India is world’s 4th in research output, but ranks 9th in citations
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Mumbai: Indian entries in QS 2023-24 subject rankings saw an 18.7% rise making India the second most represented Asian country with 66 ranked universities and the fourth most represented country for the overall number of entries across the 54 narrow subjects.
The rankings also observed that between 2017 and 2022, India's research output grew by around 54%, taking it to the fourth position globally in producing academic papers, a recent study has found.
However, the quality and relevance of many of these papers remain questionable, as only 15% of them have been cited in top academic journals, revealed the study.
The report, released on Wednesday, was conducted by the British higher education analyst Quacquarelli Symonds (QS) with the help of data from the research analytics platform SciVal.
According to the report, the growth in India's research output is more than double the global average and far greater than that of its more academically established western counterparts.
China also continues to be the World leader in the total number of research papers published ((4.5 million) in the five-year period, followed by the United States (4.4 million) and the United Kingdom (1.4 million). However, the study predicts India is poised to surpass UK in the near future, due to the country's higher growth rate.
But when it comes to citations generated by the research work, India at the ninth place globally. According to QS, this indicates that the country should focus on high-quality, relevant research and ensuring this research is disseminated among the scholarly community.
"India’s challenge of generating high-impact research is made more apparent by its percentage of research papers to receive citations in top global journals. From 2017 to 2021, India saw 15% of its publications cited in top journals. Meanwhile, its closest competitors in terms of research output volume, the United Kingdom and Germany, boast top journal citation percentages more than double that, 38% and 33% respectively," reads the report.
India’s leading field of research is Engineering & Technology, accounting for 52.6% of total research output. Within the broader faculty, the primary focus of scholarly work is evenly split between Petroleum Engineering and Computer Sciences (24% of research output within the field).
The country's next predominant research fields are split between Natural Sciences (36%) and Life Sciences & Medicine (35%).The study also found that India produces 19% of its research output alongside cross-border collaborators, in keeping with the global average of 21% and aligned with that of its closest competitors. This is one of the key indicators considered by QS in its annual ranking of higher education institutes and courses.
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AQLI data ranks India as the second-most-polluted nation in the world in terms of air quality, behind only Bangladesh, and refers to Delhi as “the most polluted city in the world”.
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India was the world’s third-most-prolific publisher of research papers in 2022, but it was ranked only 153rd for the number of citations it received per paper. Indeed, in 2020, about 30% of papers from India were not cited at all, compared with 20% in both the United States and China. These trends are mirrored in many other low- and middle-income countries whose researchers struggle to get published in high-impact journals.
But despite this challenging publishing environment, some Indian scientists have produced influential, highly cited studies in a number of fields in the past few years. Here Nature highlights several of these key areas of research that have the potential to improve public health and quality of life both domestically and globally.
Strategies to reduce air pollution
Many parts of India have highly polluted air. The University of Chicago’s Air Quality Life Index ranks India as the second-most-polluted nation in the world in terms of air quality, behind only Bangladesh, and refers to Delhi as “the most polluted city in the world”.
UNESCO Science Report 2021
In India (chapter 22), the government launched the Digital India programme in 2015 to transform the ecosystem of public services. Sharp growth in access to Internet has fuelled the digital economy, including e-commerce.
The flagship Make in India programme has sought to promote investment in manufacturing and related infrastructure, among other things. Although it may have helped to improve the business environment, it has had little tangible impact on manufacturing itself. Since Covid-19, the manufacturing sector has been developing frugal (low-cost) technologies, including lung ventilators.
Since 2016, the Start-up India initiative has boosted the number of start-ups but these remain concentrated in the services sector, in general, and software development, in particular.
Overall research intensity remains stagnant and the density of scientists and engineers remains one of the lowest among BRICS countries, despite having risen somewhat.
The government has reduced the tax incentive for firms conducting R&D, which is consistent with the finding of the previous UNESCO Science Report (2015) that the tax regime had ‘not resulted in the spread of an innovation culture across firms and industries’. Pharmaceuticals and software still account for the majority of patents. Although inventive activity by Indian inventors has surged, foreign multinational corporations remain assignees for the vast majority of patents.
The phenomenon of ‘jobless growth’ that has plagued India since 1991 has worsened. Moreover, in 2017, the size of the workforce contracted for the first time since independence. Another concern is the low employability of graduates, including those enrolled in STEM subjects, although this indicator did improve over 2014–2019. The ambitious National Skills Development Mission aims to train about 400 million Indians over 2015–2022.
Air and water pollution remain life-threatening challenges in India. The government is striving for universal electrification and the diffusion of electric and hybrid vehicles.
Selected data
almost doubling each year since 2016
India’s top cross-cutting strategic tech subject by volume
of all Indian students in higher education in 2018
Infographics
- Figure 22.1 : Socio-economic trends in India
- Figure 22.2 : Trends in research expenditure in India
- Figure 22.3 : Trends in scientific publishing in India
- Figure 22.4 : Trends in Innovation in India
- Figure 22.5 : Revenue foregone in India as a result of R&D tax incentive, 2008–2019
- Figure 22.6 : Trends in human resources in India
- Table 22.1 : Indian pharmaceutical companies active in Covid-19 vaccine research, 2020
- Table 22.2 : Indian strategies and policies for Industry 4.0 technologies
India in the UNESCO Science Report
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India climbs to third among G20 nations for research output
China continued to produce more publications last year than anywhere else, according to new report.
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India surpassed the UK’s research output for the first time last year, although it still lags behind many of the world’s best research systems in terms of its citation impact.
A new study has analysed almost 25 million scientific publications from Elsevier’s Scopus database, revealing that G20 nations were responsible for the co-authorship of 75 per cent of global scientific publications from 2012 to 2021.
Researchers in India produced around 278,000 publications in 2022 – overtaking the UK for the first time and leaving it behind only China (a million) and the United States (721,000).
The number of scientific publications with authors in India rose by 11 per cent between 1999 and last year, far outpacing the growth seen in the US or the UK.
Although all G20 countries increased their scientific capacity, the analysis reveals that those in the Global South had seen the most growth.
Rates of increase from the end of the 20th century were highest in Indonesia (20 per cent) and Saudi Arabia (16 per cent).
In 1999, the largest publishers in the world were the US, Japan and the UK – although China has led the field since 2020.
The figures reveal that the global research landscape has changed from that of 30 years ago when the rich countries of the Global North dominated research, according to author of the report, Carlos Henrique de Brito Cruz, senior vice-president at Elsevier and professor emeritus at the State University of Campinas in Brazil.
“Now there is a change, and countries from the Global South are becoming more and more relevant in research and science,” he said.
“India has brought so many collaborations, especially when addressing the SDG goal of reducing world hunger. Scientific production in India is growing 25 per cent per year.
“Soon India will have a mass of knowledge that will become a reference for every other country in the world.”
The report, which was spotlighted at a seminar jointly organised by India’s Ministry of Education in partnership with Elsevier, said the number of citations with authors in each country offered a limited – but useful – way to estimate the influence of the publications in the scientific literature in the field.
By this measure, India still has some catching up to do, with the report ranking it 12th for the citation impact of its researchers’ publications.
Overall, the average share of publications with international collaboration for G20 countries grew from 20 per cent between 2012 and 2016 to 24 per cent between 2017 and 2021.
But international co-authorship for this latest period ranged drastically, from 73 per cent in Saudi Arabia to just 19 per cent in India.
Collaboration strategies between G20 countries also varied, though the main overall collaborator for all members was the US , except for Indonesia whose researchers collaborate mainly with those in Japan.
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For India’s scientists, academic publishing has become a double-edged sword Premium
Open-access publishing, driven by companies and initiatives in the global north, has become a zero-sum game for india’s scientists..
July 19, 2023 08:30 am | Updated 07:28 pm IST
Representative photo of books in a library. | Photo Credit: Henry Be/Unsplash
As India restructures its science governance, with the recently approved National Research Foundation , the national scientific enterprise can be a leading voice for accessible, equitable, and fiscally responsible research-publishing.
- Communicating research is an integral part of the scientific endeavour. It advances scientific understanding and bridges science and society. One important way in which this happens in academic settings is through scholarly journals, which publish scientific papers.
What is academic publishing?
Academic publishing starts with a scientist submitting a new set of findings to a journal. The journal assesses the manuscript by sending it out to experts for their comments, also known as ‘peer review’; the experts offer these comments on a voluntary basis. The journal passes them on to the researchers, who may modify their manuscript accordingly.
The whole process takes a few weeks to several months. After the journal accepts a manuscript for publication, it is featured on the journal’s website and/or is printed as a physical paper.
The process of academic publishing is designed to ensure scientists’ studies are rigorous even as it makes validated research accessible to the wider community.
What is ‘pay to read’?
A scientist’s research papers are relevant to their career advancement. University and institute ranking schemes also take note of the numerical metrics related to one’s publications: the number of papers, the number of citations, the impact factor, the h -index, etc.
Driven by the academic demand for publications, academic publishing has emerged as a flourishing business. Commercial academic publishing is led by for-profit companies based mostly in the U.S. and Europe. In their traditional subscription model, libraries and institutes pay a fee to access published research.
This ‘pay to read’ paradigm restricts access to scientific material, particularly in the Global South, where universities, colleges, and even research institutes are often unable to afford the subscription fees.
What is ‘pay to publish’?
A subset of commercial publishers have adopted the open-access model, which ensures anyone can access published material. The green and diamond open-access models support self-archiving and no-cost publication, respectively, but few journals offer these options.
The gold open-access model, which allows immediate and long-term access to published work, and has been adopted by leading publishing companies, is the focus of this article.
Gold open-access journals charge the authors of the papers a fee called the ‘article processing charge’ (APC) to make the work freely available online. In this ‘pay to publish’ paradigm, publishing companies receive scientific manuscripts and conduct peer-review at no cost, while charging the scientific enterprise a digital publication fee.
What is the problem?
- Academic publishing is today a lucrative industry, with a worldwide revenue of $19 billion and wide profit margins, of up to 40%. The problem is that these are profits made from public money, funnelled into a few companies, while academic scientific research is considered, as a whole, to be a not-for-profit endeavour
In the U.S. and Europe, an initiative called Plan S requires research funded by public grants to be published in open-access journals, and the APCs are paid through allocations in grants to scientists or from the funds for institute libraries.
In India, scientific research is largely funded by government grants, with scientists across the country publishing more than 200,000 articles a year. While cost-based publishing models have flourished and the number of scientific articles from India in open-access journals has increased rapidly, India decided against adopting Plan S in 2019.
What does gold OA mean for India?
Open-access publishing, driven by companies and initiatives in the Global North, is a zero-sum game for scientists and the people at large in India.
For one, the costs imposed by gold open-access worsen the financial health of research in India. In 2023-2024, the Ministry of Science & Technology, which funds a large chunk of research in India, announced an allocation of Rs 16,361 crore for its three research-supporting departments – a 15% jump from the previous year
However, across the last five years, the allocations to the Ministry of Science & Technology have seen modest hikes (8-10% between 2019-2020 and 2020-2021, and 3-4% between 2021-2022), along with cuts in allocation (4% across 2021-2022 and 2022-2023). This together with pandemic-related changes in expenditure priorities and steady inflation has meant that India’s expenditure on research has stagnated.
This is further reflected in India’s Gross Expenditure in Research and Development (or GERD), which has stayed close to 0.66% of the GDP for several years – versus more than 3% for the U.S. and 2% for the E.U.
In a June 22 tweet , the Department of Science and Technology hiked the emoluments for India’s research scholars, the backbone of the country’s scientific enterprise. Now, a senior PhD scholar is eligible to receive up to Rs 5 lakh a year to cover tuition, boarding, and living expenses (setting aside concerns about the disbursal being delayed by months or, in some cases, years).
But contrast this with the cost of publishing an open-access paper with Nature Neuroscience , which charges an APC of Rs 10 lakh. The Journal of Neuroscience is less expensive, charging Rs 5 lakh; other journals, such as Molecular Biology of the Cell and eLife , charge Rs 2.5-3 lakh.
So the current dominant publishing model, together with differences in research funding vis-a-vis the Global North, means scientists in India face twin challenges: doing cutting-edge research with fewer funds while diverting funds that could be used for research or human resources to ensure their papers are being seen by their peers in other countries.
Is there a workaround for the cost?
For another, commercial research publishing also presents a moral problem. The costs of supporting open-access publishing are supported by public funds and prop up publishing companies’ profits. This is antithetical to the premise of the scientific endeavour, to make humankind as a whole more knowledgeable.
For India, this means its citizens will have to pay to ensure access to scientific material for everyone – or contend with having large swathes of taxpayer-funded research inaccessible to them.
Journals of prestige often levy higher APCs than others, but even with country-based fee reductions, they do little to close the perceived ‘excellence’ gap between research that happens in the U.S. and Europe and that happening elsewhere.
Researchers seeking fee-waivers – to which some such journals say they are entitled – have also reported being embarrassed when having to provide evidence of lack of funds, and requests for waivers are also subject to a vetting process.
For these reasons, scientists are looking for a radical new way forward.
Could India show the way?
- With the significant number of scientific papers published from India every year, the country’s efforts to rethink academic publishing in line with the latter’s purpose, as much as the country’s strengths, could lead the world’s way.
Previous approaches at rethinking academic publishing have included encouraging the country’s scientists to publish in journals from India with relatively affordable open-access models. However, their limited readership and presence across the international scientific enterprise has meant for few takers.
Another approach that the government is considering is the ‘ One Nation, One Subscription ’ programme. Its scheme will make scholarly publications accessible to higher education and research institutions in India at a fixed cost, but in doing so, it could increase the monopoly of commercial publishers.
A third possibility is making the shift from open-access publishing to open publishing. For example, India, via its newly minted National Research Foundation, could set up a freely accessible and high-quality online repository – where scientists could feature versions of manuscripts and engage with reviews from experts as well as the people at large.
This repository could host independent experts’ comments and recommendations, as well as author responses, and be managed or facilitated for quality and visibility by a team of professionals. Researchers could respond and/or revise their findings over subsequent versions of the manuscript. Their work could be collectively and continuously questioned and evaluated by the scientific enterprise and citizens in India, both for immediate professional goals and larger national outcomes.
Executed well, this model could invite global participation, and pave the way away from numerical metrics of academic research evaluation.
Karishma Kaushik is the Executive Director of IndiaBioscience.
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The Countries Leading The World In Scientific Publications
The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) has released data showing that 2,555,959 science and engineering (S&E) articles were published around the world in 2018, a considerable increase on the 1,755,850 recorded a decade ago. Global research output in that sector has grown around 4 percent annually over the past ten years and China's growth rate is notable as being twice the world average. While the U.S. led the way in 2008, it has now been displaced as the world's top S&E research publisher by China.
In 2008, the U.S. published 394,979 S&E articles in peer-reviewed journals, ahead of China's 249,049. China's rapid growth rate saw it publish 528,263 articles last year, ahead of U.S. output totalling 422,808. India came third in 2018 with 135,788. The European Union's collective output came to 622,000 research articles, meaning it accounted for almost a quarter of the global total. China made up 20.67 percent while the U.S. accounted for 16.54 percent.
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This chart shows the number of science & engineering articles published in peer reviewed journals in 2018.
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15.8% of India's research work features in world's top 10 journals: Here’s rank of India
China has produced four times the number of articles than india..
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The quality of academic research produced by Indian scholars has become a subject of grave concern for the University Grants Commission (UGC), which had flagged the issue of increasing the number of students getting their research published in 'sub-standard journals'.
Following this, the UGC has released a list of journals and research work published only in those journals will be considered for academic credit.
The report has called for an increased shared of investment for the purpose of achieving global standards in research and innovation.
"For the sake of comparison, the levels of R&I investment as a proportion of GDP in some other countries are the US (2.8 per cent), China (2.1 per cent), Israel (4.3 per cent) and South Korea (4.2 per cent)," it added.
China on top position
The report noted that with a significant increase in investment in research and innovation, China now produces the maximum number of PhDs globally, having steadily increased the numbers yearly over the US.
"India's share of scientific publications has increased from 3.1 per cent in 2009 to 4.4 per cent in 2013 and to 4.8 in 2016. However, a 2018 compilation of Science and Engineering indicators by the US National Science Foundation showed that both the US (17.8 per cent) and China (18.6 per cent) published approximately four times as many articles as India in 2016," the report added.
India lags in the number of patents
Due to the country's steady decline in investments, India severely lags in the number of patents and publications produced.
"According to the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) 2017 report, China made as many as 13,81,584 patent applications, with just 9.8 per cent being made by non-resident Chinese; the US made 6,06,956 patent applications while India made a mere 46,582 applications, of which approximately 68 per cent were by non-resident Indians, and only 26 per cent (12,387) of them were accepted as patents," it said.
The report, which aims to improve the standards of higher education in the country, has stressed the need for collaborative efforts between central and state governments as currently the research and innovation efforts are primarily funded by the Centre.
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- Indias R&D expenditure & scientific publications on the rise >>
Indias R&D expenditure & scientific publications on the rise
India’s gross expenditure in R&D has tripled between 2008 & 2018 driven mainly by Govt sector and scientific publications have risen placing the country internationally among the top few, as per the R&D Statistics and Indicators 2019-20 based on the national S&T survey 2018 brought out by the National Science and Technology Management Information (NSTMIS), Department of Science and Technology (DST).
"The report on R&D indicators for the nation is an extraordinarily important document for the evidence-based policymaking and planning in higher education, R&D activities and support, intellectual property, and industrial competitiveness. While it is heartening to see substantial progress in the basic indicators of R&D strengths such as the global leadership in the number of scientific publications, there are also areas of concern that need strengthening," said Prof Ashutosh Sharma, Secretary, DST
The report shows that with the rise in publication, the country is globally at the 3 rd position on this score as per the NSF database, 3 rd in the number of Ph.D. in science & engineering. The number of researchers per million population has doubled since 2000.
The report captures the R&D landscape of the country through various Input-Output S&T Indicators in the form of Tables and graphs. These pertain to Investments in national R&D, R&D investments by Government and Private sector; R&D relationship with economy (GDP), Enrolment of S&T personnel, Manpower engaged in R&D, Outrun of S&T personnel, papers published, patents and their international S&T comparisons.
The survey included more than 6800 S&T Institutions spread across varied sectors like central government, state governments, higher education, public sector industry, and private sector industry in the country, and a response rate of more than 90% was achieved.
Some of the key findings of the report are the following:
India’s gross expenditure in R&D has tripled between 2008 & 2018
- The Gross expenditure on R&D (GERD) in the country has been consistently increasing over the years and has nearly tripled from Rs. 39,437.77 crore in 2007- 08 to Rs. 1,13,825.03 crore in 2017-18.
- India’s per capita R&D expenditure has increased to PPP $ 47.2 in 2017-18 from PPP $ 29.2 in 2007-08.
- India spent 0.7% of its GDP on R&D in 2017-18, while the same among other developing BRICS countries was Brazil 1.3%, Russian Federation 1.1%, China 2.1% and South Africa 0.8%.
Extramural R&D support by central S&T agencies has increased significantly
- DST and DBT were the two major players contributing 63% and 14%, respectively of the total extramural R&D support in the country during 2016-17.
- Women participation in extramural R&D projects has increased significantly to 24% in 2016-17 from 13% in 2000-01 due to various initiatives undertaken by the Government in S&T sector
- As on 1st April 2018, nearly 5.52 lakh personnel were employed in the R&D establishments in the country
The number of researchers per mn populations has doubled since 2000
- Number of researchers per million population in India has increased to 255 in 2017 from 218 in 2015 and 110 in 2000.
- India’s R&D expenditure per researcher was 185 (‘000 PPP$) during 2017-18 and was ahead of Russian Federation, Israel, Hungary, Spain and UK.
- India occupies 3rd rank in terms of number of Ph. D.’s awarded in Science and Engineering (S&E) after USA (39,710 in 2016) and China (34,440 in 2015).
India is placed in 3rd among countries in scientific publication as per NSF database
- During 2018, India was ranked at 3rd, 5th and 9th in scientific publication output as per the NSF, SCOPUS and SCI database respectively
- During 2011-2016, India’s growth rate of scientific publication as per the SCOPUS and SCI database was 8.4% and 6.4% as against the world average of 1.9% and 3.7%, respectively.
- India’s share in global research publication output has increased over the years as reflected in publication databases
India is ranked at 9th position in terms of Resident Patent Filing activity in the world
- During 2017-18 a total of 47,854 patents were filed in India. Out of which, 15,550 (32%) patents were filed by Indian residents
- Patent applications filed in India are dominated by disciplines like Mechanical, Chemical, Computer/Electronics, and Communication.
- According to WIPO, India’s Patent Office stands at the 7th position among the top 10 Patent Filing Offices in the world
1. Research and Development Statistics At a Glance 2019-20
https://dst.gov.in/document/reports/research-development-statistics-glance-2019-20
2. S&T Indicators Tables 2019-20
https://dst.gov.in/document/reports/st-indicators-tables-2019-20
For more details, please contact Dr. Parveen Arora, Sc-G & Head, CHORD Division, DST
Email: parora[at]nic[dot]in, Mob.: +91-9654664614
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Open Access Publishing in India: Coverage, Relevance, and Future Perspectives
Durga prasanna misra.
Department of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India.
Vikas Agarwal
Open access (OA) publishing is a recent phenomenon in scientific publishing, enabling free access to knowledge worldwide. In the Indian context, OA to science has been facilitated by government-funded repositories of student and doctoral theses, and many Indian society journals are published with platinum OA. The proportion of OA publications from India is significant in a global context, and Indian journals are increasingly available on OA repositories such as Pubmed Central, and Directory of Open Access Journals. However, OA in India faces numerous challenges, including low-quality or predatory OA journals, and the paucity of funds to afford gold OA publication charges. There is a need to increase awareness amongst Indian academics regarding publication practices, including OA, and its potential benefits, and utilize this modality of publication whenever feasible, as in publicly-funded research, or when platinum OA is available, while avoiding falling prey to poor quality OA journals.
Graphical Abstract
PUBLISHING MODELS
Various scholarly publication channels are used for dissemination of information. Peer-reviewed journals, conference abstract books, news outlets, blogs, social media platforms, and pre-print archives are all designed to publicize innovative ideas and implement these into further research and practice.
Journal publication involves submission of manuscripts which are initially checked for suitability, methodological rigour, and integrity by handling editors and forwarded to the external reviewers for commenting. 1 With the advent and increased reach of the Internet, traditional print journals started providing content online, most switch to online-only model, and numerous start-up e-journals sprung up. 2 The publishing enterprise requires financial investments which encompass subscription and pay-to-view fees, open access (OA) charges, and supporting organizations' funding for sustainable development. 3
The concept of OA publishing caught wind in the early 2000s, during which period three notable declarations in Europe (the Berlin 4 and the Budapest 5 declarations) and North America (the Bethesda declaration 6 ) proposed the principles of OA publishing. These documents proposed that scholarly publications should be free to read and reproduce for all concerned, with proper citation to the original source. Such OA publishing would involve costs, which could be borne by scientists, their funders, or their institutions. Journals proving such OA publishing could exist on their own, or operate on a hybrid model of providing both traditional (with restricted copyrights) and OA publishing (with liberal copyrights). OA publishing may save financial resources spent on library subscriptions for content of traditionally-published journals. 4 , 5 , 6 Content published traditionally may also be permitted to be available in an institutional repository or the author's own website, generally the accepted version of the manuscript (unedited by the typesetter) and with a clear reference to the final published manuscript (green OA). Such green OA content may be subjected to a period of embargo (after final journal publication), following which it may be posted on any online repository such as ResearchGate and Academia.edu. Other types of OA include gold OA, where authors, grant funders, or academic institutions pay the required publication charges, and platinum OA, where journals bear the requisite charges. 3
The aim of this article is to discuss specifics of scholarly OA publishing in India. Specifically, we shall discuss the emergence of OA publishing in India, initiatives for OA publishing in India (but not limited to OA journals), the role of publishing (including OA publications) in academic promotions in India, the challenges for OA science in India (including the relevance of Plan S), and future perspectives on this.
INDEXING AND ARCHIVING OF OA JOURNALS
Knowledge is of little use unless it is identified, read, and reproduced. Herein lies the importance of indexing scientific content in databases, and such databases should inherently have quality control mechanisms. 7 , 8 , 9 Another important principle espoused in the Berlin, Budapest, and Bethesda declarations is the need to archive published knowledge permanently. 4 , 5 , 6 Initiatives like the Lots of Copies Keep Stuff Safe 10 aim to archive all digital content, whether webpage- or journal-based, permanently in an archive, so that posterity can access such information if the need for the same arises.
The Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) and PubMed Central (PMC) have mechanisms to implement quality control and increase visibility of trustworthy OA content. Both PMC and DOAJ check editorial policies and technical specifications of applying journals to ensure the users are supplied with quality contents. 11 Furthermore, some journals on DOAJ are awarded the DOAJ seal, which is an affirmation from the DOAJ that these journals meet the best technical standards of publishing. 12
In the context of our discussion on OA in India, we explored OA journals from India listed in DOAJ and PMC. We searched the National Library of Medicine catalog on PubMed on April 17, 2019 with the search terms “journalspmc” and “India,” and identified 135 local and regional journals archived by PMC. Of these, 126 are currently published, and further results refer to these journals. Only 13 of these (10%) are currently indexed in MEDLINE, and 79 (63%) started publishing in the past two decades ( Fig. 1 ). Notably, a number of Indian professional society journals related to cardiology, critical care medicine, dermatology, endocrinology, nephrology, parasitology, periodontology, and neurology are available on PMC.
PMC = PubMed Central.
Also, we identified 273 Indian sources registered with the DOAJ. About two-thirds of these journals are listed from 2014 onwards ( Fig. 2 ). Only 77 of these charge article-processing fees from authors. Surprisingly, only 1 journal has the DOAJ seal.
DOAJ = Directory of Open Access Journals.
Our searches on PMC and DOAJ led us to infer that regionally relevant information published in most Indian society journals is freely available, and the trend is not to charge article-processing fees. Another important finding is that a significantly lesser number of journals published from India were listed in DOAJ when compared to a few years back, 13 which may point to tightened indexing policies of the DOAJ over the last few years. A limitation of our analysis is that some of the journals from other regions are published in India.
CHALLENGES FOR ACADEMIC PROMOTION
We shall explore the requirements of the Indian Medical Council (IMC, formerly, the Medical Council of India) for academic promotion in the context of OA publishing. The entry level for academic physicians is assistant professor, followed by associate, and then full professor. The IMC lays down clear guidelines for recruitment as assistant, associate/additional, and full professor, prescribing the minimum basic postgraduate qualification required for each specialty, the amount of teaching experience garnered until that stage, and the number of scientific publications as first author and corresponding author. Importantly, only original articles are considered for recruitment and promotion. There is no a requirement for publications to be recruited as assistant professor. As an associate professor, one must have at least two publications, and, for a full professor appointment, at least four publications, two of which must be after appointment as associate professor, are required. The regulations mention the need for these publications to be in indexed journals, without defining which indexing databases are considered. There is no specific prerequisite for a national or an international journal, and no mention of OA requirement. 14 The University Grants Commission of India (UGC), which is an Indian federal body regulating higher education (not just medical education), has prescribed a list of journals, which is revised annually, from which publications may be considered for use in applications for academic recruitment or promotion. This list includes mostly journals indexed in Scopus, Web of Science, and the Indian Citation Index, which is a collection of more than a thousand journals published in India. 9 , 15 Journals indexed in MEDLINE, Scopus and Web of Science, or those available on PMC and listed on the UGC journal list are considered for academic promotion.
The faculty responsibilities in an Indian medical academic institution involve the daily care of an increasing patient load (in understaffed practice settings without help from healthcare workers), and teaching of students. 16 Research is sparingly funded. This is why even the best-intentioned researchers may struggle to attain the publication goals set by the IMC. In our opinion, future revisions of the promotion guidelines should not increase the publication requirements, for fear of pushing individuals into a race to publish or perish, with little emphasis on the quality. The prevailing situation in certain neighbouring regions, where publications are linked to the income of an academician, should be avoided in an Indian context. 11 , 17 , 18 Another concern is that inordinate attention is paid to the journal impact factors, rather than the quality of the publication per se. 19
Also, the faculty may publish in poor-quality local journals (a majority of which claim to be OA) owing to their unawareness of what constitute quality OA. What is required is an effort to educate undergraduate students the principles of research and ethical science, particularly in the changing world of publishing. 9 , 11 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19
CURRENT SPECIFICS OF OA PUBLISHING
An editorial in a prominent Indian journal in 2004 discussed the OA concept and its relevance in an Indian scenario at a time when access to computers and the Internet was limited. 20 With time, the concept of OA publishing has gradually gained a foothold in India. A country-wise analysis of publications and publication models in Web of Science from 2006 to 2015 revealed that, although India ranked 10th in overall research output and 8th in research output following the gold OA model worldwide, it ranked 3rd when it came to publications in OA journals. The number of Indian publications in OA journals was 2% higher than the global average. 21 A majority of Indian authors covered the expenditure for OA out of their pockets. 22 Another analysis of Indian journals registered with the DOAJ from 2003 to 2012 revealed that green (55%) and gold (45%) OA models were predominant. 13
In 2015, a Web of Science-based analysis of more than 1000 papers from a conglomerate of Indian centres for advanced engineering training (known as the Indian Institutes of Technology or IITs) revealed that 69% of these were for OA, including 58% for green OA. Alarmingly, the papers posted on institutional repositories and on websites such as ResearchGate were not compliant with the green OA standards. 23
Traditional Indian journals, which recently switched to online publishing, have digitized their old issues, occasionally by manually scanning print papers. 24 The Indian scientific community has made significant efforts toward OA not only through journals, but also through institutional repositories at major scientific hubs such as the Indian Institute of Science. Also, OA repositories for theses, such as the Shodhganga initiative, are admirable government-funded efforts to promote the worldwide accessibility of Indian research. 25 Despite the efforts to develop such repositories, literature suggests that their utilisation remains sub-optimal. A survey of more than 500 researchers from India revealed that the major reason for the underutilization of such institutional repositories were concerns regarding plagiarism and copyright of articles submitted to such repositories. 26 This suggests that there is still an unmet need to sensitize stakeholders about unethical scientific practices.
CHALLENGES FOR OA
The 2013 paper in Science , known as the Bohannon sting, changed forever the landscape of publishing. The author of the paper exposed the breaches in OA across numerous established and start-up journals. The study exposed substandard or non-existent quality checks in journals claiming to be peer-reviewed. The experiment resulted in the acceptance of nearly half of 304 submitted dummy manuscripts. Alarmingly, more than 80% of the journals based in India accepted the dummy manuscript. 27 The hitherto identification of such poor quality OA journals was also highlighted by the work of Jeffrey Beall, a North American librarian who coined the term “predatory publishing.” 28
The high prevalence of publications in low-quality OA journals from India was also highlighted in another recent paper. 28 An analysis of responses from 480 corresponding authors from India who published in substandard journals pointed to the fact that more than half of these authors were not aware that the journals were ‘predatory.’ Only a fifth confessed having published articles in such journals without adequate knowledge of the problem. A majority of such authors bore the publication charges themselves. 22
There has been an increasing awareness of the dangers of publishing in substandard OA journals in Indian academic circles. However, much work remains to be done. A major step in this regard is the aforementioned UGC list of legitimate journals. 15 In addition, there should be a greater awareness of which indexing services are reliable. 29
It is imperative to consider the challenges OA publishing faces in an Indian context. An analysis of more than 2,500 Indian researchers revealed awareness about the existence of the OA publishing model in about 56% respondents. A majority (72%) professed a lack of willingness to consider journals with publication charges for their papers. A major impediment toward publishing in OA journals was a perceived lack of prestige of such journals which charged fees from authors. 30 In the personal experience of the authors, such negative sentiments regarding OA fees are not uncommon amongst Indian scientists.
RELEVANCE OF PLAN S
“Plan S (Science)” is a major recent development in scientific publishing. It emanated from 11 funding agencies in Europe. 31 Plan S emphasizes the benefits of open science and mandates OA for publicly funded research. 31 , 32 While its statements are filled with noble intentions, the global applicability of suggested radical changes remain highly debatable. The first major question is with whom does the responsibility of bearing OA fees rest? If all studies are published as OA, what would be the source of such massive OA publication charges, and what would be the sustainability of governmental support for such initiatives? Also, discarding subscription-based publishing, when there is a lack of compelling evidence that this modality is inferior to OA publishing, whether in terms of quality or citability, may not be appropriate. 33 Plan S differs from previous OA initiatives, such as that adopted by the National Institutes of Health, that the latter allows for both green OA and gold OA, whereas Plan S originally seemed to emphasise on purely gold OA, completely discarding traditional subscription-based publishing. 34 A recent notable amendment in Plan S clearly mentions that green OA shall be acceptable, at least for the initial few years, in hybrid journals, should the same be allowed by the journal immediately for articles funded by the organizations in the Plan S coalition. 35 Unless Plan S is carefully implemented with due consideration of stakeholders from all the world over, such a move might have an effect similar to jumping out of a frying pan into the fire. This is especially relevant in the Indian context, since a move to absolute gold OA could potentially be detrimental to scientists from lesser economically developed regions of the world, and hinder their ability to publish in journals of international repute. 36
Speaking from a regional standpoint, the present-day India is still a developing country. In such a scenario, where government funding for research and research publication is suboptimal, understandably so, due to greater priorities elsewhere, including healthcare and agriculture, it may be stretching too far to ask the government to cover OA publication charges for all such published work. Indian scientists who choose an academic career often do so at the cost of lucrative jobs in the private sector, where the pay is much higher. In the real life, Indian scientists have to struggle for access to research services which may be considered routine in other parts of the globe, such as plagiarism checks and access to Scopus, Web of Science, and subscription-based aggregators of information. Therefore, it is highly unlikely that Indian scientists or their institutions will be able to afford OA publication fees in the majority of instances. These considerations strengthen the viewpoint that Plan S is of little relevance in the current Indian scenario.
PERSPECTIVES FOR OA PUBLISHING
There exist myriad opportunities to provide OA to research in India, at an affordable cost. Opening institutional repositories should be encouraged, and their uptake promoted to the faculty. This would enable at least full and free access to research from the locality. Since a previous paper identified the fear of inappropriate copyright and plagiarism issues as a major impediment for authors to submit their work to institutional repositories, 26 this reiterates the need to further inculcate the principles of scientific writing and ethical publishing in students right from an early age. Formally evaluated courses in these subjects may be made compulsory for all under- and postgraduate students. Further efforts should be made to teach students and faculty regarding publishing models. These would serve the dual purpose of making them aware about the dangers of predatory journals, as well as to dispel their myths about genuine OA publishing. Journal editors should follow updated editorial strategies to eliminate content of dubious scientific merit from their journals. Their overall efforts to improve scientific and technical standards may raise awareness of authors about proper scientific writing. 37 Authors and editors alike should be encouraged to conform to the standards of the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors and the Committee on Publication Ethics. All scholarly contributors should be encouraged to utilize Open Researcher and Contributor IDs to raise transparency and integrity of OA publications. 38 Overall, the principles espoused in two recent notable documents on the integrity of scholarly publishing (the OA Scholarly Publishers Association principles 39 and the Sarajevo Declaration 40 ) should be followed rigorously by the editors of all OA journals. Specifically, there should be transparency from journals as to their editorial practices, their publication processes, copyright, article processing charges, addresses of editorial offices, policies for dealing with potential misconduct, sources of journal revenue, and advertisement policies. Information regarding such issues should be clearly visible on the websites of such OA journals. 39 , 40 It may also be considered good practice to endorse such declarations publicly on the journal websites, after implementing them. 39 , 40 Revision of promotion criteria to incorporate an actual quality assessment of the published work by the assessor, rather than relying on bibliometric indicators, such as the impact factor, will also improve the overall standards of publishing. In an utopian future, there should be unlimited research funding and institutional support for funding OA publication charges for all Indian authors. However, the reality in India is quite distant from this, and efforts should instead focus on increasing the awareness of scientists about quality OA, with utilization of this model in an ethical manner whenever feasible.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge Dr Armen Y Gasparyan for inputs during the planning and editing of the article.
Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.
Author Contributions:
- Conceptualization: Misra DP, Agarwal V.
- Data curation: Misra DP.
- Formal analysis: Misra DP.
- Investigation: Misra DP, Agarwal V.
- Methodology: Misra DP, Agarwal V.
- Software: Misra DP.
- Validation: Agarwal V.
- Writing - original draft: Misra DP.
- Writing - review & editing: Agarwal V.
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- Published: 13 May 2015
India by the numbers
- Richard Van Noorden
Nature volume 521 , pages 142–143 ( 2015 ) Cite this article
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A Correction to this article was published on 27 May 2015
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Highs and lows in the country’s research landscape.
Indian science is a study in contrasts. With its vast population and rapidly expanding economy, the country has ramped up scientific production at an impressive rate. India started the twenty-first century well behind Russia, France, Italy and Canada in terms of yearly publications and it now leads them all by healthy margins. It is quickly closing in on Japan.
Despite those gains, India is not yet a major player in world science. Its publications generate fewer citations on average than do those of other science-focused nations, including other emerging countries such as Brazil and China. Relative to its size, India has very few scientists; many Indian-born researchers leave for positions abroad and very few foreign scientists settle in India. The country invests a scant portion of its economy in research and development (R&D), and it produces relatively few patents per capita compared with other nations.
But there are bright spots. India boasts several world-class centres for science education, particularly the highly regarded Indian Institutes of Technology. Businesses in the country are investing more in R&D, which bodes well for future innovation. And more women are participating in science, although their numbers still fall far below those of men.
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India: The fight to become a science superpower 2015-May-13
Research management: Priorities for science in India 2015-May-13
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India was the world's third-most-prolific publisher of research papers in 2022, but it was ranked only 153rd for the number of citations it received per paper. Indeed, in 2020, about 30% of ...
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India was the world's third-most-prolific publisher of research papers in 2022, but it was ranked only 153rd for the number of citations it received per paper. Indeed, in 2020, about 30% of papers from India were not cited at all, compared with 20% in both the United States and China. These trends are mirrored in many other low- and middle ...
Figure 22.3: Trends in scientific publishing in India ; Figure 22.4: Trends in Innovation in India ; Figure 22.5: Revenue foregone in India as a result of R&D tax incentive, 2008-2019 ; Figure 22.6: Trends in human resources in India ; Table 22.1: Indian pharmaceutical companies active in Covid-19 vaccine research, 2020
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With over 1.35 lakh scientific papers published, India has become the world's third largest publisher of science and engineering articles, according to a US government agency data, topped by China. ... the number of scientific papers published worldwide increased from 17,55,850 in 2008 to 25,55,959 in 2018. The global research output, as ...
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