practitioners, and researchers controversially debate which determinants might influence IR adoption and quality from an international perspective and whether IR leads to better economic consequences for firms. These questions are currently extremely important, as international standard setters discuss establishing mandatory IR for climate change policy, as one example (Eccles & Krzus, 2019 ). Our key research questions are:

Which governance-, ( non ) financial performance and reporting-related determinants are linked with IR adoption (quality)?

Does IR adoption (quality) lead to increased firm value ?

In the context of these questions, we stress major research gaps and inconsistencies in prior archival IR research.

Second, we discussed the key theories and concepts in this research field, allowing us to select the specific terms to be used for our database search.

Third, relevant studies for our analysis were identified via a comparison of (inter)national databases (Web of Science, Google Scholar, the Social Science Network (SSRN), EBSCO and Science Direct). We used asterisks to search for related terms. The primary keywords were: “integrated reporting” in connection with “governance, “board composition”, “ownership structure”, “stakeholder pressure”, “civil law”, legal enforcement”, “investor protection”, “culture”, “financial performance”, “financial reporting”, “corporate social responsibility”, “corporate social responsibility reporting”, “assurance”, “capital costs”, “firm value”, “value relevance”, “financial analysts” an related terms.

Fourth, we set the exclusion criteria. We did not focus on country of origin; thus both cross-country studies and national studies from selected regimes are included. In view of the short time frame in which archival IR research and the implementation of the IIRC framework have been in place, we did not restrict the time period. The earliest study included in our literature review was published in 2012. The latest publication date for included studies was December 2020. We included only quantitative empirical studies (archival based). This was because, first, these studies represent the most important research method to analyse the business case argument and our key research questions. Second, archival research on IR has increased in recent years and has been established as most dominant method, compared to qualitative designs (Velte & Stawinoga, 2017a , b ). Third, we wanted to ensure an adequate comparability of our included studies and to differentiate our literature review from prior reviews on IR that applied a mixed-methods design (e.g., de Villiers et al., 2017a , b ). In our literature review, some researchers did gain their primary data via a content analysis of sustainability and corporate governance reports, interviews or surveys—per mixed-methods design—to deduct some variables of their regression models. Yet the archival data and regression models were focussed, in all included studies. To guarantee an appropriate level of quality, we recognised only articles published in English in peer-reviewed journals. In this context, it is vital to differentiate between archival IR and CSR reporting studies. We interpret CSR reporting—following the famous “triple bottom line”—implying a stand-alone report that covers a firm’s social and environmental issues. CSR reporting is a complement to classical financial reporting, as a broad stakeholder tool. The goal of IR is different from that of stand-alone CSR reporting, since it combines six capitals (financial and CSR-related aspects are included) and concentrates on the materiality principle via an integrated thinking process. The risk of greenwashing policies and information overload should be thus lower than stand-alone CSR reports.

Fifth, as a precursory analysis of the studies, we scanned articles’ titles to decide whether they should be included or excluded. We then read the theory and method sections of each study and eliminated those that did not fit our research question. We identified a total of 85 studies as final sample.

Sixth, the included studies were coded according to the selected (sub-) determinants and consequences and matched to our developed research framework. In line with vote-counting methodology (Light & Smith, 1971 ), we noted the significant findings and their indicators.

4 Findings of the literature review

4.1 bibliometric and descriptive content analysis.

Table 1 provides an overview of the papers per publication year (Panel A), region (Panel B), journal (Panel C), content (Panel D) and IR variables (Panel E). Panel A stresses a steady increase in studies over the last few years and a rather young research discipline (with the first study published in 2012). The year 2020 was our most important year of publication (28 studies). Most of the included studies focus on cross-country samples (59 studies) in contrast with the low relevance of conducting research on one specific country. Most of the international regimes do not request an integrated report for (public) firms so far. Yet there have been many discussions, from a regulatory perspective, as to whether a future regulation on IR is needed, for example, in the European Union. One key exception is South Africa (17 studies). As Since IR is mandatory in South Africa for PIEs, based upon a comply-or-explain mechanism from the King III Report on Corporate Governance, the country’s listed firms are a common subject for archival IR studies. Mandatory and voluntary IR regimes lack comparability for the IR adoption variable in our literature review. In particular, we assume that capital market reactions will vary in mandatory versus voluntary IR regimes. Thus, we separately discuss the South African studies on IR adoption and compare them with study results on other regimes or cross-country studies. Panel C illustrates that heterogeneity of the journal publications, regarding discipline and quality. The best-known publication outlets are business ethics and sustainability journals (41 studies), for example, Business Strategy and the Environment (17 studies) and Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management (9 studies). Yet classical accounting and finance journals (e.g., Journal of Accounting and Public Policy ) and management and corporate governance journals are also relevant to this research topic. As seen in Panel D, studies exploring IR consequences on firm value (40 studies) and governance-related determinants (38 studies) are prominent, compared to other determinants. In recent years, archival research has included variables for both IR adoption (45 studies) and IR quality (51 studies). As previously noted, IR quality proxies are superior to IR adoption dummy variables, since top managers may implement IR intending to use it for greenwashing and to provide only boilerplate information. We are thus grateful for the increased number of IR quality studies over the past few years.

As prior determinants and consequences of IR in archival studies are rather heterogeneous and complex, we structure the main proxies in Table 2 . Research on the governance-related determinants of IR can be classified as a highly complex topic.

4.2 Corporate governance-related determinants

Corporate governance-related determinants are increasingly relevant, for both IR adoption and quality. Prior literature reviews and meta-analyses on the relationship between corporate governance and CSR (e.g. Guerrero-Villegas et al., 2018 ) stated that ownership and control should lead to increased IR activities. In line with prior literature, we differentiate between (1) board composition, (2) ownership structure, and (3) stakeholder pressure in our literature review. While IR quality is the most important measure, IR adoption has also been relevant in prior research designs. Two studies focus on Bloomberg’s corporate governance index (Lai et al., 2016 ; Melloni et al., 2017 ). While Lai et al. ( 2016 ) found a positive impact of corporate governance performance on IR adoption, there are also studies that found insignificant influences on IR quality (Melloni et al., 2017 ). Governance performance may thus drive the likelihood of engaging in IR, without influencing IR quality. The following sections present the results of our review in terms of board composition, ownership structure and stakeholder pressure.

4.2.1 Board composition

The monitoring activities of a firm’s board of directors should be aligned with stakeholders’ interests (Ben-Amar and McIlkenny 2015 ). Strict monitoring by non-executives should be related with increased IR efforts, as stakeholders demand a clear link between a firm’s various capitals and the interaction between financial and non-financial performance. A variety of board characteristics lead to board effectiveness and may have an impact on top management’s decision to adopt IR and increase its quality (Gerwanski et al., 2019 ). Two studies in our literature review included a board effectiveness score; they found a positive influence on IR adoption (Garcia-Sanchez et al., 2019 ) and a positive influence on IR quality (based on a South African sample: Wang et al., 2020 ).

One of the most compelling corporate governance measures in IR research is board diversity , especially gender diversity (e.g., Rupley et al., 2012 ; McGuinness et al., 2017 ). Thus, prior studies have investigated the effect of overall board diversity (Vitolla et al., 2020a ), gender diversity (e.g. Girella et al., 2019 ) and foreign diversity (e.g. Alfiero et al., 2018 ) on IR practices. According to Vitolla et al., ( 2020a , d ), board diversity and IR quality are positively linked. Since female directors may enrich board decisions in part by representing diverse stakeholders’ demands, skills, values and beliefs, Frias-Aceituno et al. ( 2013b ) found a positive relationship between board gender diversity and IR adoption. However, Girella et al. ( 2019 ) and Garcia-Sanchez and Noguera-Gamez ( 2018 ) did not observe a significant link. According to Marrone ( 2020 ), Gerwanski et al. ( 2019 ), and Kilic and Kuzey ( 2018 ), gender diversity positively affects IR quality; yet Fasan and Mio ( 2017 ) found an opposite effect. The authors assume that problems in IR adoption may lead to employing higher board diversity as a signal to markets that, which, however, is not followed by successful strategies to increase IR quality. Foreign board diversity is another key diversity variable. Boards with at least three foreign members have been shown to lead to increased IR adoption (Alfiero et al., 2018 ), over those with fewer such members. According to Alfiero et al. ( 2018 ), if the majority of foreign board members comes from countries showing a higher femininity orientation, IR adoption is also increased. Yet Frias-Aceituno et al. ( 2013b ) did not find any link between foreign board diversity and IR adoption.

Along with diversity, prior studies have also investigated the effect of board independence on IR practices (e.g., Fasan & Mio, 2017 ; Stacchezzini et al., 2016 ). Vitolla et al. ( 2020a , d ) found a positive relationship between board independence and IR quality. Stacchezzini et al. ( 2016 ) stated a negative association regarding to managerial discretion in the preparation of IR, as an inverse measure of board effectiveness. Other studies did not find any significant effects of board independence on either IR adoption (Frias-Aceituno et al., 2013b ; Girella et al., 2019 ) or IR quality (Fasan & Mio, 2017 ; Kilic & Kuzey, 2018 ).

Board size and board activity are also relevant corporate governance variables found in the archival research. Some researchers assume that greater board size and meeting frequency lead to more discourse and thus to increased board effectiveness. Girella et al. ( 2019 ), Alfiero et al. ( 2018 ) and Frias-Aceituno et al. ( 2013b ) showed that firms with larger boards are more likely to adopt IR. Meanwhile, Marrone ( 2020 ) and Vitolla et al. ( 2020a , d ) found a positive impact of board size on IR quality. In contrast to this, some researchers have found an insignificant effect on both IR adoption (Garcia-Sanchez & Noguera-Gamez, 2018 ) and IR quality (Kilic & Kuzey, 2018 ). Fasan and Mio ( 2017 ) reported that board size even impairs IR quality. Next to board size, board activity has drawn less attraction in IR research to date. With the exception of the studies carried out by Vitolla et al. ( 2020a , d ), which emphasis a positive impact on IR quality, other studies have found no link between board activity, IR adoption (Frias-Aceituno et al., 2013b ), and IR quality (Fasan & Mio, 2017 ). Marrone ( 2020 ) included board average age as a possible driver of IR quality and reported insignificant results.

Since the 2002 Sarbanes Oxley Act enacted in the US but with international relevance, research on board effectiveness has focused on audit committees and their monitoring role in corporate governance. The role of audit committees is to control a firm’s IR process, managers, internal auditors, and external auditors (Klein 2002 ; Haji & Anifowose, 2016 ). An effective audit committee should incentivise the top management to implement IR and to increase IR quality, in line with stakeholders’ interests. In a South African setting, Haji and Anifowose ( 2016 ) and Wang et al. ( 2020 ) found that audit committee effectiveness increases IR quality. Audit committee financial expertise and sustainability expertise also increase IR quality in voluntary settings according to Velte ( 2018 ), as does the interaction between the two variables. Yet Haji and Anifowose ( 2016 ) found no link between the financial expertise of the audit committee and IR quality. The authors also investigated whether audit committee size , activity , independence , expertise and authority contribute to IR quality. Only audit committee activity and authority contribute to better IR quality (Haji & Anifowose, 2016 ). Raimo et al. ( 2020a ) also investigated voluntary IR settings; they reported a positive influence of audit committee size, independence and meeting frequency on IR quality, while financial expertise on the audit committee has no impact. Pavlopoulos et al. ( 2017 ) studied the impact of independent members on the nomination and audit committee and reported a positive effect on IR quality.

Two recent studies in South African’s mandatory IR setting have concentrated on sustainability committees as promoters of CSR strategies and IR in line with the increased stakeholder awareness of CSR strategies and related reporting. Haji and Anifowose ( 2016 ) and Wang et al. ( 2020 ) argue that a firm’s sustainability committee has an essential role in supporting its audit committee’s monitoring role in IR, and should thus lead to higher IR quality. There are indications that both the existence (Haji & Anifowose, 2016 ) and the effectiveness (Wang et al., 2020 ) of sustainability committees increase IR quality.

Management compensation represents another key incentive alignment mechanism in corporate governance. Since the financial crisis of 2008–2009, stakeholders are demanding a clear integration of (non) financial aspects, such as climate change targets within variable top management compensation. Thus, CSR-related management compensation should lead to increased CSR awareness and openness among top management. This has been researched in a single South African study by Wang et al. ( 2020 ), who found an increased effect on IR quality.

Finally, behavioural corporate governance research assumes that individual characteristics of board members, especially of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), may have an impact on IR strategies. Garcia-Sánchez et al. ( 2020 ) reported a negative impact of CEO power on IR adoption. Marrone ( 2020 ) found a negative relationship between CEO duality and IR quality, as two inverse measures of board effectiveness.

4.2.2 Ownership structure

Next to board composition, the literature stresses a strong impact of ownership structure, as an external corporate governance mechanism, on IR activities (Raimo et al., 2020b ). In contrast to private investors and their reduced resources, (sustainable) institutional investors may put pressure on the top management to implement IR and to reach a higher quality. Thus far, ownership variables have been included to a rather low degree. Blockholders imply both an increased information demand for IR and higher bargaining power. Thus, ownership concentration may be linked to increased IR efforts. Jensen and Berg ( 2012 ) proved this assumption with regard to IR adoption. Likewise, Vitolla et al. ( 2019a ) have proven his assumption for voluntary IR regimes and Haji and Anifowose ( 2016 ) have done so regarding IR quality in South Africa. In contrast to this, Graßmann et al. ( 2019 ) and Raimo et al. ( 2020b ) found a negative effect on IR quality, while Fuhrmann ( 2019 ) study found ownership concentration to have an insignificant impact on IR adoption. According to Serafeim ( 2015 ), IR firms are connected with more long-term investors. Raimo et al. ( 2020b ) indicated a negative impact of managerial and state ownership on IR quality and a positive impact of institutional ownership. Gerwanski et al. ( 2019 ) investigated whether a corporation with a listing in the Dow Jones Sustainability Index ( DJSI ) is linked with IR qualityand found insignificant effects.

4.2.3 Stakeholder pressure

Stakeholder pressure becomes more and more important in recent years. Given such risks as information overload and greenwashing behaviour (Garcia-Sanchez et al., 2019 ; Gerwanski et al., 2019 ), the decision usefulness of IR is a major goal of stakeholders. Stakeholders such as customers and suppliers put pressure on top management to ensure adequate IR quality. (Voluntary) external assurance, for example, by professional accountants, can mitigate conflicts of interest between management and stakeholders and can increase stakeholders’ trust in IR (Simnett & Huggins, 2015 ; Velte & Stawinoga, 2017b ). Some researchers include CSR assurance as an external corporate governance variable (e.g., Sierra-Garcia et al., 2015 ). Managers that engage a third party to assure their stand-alone CSR reports might likewise be willing to spend money on IR and to be more focused on the credibility of IR. While Sierra-Garcia et al. ( 2015 ) found a positive effect of CSR assurance on IR adoption, the choice of CSR assuror (audit firm) did not make a difference. Next to CSR assurance, IR assurance was included as a possible determinant of IR strategies. Maroun ( 2019 ), based on a South African sample, documented a positive impact of IR assurance on IR quality, as did Gerwanski et al. ( 2019 ). Yet Vaz et al. ( 2016 ) and Rivera-Arrubla et al. ( 2017 ) were unable to confirm this hypothesis. Ghani et al. ( 2018 ) and Rivera-Arrubla et al. ( 2017 ) proved that the appointment of a Big4 auditor for the financial audit (as an indicator for increased audit quality) has a positive influence on IR quality. Chouaibi and Hichri ( 2020 ) have documented that auditor industry specialisation and the existence of a code of ethics within an audit firm both positively influence IR quality, while Big Four audit firms and behavioural skills have no influence.

Stakeholder pressure is not just related to shareholders’ demands for a credible business reporting, but also to the demands of other stakeholder groups (e.g., customers, employees). Kim et al. ( 2019 )have stressed that employee pressure leads to increased IR adoption. Vitolla et al. ( 2019a ) have also reported a positive effect of employee pressure, customer pressure and environmental protection organisations’ pressure on IR quality.

4.3 Country-specific governance determinants

In the last section, we stressed the impact of corporate governance on IR adoption and IR quality. Most studies included in this literature review rely on an international IR sample, while country-specific governance factors have also been addressed. The literature assumes that country-specific governance factors may also have a huge impact on the management decision to conduct IR and to increase IR quality (Fuhrmann 2019 ). We differentiate between four main subgroups in our analysis: (1) presence of a civil (code) law, (2) degree of legal enforcement, (3) range of investor protection (shareholder rights), and (4) cultural aspects.

4.3.1 Civil law

A classical differentiation amongst each country’s orientation can be made between common (case) or civil (code) law regimes (Vaz et al., 2016 ). Case law regimes are assumed to include stricter shareholder rights and to rely on investor protection, whereas civil (code) law regimes tend to focus on broader stakeholder topics. Case law regimes are linked with increased shareholder value, whereas code law regimes have a stricter connection to stakeholder value. Since IR may be classified as an explicit shareholder tool or as a broader stakeholder approach, there may be heterogeneous influences. Fuhrmann ( 2019 ), Garcia-Sanchez et al. ( 2019 ) and Frias-Aceituno et al. ( 2013a ) have stated that firms operating in civil law regimes promote IR adoption. However, other studies have not found a relationship (Garcia-Sanchez & Noguera-Gamez, 2018 ; Girella et al., 2019 ; Jensen & Berg, 2012 ; Vaz et al., 2016 ). There are also heterogeneous results regarding IR quality. Both positive effects (Vitolla et al., 2020a , b , c , d ) and insignificant impacts of civil law on IR quality have been occurred (Fasan & Mio, 2017 ; Rivera-Arrubla et al., 2017 ).

4.3.2 Legal enforcement

The strength of legal enforcement has also been included in some cross-country studies on IR. The literature assumes that legal enforcement leads to higher managerial willingness to fulfil the information demands of their stakeholders, which in turn leads to IR adoption and better IR quality (e.g., Frias-Aceituno et al., 2013a ; Garcia-Sanchez & Noguera-Gamez, 2018 ). Garcia-Sanchez and Noguera-Gamez ( 2018 ) and Frias-Aceituno et al. ( 2013a ) indicate that legal enforcement (i.e., the efficiency of the legal system and the index of law and order) drives IR adoption. Other researchers have included corruption perception: positive results are reported by Girella et al. ( 2019 ), while insignificant results are stated by Garcia-Sanchez et al. ( 2019 ).

4.3.3 Investor protection

The level of investor protection relies on a variety of elements, which can be measured, for example, via factorial analysis of an anti-self-dealing index, creditor rights index and market development. Prior research on IR adoption and investor protection found heterogeneous results. A positive link (Jensen & Berg, 2012 ), negative relationships (Fuhrmann 2019 ) and insignificant results (Garcia-Sanchez & Noguera-Gamez, 2018 ; Vaz et al., 2016 ) can all be reported.

4.3.4 Culture

Last but not least, Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (collectivism, indulgence, long term orientation, feminism, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance) have been included in prior archival research on IR (e.g., Garcia-Sánchez et al., 2013 ; Vaz et al., 2016 ). The literature assumes that a country’s culture affects not just individuals, but also corporations, and that it determines firms’ IR strategy (Vaz et al., 2016 ). The cultural backdrop of a specific regime may promote or weaken top managers’ motivation to strengthen their IR activities. Girella et al. ( 2019 ), Vaz et al. ( 2016 ) and Garcia-Sánchez et al. ( 2013 ) have stated that IR adoption is more likely in countries with a higher degree of collectivism, while Fuhrmann ( 2019 ) did not find any significant results. Collectivism also leads to increased IR quality (Vitolla et al., 2019b ). Fuhrmann ( 2019 ) have stressed an insignificant effect of indulgence on IR adoption, whereas IR quality is even lower (Vitolla et al., 2019b ). Girella et al. ( 2019 ) found long-term orientation and IR to be positively related, whereas some studies found no indication of this (based on IR adoption: Fuhrmann 2019 ; Garcia-Sánchez et al., 2013 ; based on IR quality: Vitolla et al., 2019b ). Feminism also increases IR adoption (Fuhrmann 2019 ; Girella et al., 2019 ; Garcia-Sánchez et al., 2013 ) and IR quality (Vitolla et al., 2019b )—with the exception of Vaz et al.’s findings (2016). In contrast to this, power distance reduces both IR adoption—according to Fuhrmann ( 2019 —and IR quality (Vitolla et al., 2019b ). Garcia-Sánchez et al. ( 2013 ) found no any relationship between uncertainty avoidance and IR quality. Vitolla et al. ( 2019b ) stressed a positive impact on IR quality, while Jensen and Berg ( 2012 ) noted increased IR adoption according to higher national CSR indexes.

4.4 (Non) financial performance and reporting

Along with governance-related determinants, prior research also recognises (non) financial determinants as possible management incentives for increased IR efforts. (Non) financial reporting and performance may be the basis for top management to start out on a firm’s IR journey. In our review, we differentiate between (non) financial performance and reporting.

4.4.1 Performance

The majority of the studies included, on this topic analyse the impact of financial performance on IR. As IR is linked with increased resources within a firm it is assumed that financial performance and IR strategies are positively linked (e.g. Girella et al., 2019 ; Vitolla et al., 2020a ). Top managers will be more motivated to increase their IR efforts when they achieve specific performance figures allowing them to signal their successful business model and their personal contribution to their stakeholders. A variety of heterogeneous financial performance measures have been used in prior research. Measures of financial performance can be accounting-based (e.g., Return on Assets [ROA]) or market-based (e.g., Tobin’s Q). Some studies indicate a positive impact of financial performance on IR adoption , based on ROA (Girella et al., 2019 ; Frias-Aceituno 2014; Oshika & Saka, 2017 ), market-to-book-ratio (Girella et al., 2019 ), gross margin, Earnings before Interest and Taxes (EBIT) ratio, net income ratio, and Return on Equity (ROE) (Oshika & Saka, 2017 ). Fuhrmann ( 2019 ) has stated that firms with lower leverage are more likely to adopt IR. However, Lai et al. ( 2016 ) have reported a negative effect of ROA on IR implementation. Other researchers found no significant results regarding ROA (Fuhrmann, 2019 ), leverage (Girella et al., 2019 ; Lai et al., 2016 ), firm efficiency (Girella et al., 2019 ), and growth (Frias-Aceituno et al., 2014 ). Heterogeneous results are also found in the relationship between financial performance and IR quality . Vitolla et al. ( 2020a ) and Graßmann et al. ( 2019 ) found a positive link between ROA and IR quality. There are also indications that tone bias (inverse IR quality) is found to be lowered by increased firm revenues (Roman et al., 2019 ). Other researchers found no significant relationships, based on Return on Invested Capital (ROIC) (Churet & Eccles, 2014 ), leverage (Ghani et al., 2018 ), price volatility (Graßmann et al., 2019 ) or liquidity (Ghani et al., 2018 ). Vitolla et al., ( 2020a ) and Graßmann et al. ( 2019 ) reported a positive impact of leverage as an inverse measure on IR quality. A negative relationship between foreign sales and IR quality has also been reported by Graßmann et al. ( 2019 ).

Since IR represents an integration of six different capital items, not just financial performance, but also CSR performance, as pre-financials, may be important drivers for IR. Top managers will be more willing to produce an integrated report, if their firms’ CSR performance shows a positive development. This assumption will be primarily of importance for self-impression management. However, in comparison to financial performance, CSR performance is of lower relevance in prior research designs (e.g. Lai et al., 2016 ). Lai et al. ( 2016 ) found a positive impact of CSR performance on IR adoption , while Fuhrmann ( 2019 )’s study found a positive significance on social performance as a subpillar of CSR. Maniora ( 2017 ) stated a positive relationship between CSR performance and IR implementation in comparison with non-CSR reporters and firms that included their CSR reporting in their annual reports. In a direct comparison with firms that prepare a stand-alone CSR report, CSR performance is lower amongst IR adopters. In view of IR quality , CSR performance (Churet & Eccles, 2014 ; Graßmann et al 2019 ) is higher. However, Beretta et al. ( 2019 ) noted a higher degree of tone bias if CSR performance increases, leading to a negative relationship between CSR performance and IR quality.

4.4.2 Reporting

(Non) financial performance and reporting are interdisciplinary variables. Empirical research on (non) financial reporting and performance assumes that there can be a bidirectional relationship. Performance may influence the reporting behaviour of top management and vice versa (Velte et al., 2020 ). As IR includes a variety of information from different reports (e.g., financial-, CSR-, and governance reports), an adequate quality of (non) financial reporting may be a driver and an incentive for top managers to implement IR and increase its quality. In a direct comparison between studies on performance and reporting, we note that few studies address the impact of ( non ) financial reporting on IR. Wachira et al. ( 2019 ) included a transparency score and found a positive influence on IR adoption in South Africa. Gerwanski et al. ( 2019 ) stated that past experiences with IR (= learning effects) increase IR quality, while IR readability did not show a significant impact. Romero et al. ( 2019 ) found that stand-alone CSR reports were linked to increased IR quality, in contrast with CSR reports, within annual reports. Finally, prior studies found no significant results on earnings quality (Gerwanski et al., 2019 ; Pavlopoulos et al., 2019 ).

4.5 IR-related consequences on firm value

One of most intensive research topics in our literature review deals with the consequences of IR adoption (quality) on firm value. Researchers assume that both IR adoption and IR quality have a positive impact on firm valuation in the long run (Muttakin et al., 2020 ). There is much heterogeneity in prior studies, when it comes to approximate firm value. In this literature review, we rely on a structure by Barth et al. ( 2017 ) who differentiate between the following components of firm value: (1) liquidity (e.g., bid-ask-spread as inverse measure), (2) cost of capital , and (3) expected future cash flows (e.g., analyst forecasts and coverage). In line with these proxies, total performance measures (e.g., Tobin’s Q) are also included in prior research to approximate firm value (Barth et al., 2017 ).

4.5.1 Total performance measures

In the last section, we mentioned the variety of total performance measures in archival research. Firm performance proxies may not just be an important determinant of IR strategies; they may also lead to better (non) financial performance, in terms of increased firm reputation among stakeholders (Cortesi & Vena, 2019 ). Since aspects of CSR aspects may also have a main effect on firm value, some studies also include CSR performance along with financial performance. The results of the prior tend to be homogeneous and indicators have been found to support a positive (negative) relationship between IR strategies and performance. Akisik and Gal ( 2019 ) reported a positive link between IR adoption, stock price growth, ROE and ROA. Firm risk (Conway, 2019 ) and leverage (Lemma et al., 2019 ) are also lower alongside IR adoption in the mandatory South African setting; a positive effect on firm value is thus assumed. IR adoption also leads to improved CSR performance (Loprevite et al., 2018 ). Conway ( 2019 ), based on a South African setting, concluded that there was a negative relationship between IR adoption, IR quality, and financial performance, while there was a positive relationship between IR quality and CSR performance.

Along with accounting-based performance measures, value relevance studies have gained great importance when it comes to measuring market-based financial performance. Event studies and the modified Ohlson model have been often used in prior IR research. The Ohlson model is linked to stock prices or market values of equity, whereas event study designs focus on cumulative abnormal returns (CAR) (Cortesi & Vena, 2019 ). Most studies included in our review rely on the Ohlson model based on market values of equity. A positive impact of IR adoption on the market value of equity has been documented, for both voluntary (Cortesi & Vena, 2019 ) and mandatory IR regimes (Baboukardos & Rimmel, 2016 ). Similar relationships occur for the value relevance of earnings in voluntary IR regimes (Loprevite et al., 2018 ) and for organisational capital in South Africa (Tlili et al., 2019 ). Wahl et al. ( 2020 ), Gal and Akisik ( 2020 ), Loprevite et al. ( 2019a , b ) and Camodeca et al. ( 2018 ) did not state any significant relationship between IR adoption and the market value of equity (Tobin’s Q), whereas Landau et al. ( 2020 ) reported a negative link.

Similar results occur for IR quality. Financial performance seems to be higher in both voluntary and mandatory IR settings, based on profit after taxes (Adegboyegun et al., 2020 ), ROA (Pavlopoulos et al., 2019 ), Tobin’s Q [evidence in South Africa: Moloi & Iredele, 2020 , Barth et al., 2017 ; Lee & Yeo, 2016 ; Dey, 2020 (Bangladesh); based on IR readability: Caglio et al. 2020 ], and lower firm risk (Conway, 2019 ). Other studies have stressed a positive impact of IR quality on the market value of equity (Pavlopoulos et al., 2019 ), and CAR (Pavlopoulos et al., 2019 ; Cosma et al., 2018 ). However, Gal and Akisik ( 2020 ), Loprevite et al. ( 2019a , b ) and Camodeca et al. ( 2018 ) have found insignificant results in this regard. Caglio et al. ( 2020 ) reported no significant relationship between IR tone bias and Tobin’s Q in a South African setting. The authors also found no significant link between IR readability, IR tone bias, and CSR performance. Omran et al. ( 2020 ) reported a positive impact of IR quality on environmental performance.

4.5.2 Liquidity

Some researchers do not rely on total financial performance proxies, but concentrate instead on the specific components of firm value for a more detailed analysis. (Stock) liquidity is one of these subgroups (Barth et al., 2017 ) and can be inversely measured by bid-ask-spreads. The literature states that bid-ask-spreads indicate the range of information asymmetry on capital markets (Barth et al., 2017 ). When information asymmetry is low, investors are more willing to grade a firm, which should be linked with lower bid-ask-spreads. Bid-ask-spreads, as an inverse measure of liquidity, are usually defined as the median of the difference between daily closing bid and ask prices divided by their midpoint (Barth et al., 2017 ). In this review, we recognise only research on IR quality in this regard, but not on IR adoption. Zuniga et al. ( 2020 ) and Barth et al. ( 2017 ) found a positive impact of IR quality on liquidity, in an South African context. Caglio et al. ( 2020 ) stated an insignificant link between IR quality (readability, tone bias) and bid-ask-spreads in South Africa. Similar results were reported by Sriani and Agustia ( 2020 ) and Dey ( 2020 ) for voluntary regimes. IR quality also leads to lower agency costs and thus to better stock liquidity in voluntary IR settings (Obeng et al., 2020b ; Pavlopoulos et al., 2017 ).

4.5.3 Cost of capital

The holistic value creation and integrated thinking approach of the IR framework (IIRC, 2013 ) should allow investors to be better informed about a firm’s value drivers, business model, and related business risks. This improved provision information should lead to decreased information asymmetry and, thus, to reduced cost of capital (Barth et al., 2017 ). Cost of capital (cost of equity and debt) represents an inverse component of firm value. There are indications that IR adoption reduces the total cost of capital (Vena et al., 2020 ), cost of equity (Garcia-Sanchez & Noguera-Gamez, 2017b ) and cost of debt (Muttakin et al., 2020 ; South Africa; Gerwanski, 2020 ; international setting). IR quality is also connected with lower costs of equity in voluntary (Vitolla et al., 2019 , b , c ) and mandatory IR regimes (Zhou et al., 2017 ). However, Barth et al.’s ( 2017 ) results in South Africa are inconclusive.

4.5.4 Expected future cash flows

Investors are especially interested in forecasting future cash flows. Few studies have analysed the impact of IR on the ability of investors to forecast cash flows (e.g., Barth et al., 2017 ; Flores et al., 2019 ). Integrated reports should strengthen investors’ ability to estimate future cash flows, in comparison to stand-alone CSR reports or classical financial reports (Barth et al., 2017 ). Analyst forecast accuracy, dispersion and error represent well-known variables in archival research; they indicate the degree of information asymmetry (lower information asymmetry contributes to higher firm value) between firms and investors. Analyst coverage represents another variable, assuming a greater level of coverage by financial analysts and increased firm attraction for investors. In view of IR adoption , prior research has found quite homogeneous results: Flores et al. ( 2019 ) reported that IR adoption increases both analyst coverage and analyst forecast accuracy. Other studies have documented that analyst forecast error decreases in mandatory (Bernardi & Stark, 2018 ) and voluntary IR regimes (Garcia-Sanchez & Noguera-Gamez, 2017a , b ). Similar results, based on IR quality, are present in South Africa. Zhou et al. ( 2017 ) found a negative relationship between IR quality, analyst forecast error, and dispersion. Other studies have been rather inconclusive (Barth et al., 2017 ; Wahl et al., 2020 ). Caglio et al. ( 2020 ) did not document any link between IR readability and analyst forecasts and found a negative link between IR tone bias and analyst forecast dispersion in the South African mandatory IR setting.

4.6 Moderator and mediator analysis

Archival research on (non) financial reporting and performance has included possible moderator and mediator variables with a clear focus on moderators. Researchers have analysed whether the link between certain governance-, performance-, or reporting-related determinants of IR are strengthened or weakened by other factors. The link between IR and firm value may also be moderated or even mediated by additional variables. We differentiate between three types of moderator analysis in our literature review:

IR variables may moderate relationships between non-IR variables.

IR variables may moderate determinants and consequences of IR.

Non-IR variables may moderate the consequences of IR on firm value.

4.6.1 IR moderator variables

Here we have emphasised the results of studies on IR variables that moderate other non-IR-links. Albitar and Hussainey ( 2020 ) found the positive link between CSR reporting and financial performance to be moderated by IR adoption . IR adoption also moderates the positive relationship between CSR performance and the market value of equity (Loprevite et al., 2018 ). Graßmann ( 2020 ) documented that IR adoption positively moderates environmental expenditures and firm value, for firms with either a low or a high level of expenditures. However, the same author reported a negative moderating effect for “stuck in the middle” firms, indicating a non-linear relationship (Graßmann, 2020 ). Mervelskemper and Streit ( 2017 ) also noted inconclusive results.

Based on the South African IR regime, Muttakin et al. ( 2020 ) included IR adoption as a moderator on the negative link between earnings quality and cost of debt and found supportive results. According to Caglio et al. ( 2020 ), IR assurance compensates for poor IR readability (IR tone bias) and may be linked with increased firm reputation in South Africa. However, Landau et al. ( 2020 ) have stated that IR assurance by a Big Four audit firm and recognition of the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) standards do not moderate the relationship between IR adoption and the market value of equity in voluntary IR settings. Gal and Akisik ( 2020 ) and Akisik and Gal ( 2019 ) found that IR assurance by an accounting firm moderates the link between IR adoption and financial performance as well as between IR adoption and the market value of equity. Maroun ( 2019 ) noted that IR assurance by a Big Four audit firm strengthens the positive impact of IR assurance on IR quality in South Africa.

4.6.2 Non-IR moderator variables on the consequences of IR on firm value

Garcia-Sanchez et al. ( 2019 ), Garcia-Sánchez et al. 2020 ) have noted that munificence strengthens the positive (corporate) governance-IR adoption link and growth opportunities moderate the negative link between CEO power and IR adoption. Most moderator analyses relate to the financial consequences of IR adoption and quality. Two studies of this type focus on the mandatory IR regime in South Africa (Lee & Yeo, 2016 ; Zhou et al., 2017 ).Lee and Yeo ( 2016 )’s study indicated that organisational complexity and external financing needs moderate the impact of IR quality on Tobin’s Q. According to Zhou et al. ( 2017 ), low analyst following moderates the negative effect of IR quality on cost of equity. Cultural aspects , especially low power distance, strong collectivism and masculinity, moderate the negative impact of IR adoption on cost of capital (Vena et al., 2020 ). According to Gal and Akisik ( 2020 ), the effectiveness of internal control systems moderates the impact of IR adoption on the market value of equity. Cortesi and Vena ( 2019 ) could not find any moderator effect of geographical provenance, countries’ economic structure and legal system on this link. Likewise, industry does not moderate the relationship between IR quality and CAR (Cosma et al., 2018 ). Flores et al. ( 2019 ) found that the link between IR adoption and analyst forecast accuracy is strengthened by a North American (case law) regime. In contrast to this, code law regimes and diversified firms strengthen the negative impact of IR quality on agency costs (Obeng et al., 2020b ). According to Garcia-Sanchez and Noguera-Gamez ( 2017a ), earnings quality and investor protection moderate the negative link between IR adoption and analyst forecast error. Gerwanski ( 2020 ) stressed that lower CSR performance and environmentally sensitive industries moderate the negative link between IR adoption and cost of debt.

4.6.3 Mediator analysis

In contrast to the increased number of moderator analyses during the last years, there has been little mediator analysis in prior IR research. We recognise just two studies in the South African mandatory IR setting (Bernardi & Stark, 2018 ; Lemma et al., 2019 ), that have included a mediator analysis in their design. Lemma et al. ( 2019 ) stressed that earnings quality mediated the negative link between IR adoption and leverage in South Africa. According to Bernardi and Stark ( 2018 ), the negative relationship between IR adoption and analyst forecast error was mediated by CSR performance.

4.7 Results

Table 3 gives an overview of positive (+), negative (−) and inconclusive (±) significant results in the IR studies included in our literature review. We rely on the vote counting technique. While many studies concentrate on corporate governance-related determinants, the impact of board composition, ownership structure and stakeholder pressure on IR adoption is inconclusive. This can be justified either by the heterogeneous significances found (board composition) or the low volume of studies (ownership structure and stakeholder pressure). While similar results are present for the link between ownership structure and IR quality, board composition (board effectiveness), and stakeholder pressure promote IR quality . The studies considering country-related governance variables are few and heterogeneous in their results. No tendencies toward any impact on IR adoption and IR quality can thus be stated. Interestingly, (non) financial performance leads to greater IR adoption and quality by tendency. IR strategies may be promoted by board monitoring actions as well as by firm-related incentives. In contrast to this, there are not yet enough studies.

Finally, the studies included regarding the consequences of IR on firm value clearly indicate that total performance measures are positively linked with both IR adoption and quality. However, we note that few studies have considered specific components of firm value, such as liquidity, cost of capital, or expected future cash flows. In summary, there seems to be a business case argument for IR, as the capital market positively values IR strategies. In comparison to IR quality, we must recognise the differences between voluntary IR regimes and the mandatory South African setting when addressing studies on IR adoption. The South African setting was applied mainly to analyse the consequences of IR adoption on firm value. Interestingly, we do not see major differences in research results based on voluntary and mandatory settings . Instead, the business case for IR seems to be relevant in both settings, based on total performance measures.

Figure 2 , based on our initial research framework, gives a summary of our key vote counting results on archival IR research. First, board composition and stakeholder pressure, as subgroups of corporate governance, are significantly positively related with IR quality. Second, (non) financial performance leads to increased IR adoption and IR quality. Third, both IR adoption and IR quality increase total performance measures—and thus firm value.

Key findings of the literature review

5 Implications for future research

5.1 methodological implications.

One of the key challenges in IR is the presence of high levels of managerial discretion (e.g., in terms of definition, assessment and information provided around the firm’s ‘capitals’ or the materiality of information (Gerwanski et al., 2019 ). Thus, in business practice, IR lacks homogeneity and comparability between firms. In line with legitimacy theory, major risks include managerial greenwashing and impression management by ‘rebranding’ the classical annual report as an integrated report without any substantive change in the management system (Rivera-Arrubla et al., 2017 ). We appreciate that many studies measure IR quality, rather than just focussing on IR adoption. Yet the content analysis of IR and the generation of scoring criteria, in line with the IIRC Framework (IIRC, 2013 ), is linked with heterogeneous IR variables. In some research designs, there is no clear separation between CSR reporting and IR. Thus, future researchers should address ‘real’ integrated reports that are clearly linked to the IIRC framework, integrated thinking, management control processes, and risk management (e.g., based on major IR principles like materiality, conciseness, and connectivity). The risk of information overload with IR can also be reduced by a strong focus on the materiality principle in line with stakeholders’ interests. Thus, we recommend the inclusion of materiality disclosure in IR quality studies (Fasan & Mio, 2017 ; Gerwanski et al., 2019 ). To achieve this, a critical discussion on prior IR qualit y proxies will be most useful. No study, to date, has included a representative stakeholder dialogue on the relevant evaluation criteria for IR quality. In our literature review, some studies have tried to operationalise IR quality via “objective” means, for example, based on the ‘EY Excellence in Integrated Reporting Awards’ score in South Africa (e.g., Barth et al., 2017 ). Along with classical content analysis and scoring methods, scholars refer to the readability of IR by textual analyses to assess its quality (Melloni et al., 2017 ). The intention of the narrative reporting medium to apply “plain language over the use of jargon or highly technical terminology” (IIRC, 2013 , p. 21), is also relevant to IR. Textual analysis and using big data analytics, such as artificial intelligence or machine learning, represent innovative and relevant tools to create additional IR quality measures. One major challenge is the combination of archival data with primary data, based on interviews and surveys of top and middle management on IR implementation, to analyse IR quality.

From a methodological point of view, future studies should recognise several shortcomings in the prior research. First, they should address endogeneity concerns (e.g., reversed causality) in more detail (Wintoki et al., 2012 ). Advanced analytical approaches, including dynamic regression models (Generalised method of moments [GMM] estimation), instrumental variable (IV) approaches or simultaneous equations models [SEM]) are relevant to recognize concerns in IR research due to reversed causality or omitted variables (Wintoki et al., 2012 ). The authors assume that significant relationships between CSR and firm value may be raised by recognising “classical” OLS regressions in comparison to advanced regression models. Second, prior research includes mainly linear regression models, indicating that a maximum level of governance, (non) financial performance and reporting will be useful to adopt IR or increase its quality. Moreover, in line with archival research on related CSR topics, an optimal level of those indicators and a non-linear relationship seem more realistic (indicating a U-shape or inverted U-shape curve).

5.2 Content-related implications

While prior research on the corporate governance determinants of IR has notably increased in the past few years, “classical” board effectiveness proxies are generally applied (e.g., gender diversity, board size, board meeting frequency). We recommend adding behavioural corporate governance aspects with increased relevance to other related research topics. Managers’ education and professional backgrounds (Lewis et al., 2014 ), personality and preferences (Gibbins et al., 1990 ), and sustainability-related attitudes (Helfaya & Moussa, 2017 ) can also have a major influence on voluntary disclosure. Thus, researchers should analyse the effects of CEO and CFO demographic (e.g., gender, age, experience, education) or behavioural (e.g., altruism, narcissism, overconfidence) characteristics on IR strategies. Non-financial components in a firm’s management compensation (e.g., Davila & Venkatachalam, 2004 ; O’Connell & O’Sullivan, 2014 ) are also given more importance in business practice, according to legitimacy and stakeholder theory. Sustainability management goals or management incentives, such as the recognition of social and environmental goals in compensation contracts, should increase the motivation of top managers to adopt IR with an appropriate level of quality (Winschel and Stawinoga 2019 ). While research on the effects of audit committee composition (e.g., effectiveness, size, expertise, independence, etc.) on IR has begun, we have identified some major research gaps in this area. Monitoring IR requires a combination of financial and sustainability expertise in audit committees. Also of key relevance is research on other committees, especially sustainability committees and Chief Sustainability Officers ( CSO ), and on their interaction with audit committees (Velte & Stawinoga, 2020 ).

In contrast with research considering the audit committee as an internal corporate governance institution, extremely little archival research has analysed to date the impact of IR assurance on IR quality or the consequences of IR assurance on firm value (e.g., Velte & Stawinoga, 2017a ). In view of the increased relevance of empirical research on CSR assurance, future studies should also evaluate whether the choice of a specific IR assurance provider (professional accountant versus strategic consultant) and the assurance level (reasonable versus limited assurance) influence firm reputation and thus firm value. The literature states that a higher assurance level goes along with a higher reliability perception by stakeholders (Fuhrmann et al., 2017 ; Hasan et al., 2003 ). These assumptions should also be recognised in future archival IR research. Meanwhile, assurers’ lack of IR-related experience and firms’ insufficient implementation of adequate IR reporting infrastructures may question the value of IR by stakeholders (de Villiers et al., 2014 ; Maroun, 2017 ).

While we recognise a steady increase in IR research on board composition, we know very little about the impact of ownership structure, especially institutional ownership, on IR. Intensive monitoring by shareholders, for example, by sustainable investors , should motivate top managers to adopt IR of high quality. Sustainable investors are of increasing importance to corporations (Renneboog et al., 2008 ). They are key players in (non) financial shareholder activism, through, for example, the channel of “say on pay” voting Future researchers should evaluate the effect of sustainable investors, based, for example, on signing the UN Principles for Sustainable Investors (PRI) on IR.

Shifting from corporate governance to country-specific governance factors, we identify a research gap on the separation between one-tier (e.g., UK) and two-tier (e.g., Germany) systems. Two-tier systems are rather important in some regimes, such as in those of Continental Europe, and have a traditional focus on internal monitoring by supervisory boards. Given that internal monitoring in two-tier systems tend to be linked with higher independence, but with decreased expertise (e.g., Maassen and van den Bosch 1999 ), it would be worth investigating the implications of the one-tier and two-tier system in cross-country research designs. While most studies included in this review refer to an international sample or to the South African setting, a special focus on the European Union (EU) (as a current promoter of sustainable finance, governance and reporting due to the recent “green deal” project) and on environmental sensitive industries within the EU would be useful and innovative. In comparison to countries’ legal systems, which have been included in prior archival IR research, it would be informative to include regulatory and legal aspects that might affect the diffusion and implementation of IR as an “exogenous shock”. These might include, for examples, the effect of recent EU regulations (e.g., the EU “CSR” directive 2014/95/EU or the EU “green taxonomy”) on IR adoption and quality.

There is relatively little archival IR research on (non) financial performance and reporting as IR determinants, compared to governance-related aspects. While some researchers include (non) financial reporting and performance as determinants of IR strategies, we know very little about the interplay between earnings management and IR. As IR indicates a clear interaction among the six capitals, increased levels of of earnings management may have major effects on IR, both positive and negative. The association between IR and earnings quality should also be reassessed not just by means of accruals models, but also including real earnings management (Roychowdhury, 2006 ). Other firm-specific characteristics, such as size, age, and industry, are often included as controls, but are very rarely recognised as independent variables in prior archival IR research. Factors like organisational complexity (Lee & Yeo, 2016 ) or employee relations management should also form part of future research.

Over the past decade, the relevance of IR has increased from the perspective of research as well as regulatory and business practice. The goal of IR is a clear connection between financial, manufactured, intellectual, human, social and relationship and natural capitals (IIRC, 2013 ), with a main focus on the materiality principle and the integrated thinking approach. IR is assumed to help overcome the risks of greenwashing policy and information overload, which have been attributed to stand-alone CSR reports since the financial crisis of 2008–2009 (Mahoney et al., 2013 ). In line with increased information demands by shareholders and other stakeholder groups, IR should include both material economic information (financial and manufactured capitals, based on financial statements) and information regarding environmental, social and intellectual capitals within strategic and operational goals (IIRC, 2013 ). The ‘integrated thinking’ concept and the holistic view of value creation are connected with a significant change process in the top management. The current discussion around climate change policies and C02 disclosures stresses the need for a detailed integration of social and environmental risks in financial management and risk management processes (Eccles & Krzus, 2019 ). Thus, IR represents the next step on the path of business reporting and complements or may even substitute stand-alone CSR reporting in the long run. However, as the current IIRC framework (IIRC, 2013 ) is principle based, we note increased levels of managerial discretion and thus a limited comparability of IR from an international perspective (Flower, 2015 ). As IR is still voluntary in most regimes (with the exception of listed firms in South Africa), IR adoption and IR quality are the two most important variables in IR archival research to date. As we integrate greenwashing and information overload as major challenges of IR, addressing IR quality in archival research is more useful than the inclusion of IR adoption. While there are some existing literature reviews on IR (e.g., de Villiers et al., 2017b ), we offer the first comprehensive, theory-based literature review on the business case (Schaltegger et al., 2019 ; Carroll and Shaban 2010 ) for IR, which systematically focusses on 85 empirical-quantitative (archival) studies. Our legitimacy- and stakeholder-theoretical framework implies that strong monitoring tools (governance) and (non) financial incentives (performance and reporting) drive IR strategies and that IR will also be linked with increased firm value.

Our literature review makes key contributions to the prior research on IR. First, we structure this growing research field into areas that separately focus on (1) both firm- and country-related governance factors; (2) (non) financial performance and reporting-related drivers; and (3) consequences of IR on firm value in line with our business case argument. As greenwashing behaviour and information overload may impair the relevance of IR for shareholders and other stakeholders, we clearly differentiate between IR adoption and IR quality in our literature review. (4) We likewise include moderator and mediator analyses in IR research, as additional requirements for a successful IR strategy. Second, we prepare a structured list of variables and proxies used in the studies and note their main statistical outcome via vote counting technique. By mapping prior researched relationships, we emphasise those IR topics that remain under-researched. Third, we make useful recommendations from a methodological and content-related perspective for future IR research. Our literature review indicates that board composition and stakeholder pressure, as corporate governance measures, tend to lead to improved IR quality. There are also indications that (non) financial performance increases IR adoption and quality. Both IR adoption and IR quality are also connected with higher firm value, based on total performance measures. There are indications that a business case exists for IR in corporate practice. We do not see major differences between voluntary and mandatory IR settings (South Africa) in the studies we have included.

Our analysis is not just useful for researchers, but also for regulatory bodies and business practice. This is because, first, we provide evidence that a successful IR strategy may lead to improved firm value in line with the business case argument for IR. Top management should be motivated to add IR, after gaining learning effects from stand-alone CSR reports, since IR may significantly contribute to firm reputation and increased stakeholder trust. To increase top managers’ motivation to strengthen their IR efforts, governance mechanisms, used as monitoring tools, and (non) financial incentives are important. Second, heterogeneous research designs stress the interdisciplinarity of IR-related issues (e.g., finance and accounting department, IT, marketing, and sustainability). Integrated thinking is not just necessary for reporting reasons, but also to reorganise the management and control systems. Third, while financial determinants and consequences were mainly included in prior research, recent IR research also focusses on non-financial items. Business practice should thus not classify IR as a one-sided shareholder tool, because it is also very useful for other stakeholders (e.g., customers or suppliers). Fourth, in line with the current regulatory discussion on mandatory climate change reporting (Eccles and Krzus 2019 ), non- financial issues should be clearly connected with advanced analytic tools, such as artificial intelligence or block chain technology (Wanner & Janiesch, 2019 ). While financial reporting processes are well established within PIEs, many companies show critical weaknesses in quantifying non-financial goals and key performance indicators (KPI). IR that is solely qualitative will not lead to increased decision usefulness for stakeholders. Innovations in digital transformation and stakeholder pressure on sustainability can be classified as complementary value drivers, which should be a useful motivator for IR adoption and IR quality.

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Appendix 1 Archival research on governance-related determinants of IR

Year	Author(s)	Reference	Country Sample size Period	Independent variable(s)	Dependent variable(s)	Significant results
2020	Chouaibi and Hichri	International Journal of Law and Management	International (Europe) 130 firms 2017	Stakeholder pressure (auditor industry specialization (dummy) Code of ethics existence in the audit firm (dummy) Big four audit firm (dummy) Behavioral skills in the audit firm (dummy))	IR quality (score; AssetFour)	+ + ± ±
2020	Garcia-Sanchez et al	Meditari Accountancy Research	International 1588 firms 2009–2017	Board composition (CEO power (index)) Moderators: information asymmetry (analyst forecast accuracy), financial constraints (Kaplan-Zingales index), firms’ incentives (interaction of two moderators)	IR adoption (dummy)	− Moderator: more pronounced by growth opportunity
2020	Graßmann	Journal of Cleaner Production	International 2012–2017 8992 firm-year observations	CSR performance (environmental expenditures Social expenditures) Moderator: IR adoption (dummy)	Total performance measures (market value of equity)	Environmental expenditures: u-shaped link Social expenditures: inverted u-shaped link Moderator: IR positively moderate environmental expenditures and firm value for firms with either a low or high level of expenditures; negative moderating effect for “stuck in the middle”
2020	Marrone	International Journal of Business and Management	International 139 firms N.A	Board composition (board size Board average age Board gender diversity CEO duality)	IR quality (score)	+ ± + −
2020a	Raimo et al	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 125 firms 2017	Board composition (audit committee size Audit committee independence Audit committee meeting frequency Audit committee financial expertise)	IR quality (score)	+ + + ±
2020b	Raimo et al	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 152 firms 2017	Ownership structure (institutional ownership Ownership concentration Managerial ownership State ownership)	IR quality (score)	+ − − −
2020a	Vitolla et al	Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management	International 134 firms K.A	Board composition (board size Board independence Board diversity Board activity)	IR quality (score)	+ + + +
2020b	Vitolla et al	Corporate Governance	International (20 countries) 87 banks 2017	Country-related governance (civil law)	IR quality (scoring)	+
2020d	Vitolla et al	Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management	International 130 firms 2017	Board composition (board size Board independence Board diversity Board activity)	Intellectual capital disclosure quality in integrated reports (score)	+ + + +
2020	Wang et al	European Accounting Review	South Africa 111 firms 2012–2015	Board composition (board effectiveness Audit committee effectiveness CSR committee effectiveness CSR-related management compensation)	IR quality (score; EY ranking) CSR assurance use CSR assurance quality (score)	+ (all) + (all) + (CSR governance variables more significant)
2019	Fuhrmann	Meditary Accountancy Research	International 353 reports 2012–2016	Ownership structure (concentration) Country-related governance (civil law Investor protection Culture (Power distance, masculinity, individualism, long term orientation, indulgence) Stock market importance	IR adoption (dummy)	+ / + − − (power distance, masculinity); ± (individualism, long term orientation, indulgence) ±
2019	Garcia-Sanchez et al	Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management	International 6442 firm-year observations 2006–2014	Board effectiveness (independence, gender diversity, experience, expertise, external consultants) Country-related governance (investor protection (anti-self-dealing index, creditor protection and capital market development) Transparency Corruption perception) Moderator: Munificence	IR adoption (dummy)	+ + + ± Moderator:+
2019	Gerwanski et al	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 359 firm-year observations 2013–2016	Board composition (board gender diversity) Reporting (IR quality (assurance; dummy)) Stakeholder pressure (Dow Jones Sustainability Index (DJSI) listing)	IR quality (materiality disclosure; score)	+ + ±
2019	Girella et al	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 349 firms 2016	Board composition (board size Board gender diversity Board independence) Country-related governance (corruption perception Risk rating Culture (collectivism, feminism, long-term orientation) Civil law)	IR adoption (dummy)	+ ± ± + + + ±
2019	Graßmann et al	Sustainability Accounting, Management and Policy	International 169 reports 2013–2014	Ownership structure (concentration)	IR quality (integrated thinking; score)	+
2019	Kim et al	Sustainability	Korea 4186 firm-year observations 2005–2016	Stakeholder pressure (employee pressure)	IR adoption (dummy)	+ (number of employees)
2019	Maroun	Journal of Accounting and Public Policy	South Africa 42 firms 2010–2016	Reporting (IR quality (amount of assured information) Moderator: Big four, reasonable assurance, IR disclosure option	IR quality (EY awards)	+ Moderator: + Big four
2019a	Vitolla et al	Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management	International 145 firms 2011–2018	Ownership structure (concentration) Stakeholder pressure (customer pressure (consumer product and service industry; dummy) Environmental protection organizations’ pressure (important impact on environment; dummy) Employee pressure (total employees) mandatory IR regime (dummy))	IR quality (score)	+ + + + +
2019b	Vitolla et al	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 135 firms 2017	Country-related governance (culture (power distance, individualism, masculinity, indulgence, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation)	IR quality (Score)	− (with the exception of uncertainty avoidance + ; long-term orientation: ±)
2018	Alfiero et al	Corporate Board	International (Europe) 1058 firms 2015	Board composition (foreign board diversity (percentage; at least three) Majority of foreign board members from feminine countries (dummy) Board size	IR adoption (dummy; yes/no)	(but at least three foreigns: +) + +
2018	Garcia-Sanchez & Noguera-Gamez	Australian Accounting Review	International 3294 firm-year observations 2009–2013	Board composition (Board size Board gender diversity) Country-related governance (Investor protection Civil law Anti-director rights Legal enforcement)	IR adoption (dummy)	± ± ± ± ± +
2018	Ghani et al	International Journal of Managerial and Financial Accounting	Malaysia 74 firms 2016	Stakeholder pressure (Big four audit firm)	IR quality (scoring)	+
2018	Kilic & Kuzey	Managerial Auditing Journal	International 55 firm-year observations 2014	Board composition (Board size Board independence Board gender diversity)	IR quality (forward-looking disclosure index)	± ± +
2018	Velte	Problems and Perspectives in Management	International 215 firm-year observations 2014–2016	Board composition (audit committee financial expertise Audit committee sustainability expertise)	IR quality (readability score)	+ + More pronounced by combined expertise
2017	Fasan & Mio	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 65 IIRC pilot program members 2012–2013	Board composition (board size Board independence Board activity Board gender diversity Country-related governance (civil law)	IR quality (materiality disclosure; score)	− ± ± − ±
2017	Melloni et al	Journal of Accounting and Public Policy	International 104 firm-year observations 2013–2014	Governance performance	IR quality (Conciseness (length, readability); Completeness (ESG score); tone)	±
2017	Pavlopoulos et al	Journal of Multinational Financial Management	International 82 firms 2011–2015	Board composition (independent members on the nomination and audit committee)	IR quality (disclosure index)	+
2017	Rivera-Arrrubla et al	Social Responsibility Journal	International 91 firm-year observations 2011	Stakeholder pressure (Big four audit firm) IR quality (assurance; dummy)) Country-related governance (civil law)	IR quality (disclosure index)	+ ± ±
2016	Haji & Anifowose	Managerial Auditing Journal	South Africa 246 firm-year observations 2011–2013	Board composition (audit committee effectiveness Audit committee size Audit committee activity Audit committee independence Audit committee financial expertise Audit committee authority Sustainability committee) Ownership structure (concentration)	IR quality (score)	+ ± + ± ± + + +
2016	Lai et al	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 52 IR adopters 2009–2011	Governance performance	IR adoption (dummy)	+
2016	Stacchezzini et al	Journal of Cleaner Production	International 54 firm-year observations 2011–2013	Board composition (board independence)	IR quality (sustainability action disclosure)	−
2016	Vaz et al	Business Ethics: A European Review	International 1449 firm-year observations 2012	IR quality (assurance; dummy) Country-related governance (civil law Investor protection Culture (Collectivism; Feminism))	IR adoption (dummy)	± ± ± + (Collectivism)
2015	Serafeim	Journal of Applied Corporate Finance	USA 1114 firms 2002–2010	Ownership structure (Long-term investors (difference between the percentage of shares held by dedicated and transient investors))	IR adoption (dummy)	+
2015	Sierra-Garcia et al	Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management	International 7344 firm-year observations 2009–2011	Stakeholder pressure (CSR assurance CSR assurer (audit firm))	IR adoption (dummy)	+ ±
2013a	Frias-Aceituno et al	Journal of Cleaner Production	International 2129 firm-year observations firms 2008–2010	Country-related governance (civil law Legal enforcement (efficiency of the legal system, index of law and order))	IR adoption (dummy)	+ +
2013b	Frias-Aceituno et al	Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management	International 1575 firm-year observations 2008–2010	Board composition (board size Board independence Board activity Board gender diversity Board foreign diversity)	IR adoption (dummy)	+ ± ± + ±
2013	Garcia-Sanchez et al	International Business Review	International 3042 firm-year observations 2008–2010	Country-related governance (culture: Collectivism; Feminism; Tolerance of uncertainty; Power distance; long-term orientation)	IR adoption (dummy)	+ (Collectivism; Feminism)
2012	Jensen & Berg	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 204 IR companies from the GRI Reports List 2009	Country-related governance (civil law Investor protection Employment protection Market orientation Ownership concentration Share of private Expenditures Density of trade unions National corporate Responsibility Value of self-expression Secular-rational value and Economic development	IR adoption (dummy)	± + - + + + + + + +

Appendix 2 Archival research on (non) financial performance and reporting as determinants of IR

Year	Author(s)	Reference	Country Sample size Period	Independent variable(s)	Dependent variable(s)	Significant results
2020b	Vitolla et al	Corporate Governance	International 87 banks 2017	Financial performance (ROA) leverage)	IR quality (score)	+ +
2019	Beretta et al	Journal of Intellectual Capital	Europe 102 reports 2011–2016	ESG performance Decline of Financial performance	IR tone (text analysis)	+ ±
2019	Gerwanski et al	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 359 firm-year observations 2013–2016	Learning effects IR quality (readability; index) Earnings quality (accruals)	IR quality (materiality score)	+ ± ±
2019	Fuhrmann	Meditary Accountancy Research	International 353 reports 2012–2016	Financial performance (ROA) Leverage ESG performance	IR adoption (dummy)	± − + (S)
2019	Girella et al	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 349 firms 2016	Financial performance (ROA, Market/book ratio) Leverage Firm efficiency	IR adoption (dummy)	+ ± ±
2019	Graßmann et al	Sustainability Accounting, Management and Policy	International 169 reports 2013–2014	ES(G) performance Financial performance (ROA) leverage foreign sales Price volatility	IR quality (integrated thinking; score)	+ + + − ±
2019	Pavlopoulos et al	Research in International Business and Finance	International 82 IR adopters 2011–2015	Earnings quality (Accruals and Income Smoothing) Moderator: Mandatory IR adoption (dummy)	IR quality (score)	±
2019	Roman et al	Sustainabiliy	International 30 firms 2017	Financial performance (Revenues) Reporting (transparency index)	IR quality (tone; textual analysis) IR quality (readability; Gunning Fog index)	− −
2019	Romero et al	Business Strategy and The Environment	Spain 68 firms 2013–2015	Separate CSR report (dummy) IR adoption (dummy) CSR report within annual report (dummy)	IR quality/quantity (ratio of CSR concepts, type of disclosure)	+ +
2019	Wachira et al	Social Responsibility Journal	South Africa 2014	Analyst following Transparency score (rating by Integrated Reporting and Assurance Services)	IR adoption (dummy)	+ +
2018	Ghani et al	International Journal of Managerial and Financial Accounting	Malaysia 74 firms 2016	Leverage liquidity	IR quality (score)	± ±
2018	Menicucci	Journal of Applied Accounting Research	International 282 reports 2011–2015	Financial performance (ROE) Leverage	IR quantity; word counting related to topics)	+ ±
2016	Lai et al	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 52 IR adopters 2009–2011	ESG performance Leverage Financial performance	IR adoption (dummy)	+ ± −
2015	Melloni	Journal of Intellectual Capital	International 52 reports 2011–2013	Declining financial performance	IR quality (tone; textual analysis)	+
2014	Churet & Eccles	Journal of Applied Corporate Finance	International Firms from the RobecoSAM database 2011–2012	ESG management quality Financial performance (ROIC)	IR quality (score)	+ ±
2014	Frias-Aceituno et al	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 1590 companies 2008–2010	Financial performance growth	IR adoption (dummy)	+ ±

Appendix 3 Archival research on the consequences of IR on firm value

Year of publication	Author(s)	Sources	State Sample Year(s)	Independent variable(s)	Dependent variable(s)	Significant results
2020	Adegboyegun et al	Cogent Business & Management	Nigeria 13 Banks 2009–2018	IR quality (Score)	total performance measures (profit after taxes)	± (short run); + (long run)
2020	Albitar and Hussainey	International Journal of Accounting and Information Management	UK 1943 firm-year observations 2009–2018	ESG reporting (Bloomberg database) Moderators: IR adoption (dummy; introduction 2013) ownership concentration gender diversity board size	total performance measures (Tobin’s Q)	+ Moderators: +
2020	Caglio et al	European Accounting Review	South Africa 443 firm-year observations 2011–2016	IR quality (readability; Fog, Flesch) IR quality (tone; textual analysis) IR quantity (word count) Moderator: IR quality (assurance; dummy)	total performance measures (Tobin’s Q; ESG performance) Liquidity (bid-ask-spread) Expected future cash flows (analyst forecast dispersion)	+ (IR read. and Tobin’s Q; IR length and bid-ask-spread) − (IR tone and analyst forecast) Moderator: IR assurance compensates for poor readable und tone biased IR
2020	Dey	International Journal of Disclosure and Governance	Bangladesh 144 firm-year observations 2013–2018	IR quality (score)	Total performance measures (Tobin’s Q) Stock liquidity (spread, total numbers of shares traded for the period divided by the number of year-end outstanding shares)	+ ±
2020	Gal & Akisik	Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management	North America 106 reports in GRI website 2011–2016	IR adoption (dummy) Moderators: effectiveness of internal control system IR quality (third party assurance, audit firm, non-audit firm)	Total performance measures (Market value of equity)	± Moderators: +
2020	Gerwanski	Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management	International (Europe) 2015–17 2196 firm-year observations	IR adoption (dummy) Moderators: lower ESG performance, environmentally sensitive industry	Marginal cost of debt	− Moderators: more pronounced
2020	Landau et al	Business Strategy and the Environment	Europe 50 STOXX Europe firms 2010–2016	IR adoption (dummy) in comparison to separate ESG report Moderator: IR quality (assurance by big four); IR according to GRI	total performance measures (market value of equity)	− Moderator: ±
2020	Moloi & Iredele	Academy of Strategic Management Journal	South Africa 20 firms 2013–2017	IR quality (EY awards)	total performance measures (Tobin’s Q)	+
2020	Muttakin et al	International Journal of Accounting & Information Management	South Africa 847 firm-year observations 2009–2015	IR adoption (dummy) Earnings quality Moderator: IR adoption	Cost of capital (Cost of debt)	− − Moderator: more pronounced
2020a	Obeng et al	Pacific-Basin Finance Journal	International (without South Africa) 4420 firm-year observations 2009–2015	IR adoption (Dummy) IR quality (scoring) Moderator: agency costs (cash flow, expense ratio, dividend payout, asset utilisation)	Earnings quality (earnings management score: accruals, income smoothing, earnings persistence)	+ + Moderator: + (adoption); ± (quality)
2020b	Obeng et al	European Accounting Review	International (without South Africa) 2009–2017 806 firms	IR quality (score) Moderator: code law regime; diversified firms	Agency costs (free cash flow * growth; expense ratio, dividend payout ratio; expense ratio and asset utilization)	− Moderators: more pronounced
2020	Omran et al	Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management	South Africa 110 firms 2014–18	IR quality (score; EY ranking)	Total performance measures (environmental performance; AssetFour)	+
2020	Sriani and Augstia	Heliyon	International (Europe and Asia) 94 firms 2016	IR quality (score) Moderator: firm size	Stock liquidity (spread)	± Moderator: ±
2020	Vena et al	Journal of International Financial Management & Accounting	International 211 firms 2009–2017	IR adoption (Dummy) Moderator: culture (power distance, collevtivism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation, indulgence)	Cost of capital (WACC)	− Moderator: more pronounced by low power distance, strong collevitism values, and high masculinity
2020c	Vitolla et al	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 116 firms 2016	IR quality (score)	Cost of capital (cost of equity; PEG ratio method by Easton 2004)	-
2020	Wahl et al	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 167 firms 2011–2018	IR adoption (dummy)	Expected future cash flows (analyst forecast accuracy) Total performance measures (Tobin’s Q)	± ±
2020	Zuniga et al	Accounting Research Journal	South Africa 297 firm-year observations 2013–2015	IR quality (score) Moderator: material sector; firms with volatile returns, firm size	Stock liquidity (bid-ask-spread) Expected future cash flows (analyst forecast error)	+ − Moderators: lower for large firms and higher for firms with volatile returns
2019	Akisik & Gal	Sustainability Accounting, Management and Policy Journal	North America 106 reports in GRI website 2011–2016	IR adoption (dummy) Moderator: IR quality (assurance by audit firm)	total performance measures (stock price growth, ROE, ROA)	+ Moderator: +
2019	Conway	Journal of Financial Reporting and Accounting	South Africa 2006–2015	IR adoption (dummy) IR quality	Total performance measures (financial performance, risk, ESG performance)	− (IR adoption; IR quality)) − (IR adoption; IR quality)) + (IR quality)
2019	Cortesi & Vena	Journal of Cleaner Production	International 636 firms 2003–2017	IR adoption (dummy) Moderators: geographical provenance countries’ economic structure legal system	Total performance measures (Market value of equity)	+ Moderators: ±
2019	Flores et al	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 2,496 firm-year observations 2009–2016	IR adoption (dummy) Moderator: North American (shareholder) regime versus Europe (stakeholder)	Expected future cash flows (analyst forecast accuracy Analyst coverage)	+ Moderator: more pronounced in North America than in Europe +
2019	Lemma et al	Asian Review of Accounting	South Africa 832 firm-year observations 2009–2015	IR adoption (dummy) Mediator: earnings quality	Total performance measures (Leverage)	− Mediator: +
2019	Loprevite et al	International Journal of Managerial and Financial Accounting	Europe 151 firms 2014–2017	IR adoption (dummy)	Total performance measures (Market value of equity)	±
2019	Pavlopoulos et al	Research in International Business and Finance	International 82 IR adopters 2011–2015	IR quality (score)	Total performance measures (ROA, Market value of equity, CAR)	+ + +
2019	Tlili et al	Journal of Intellectual Capital	South Africa 99 firms 2006–2015	IR adoption (dummy)	Total performance measures (value relevance of organizational capital)	+
2018	Bernardi & Stark	The British Accounting Review	South Africa 205 observations 2008–2012	IR adoption (Dummy) Mediator: ESG performance (rating by Bloomberg)	Expected future cash flows (analyst forecast error)	− (especially environmental ratings)
2018	Camodeca et al	Sustainability	International (Europe) 32 IR adopters 2013–2018	IR quality (tone; textual analysis)	Total performance measures (Market value of equity)	±
2018	Cosma et al	African Journal of Business Management	South Africa 76 observations 2013–2016	IR quality (awards) Moderator: industry	Total performance measures (Cumulative abnormal returns)	+ Moderator: ±
2018	Loprevite et al	Sustainability	International (Europe versus South Africa) 2,380 firm-year observations 2012–2016	IR adoption (dummy; mandatory versus voluntary versus no) ESG performance Moderator: voluntary IR adoption (dummy)	Total performance measures (ESG performance, Market value of equity)	+ (voluntary; mandatory in the medium term) + (also + moderator)
2019	Loprevite et al	International Journal of Business and Management	International (Europe) 88 firms 2014–2015	IR adoption (dummy)	Total performance measures (value relevance of earnings)	+
2017	Barth et al	Accounting, Organizations and Society	South Africa 292, 221, 189 2011–2014	IR quality (EY awards)	Expected future cash flows (analyst forecast error) Cost of equity (mean of the cost measures by Claus and Thomas, Gebhardt et al., Ohlson and Juettner-Nauroth and Easton) Liquidity (Bid-ask-spread) Expected future cash flow (stock price forecasted by financial analysts) Realized future cash flow from operating activities (investment efficiency) Tobin’s Q	± ± + + + +
2017a	Garcia-Sanchez & Noguera-Gamez	Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management	International 995 firms 2009–2013	IR adoption (dummy) Moderators: earnings quality (accruals) investor protection (common law; anti-director rights; index of judicial efficiency and index of law and order)	Expected future cash flows (analyst forecast error)	− Moderators: +
2017b	Garcia-Sanchez & Noguera-Gamez	International Business Review	International 3,294 observations 2009–2013	IR adoption (dummy)	Cost of equity (PEG model by Easton 2004	−
2017	Maniora	Journal of Business Ethics	International 250–280 companies 2002–2011	IR adoption (dummy)	Total performance measures (ESG integration (integrated thinking, integrated management and overall integration level) ESG performance)	(+) only compared with no ESG reporters and ESG reporting in annual reports (−) compared with stand-alone ESG reports
2017	Mervelskemper & Streit	Business Strategy and the Environment	International 215 firms 2009–2014	ESG performance (Asset four) Moderator: IR adoption	Total performance measures (Market value of equity)	ESG performance gets valued more strongly and in the positive direction when a firm publishes an ESG report, irrespective of its type Moderator: ±
2017	Oshika & Saka	Social Responsibility Journal	International 12,345 firms 2012	IR adoption (dummy)	Distributions to stakeholders (employees, creditors, government and shareholders) Total performance measures (gross margin, EBIT ratio, net income ratio, ROE and ROA)	+ +
2017	Pavlopoulos et al	Journal of Multinational Financial Management	International 82 firms 2011–2015	IR quality (disclosure index)	Agency costs (Tobin’s Q * cash flows)	−
2017	Zhou et al	Abacus	South Africa 443 observations 2009–2012	IR quality (score) Moderator: analyst following	Expected future cash flows (analyst forecast dispersion/error) Cost of equity (PEG model by Easton 2004	− − Moderator: more pronounced with a low analyst following
2016	Baboukardos & Rimmel	Journal of Accounting and Public Policy	South Africa 954 firm-year observations 2008–2010 and 2011–2013	IR adoption (dummy)	Total performance measures (Market value of equity)	+
2016	Lee & Yeo	Review of Quantitative Finance & Accounting	South Africa 822 firm-year observations on the JSE 2010–2013	IR quality (Standard and Poor’s Global Vantage; score) Moderators: Organizational complexity, external financing needs	Total performance measures (Tobin’s Q)	+ Moderators: +

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Velte, P. Archival research on integrated reporting: a systematic review of main drivers and the impact of integrated reporting on firm value. J Manag Gov 26 , 997–1061 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10997-021-09582-w

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International Relations Research Paper

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Introduction

Liberal beginnings, realist critics, marxist alternatives, economic interdependence and global security challenges, feminist international relations, constructivist international relations, environmental international relations, new security threats, development strategies and humanitarian crises, ecological challenges.

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War Research Paper

As a field of study, international relations (IR) is a young discipline. Its genesis can be traced back to the period immediately following World War I. In the aftermath of the war, philanthropists, scholars, and diplomats in Europe and the United States sought an understanding of the causes of war and the means by which to promote international peace and security. At its core, the initial study of IR was both normative and empirical. Normative IR theory seeks to provide a set of values that policymakers, diplomats, and other actors should follow in order to better the human condition. Empirical IR theory seeks to explain the underlying causes of political events. Originally, IR had the normative desire to achieve pacific relations between states and an empirical concern with investigating the underlying causes of war and conflict.

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With this narrow focus on interstate conflict, the original scholars in the field drew their theoretical insight from philosophy, history, law, and economics. Early scholars began a practice in IR of drawing on the philosophical works of Thucydides, Niccolo Machiavelli, Hugo Grotius, Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, and others in search of a proper understanding of the causes of war and the potential for peace. The study of past historical events was used to develop general principles that might be employed to resolve current and future conflicts. The growing importance of international law as a tool for states would be used by IR scholars to frame theoretical approaches promoting peace and security. In the decades following World War I, departments of IR emerged in Great Britain, Switzerland, and the United States to train diplomats and policymakers and further the theoretical study of the discipline.

Although the discipline began by focusing on the causes of war and the potential for peace, the complexities of world politics and the emergence of globalizing forces throughout the 20th century expanded the scope of IR to include the study of human rights, migration, environmental cooperation, economic development, ethnic conflict, nationalism, terrorism, and international crime. Today, IR scholars have developed sophisticated theories and models in order to study an ever-expanding set of issues and concerns. Constituting one of the main subfields in political science, IR continues to demonstrate how political power defines this growing set of issues and concerns.

In the discussion that follows, the historical emergence and intellectual scope of the discipline are explored by examining the development of international relations theory throughout the 20th century as well as the broadening list of empirical issues analyzed by IR scholars. Following this review, the future direction of IR is discussed. At the end of this research paper, a list of further readings is provided that introduces the reader to the themes introduced and the concepts explored.

Historical and Theoretical Developments in International Relations

In 1919, a wealthy Welsh industrialist by the name of David Davies provided funds to the University of Wales at Aberystwyth for the purpose of studying international relations. After witnessing the carnage of World War I, Mr. Davies was intrigued by the ideals represented in the League of Nations and dedicated funds to endow the Woodrow Wilson Chair of International Politics with a belief that humankind could overcome war. Sir Alfred Zimmern, a British historian, became the first scholar of international politics when he accepted the post of Wilson Chair. His work is characteristic of early scholarship in IR and focuses on issues of economic interdependence and cooperation through international treaty law. Believing that scholars could make a difference in the world around them, Zimmern and other liberals of his time sought practical institutional solutions for the problems of conflict in the world. This focus on institutional solutions would come to dominate early discussions in the discipline and exemplifies liberal IR theory. He had an interest in and affinity for the League of Nations as a mechanism to prevent conflict and promote prosperity and peace among states. Many of the liberal IR scholars of the time, including Alfred Zimmern and Norman Angell, were active in League affairs and accepted the political position of contemporary leaders like Woodrow Wilson, who argued that self-determination for peoples and state membership in organizations like the League could create the foundation for international cooperation and the transcendence of war as a policy of the state. The pinnacle of liberal IR thinking that understands law as the basis for peace is the Kellogg–Briand Pact, an international treaty formally titled the Pact of Paris that outlaws war as a policy tool for states in the conduct of their foreign affairs. This treaty was signed by more than 60 states and exists today as a reminder of institutional attempts to transcend conflict through international law. By outlawing war among the signatories, the treaty established a legal basis for trying state actors who violated the provisions of the treaty. Further, the treaty provided a solid foundation for a set of international norms limiting the use of violence in international conflict and constraining the actions of states.

For early liberal international relations scholars, the international community had the potential to use international organizations, international treaty law, and state diplomacy to solve problems. When constructed correctly, agreements negotiated by diplomats, written into law, and managed by proper organizations could resolve long-term international conflicts. Political challenges posed by World War II and the cold war would require certain refinements to liberalism in the 1970s, but the core belief in the possibility for change and the potential to overcome conflict still remains among liberal theorists.

Throughout the interwar period, as the period from 1919 to 1939 would come to be called, scholars concerned with a focus on institutional mechanisms to overcome interstate violence challenged liberal international relations theorists by emphasizing how enduring laws of power and the inevitable consequences of an international environment defined by a lack of a global government (anarchy) undermined institutional attempts to achieve peace. Exemplified in the classic E.H. Carr (1940) book The Twenty Years’Crisis: 1919–1939, realist IR theory focused on state concerns with security and the ever-present quest for power. There had been great concern among realists that liberal scholars and diplomats had a naive interpretation of international affairs and an idealistic faith in legal and institutional solutions as a means to solving potential conflicts. Accordingly, liberals had underestimated the potential for states to dismiss their legal (treaty) commitments and withdraw membership from international organizations when their national interest ran contrary to that law or organization.

Realists argued that scholars needed to develop a more sophisticated understanding of the causes of war. The normative desire to prevent war, although noble, undermined a clear understanding of its causes. As IR scholars, realists insisted that scholars seek a better understanding of what caused international violence in the first place. Writers such as E. H. Carr (1940), Hans Morgenthau (1948), John Herz (1950), and others labeled liberal IR scholarship “utopian” because of the liberal reliance on institutional solutions. These realists offered a vision of international politics where the potential for war required scholars and diplomats to mitigate its effects rather than seek its transcendence. According to realists, there was a set of conditions that prevented humankind from transcending war as policy. Human nature, often defined as a quest for power, and the anarchical environment limited the effectiveness of institutional solutions to prevent war. Reviewing the Kellogg–Briand Pact that liberals extolled as a sign of moral and political development in international affairs, realists noted that by the beginning of World War II, many of the pact’s signatories were occupied by, or at war with, other signatories.

Policymakers, realists argued, should recognize and internalize the important lessons of the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648). The peace treaty that ended this European war established sovereignty as a defining principle of each state and required each state to defend against external aggression rather than rely on other states for their defense. Sovereignty, or the principle that states have control and autonomy over their physical territory and the citizens or subjects in that territory, would come to dominate realist scholarship.

During this early period of theory development, a third approach to understanding the causes of war and the mechanisms for peace was emerging as a critique of both liberal and realist international relations theory. Emerging from the works of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, and others in the last half of the 19th century, Marxian scholars introduced a radical retelling of international relations. These scholars explored how particular class interests captured the power of the state and harnessed its foreign policies in order to promote their interests. This approach challenged both liberal and realist conceptions of the state as a neutral agent with regard to the citizens or subjects within. When understood to be in the interest of the propertied (or bourgeois) class, the state was engaged in a policy of expansion and imperialism. War, as state policy, could be understood as the means by which states would expand access to commodities and markets abroad. Moreover, opportunities for increased profits during war made it a profitable enterprise for the capitalist classes. Since the burden of battle was borne by the lower classes, Marxist IR scholars emphasized how war was the result of a particular economic system.

This radical approach to IR challenges liberalism and realism in two ways. First, as a moral critique, Marxism explores how capitalism, as an economic theory, undermines the human capacity for empathy. As a basis for the economic ordering of society, capitalism results in the exploitation of certain human beings and the alienation of all human beings. Once alienated, human beings become objects to be used just as the state might use any other weapon of war. Georg Lukacs (1971), a German philosopher writing in the early part of the 20th century, explores these moral criticisms of capitalism in History and Class Consciousness. His examination of human alienation has been used by subsequent Marxist IR scholars to explain how modern warfare dehumanizes people. Marxism also critiques the empirical rationale for war. Because capitalism requires that markets grow, war becomes a necessity. Capitalists must employ the state in war making in order to increase profits. V. I. Lenin (1916/1964), in his analysis of the causes of World War I, explores this issue in Imperialism, The Highest Stage of Capitalism.

After World War II, the historical trajectory of international relations was altered by two significant factors in world politics. First, the emergence of a new international economic order, increasing global trade and financial flows among states, prompted scholars to adjust the mainstream theories of liberalism and realism. In 1944, policymakers of the Allied states met at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in the United States to negotiate institutional structures to manage the postwar global economy. At the conclusion of this international conference, the states in attendance agreed to create the World Bank (known originally as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (which became the World Trade Organization in 1995). These institutions, and the norms of free trade, financial transparency, monetary stability, and economic integration that uphold these institutions, offered IR scholars additional variables to study in order to understand the causes of war and the potential for peace.

In a historical context, the development of these economic institutions demonstrated the importance of the liberal economic idea that global peace would be enhanced if states cooperated through trade and monetary policies. Often called neoliberals, scholars have explored how states in international relations create long-term cooperative arrangements that endure throughout the decades. Scholars such as Robert Keohane (1984) continue to study the implications of an increasingly global economic order. Their focus is on the complex web of governance rules. International governance occurs in conditions of anarchy, where government does not exist. However, even without formal government, neoliberals demonstrate how governance rules proliferate among the states in international relations and order their behavior. It is often the case that these governance rules proliferate because international regimes have been created to enhance the cooperation among states. The term international regimes refers to sets of principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures around which actors converge on a given issue area (Krasner, 1983). These regimes exist without the need of a formal government structure. Regimes function to provide a level of ordered and predictable governance among states in international society. An example of how regime cooperation has limited the spread of nuclear weapons follows.

In addition to scholarship on international governance and the importance of regimes, neoliberal scholars have employed the shared values that democratic states have in maintaining liberal economic conditions to study a separate peace that appears to develop among democratic states. Scholars such as Michael Doyle (1986) have explored this democratic peace hypothesis, arguing that sovereign states with market economies, limited government, civil rights, and representative government do not go to war with each other. This represents a direct theoretical challenge to realism. If neoliberals are correct and the type of government matters in terms of the potential for interstate peace, then the proliferation of democratic states should reduce the likelihood of war in the future. A world made up of democratic states could allow for the transcendence of interstate war as a policy possibility.

A second challenge to traditional international relations theory emerged after World War II with the advent of nuclear weapons and the global security threat posed by U.S. and Soviet hostilities during the cold war. Previous security threats involved state aggression and the proper international response to that aggression. The threat posed by great-power nuclear weapons required scholars to imagine global nuclear annihilation. A deterrence strategy known as MAD, or mutually assured destruction, emerged among strategic studies scholars and influenced the national security strategies of both the United States and the Soviet Union. In the 1960s, IR theorists debated the relative stability of an international system in which nuclear weapons existed as a global threat. Many realists (Art &Waltz, 1971; McNamara, 1968; Newhouse, 1973; Schelling & Halperin, 1961) outlined the merits of a MAD environment where states would learn that use of nuclear weapons would result in their own demise. This, they argued, would create a level of stability in international affairs and minimize the likelihood of system-wide wars. Scholars in other traditions (Bennett, 1962; Clancy, 1961; Dyson, 1979) contended that the potential for accidents or the irrational actions of one individual who did not learn the lessons of MAD could place billions of lives in peril.

Although the theoretical and moral debates remain ongoing in IR theory, the presence of nuclear weapons in world politics has led to broad agreement among diplomats and policymakers that access to nuclear technology should be regulated at the international level. The international community has developed an intricate set of principles, rules, norms, and decision-making procedures to limit access to nuclear technology and minimize its proliferation beyond a small group of declared nuclear states. These components constitute the nuclear nonproliferation regime. Actors in this regime include declared nuclear powers, the United Nations Security Council, and the International Atomic Energy Agency. The regime is centered on a multilateral treaty, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Each of these components includes a set of principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures that guide the behavior of states on the issue of nuclear nonproliferation.

Regimes exist in all areas of international affairs, including human rights, security, the environment, trade, finance, and cultural preservation. The study of international regimes has become a central research area in IR. Regime analysis has emerged as a useful approach to understanding conflict and cooperation. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, scholars in IR (Keohane, 1984; Krasner, 1983; Young, 1989, 1994) produced numerous works that furthered our understanding of and appreciation for international regimes. This literature helps explain how governance without government is possible and why international politics is most often ordered and predictable. Sophisticated theoretical studies of regimes provide a more comprehensive picture of international affairs than the earlier theoretical work conducted during the interwar period. Because regimes include multiple actors (such as states, international governmental organizations, nongovernmental organizations, and transnational corporations), their study provides theorists with a more detailed model of international affairs. In addition, because regimes involve institutional rules (like international law) and socially appropriate practices (like international norms), their study provides an opportunity for a more comprehensive approach to the study of continuity and change in world politics.

Alternative Challenges to Mainstream International Relations Theory

Although the inclusion of factors such as globalizing economic structures and the presence of nuclear weapons offers international relations scholars a new set of factors to include in their studies of international affairs, the treatment of these and other issues by mainstream scholars in the field has been viewed as inadequate by scholars critical of a focus on states instead of individuals and national security instead of human security. Alternative voices emerged throughout the 1980s that sought to critique both the mainstream IR scholarship of realists and liberals and the foreign policies that they studied. Although these alternative voices do not represent a single theory or approach to the study of world politics, they share a common concern that the discipline of IR and the practice of international politics have relied on concepts such as state sovereignty and the state system at the expense of other concepts. This state-centric emphasis marginalizes a set of concerns that need to be explored further if theorists wish to provide compelling and comprehensive answers to current and future problems.

The state, what constitutes it, what the implications are of particular foreign and security policies pursued by it, and where its national interests come from have been left underanalyzed and unquestioned. These questions represent a different type of question than those posed by realist and liberal scholars. Mainstream questions focus on the international environment and leave the internal assumptions of the theories themselves unexamined. Questions that critique the assumptions within theories are termed critical questions and require theorists to reexamine and reconstruct the theoretical foundations of international affairs. Often, this means that IR theory needs to be reformulated in order to remain coherent.

This alternative manner of theorizing has had a profound influence on the IR discipline. Feminist, constructivist, and environmental scholars represent important challenges to the traditional study of IR. Each of the approaches is examined below. Note that although each approach is different in its focus and the critical question that it poses, all of the approaches are similar in that they challenge liberal and realist IR theory.

By asking an alternative set of questions, feminist scholars (Carpenter, 2006; Enloe, 1989; Tickner, 1992, 2001) have been able to provide insight into gender issues that remain hidden by standard approaches in the discipline. The general focus of the discipline on war and economic affairs marginalized gender inequality. Feminist scholars in the 1970s argued that traditional gender roles in society undermined inclusion of women in international affairs. Divisions of labor in both advanced industrial and traditional societies mandated that women remain in the private sphere while men participate in the public sphere. Because war and diplomacy were public acts, women—and the issues of most concern to them—would be discounted. Similarly, because the home was part of the private sphere, feminist concerns of family, education, health care, and children would be marginalized, and issues of state GDP and increased trade would be emphasized. In both cases, feminist IR scholars articulated a new set of questions to challenge mainstream IR scholarship.

Consider the following example. Both realist and liberal international relations scholars accept the state as a necessary actor in international affairs and argue that its presence enhances the security of individuals by protecting them (collectively) against potential harm that exists in the international (or external) environment. Realists argue this by employing a concept like the national interest, and liberals emphasize this by employing a concept like collective security through international law. In either case, both theoretical approaches accept that the state is a central variable in the maintenance of international peace and security. Feminist IR scholarship challenges this assumption and questions whether the state might reinforce social structures that oppress and exploit particular groups. Domestically, IR theories that promote the idea that states protect the national interest and maintain national defenses are participating in a public debate about where to spend limited tax revenues collected by the state. Given a limited amount of state funds that can be spent on all public goods, this has the effect of steering money away from social programs that might be used to educate children, provide welfare and child care assistance, and promote health care for vulnerable groups. If public funds cannot be provided to supply these goods, the burden of supplying these goods often falls on women. Internationally, IR theories that emphasize issues such as balance of power and alliance structures or foreign direct investment and increased global trade are reinforcing a set of social structures that exploit women. In an important early critique of IR, Cynthia Enloe (1989) argues that mainstream IR theory neglected to study the social implications of cold war bases around the world. In Bananas, Beaches, and Bases, Enloe directs the attention of the reader away from a standard view of international politics as a struggle for power and security and toward an analysis of the implications of foreign military bases in third world countries. Recognizing that these bases reinforce stereotypical views of masculinity and perpetuate the exploitation of women who work in and around military bases, Enloe challenges traditional assumptions of international politics.

A second alternative challenge to traditional international relations scholarship has emerged among scholars interested in challenging the origin of state interests. Constructivists (Hopf, 2002; Katzenstein, 1996; Lapid & Kratochwil, 1996; Wendt, 1992) focus on the formation of national identity as a prerequisite for understanding and explaining national interests. Issues of identity and the norms that shape and constrain it remain hidden by mainstream approaches to IR that assume a given and predetermined national interest exists among all states. As with the feminists, these scholars ask a set of critical questions that requires a reexamination of traditional theories. The aim of constructivist IR scholarship is to challenge the underlying motivations that both liberal and realist scholars assume states have when conducting their foreign policies. By challenging the essence of these mainstream theories, constructivists are engaged in more than correcting a perceived flaw in IR scholarship; they are also engaged in reimagining the conduct of international affairs and allowing alternative interpretations of historical events to emerge.

Consider the following example. During the cold war, American and Soviet identities were based on a consideration of the other as an enemy. Each state had a negative perception of the other based on the qualities one possessed as distinct from what the other possessed. The United States perceived itself in positive terms because it upheld democratic values and political and civil rights. It perceived the Soviet Union in negative terms because it claimed the Soviet Union did not possess these traits. The Soviet Union perceived itself in positive terms because it was concerned with economic and social equality. It perceived the United States in negative terms because it claimed the United States did not possess these concerns. As a result of these identity constructions, each state determined the other to be an enemy and subsequently viewed the other’s actions as hostile and threatening. Constructivists argue that this scenario is what is missing from the work of mainstream IR scholars when they seek an understanding of the national interest. Only by identifying how national identities are created can the interests that form from those identities be understood. The events of the cold war come to be seen as a set of identity performances that reinforce a self–other dynamic in international politics rather than the logical outcome of two states pursuing predetermined national interests. As one prominent constructivist, Alexander Wendt (1992), has stated, anarchy is what states make of it; it is not an enduring cause of war in itself.

Constructivist international relations scholarship has become an important voice in understanding terrorism, ethnic conflict, and religious violence. Constructivists have developed detailed case studies exploring how the formations of particular identities among one group exclude membership for other groups. These studies point out that these identities do not cause war but do give rise to a self–other dichotomy that can be exploited by political entrepreneurs seeking power.

A third alternative approach to understanding international relations requires scholars to reexamine the ability of the state and the state system to solve pressing ecological problems that are transnational in scope and require cooperation among multiple actors. With the rise of national environmental movements in the United States, western Europe, and New Zealand in the 1960s and 1970s, the international community held its first global environmental conference in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was first proposed by Sweden in 1967 and was later supported by the United States. Scientists and policymakers were becoming increasingly concerned that economic activity in one region of the world was affecting the quality of the environment in other regions of the world.

As international relations scholars turned their attention to environmental issues, it soon became apparent that the mainstream theoretical emphasis on states, state sovereignty, and the national interest was not an adequate approach to resolving the pressing problems associated with the transnational dimension of the environmental problems. Realism and liberalism were constrained by a state-centric understanding of international politics. The world map that defines both theories is political. The world is divided into states with clearly defined borders. Ecosystems and environmental pollution, however, do not respect state borders. Environmental IR theorists (Haas, 1990; Luterbacher & Sprinz, 2001; Newell, 2006) questioned the disciplinary focus on a political world map and sought to reimagine the map as physical in nature. Political solutions to environmental problems require states, nongovernmental organizations, scientific groups, multinational corporations, and others to cooperate in ways that realists and liberals may not emphasize. Unlike peace agreements after major wars or security alliances during times of peace, solutions to environmental problems usually require the cooperation of more than just state actors. For example, state participation in a security alliance requires the cooperation of key government agencies within a state (the foreign and defense ministries, the chief executive, and a legislative body) but does not require much in terms of changes to the behaviors of the average citizen. Solving transnational environmental pollution, however, might require international governmental organizations, state agencies, corporations, and citizen groups to be involved in changing individual behaviors. Moreover, environmental problems are often linked to economic issues. Solving environmental problems can require states to forego economic development plans and limit short-term economic gains for the sake of improved long-term environmental sustainability.

These challenges to traditional international relations scholarship require theorists to construct alternative understandings of international relations. Scholars in this area of IR have researched how environmental scarcity can be a cause of war. Thomas Homer-Dixon (2001) argues that under certain conditions, environmental degradation can contribute to international conflict. Scholars have also examined how the international community has responded to environmental concerns. By examining the institutional structures created since the first international conference in 1972, scholars such as Oran Young (1989) and Peter Haas (1990) have contributed to the field by including epistemic communities (or groups of scientists with a vision of the problems and potential solutions) and regimes into the study on environmental IR.

In the aftermath of the 1972 conference, the international community has been active in institutionally managing the international environment. The United Nations created the United Nations Environmental Programme and held a subsequent international conference in Rio de Janeiro (the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development) in 1992. Broad international treaties to manage the oceans (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea III), air pollution (Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution), the movement of hazardous waste (Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal), and global climate change (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) have been negotiated.

Future Directions in International Relations

The discipline of international relations is adapting to new challenges at the dawn of the 21st century. States are confronted with emerging security threats including terrorism, cyber crime, and ethnic conflict. Challenges posed by uneven development, poverty, inequality, and malnutrition undermine possible state-centric responses. Humanitarian crises caused by political violence, corruption, and environmental disasters require substantial cooperation among international actors. A growing awareness of ecological interdependence demands that practitioners, scholars, and ordinary citizens reconceptualize international politics. Many of these new challenges are caused by a process of globalization that has been occurring for centuries. Globalization manifests itself in many ways but is most often referred to as a shortening of time and space that allows human beings to interact more directly than in times past. With rapid changes in communications technologies and information systems, groups once limited by time and space play an increasingly important role in international politics. These nonstate actors challenge IR scholars to incorporate additional variables into more complex theories of world politics.

Although terrorism is not a new issue in international politics, the globalizing forces that allowed for increased economic trade and wealth also allow terrorists to strike at larger targets. State-sponsored terrorism has been a concern among IR scholars for decades. New forms of terrorism involve nonstate terrorist groups with political grievances against states. Terrorism is generally defined as a premeditated, politically motivated violent act meant to cause fear among noncombatants. Nonstate terrorist groups challenge states in two ways. First, terrorist groups undermine the political fabric of domestic societies by invoking fear among the populous and undermining the legitimacy of the state to maintain peace and security. Second, terrorist activities challenge the foundation of international society by compromising sovereignty. IR scholars have adapted mainstream IR theories to incorporate terrorist activities. Current analysis seeks to understand the rationality of terrorist organizations and the security responses that states make in order to minimize terrorism.

Cybercrime is another emerging security threat that international relations scholars have begun to investigate. A growing amount of national and international commerce and communication takes place electronically. Disruptions to the electronic infrastructure of global commerce threaten national economies and undermine the welfare of societies. In addition, states must protect electronic databases and the classified information they contain. New directions in security studies have been developed to understand and account for the challenges that states face with regard to cybercrime.

Increasingly, conflict between groups involves intrastate ethnic conflict rather than interstate conflict. This represents a theoretical challenge to a discipline founded to transcend or mitigate interstate conflict. As the preceding discussion demonstrates, mainstream IR theories have focused on understanding international wars and promoting effective mechanisms for peace. IR scholars recognize the need to develop a much more sophisticated understanding of conflict that can incorporate both intra- and interstate dimensions of conflict. For instance, recent works by Robert Jackson (1990) and Mohammed Ayoob (1995) explore the internal dimensions of conflict and provide a sophisticated understanding as to how the complex statemaking process creates certain states beset by internal conflict and strife. Moreover, these studies demonstrate how these states undermine regional stability. Future research in this area will be necessary in order to develop increasingly useful theoretical models to predict potential areas of conflict and employ international resources prior to their onset.

In September 2000, member states of the United Nations adopted a set of millennium development goals to reduce poverty and to increase education, access to health care, and gender equality by 2015. These development goals provide evidence of the continued shift away from the traditional issue areas of international politics. Increasingly, states recognize the need to cooperate on a number of issues that were once considered internal or domestic issues. With the challenges posed by the new security threats and a growing awareness and appreciation for cosmopolitan values, state actors recognize the need to share development strategies and improve the human condition for all. This concern over the welfare of all human beings and a broad interest in humanitarian responsibility challenges earlier normative concerns in IR. Recent studies in IR involving issues of economic development, poverty, inequality, malnutrition, and humanitarian crises suggest a new normative shift in the norms and values examined by IR scholars. These new values are enshrined in concepts like a responsibility to protect those individuals and groups in states who are not being protected by their own states. This departure from traditional understandings of state sovereignty and the principle of nonintervention suggests a new debate about what constitute appropriate sovereignty is currently emerging among practitioners and theorists.

In response to the first global environmental issues in the 1970s, states developed complex institutional mechanisms to manage these problems. The persistence and proliferation of these problems has increased the need to further study cooperative strategies for managing them. Declining biodiversity, a looming energy crisis, and challenges to adequate food supplies are three key areas of environmental concern. However, the most difficult environmental problem to solve appears to be global climate change. Insufficient compliance with the Kyoto Protocol and the development demands of industrializing states such as China, India, Brazil, and Russia require states to resolve long-standing collective action problems in order to construct effective treaties for solving climate change. Collective action problems involve scenarios where the most rational actions taken by individual actors are suboptimal for achieving group success. That is, the best option for the group is not necessarily the best action for each individual member of that group (Olson, 1965). Global climate change is often perceived to be a classic collective action problem. IR scholars interested in this subject are seeking more sophisticated theoretical approaches to resolving climate change by invoking complex and varied incentive strategies to achieve cooperation (Luterbacher & Sprinz, 2001; Newell, 2006).

Although a young discipline, international relations has developed increasingly sophisticated approaches to explaining international conflict and the myriad issues that have emerged over the past 100 years. The complexities of world politics and rapid globalization require contemporary IR scholars to investigate more complex issues than those who originally developed the discipline. Although mainstream theoretical approaches to the study of international politics are still important in the field today, alternative theoretical emphasis on gender, norms, and environmental interdependence require scholars to consider a set of important theoretical questions left unexamined by mainstream approaches. Further, new security, humanitarian, and ecological challenges appear to undermine state-centric approaches in the discipline and require scholars to push the boundaries of the discipline in new directions.

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40+ Best International Relations Research Topics: Global Dynamics Unveiled

International Relations Research Topics

Theories of International Relations

Constructivism

Critical Theories

Foreign Policy

China’s Foreign Policy

Russia’s Foreign Policy

The European Union’s Foreign Policy

The Foreign Policy of the Middle East

International Law

The Sources of International Law

The Enforcement of International Law

The Development of International Law

The Future of International Law

International Organizations

The World Trade Organization

The International Monetary Fund

The World Bank

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

International Security

Cyberwarfare

Climate Change

International Development

The Impact of Globalization

The Role of Aid

The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

The Future of International Development

International Political Economy

Development

International Environmental Politics

Water Resources

International Human Rights

The Role of Human Rights Organizations

The Challenges of Human Rights Protection

The Future of Human Rights

Future Trends

Diplomacy in the Digital Age

Guardians of Global Wellness

Environmental Diplomacy

Regional Power Play

Tech-Driven Humanitarianism

Cosmic Diplomacy

Economic Resilience Revolution:

Digital Frontier Governance:

Migration Marvels:

Multilateral Makeover

What are good topics for research in international relations?

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What topics do international relations students study?