language to use in a research paper

How to use appropriate academic language in research papers?

Many enter academic writing due to a passion for knowledge or to conduct independent research. Impactful writing in the academic world requires communicating ideas by using appropriate academic language, clarity, and grace. Most forms of writing such as email, texting, letters, etc. make use of informal language. Academic and scientific writing, however, requires the use of appropriate academic language. A good flow of writing leaves a lasting impression on the readers. Thus, it is essential to convey information and views concisely and clearly. This article offers insights on how to improve academic language in a paper.

Bloated language is not academic language

This misconception among writers is that supplementary words or sentences add more smartness and show in-depth knowledge about the subject. However, this unnecessary fluffing of words frustrates the reader and makes the content unnecessarily complex. A good academic paper is clear and concise. Wastage of words and repetition are avoided as many journals regulate a word limit. Some examples showing the difference between ‘bloated’ and concise sentences are shown below.

Get rid of redundant or wordy phrases

In the English language, there is the presence of many phrases that have multiple words. Although a writer needs to be cognizant of wordiness, a fine line exists between rambling and expressing. Therefore the use of these phrases must be avoided if they can be expressed in lesser words. For example:

Even, the word “etc.” should not be paired with “including”, “such as”, or “for example” because these words specifically mean that list is indicative and not exhaustive.

Everyday spoken language is not an academic language

Use appropriate academic language that is organized, and logical and avoids a detached tone. Usually, writers adapt to everyday spoken language, but the use of casual language should be avoided.

Use varying sentence structure

Sentence structure represents the physical structure of a sentence. For making an impactful research paper, it is important to use variegated words but avoid their overuse. Furthermore, repeating longer sentences may overshadow the argument and inundate the reader. Even frequent usage of short sentences makes arguments stunted or rushed. Therefore try to keep the length of sentences short and up to 20 words.

Use sufficient referencing and citation

Academic papers to a great extent rely on the review of existing information in the form of secondary research. When reviewing secondary studies, references must be provided. It helps to establish the validity and credibility of the information. Although there is no standard rule for the number of references to use in a study, as a hand rule consider an average, of 1 reference per 100- 150 words.

Today, a vast number of elements contribute towards creating work-life balance in employees. The findings of Yadav & Dabhade (2014) identified rewards, mentally challenging work, favourable working conditions, supportive coworkers, and employee-friendly policies as some of the factors leading to work-life balance and job satisfaction. (Chaitra, Kumar, & Renuka, 2016) also identified some of the factors that impact work-life balance. The study collected data from 60 respondents and applied descriptive statistics and analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique for analyzing the data. It was found that over time, meetings, travelling to work, and training after working hours influence the work-life balance of the employees. (Sharma & Shekhawat, 2017) assessed the association between employee performance and work-life balance in the hotel industry of Rajasthan in India. The main aim of their analysis was to determine the factors affecting the work-life balance of the employees.

Refer to the right sources of secondary information

The type of secondary sources referred to while writing greatly affects the quality of the paper. For example, if you refer more to blogs and web pages then your content is likely to be ambiguous. This is because web pages are written to target the masses. For example –

The above figure shows that the flow of sentences is informal with the usage of first-person pronouns and the exclusion of references to validate the information. Thus, this article is less suitable for academic writing, whereas the below study is a more suitable source of information.

On the other hand, referring to more academic sources such as journal papers and books academic journals are more structured and precise with clear content. It is likely to make your content more technically sound with less redundant information.

Importance of grammar check in academic language

Making grammatical mistakes while writing is common but avoidable. Eliminating grammatical errors improves the quality of the paper. Fortunately, there are many applications available that help to track and correct these errors instantly. Grammarly is one of the most popular and convenient applications. Installing the Grammarly plug-in helps remove mistakes while writing.

The figure below presents an example of the use of Grammarly for grammar and spell check while writing. It shows that the phrase “in the event that” is redundant and can be reduced to “if”.

Academic writing is an organized and information-oriented work, that requires a clear, concise, powerful, and graceful representation of ideas. Though often due to lack of practice or knowledge, writers tend to make mistakes. However, for impactful study, it is essential to empower yourself with knowledge, mix the sentence structure, and write to express not impress.

• Lokhande, N., & Gundimeda, H. (2021). MGNREGA: The Guaranteed Refuge for Returning Migrants During COVID-19 Lockdown in India. The Indian Economic Journal . https://doi.org/10.1177/00194662211023848
• Natali, D., & Terlizzi, A. (2021). The impact of Covid-19 on the future of pensions in the EU. ETUC SociAll Project 2018/08 Thematic Report , 4–7.
• Spicer, A. (2020). Organizational Culture and COVID-19. Journal of Management Studies , 57 (8), 1737–1740. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12625
• Takyi, P. O., & Bentum-Ennin, I. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 on stock market performance in Africa: A Bayesian structural time series approach. Journal of Economics and Business , 115 (xxxx), 105968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconbus.2020.105968
• Priya Chetty

I am a management graduate with specialisation in Marketing and Finance. I have over 12 years' experience in research and analysis. This includes fundamental and applied research in the domains of management and social sciences. I am well versed with academic research principles. Over the years i have developed a mastery in different types of data analysis on different applications like SPSS, Amos, and NVIVO. My expertise lies in inferring the findings and creating actionable strategies based on them. 

Over the past decade I have also built a profile as a researcher on Project Guru's Knowledge Tank division. I have penned over 200 articles that have earned me 400+ citations so far. My Google Scholar profile can be accessed here . 

I now consult university faculty through Faculty Development Programs (FDPs) on the latest developments in the field of research. I also guide individual researchers on how they can commercialise their inventions or research findings. Other developments im actively involved in at Project Guru include strengthening the "Publish" division as a bridge between industry and academia by bringing together experienced research persons, learners, and practitioners to collaboratively work on a common goal. 

I am a Senior Analyst at Project Guru, a research and analytics firm based in Gurugram since 2012. I hold a master’s degree in economics from Amity University (2019). Over 4 years, I have worked on worked on various research projects using a range of research tools like SPSS, STATA, VOSViewer, Python, EVIEWS, and NVIVO. My core strength lies in data analysis related to Economics, Accounting, and Financial Management fields.

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Mastering Scientific Language in Scientific Writing

You don’t need to master the English language as a native speaker to write excellent scientific papers. It is more important to make your research easy to grasp. Here, I’ll walk you through the three most essential scientific language hacks.

If you have followed me for a while, you’ll have noticed that I talk a lot about structure when it comes to writing a scientific paper that gets published in your target journal and cited a lot. Structure provides the skeleton of your scientific paper and is, therefore, the most crucial bit. I find the perfect structure is best achieved by using a story-telling approach . While structure is essential, knowing how to use English for scientific writing is important too.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE

All too often academics and scientists think that they have to sound fancy to be taken seriously as an expert. The consequence of that is that a major part of the scientific literature is inaccessible even to other researchers in your field. If your research paper is written badly, those who read your paper will have to invest a lot of time trying to understand what you are communicating. Or they may not actually grasp the point your are making (or never read the paper at all). Hence, they won’t cite you — which means that your work won’t contribute to building scientific knowledge.

SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE: CLEAR, SIMPLE, SHORT

Using scientific language properly when writing a paper means putting your reader first . Instead of sounding like the expert, what is most important when writing a paper is that your reader understands your scientific language easily without having to spend time and effort to decipher your writing. In other words, your scientific language should be clear and non-ambiguous.

There are two more guiding principles when it comes to scientific writing in English: Your writing should also be as short as possible and communicate your findings in the simplest way.

IT’S NOT ABOUT HAVING FLAWLESS ENGLISH FOR SCIENTIFIC WRITING

Once your scientific writing in English is clear, simple and short, having an advanced scientific writing vocabulary or mastering the English language and grammar at a native-speaker-level is not necessary. Or put differently, native English speakers don’t automatically know how to write a scientific paper .

If English is your second (or third, or fourth…) language, think twice before you pay an external editor to correct the language in your scientific paper. It may pay off a lot more important to a) tackle the structure of your writing first, and b) to implement the scientific language tips I’m sharing below.

USING ENGLISH FOR SCIENTIFIC WRITING

Here are three easy guidelines to follow to make your scientific language clear, short and simple. Just implementing these three hacks will make your scientific paper so much easier to read:

• Words to use in scientific writing: verbs instead of nouns
• What tense to use in scientific writing
• Words to avoid in scientific writing: inconsistent terminology

Let me explain.

1) WORDS TO USE IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING: VERBS INSTEAD OF NOUNS

Scientific writing in English that is very noun-heavy is really hard to read. On the contrary, sentences with powerful verbs are much quicker to grasp. Among the nouns that I notice academics use too often in their scientific papers are “agreement”, “disagreement”, “investigation”, “analysis”, “examination”, “comparison”, “increase”, “decrease” and “improvement” etc. I suggest you erase those from your scientific writing vocabulary right now!

If you use the corresponding verbs instead, your sentences will be way less convoluted, and faster to read. Let me show you an example:

• We present an analysis of the catalyst performance. Because we observed a slight improvement in activity, our results are in agreement with the literature.

is better phrased as

• We analysed the catalyst performance. Because the activity improved slightly, our results agree with the literature.

Did you notice how much easier it was to read the second version compared to the first? And that’s not all: The second example contains only two thirds of the words of the first. Thus, using verbs instead of nouns is also a great technique to cut down your word count .

2) WHAT TENSE TO USE IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING

As a graduate student, I kept being confused about what tense to use in scientific writing. I’m not surprised if you are too because so many authors of scientific papers are not using the tenses correctly. When I or our other academic writing coaches review writing for members of our online program, the Researchers’ Writing Academy, we make a note about the tense used almost every time.

I’m not talking about what tense to use in scientific writing to make sure your writing is grammatically correct but rather because the wrong tense can easily confuse a reader.

Generally, if you describe actions that took place in the past, such as the findings of past research, your own experiments and specific observations, the past tense is the correct one.

Here are some examples of sentences that should be written in past tense:

• Janssen et al. observed that….
• We measured the diameter of the nanoparticles using…
• The activity was dependent on… *

* if this is for a specific experiment

So, when should you use the present tense ? This tense is reserved for established facts, truths, generalisations and things that your scientific paper covers.

• Platinum is a transition metal commonly used as a catalyst.
• The activity depends on…**
• In this paper, we show that…

* if this is a general trend, and not only the result of a specific experiment

3) WORDS TO AVOID IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING: INCONSISTENT TERMINOLOGY

If you asked me which words to avoid in scientific writing, I’d say: synonyms! I know you may be afraid of repeating yourself risking to make your writing boring, but the truth is: Your reader will get confused if you call the same thing many different things. I promise, they won’t get bored reading your text. They are not reading your paper to get entertained but rather to understand something, so always remember rule #1 about scientific language: Be clear.

A simple intervention to make your scientific writing in English clearer is by defining a term clearly and then using that term consistently throughout your whole manuscript.

I’ll give you an example:

“Signal”, “electron count”, the invented abbreviation “EC”, and “intensity” may be used interchangeably. Instead of using all of these synonyms in different places in your manuscript, decide on one synonym and stick with it!

MASTERING SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE – CONCLUSION

Repeat after me: Clear, simple, short — that encapsulates everything you need to know about scientific writing in English. If you feel like you’re not effective at communicating clearly and concisely, maybe are getting desk-rejected a lot, I have a free resource for you!

In this free online training, I will introduce you to my step-by-step system to write clear & concise papers for your target journals. Click the button below to watch now or save for later.

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9 Tips to Improve Readability and Language in Your Research Paper

“As far as he can achieve it, readability is as important for the scientific writer as it is for the novelist.” – Donald O. Hebb

Research paper language and its readability plays a crucial role in communicating your research ideas to the reader. People are busy and have no time to slog through long sentences or complex languages in research papers. However, research analyzing over 700,000 abstracts from 123 medical and science journals found that there has been a steady decrease in readability over the years. 1 These results are concerning for scientists and the wider public, including policymakers, as they impact both the reproducibility and accessibility of your research findings.

The more complex your research idea, the simpler your language should be. This will allow your readers to engage with the research ideas instead of struggling with the language of your research paper. There are several guidelines and toolkits from learned associations that help novice and seasoned authors alike to improve readability. For example, the European Association of Science Editing (EASE) provides author guidelines on preparing manuscripts, with suggestions aimed at improving the language quality of research works and manuscripts. 2

Reporting your research findings clearly and accurately in journals or conferences is a fundamental part of the scientific process, facilitating both knowledge dissemination and the reproducibility of results. One measure of your research quality is the influence your research work has on the field of study. For this, researchers must be confident in their study design, research methodology, results, interpretations, and conclusions. However, journals seek to publish high-quality research that meets their target audience’s demands and will reject papers with poor research paper language, poor readability or grammar errors in order to sustain their reputation.

The quality of your research and the manuscript are two different things. 3 While you might have a personal writing style as an author, it needs to be precise and unambiguous to be effective. If the language of research papers that you write is not readable and contains simple writing mistakes, it will probably decrease your chance of being accepted. Thus, the research paper language and its readability are the final factors determining your publishing success and your paper’s impact. It is important to spend time checking your research paper, as every good piece of writing requires many revisions. Once you draft your manuscript, it is advisable to check the paper repeatedly for grammar, consistency and accuracy in writing.

How to improve your research paper language and readability

• Proofread for elementary mistakes: Grammatically correct usage of the language of research papers is very important. Basic mistakes in spelling, punctuation, spacing, and grammar leave a very poor impression. A simple grammar check of your research paper can help avoid these often avoidable mistakes.
• Keep it simple: When it comes to the research paper language, keeping it simple will make your work more accessible to others. If you can delete something, then you should. If you can delete something, then you should.
• Maintain consistency and logical flow in your writing: Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote, “A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds.” As a writer, you should strive for consistency in using hyphens, units of measure, punctuation, grammar, symbols, capitalization, and acronyms.
• Avoid redundancy : Redundancy is the repetition of words and phrases that, if omitted, will not impair the meaning but make the text polished and easier to follow. Therefore, replace “due to the fact that” with “because,” “In the form of” with “As,” “In many cases” with “Often” and “has the ability to” with “can.”
• Use reader-friendly fonts: Most journals suggest using user-friendly fonts, such as Times New Roman, Arial, and Helvetica, which are easy on the eye.
• Shorten your words and sentences: Long sentences affect the readability of articles and the overall language of research papers. Check your paper for short and simple sentences, focusing on introducing ‘one idea per sentence.’ You can also read well-edited multi-disciplinary journals such as Science and Nature to learn more about the short and simple writing style.
• Frontload your sentences: The most important information should be mentioned at the beginning of the sentence rather than at the end. When a sentence is frontloaded, the reader can quickly assess significant information. This will attract the attention of your readers and make it more readable.
• Pay attention to reviewer comments: Common criticisms from reviewers concerning language of the research paper include unclear and poorly written manuscripts, inappropriate structure, lengthy manuscripts, unclear Discussion sections, and information redundancy. Focus on areas where you have received negative comments in your earlier manuscripts when working on your next one.
• Test your writing using readability formulas:  Finally, in the era of data metrics, you can check the average readability using an ‘r-index’ such as the New Dale-Chall (NDC) readability score or the Automated Readability Index. A grade level of 7 or 8 is considered good. 4
• Plaven-Sigray, P., Matheson, G.J., Schiffler, B. C., & Thompson, W.H. Research: The readability of scientific texts is decreasing over time. eLife,  27725 (2017).
• Kojima, T., & Barron, J.P. How Readability Can Improve Your Manuscript.  日本消化器外科学会雑誌 ,  48 (1), 83-84 (2015).
• Zimmerman, J.L. Improving a manuscript’s readability and likelihood of publication.  Issues in Accounting Education ,  4 (2), 458-466 (1989).
• Svider, P. F., Agarwal, N., Choudhry, O. J., Hajart, A. F., Baredes, S., Liu, J. K., & Eloy, J.A. Readability assessment of online patient education materials from academic otolaryngology–head and neck surgery departments.  American Journal of Otolaryngology ,  34 (1), 31-35 (2013).

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

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• Duplicate Publications: How to Avoid Overlapping Publications in Research
• Confusing Elements of a Research Paper That Trip Up Most Academics
• 3 Easy Ways for Researchers to Improve Their Academic Vocabulary
• Self-Editing: The Pros and Cons of Editing Your Own Research Paper

Shortlisting a PhD Thesis Topic: 4 Useful Tips for Students 

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Language Skills in Research Paper Writing

• First Online: 17 June 2020

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• Balachandra V. Adkoli 3 &
• Subhash Chandra Parija 4  

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Scientific communication is a blend of scientific facts presented in a language that everyone can understand and appreciate. Experts claim that an effectively written research paper is more about a story, and not a study [1]. In fact, one of the virtues discussed in conducting research points to telling the story in a cohesive manner, which depends upon a powerful and skillful use of language [2].

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The Process of Scientific Writing: Developing a Research Question, Conducting a Literature Review, and Creating an Outline

Research Writing: Tips and Common Errors

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Adkoli, B.V., Parija, S.C. (2020). Language Skills in Research Paper Writing. In: Parija, S., Adkoli, B. (eds) Effective Medical Communication . Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3409-6_14

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Using proper manuscript language

Anthony Newman

About this module

Poor use of language can delay, or even prevent, a manuscript from being published. If editors and reviewers can’t understand the English, then they can’t grasp the full impact or message of your work. Even though your findings may break new ground, poor language quality could mean you don’t get the recognition you deserve.

This interactive module contains helpful advice for those starting out on their publishing career. We explain where the responsibility for tidying up the language lies and suggest where you can find support to improve it. We also examine the elements required to ensure your paper is clear and concise, and include a short guide to sentence construction and the use of tenses, and some important points about grammar.

You will come away with a clear understanding of why it is so important to get the language right and the skills to review and improve your manuscript.

About the presenter

Senior Publisher, Life Sciences, Elsevier

Anthony Newman is a Senior Publisher with Elsevier and is based in Amsterdam. Each year he presents numerous Author Workshops and other similar trainings worldwide. He is currently responsible for fifteen biochemistry and laboratory medicine journals, he joined Elsevier over thirty years ago and has been Publisher for more than twenty of those years. Before then he was the marketing communications manager for the biochemistry journals of Elsevier.  By training he is a polymer chemist and was active in the surface coating industry before leaving London and moving to Amsterdam in 1987 to join Elsevier.

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The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Research Paper

Few things strike more fear in academics than the accursed research paper , a term synonymous with long hours and hard work. Luckily there’s a secret to help you get through them. As long as you know how to write a research paper properly, you’ll find they’re not so bad . . . or at least less painful. 

In this guide we concisely explain how to write an academic research paper step by step. We’ll cover areas like how to start a research paper, how to write a research paper outline, how to use citations and evidence, and how to write a conclusion for a research paper. 

But before we get into the details, let’s take a look at what a research paper is and how it’s different from other  writing . 

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What is a research paper?

A research paper is a type of  academic writing that provides an in-depth analysis, evaluation, or interpretation of a single topic, based on empirical evidence. Research papers are similar to analytical essays, except that research papers emphasize the use of statistical data and preexisting research, along with a strict code for citations. 

Research papers are a bedrock of modern science and the most effective way to share information across a wide network. However, most people are familiar with research papers from school; college courses often use them to test a student’s knowledge of a particular area or their research skills in general. 

Considering their gravity, research papers favor formal, even bland language that strips the writing of any bias. Researchers state their findings plainly and with corresponding evidence so that other researchers can consequently use the paper in their own research. 

Keep in mind that writing a research paper is different from  writing a research proposal . Essentially, research proposals are to acquire the funding needed to get the data to write a research paper. 

How long should a research paper be? 

The length of a research paper depends on the topic or assignment. Typically, research papers run around 4,000–6,000 words, but it’s common to see short papers around 2,000 words or long papers over 10,000 words. 

If you’re writing a paper for school, the recommended length should be provided in the assignment. Otherwise, let your topic dictate the length: Complicated topics or extensive research will require more explanation. 

How to write a research paper in 9 steps

Below is a step-by-step guide to writing a research paper, catered specifically for students rather than professional researchers. While some steps may not apply to your particular assignment, think of this as more of a general guideline to keep you on track. 

1 Understand the assignment

For some of you this goes without saying, but you might be surprised at how many students start a research paper without even reading the assignment guidelines. 

So your first step should be to review the assignment and carefully read the writing prompt. Specifically, look for technical requirements such as length , formatting requirements (single- vs. double-spacing, indentations, etc.) and citation style . Also pay attention to the particulars, such as whether or not you need to  write an abstract or include a cover page. 

Once you understand the assignment, the next steps in how to write a research paper follow the usual  writing process , more or less. There are some extra steps involved because research papers have extra rules, but the gist of the writing process is the same. 

2 Choose your topic

In open-ended assignments, the student must choose their own topic. While it may seem simple enough, choosing a topic is actually the most important decision you’ll make in writing a research paper, since it determines everything that follows. 

Your top priority in how to choose a research paper topic is whether it will provide enough content and substance for an entire research paper. You’ll want to choose a topic with enough data and complexity to enable a rich discussion. However, you also want to avoid general topics and instead stick with topics specific enough that you can cover all the relevant information without cutting too much.  

3 Gather preliminary research

The sooner you start researching, the better—after all, it’s called a research paper for a reason.

To refine your topic and prepare your thesis statement, find out what research is available for your topic as soon as possible. Early research can help dispel any misconceptions you have about the topic and reveal the best paths and approaches to find more material. 

Typically, you can find sources either online or in a library. If you’re searching online, make sure you use credible sources like science journals or academic papers. Some search engines—mentioned below in the Tools and resources section—allow you to browse only accredited sources and academic databases. 

Keep in mind the  difference between primary and secondary sources as you search. Primary sources are firsthand accounts, like published articles or autobiographies; secondary sources are more removed, like critical reviews or secondhand biographies. 

When gathering your research, it’s better to skim sources instead of reading each potential source fully. If a source seems useful, set it aside to give it a full read later. Otherwise, you’ll be stuck poring over sources that you ultimately won’t use, and that time could be better spent finding a worthwhile source. 

Sometimes you’re required to submit a  literature review , which explains your sources and presents them to an authority for confirmation. Even if no literature review is required, it’s still helpful to compile an early list of potential sources—you’ll be glad you did later.  

4 Write a thesis statement

Using what you found in your preliminary research, write a  thesis statement that succinctly summarizes what your research paper will be about. This is usually the first sentence in your paper, making it your reader’s introduction to the topic. 

A thesis statement is the best answer for how to start a research paper. Aside from preparing your reader, the thesis statement also makes it easier for other researchers to assess whether or not your paper is useful to them for their own research. Likewise, you should read the thesis statements of other research papers to decide how useful they are to you. 

A good thesis statement mentions all the important parts of the discussion without disclosing too many of the details. If you’re having trouble putting it into words, try to phrase your topic as a question and then answer it . 

For example, if your research paper topic is about separating students with ADHD from other students, you’d first ask yourself, “Does separating students with ADHD improve their learning?” The answer—based on your preliminary research—is a good basis for your thesis statement. 

5 Determine supporting evidence

At this stage of how to write an academic research paper, it’s time to knuckle down and do the actual research. Here’s when you go through all the sources you collected earlier and find the specific information you’d like to use in your paper. 

Normally, you find your supporting evidence by reading each source and taking notes. Isolate only the information that’s directly relevant to your topic; don’t bog down your paper with tangents or unnecessary context, however interesting they may be. And always write down page numbers , not only for you to find the information later, but also because you’ll need them for your citations. 

Aside from highlighting text and writing notes, another common tactic is to use bibliography cards . These are simple index cards with a fact or direct quotation on one side and the bibliographical information (source citation, page numbers, subtopic category) on the other. While bibliography cards are not necessary, some students find them useful for staying organized, especially when it’s time to write an outline. 

6 Write a research paper outline

A lot of students want to know how to write a research paper outline. More than informal essays, research papers require a methodical and systematic structure to make sure all issues are addressed, and that makes outlines especially important. 

First make a list of all the important categories and subtopics you need to cover—an outline for your outline! Consider all the information you gathered when compiling your supporting evidence and ask yourself what the best way to separate and categorize everything is. 

Once you have a list of what you want to talk about, consider the best order to present the information. Which subtopics are related and should go next to each other? Are there any subtopics that don’t make sense if they’re presented out of sequence? If your information is fairly straightforward, feel free to take a chronological approach and present the information in the order it happened. 

Because research papers can get complicated, consider breaking your outline into paragraphs. For starters, this helps you stay organized if you have a lot of information to cover. Moreover, it gives you greater control over the flow and direction of the research paper. It’s always better to fix structural problems in the outline phase than later after everything’s already been written. 

Don’t forget to include your supporting evidence in the outline as well. Chances are you’ll have a lot you want to include, so putting it in your outline helps prevent some things from falling through the cracks. 

7 Write the first draft

Once your outline is finished, it’s time to start actually writing your research paper. This is by far the longest and most involved step, but if you’ve properly prepared your sources and written a thorough outline, everything should run smoothly. 

If you don’t know how to write an introduction for a research paper, the beginning can be difficult. That’s why writing your  thesis statement beforehand is crucial. Open with your thesis statement and then fill out the rest of your introduction with the secondary information—save the details for the body of your research paper, which comes next. 

The body contains the bulk of your research paper. Unlike  essays , research papers usually divide the body into sections with separate headers to facilitate browsing and scanning. Use the divisions in your outline as a guide. 

Follow along your outline and go paragraph by paragraph. Because this is just the first draft, don’t worry about getting each word perfect . Later you’ll be able to revise and fine-tune your writing, but for now focus simply on saying everything that needs to be said. In other words, it’s OK to make mistakes since you’ll go back later to correct them. 

One of the most common problems with writing long works like research papers is connecting paragraphs to each other. The longer your writing is, the harder it is to tie everything together smoothly. Use  transition sentences to improve the flow of your paper, especially for the first and last sentences in a paragraph. 

Even after the body is written, you still need to know how to write a conclusion for a research paper. Just like  an essay conclusion , your research paper conclusion should restate your thesis , reiterate your main evidence , and summarize your findings in a way that’s easy to understand. 

Don’t add any new information in your conclusion, but feel free to say your own personal perspective or interpretation if it helps the reader understand the big picture. 

8 Cite your sources correctly

Citations are part of what sets research papers apart from more casual nonfiction like personal essays . Citing your sources both validates your data and also links your research paper to the greater scientific community. Because of their importance, citations must follow precise formatting rules . . . problem is, there’s more than one set of rules!

You need to check with the assignment to see which formatting style is required. Typically, academic research papers follow one of two formatting styles for citing sources:

• MLA (Modern Language Association)
• APA (American Psychological Association)

The links above explain the specific formatting guidelines for each style, along with an automatic citation generator to help you get started. 

In addition to MLA and APA styles, you occasionally see requirements for  CMOS (The Chicago Manual of Style),  AMA (American Medical Association) and  IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers). 

Citations may seem confusing at first with all their rules and specific information. However, once you get the hang of them, you’ll be able to properly cite your sources without even thinking about it. Keep in mind that each formatting style has specific guidelines for citing just about any kind of source, including photos , websites , speeches , and YouTube videos .

9 Edit and proofread

Last but not least, you want to go through your research paper to correct all the mistakes by  proofreading . We recommend going over it twice: once for structural issues such as adding/deleting parts or rearranging paragraphs and once for word choice, grammatical, and spelling mistakes. Doing two different editing sessions helps you focus on one area at a time instead of doing them both at once. 

To help you catch everything, here’s a quick checklist to keep in mind while you edit:

Structural edit:

• Is your thesis statement clear and concise?
• Is your paper well-organized, and does it flow from beginning to end with logical transitions?
• Do your ideas follow a logical sequence in each paragraph?
• Have you used concrete details and facts and avoided generalizations?
• Do your arguments support and prove your thesis?
• Have you avoided repetition?
• Are your sources properly cited?
• Have you checked for accidental plagiarism?

Word choice, grammar, and spelling edit:

• Is your language clear and specific?
• Do your sentences flow smoothly and clearly? 
• Have you avoided  filler words and phrases ?
• Have you checked for proper grammar, spelling, and punctuation? 

Some people find it useful to read their paper out loud to catch problems they might miss when reading in their head. Another solution is to have someone else read your paper and point out areas for improvement and/or technical mistakes. 

Revising is a separate skill from writing, and being good at one doesn’t necessarily make you good at the other. If you want to improve your revision skills, read our  guide on self-editing , which includes a more complete checklist and advanced tips on improving your revisions. 

Technical issues like grammatical mistakes and misspelled words can be handled effortlessly if you use a spellchecker with your word processor, or even better, a digital writing assistant that also suggests improvements for word choice and tone, like Grammarly (we explain more in the Tools and resources section below). 

Tools and resources

If you want to know more about how to write a research paper, or if you want some help with each step, take a look at the tools and resources below. 

Google Scholar

This is Google’s own search engine, which is dedicated exclusively to academic papers. It’s a great way to find new research and sources. Plus, it’s free to use. 

Zotero is a freemium, open-source research manager, a cross between an organizational CMS and a search engine for academic research. With it, you can browse the internet for research sources relevant to your topic and share them easily with colleagues. Also, it automatically generates citations. 

FocusWriter

Writing long research papers is always a strain on your attention span. If you have trouble avoiding distractions during those long stretches, FocusWriter might be able to help. FocusWriter is a minimalist word processor that removes all the distracting icons and sticks only to what you type. You’re also free to choose your own customized backgrounds, with other special features like timed alarms, daily goals, and optional typewriter sound effects. 

Google Charts

This useful and free tool from Google lets you create simple charts and graphs based on whatever data you input. Charts and graphs are excellent visual aids for expressing numeric data, a perfect complement if you need to explain complicated evidential research. 

Grammarly goes way beyond grammar, helping you hone word choice, checking your text for plagiarism, detecting your tone, and more. For foreign-language learners, it can make your English sound more fluent, and even those who speak English as their primary language benefit from Grammarly’s suggestions. 

Research paper FAQs

A research paper is a piece of academic writing that analyzes, evaluates, or interprets a single topic with empirical evidence and statistical data. 

When will I need to write a research paper in college?

Many college courses use research papers to test a student’s knowledge of a particular topic or their research skills in general. While research papers depend on the course or professor, you can expect to write at least a few before graduation. 

How do I determine a topic for my research paper?

If the topic is not assigned, try to find a topic that’s general enough to provide ample evidence but specific enough that you’re able to cover all the basics. If possible, choose a topic you’re personally interested in—it makes the work easier. 

Where can I conduct research for my paper?

Today most research is conducted either online or in libraries. Some topics might benefit from old periodicals like newspapers or magazines, as well as visual media like documentaries. Museums, parks, and historical monuments can also be useful. 

How do I cite sources for a research paper?

The correct formatting for citations depends on which style you’re using, so check the assignment guidelines. Most school research reports use either  MLA or  APA styles, although there are others. 

This article was originally written by Karen Hertzberg in 2017. It’s been updated to include new information.

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Strategies for overcoming language barriers in research

Allison squires.

1 Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York University, New York City, New York

2 School of Medicine, New York University, New York City, New York

Tina Sadarangani

Simon jones.

3 Population Health, School of Medicine, New York University, New York City, New York

AS, TS and SJ: Made substantial contributions to conception and design, or acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data. AS, TS and SJ: Involved in drafting the manuscript or revising it critically for important intellectual content. AS, TS and SJ: Given final approval of the version to be published. Each author should have participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for appropriate portions of the content. AS, TS and SJ: Agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

This paper seeks to describe best practices for conducting cross-language research with individuals who have a language barrier.

Discussion paper.

Data Sources

Research methods papers addressing cross-language research issues published between 2000–2017.

Implications for Nursing

Rigorous cross-language research involves the appropriate use of interpreters during the research process, systematic planning for how to address the language barrier between participant and researcher and the use of reliably and validly translated survey instruments (when applicable). Biases rooted in those who enter data into “big data” systems may influence data quality and analytic approaches in large observational studies focused on linking patient language preference to health outcomes.

Cross-language research methods can help ensure that those individuals with language barriers have their voices contributing to the evidence informing healthcare practice and policies that shape health services implementation and financing. Understanding the inherent conscious and unconscious biases of those conducting research with this population and how this may emerge in research studies is also an important part of producing rigorous, reliable, and valid cross-language research.

• This study synthesized methodological recommendations for cross-language research studies with the goal to improve the quality of future research and expand the evidence-base for clinical practice.
• Clear methodological recommendations were generated that can improve research rigor and quality of cross-language qualitative and quantitative studies.
• The recommendations generated here have the potential to have an impact on the health and well-being of migrants around the world.

1. INTRODUCTION

Global migration has reached unprecedented levels in human history in the twenty-first century, with 3.3% of the world’s population having migrated internationally and 740 million people have migrated in their own countries ( International Organization for Migration, 2017 ). Medical tourism is also on the rise and language concordance is not always a guarantee between nurses and their patients in those cases ( Kanchanachitra et al., 2011 ; Reitig & Squires, 2015 ). For nurses and other healthcare researchers, migration creates a common challenge for healthcare research: language barriers.

Individuals with language barriers present new opportunities and challenges for researchers seeking to strengthen the evidence-base for clinical nursing practice and education around the world. Research with this population is also critical for understanding health outcomes, how individuals who have moved countries access (or the barriers to) health services and developing and testing effective strategies for health literacy promotion to name a few. Research will also help ensure that individuals with language barriers do not face discrimination in their health systems and subsequently develop costly health disparities.

It is surprising, however, how many researchers do not minimize the threats to research rigor posed by language barriers with their subjects. Patient and health services focused research on language barriers has historically been lacking and limited to a small group of researchers globally, even as incentives for such research have appeared in many countries ( Schwei et al., 2016 ). In the case of nursing, the literature has focused more on researching the language skills (or lack thereof) of internationally educated nurses rather than their patients ( Allan & Westwood, 2016 ; Müller, 2016 ). A cursory search of PubMed and CINAHL reveal that publications linked to nurses about language barriers since the year 2000 number, after removal of duplicates, only 280 of 303. Approximately one third of those are practice-based papers not involving research, editorials, or opinions—the lowest level of the evidence-based practice pyramid. Whilst there may be more publications, inappropriate use of key words may keep many hidden from systematic searches.

In this discussion paper, we draw from an international, interdisciplinary body of research that has explored and successfully addressed methodological challenges of qualitative and quantitative research involving language barriers in health care, known as cross-language research methods. We seek to highlight the key methodological implications of doing research involving language barriers by drawing from methodological developments in the literature since the year 2000 through 20,217—a period representing unprecedented growth in scientific studies and cross-language methodological developments. Both qualitative and quantitative methodological implications are reviewed from selected studies.

2. BACKGROUND

This section provides an overview of two key areas associated with cross-language research in nursing: language barriers and interpreter types. It aims to provide the reader with a basic conceptual understanding of core linguistic principles involved with addressing language barriers in research.

2.1. Language barriers in nursing and health care

Language barriers have been part of nursing practice since the formal inception of the profession in the nineteenth century when Nightingale was caring for soldiers from across Europe during the Crimean War. In the twenty-first century with global migration rates at record levels, language barriers present multiple challenges for health systems delivery ( Bloemraad & Sheares, 2017 ; Czaika & de Haas, 2013 ).

Research is needed to devise the best, context specific strategies for meeting the needs of patients with language barriers. Conducting research in a patient’s preferred language offers the best opportunity to truly capture reliable and valid results representative of their experiences. A preferred language is the person’s “language of the heart”, the one that they want to speak when they feel at their most vulnerable. The conduct of research when a language barrier is involved has two aspects. First, understanding linguistic competency and literacy of participants and planning the study around those factors. The second aspect focuses on addressing the language of health care and research itself, known as language for specific purposes (LSP).

First, to be able to communicate effectively with another person individuals need to have what linguists call discourse competence in a language. That means they can have a conversation with someone relatively easily and do not have to stop and look up words or phrases ( Danesi, 1996 ; Savignon, 1997 ; Squires, 2008 ). For example, immigrant children may have this level of language competence, but they usually lack a more sophisticated understanding of the language since most of the time, they do not receive formal education in their parents’ language. They will not have the vocabulary to speak “health care” either. They are known as “heritage” speakers of a language ( Montrul, 2010 ).

Health care, as we know, is its own language and fits the criteria of a language for a specific purpose ( Hull, 2016 ). LSP is the vernacular of the discipline. The professions all have their own language as do the different realms of the social sciences. When students study to become members of the discipline or profession, part of their socialization is learning the language. Therefore, effective communication with LSP depends on the person’s ability to translate not only the disciplinary vernacular, but also the standard language ( Hull, 2016 ).

We see “failures” of translating LSP with patients who speak our own language when we cannot improve their health literacy. In the case of language translation issues between patients and providers, for example, miscommunication related to translation increases the patient’s risk for hospital readmission, adverse events, and delays in care, to name a few ( De Gagne, Oh, So, & Kim, 2014 ; Dowsey, Broadhead, Stoney, & Choong, 2009 ; Durstenfeld, Ogedegbe, Katz, Park, & Blecker, 2016 ; Karliner, Kim, Meltzer, & Auerbach, 2010 ; Whittal & Lippke, 2016 ). Therefore, the same threats mistranslation poses to patients’ health and well-being will threaten the rigor of research studies involving translation.

2.2. An overview of types of healthcare interpreters and their potential research roles

Interpreters are an important part of mitigating threats to rigor in research. There is a difference, however, between an interpreter and a translator. An Interpreter is a person who conducts “live” interpretation between two people. A Translator is someone who translates text-based documents between the source language and the target language ( Squires, 2008 ; Temple, 2002 ). Qualified interpreters and translators will have had their language skills formally evaluated by an independent source ( Hull, 2016 ). The next sections focus on the roles of interpreters in research with roles of translators discussed specifically in the section focused on research implementation.

To begin, in the case of interpreters, they will play an important role in research data collection and potentially, analysis. Any interpreter contributing to a study ideally will have some experience facilitating research implementation, but that is not always possible ( Squires, 2008 ). There are five types of interpreters or services that can be used in research, each with pros and cons and budgetary implications.

The first type of interpreter we will discuss is the Dual Role Interpreter. This is usually a healthcare provider who has had their language proficiency formally evaluated by an independent source. They may have grown up speaking the language and continued studying it as they progressed in their education or alternatively, learned the language through intensive study or living and working abroad. In many countries, it is common for healthcare providers to speak multiple languages, especially when there are several official languages in a country. Again, it is important to remember that their level of language proficiency for healthcare language may vary.

The advantage of the dual role interpreter (especially if they also have research training) is that their contributions to the study will be informed by their experiences working with patients with language barriers. There is the potential for a more nuanced understanding of experiences or the challenges of measurement with specific populations with language barriers. A dual role interpreter, however, may bring their own set of biases into how results are interpreted from the study because of their experiences. This aspect of interpreter identity, even in quantitative studies, should be factored into study design and discussed in the limitations.

An in-person interpreter is an individual who has received specialized training. In health care, they have learned healthcare vocabulary as part of their training so they can effectively translate health care’s language—a definite advantage for study implementation. For research purposes, these interpreters are the best option if the study will involve communicating complex healthcare information to a study participant, such as might occur in randomized controlled trials.

In-person interpreters in research can also have no healthcare experience, which can provide an advantage for researchers who seek to minimize bias in participant responses in studies involving the patient experience. Like any healthcare worker, healthcare interpreters may have their own biases from interactions with healthcare providers, navigating systems issues and memorable patient interactions. Even though they may try to stay objective, the risk for them inserting bias into the findings increases if this threat to rigor is not managed well.

Technology-based interpreting is the kind that most clinicians are familiar with and it comes in the form of telephone or video-based interpreting services. When research funds are limited, using this service—especially if it is already part of the institution’s resources—can offer the most cost-effective option for conducting research. A threat to rigor from this type of interpreting is that the technology- based interpreting industry is largely unregulated globally and relies on companies to conduct their own internal quality checks of interpreter performance.

Finally, two other ways of bridging language barriers could threaten the rigor of research findings: Online translation services and family members. Online translation services have not yet developed the ability to effectively translate health care’s language. While they can seem like a good way to translate, for example, transcripts in qualitative research, many translation errors will happen—especially with patient interviews because they may often use obscure slang words from their particular dialect that the computer will mistranslate. A qualified translator will still be needed to check the translation, which could still take just as much time as if they did it themselves.

Family members may or may not make for effective interpreters for a research study. Just like during a healthcare encounter where sensitive or culturally taboo topics may emerge; the family member may influence the translation and information provided. Unless the study design includes the family member in it, using independent interpreters presents the best mediating option for threats to rigor from translation by family members. Nonetheless, with the participant’s consent, a family member could help enhance data quality by either improving its precision (in the case of a survey) or helping the participant to remember important experiential details (in the case of qualitative research).

3. DATA SOURCES

Cross-language research refers to research studies where a language barrier is present and data collection must involve the use of interpreters at some stage during the research process ( Croot et al., 2011 ; Squires, 2009 ; Squires et al., 2013 ). A critical factor of crosslanguage research, regardless of methodological approach, is that it must be completed in teams ( Chapple & Ziebland, 2018 ; Esposito, 2001 ; Im et al., 2017 ; Paulus, Jackson, & Davidson, 2017 ; Shordike et al., 2010 ; Stanley & Slattery, 2003 ). Cross-language research cannot be rigorous unless a team was involved because the interpretation of the data would be subject to the individual biases of a single researcher and are likely to be less representative of the population of interest. The team will include the researcher, coinvestigators, project managers and very importantly, interpreters. The following recommendations were drawn from 73 methods articles addressing some dimension of cross-language qualitative or quantitative research published between 2000 and 2017.

4. IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

When the target population for a research study has a language barrier, careful planning is required. In this section, we offer considerations for the design of qualitative and quantitative studies where language barriers are an issue that could threaten the rigor of a study.

4.1. Qualitative research considerations

Cross-language qualitative research has grown extensively since the year 2000. Methods have evolved and several common methodological considerations emerged. Importantly, cross-language researchers uniformly agree that translation poses a threat to the trustworthiness of qualitative data ( Court & Abbas, 2013 ; Esposito, 2001 ; Im et al., 2017 ; Jones & Boyle, 2011 ; Larkin, Dierckx de Casterlé, & Schotsmans, 2007 ; MacKenzie, 2015 ; Temple, 2002 , 2005 ; Temple & Young, 2004 ; Wong & Poon, 2010 ; Xian, 2008 ). Squires (2009) developed criteria from a systematic review of cross-language studies for evaluating how researchers managed translation and then Croot et al. (2011) tested the criteria. The latter concluded that the criteria offered researchers useful direction both with study design and critical appraisal of existing studies, albeit with several caveats related to resources dictating interpreter usage.

Another point of consensus in cross-language research is that interpreter identity matters, with pros and cons for each choice made. Interpreters with translation work experience are uniformly recommended for cross-language studies to minimize the threats to trustworthiness of results posed by translation. The use of students, undergraduate or graduate, for interpreting may create good research socialization opportunities, but could also affect data quality due to their inexperience with both research and translation ( Lincoln, González y González, & Aroztegui Massera, 2016 ).

Interpreter timing during data collection also matters and well-planned studies account for this factor during study design ( Im et al., 2016 ; Santos, Black, & Sandelowski, 2014 ). Timing is rooted in the role design of the interpreter in the study. Researchers may find Role Theory useful in interpreter role design when planning a study ( Lynch, 2007 ; Morgeson, Delaney-Klinger, & Hemingway, 2005 ). For example, a functionalist role for an interpreter means the expectation of the interpreter is to adhere to their essential function: interpretation and translation. This would be defined as the “correct behaviours” that functionalist role theory emphasizes. Timing would be limited to the interview data collection point, transcription (if that is part of their role) and translation of the transcript.

An interpreter in an interactionist role, however, offers flexible boundaries to the interpreter that are less proscribed ( Lynch, 2007 ). Interactionist contributions of the interpreter would include not only interpretation and translation of the data, but also contributions to data analysis ( Squires, 2008 ). An interactionist role also allows the interpreter to integrate their role as a cultural broker between the parties, thereby contributing potential explanations to themes and categories that have emerged in the analysis or by providing culturally appropriate names for them.

Finally, transcription quality is always a critical part of any qualitative research study and this is where translators will help mitigate threats to rigor ( Poland, 1995 ; Tilley, 2003 ). Transcriptions are the final point of interpreter-mediated vulnerability in a research study because the quality of translation will affect the entire data analysis process. Clark, Birkhead, Fernandez, and Egger (2017) offer useful recommendations for quality checking the transcription and translation process. These include two independent checks on translation, hiring professional transcription services, achieving consensus around the translation of culturally unique words and slang phrases with the minimal goal of achieving semantic equivalence and the aspirational goal of conceptual equivalence.

4.2. Quantitative research considerations

Language barriers or patient language preferences can affect any kind of quantitative study. Most observational studies (e.g., cross-sectional, cohort, case control, etc.) and randomized control trials may involve the use of some survey design and methodological consensus has emerged around what constitutes rigorous survey instrument translation. “Big Data”, being newer, means that we do not fully understand where language preference and language barriers manifest themselves in patient outcomes in large datasets. Nonetheless, there are still salient points for discussion even in the early stages of the science.

4.2.1. Survey instruments and translation

There are many instruments with existing reliable and valid translations, or so it may appear. When making the method choice to use an existing translation, researchers should first research the history of the instrument to determine: (a) when it was developed; (b) how it was psychometrically evaluated in its original language; and (d) when and how the translation was completed. Flaws in the process tied with the original instrument translation process will not produce reliable and valid results in the translation. There is also the possibility that factor structures and other psychometric measures may change across cultures and contexts ( Brzyski, Kózka, Squires, & Brzostek, 2016 ; Choi et al., 2009 ; Mallinckrodt & Wang, 2004 ; Yu, Lee, & Woo, 2004 ). Sometimes these changes are not significant, but the researcher must differentiate when they are or are not using the appropriate methods. Just because it has been published does not mean it is a good quality translation. A translator is critical to help evaluate the quality of the survey’s translation during this phase of study planning. Some surveys, like the Maslach Burnout Inventory, have professional translations that are available, protected by copyright and may require a fee for their use in research studies ( Squires et al., 2014 ). Failure to appropriately use this kind of survey translation may place the researcher at risk for copyright violations.

Survey instrument translation appropriateness with specific populations is also affected by nativity and dialects—both of which are associated with social risk factors influencing health outcomes ( National Academies of Sciences Engineering & Medicine, 2017 ). Many countries have multiple official languages where citizens will speak all of them or at least one or two with a high level of proficiency. They may not read or write in the other languages.

Examples of this phenomenon come from every part of the world. In Sub-Saharan Africa, it is common for people to speak their tribal language (which may or may not be written), the language of their former colonizers and other languages common to the economic engine of the country ( Levin, 2006 ). Latin America has 448 indigenous languages spoken there, aside from Spanish, Portuguese, or French. China has the unifying scholarly language of Mandarin, with Cantonese the second most spoken language in the country. Yet each village and region in China can have a sub-dialect that only people from those regions understand ( Aroian, Wu, & Tran, 2005 ; Chidarikire, Cross, Skinner, & Cleary, 2018 ). Former Soviet Union States may still speak Russian but most have reasserted their country’s language as the primary language ( Shpilko, 2006 ). The languages of India and Pakistan remain numerous as well ( Abdelrahim et al., 2017 ). In the Middle East, Arabic is much like Spanish where the version of the language is specific to the country of origin of the person speaking it. Academic Arabic could be read by any educated person, but dialect specificity is important for accurate translation ( Al-Amer, Ramjan, Glew, Darwish, & Salamonson, 2016 ). For survey research, this means that a translation of a survey may not work well if it does not match the participant’s nativity—especially when measuring symptoms, coping strategies and other health related phenomenon where slang and linguistic variation by country become measurement factors.

Nonetheless, consensus has emerged in several areas around appropriate strategies for ensuring the most reliable, valid and culturally appropriate translation of a survey instrument. Flaherty et al. (1988) were one of the first groups to set early criteria for evaluating instrument translations. Their criteria include researchers taking steps during the translation process to ensure conceptual, semantic, technical, content, and construct equivalence. In time, it has also become clear that forward and backward translation alone are insufficient to ensure reliable and valid translations because that process alone cannot meet the five measures of equivalence ( Maneesriwongul & Dixon, 2004 ; Perneger, Leplège, & Etter, 1999 ; Squires et al., 2013 ). Systematic approaches to survey instrument translation, therefore, offer the best option to ensure reliable, valid, and culturally representative translations. Most of these approaches offer some combination of content validity indexing ( Brzostek et al., 2015 ; Liu, Squires, & You, 2011 ; Squires et al., 2012 , 2013 , 2014 ), cognitive interviewing ( Benitez & Padilla, 2014 ; Benitez, Padilla, van de Vijver, & Cuevas, 2018 ; Park, Sha, & Willis, 2016 ; Reeve et al., 2011 ), and interpreter timing ( Cha, Kim, & Erlen, 2007 ; Erkut, 2010 ; Johnson, 2006 ; Sidani, Guruge, Miranda, Ford-Gilboe, & Varcoe, 2010 ; Weeks, Swerissen, & Belfrage, 2007 ; Xian, 2008 ; Yu et al., 2004 ). Finally, conducting pre-data collection evaluations of the survey instrument with the migrant population will not only help determine if they understand the questions being asked in the instrument, but if the wording and literacy level is appropriate for the local population being studied.

4.2.2. Big data, patient language preference, and large dataset observational studies

Whilst there is a huge attraction to use big data to analyse health related issues tied to patient language preference, bigger does not always mean better ( Cohen et al., 2015 ; O’Halloran, Tan, Pham, Bateman, & Vande Moere, 2018 ). In addition to the many known problems that come with working with large datasets in health care, isolating language barrier related relationships and effects have their own challenges in observational studies. First, data generated from administrative files is not collected with the rigor and consistency that aligns with research practices. It requires multiple people and multiple incentives to get it right. Consequently, organizations that do not place a value on capturing patient language preference will likely have poor data to work with as capturing patient language preference data reflects organizational values for caring for migrants.

A logical leap from this issue then would be the use of missing data management techniques. Patient language preference data are often missing, thus presenting unique challenges for data analysis that are often reflective of biases and potentially, prejudices of who entered the data. Thus, missing language preference data are unlikely to be missing at random. For example, research from the UK shows that it is common to have missing race/ethnicity classifications of “white” ( Tippu et al., 2017 ). That missing data, with no language preference recorded, would leave out whites who do not speak English yet still comprise a substantial portion of the migrant population in the country. Other datasets might reflect similar patterns.

Another issue affecting large datasets where researchers want to consider language preference is that there are no standards for recording it in health care in terms of naming languages in EHRs. For example, organizations may have a language preference option of “Chinese”, when in fact there is no such language. Mandarin is the official language of China and Cantonese is a widely spoken dialect in the country that uses the same alphabet. As previously mentioned, China has multiple dialects—some just at the village level —and those are rarely considered for language preference. For older patients who may migrated in the twentieth century, their village dialect may represent the language of their heart.

Lastly, when trying to use large datasets to compare the impact of language preference on patient outcomes, how demographics are measured and have changed over time become important methodological considerations. In societies that were largely linguistically homogenous before the population changed, these differences present unique challenges for healthcare research. Longitudinal studies, therefore, become critical for studying the impact of changes in language preferences of populations over time and how these impact health outcomes and any resulting disparities.

4.3. Budgeting for interpretation and translation

Interpreting and translation can add significant costs to a research study. Costs are determined based on (a) the language being translated; (b) the source and target languages for translation; and (c) the extent of interpreter involvement in the research process.

Straightforward translation of survey instruments or transcription and translation of qualitative interviews have costs dictated by the time involved and the country where the researchers are seeking services. Many professional translation companies contract with translators in other countries to ensure the best quality translation and in some cases, this can save on costs. Country specific translations also ensure that the slang words or other country specific vernacular receives the correct interpretation. Professional translation services, however, are the most expensive.

The alternative is to hire research team members who speak the same language as the target population of the study. This can involve hiring research assistants on a part- or full-time basis and the total costs of their participation will depend on the country’s labour laws or organization’s employment requirements. Funding for the study may limit how long interpreters can be involved with it unless they can contribute to other parts of the study besides data collection. If researchers do want their language concordant staff to remain part of the entire study, they should budget funds to support their involvement for the duration. Depending on the funding source, this may or may not contribute significantly to the study’s total costs.

5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Research will play a critical role in helping health systems, workers and patients determine the most effective ways to bridge language barriers between patients, providers and systems in ways that optimize health and system outcomes. Improved research rigor in studies involving language barriers in health care are also needed to create evidence-based policies at the organizational, local, national, and international levels.

All recommendations are made mindful of the possibility that any researcher or member of their team could be subject to ethnocentric assumptions in their work and thus, should operate from a place of being conscious of their own biases when implementing and interpreting studies involving language barriers. Using cross-language research methods to generate better, more rigorous evidence specific to the experiences of people with language barriers is critical for strengthening health care’s evidence base that informs clinical practice and policy.

Acknowledgments

Funding information This paper was informed by research funded by the United States’ Agency for Health Care Research and Quality, R01HS23593.

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Academic Writing Style
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts within a community of scholarly experts and practitioners.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020.

Importance of Good Academic Writing

The accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can vary considerable depending on the methodological framework and the intended audience. However, most college-level research papers require careful attention to the following stylistic elements:

I.  The Big Picture Unlike creative or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing is formal and logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas; this means that the various parts are connected to form a unified whole. There should be narrative links between sentences and paragraphs so that the reader is able to follow your argument. The introduction should include a description of how the rest of the paper is organized and all sources are properly cited throughout the paper.

II.  Tone The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing. Throughout your paper, it is important that you present the arguments of others fairly and with an appropriate narrative tone. When presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this argument accurately and without loaded or biased language. In academic writing, the author is expected to investigate the research problem from an authoritative point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths of your arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not confrontational or dismissive.

III.  Diction Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the words you use is important because words that have almost the same denotation [dictionary definition] can have very different connotations [implied meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing because words and terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a particular idea, concept, or phenomenon derived from the epistemological culture of that discipline [e.g., the concept of rational choice in political science]. Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific meaning. If this cannot be done without confusing the reader, then you need to explain what you mean within the context of how that word or phrase is used within a discipline.

IV.  Language The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often complex and multi- dimensional . Therefore, it is important that you use unambiguous language. Well-structured paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without difficulty. Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely what you want it to mean. Do not use vague expressions that are not specific or precise enough for the reader to derive exact meaning ["they," "we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like 'i.e.'  ["in other words"], 'e.g.' ["for example"], or 'a.k.a.' ["also known as"], and the use of unspecific determinate words ["super," "very," "incredible," "huge," etc.].

V.  Punctuation Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the narrative tone of their work and, therefore, punctuation marks are used very deliberately. For example, exclamation points are rarely used to express a heightened tone because it can come across as unsophisticated or over-excited. Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a sentence, while hyphens should be limited to connecting prefixes to words [e.g., multi-disciplinary] or when forming compound phrases [e.g., commander-in-chief]. Finally, understand that semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-colons: when a second clause expands or explains the first clause; to describe a sequence of actions or different aspects of the same topic; placed before clauses which begin with "nevertheless", "therefore", "even so," and "for instance”; and, to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas. If you are not confident about when to use semi-colons [and most of the time, they are not required for proper punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or revise the paragraph.

VI.  Academic Conventions Among the most important rules and principles of academic engagement of a writing is citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references as either footnotes or endnotes. The academic convention of citing sources facilitates processes of intellectual discovery, critical thinking, and applying a deliberate method of navigating through the scholarly landscape by tracking how cited works are propagated by scholars over time . Aside from citing sources, other academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings and subheadings, properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the text, avoiding slang or colloquial language, avoiding emotive language or unsupported declarative statements, avoiding contractions [e.g., isn't], and using first person and second person pronouns only when necessary.

VII.  Evidence-Based Reasoning Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the research problem. However, what is valued in academic writing is that statements are based on evidence-based reasoning. This refers to possessing a clear understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic debates that exist within, and often external to, your discipline concerning the topic. You need to support your arguments with evidence from scholarly [i.e., academic or peer-reviewed] sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical argument; the quality of the evidence you cite will determine the strength of your argument. The objective is to convince the reader of the validity of your thoughts through a well-documented, coherent, and logically structured piece of writing. This is particularly important when proposing solutions to problems or delineating recommended courses of action.

VIII.  Thesis-Driven Academic writing is “thesis-driven,” meaning that the starting point is a particular perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen topic of investigation, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving solutions to the questions applied to investigating the research problem. Note that a problem statement without the research questions does not qualify as academic writing because simply identifying the research problem does not establish for the reader how you will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe are most critical, or suggest a method for gathering information or data to better understand the problem.

IX.  Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking Academic writing addresses complex issues that require higher-order thinking skills applied to understanding the research problem [e.g., critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking as opposed to, for example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking]. Higher-order thinking skills include cognitive processes that are used to comprehend, solve problems, and express concepts or that describe abstract ideas that cannot be easily acted out, pointed to, or shown with images. Think of your writing this way: One of the most important attributes of a good teacher is the ability to explain complexity in a way that is understandable and relatable to the topic being presented during class. This is also one of the main functions of academic writing--examining and explaining the significance of complex ideas as clearly as possible.  As a writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing complex information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts, and recommendations that contribute to a better understanding of the research problem.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Murray, Rowena  and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Roy. Improve Your Writing Skills . Manchester, UK: Clifton Press, 1995; Nygaard, Lynn P. Writing for Scholars: A Practical Guide to Making Sense and Being Heard . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2015; Silvia, Paul J. How to Write a Lot: A Practical Guide to Productive Academic Writing . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2007; Style, Diction, Tone, and Voice. Writing Center, Wheaton College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.

Strategies for...

Understanding Academic Writing and Its Jargon

The very definition of research jargon is language specific to a particular community of practitioner-researchers . Therefore, in modern university life, jargon represents the specific language and meaning assigned to words and phrases specific to a discipline or area of study. For example, the idea of being rational may hold the same general meaning in both political science and psychology, but its application to understanding and explaining phenomena within the research domain of a each discipline may have subtle differences based upon how scholars in that discipline apply the concept to the theories and practice of their work.

Given this, it is important that specialist terminology [i.e., jargon] must be used accurately and applied under the appropriate conditions . Subject-specific dictionaries are the best places to confirm the meaning of terms within the context of a specific discipline. These can be found by either searching in the USC Libraries catalog by entering the disciplinary and the word dictionary [e.g., sociology and dictionary] or using a database such as Credo Reference [a curated collection of subject encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, guides from highly regarded publishers] . It is appropriate for you to use specialist language within your field of study, but you should avoid using such language when writing for non-academic or general audiences.

Problems with Opaque Writing

A common criticism of scholars is that they can utilize needlessly complex syntax or overly expansive vocabulary that is impenetrable or not well-defined. When writing, avoid problems associated with opaque writing by keeping in mind the following:

1.   Excessive use of specialized terminology . Yes, it is appropriate for you to use specialist language and a formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using "big words" just for the sake of doing so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing complicated sentence constructions gives readers the impression that your paper is more about style than substance; it leads the reader to question if you really know what you are talking about. Focus on creating clear, concise, and elegant prose that minimizes reliance on specialized terminology.

2.   Inappropriate use of specialized terminology . Because you are dealing with concepts, research, and data within your discipline, you need to use the technical language appropriate to that area of study. However, nothing will undermine the validity of your study quicker than the inappropriate application of a term or concept. Avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of--do not just guess or assume! Consult the meaning of terms in specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by searching the USC Libraries catalog or the Credo Reference database [see above].

Additional Problems to Avoid

In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of academic writing in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These problems include:

• Personal nouns . Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., I, me, you, us] may lead the reader to believe the study was overly subjective. These words can be interpreted as being used only to avoid presenting empirical evidence about the research problem. Limit the use of personal nouns to descriptions of things you actually did [e.g., "I interviewed ten teachers about classroom management techniques..."]. Note that personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section of a paper because this is where you as the author/researcher interpret and describe your work.
• Directives . Avoid directives that demand the reader to "do this" or "do that." Directives should be framed as evidence-based recommendations or goals leading to specific outcomes. Note that an exception to this can be found in various forms of action research that involve evidence-based advocacy for social justice or transformative change. Within this area of the social sciences, authors may offer directives for action in a declarative tone of urgency.
• Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms . Academic writing relies on excellent grammar and precise word structure. Your narrative should not include regional dialects or slang terms because they can be open to interpretation. Your writing should be direct and concise using standard English.
• Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and developing a narrative that does not have confusing language . By doing so, you  help eliminate the possibility of the reader misinterpreting the design and purpose of your study.
• Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company," "that area," etc.). Being concise in your writing also includes avoiding vague references to persons, places, or things. While proofreading your paper, be sure to look for and edit any vague or imprecise statements that lack context or specificity.
• Numbered lists and bulleted items . The use of bulleted items or lists should be used only if the narrative dictates a need for clarity. For example, it is fine to state, "The four main problems with hedge funds are:" and then list them as 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in academic writing, this must then be followed by detailed explanation and analysis of each item. Given this, the question you should ask yourself while proofreading is: why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with systematic analysis of each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also, be careful using numbers because they can imply a ranked order of priority or importance. If none exists, use bullets and avoid checkmarks or other symbols.
• Descriptive writing . Describing a research problem is an important means of contextualizing a study. In fact, some description or background information may be needed because you can not assume the reader knows the key aspects of the topic. However, the content of your paper should focus on methodology, the analysis and interpretation of findings, and their implications as they apply to the research problem rather than background information and descriptions of tangential issues.
• Personal experience. Drawing upon personal experience [e.g., traveling abroad; caring for someone with Alzheimer's disease] can be an effective way of introducing the research problem or engaging your readers in understanding its significance. Use personal experience only as an example, though, because academic writing relies on evidence-based research. To do otherwise is simply story-telling.

NOTE:   Rules concerning excellent grammar and precise word structure do not apply when quoting someone.  A quote should be inserted in the text of your paper exactly as it was stated. If the quote is especially vague or hard to understand, consider paraphrasing it or using a different quote to convey the same meaning. Consider inserting the term "sic" in brackets after the quoted text to indicate that the quotation has been transcribed exactly as found in the original source, but the source had grammar, spelling, or other errors. The adverb sic informs the reader that the errors are not yours.

Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Murray, Rowena  and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Eileen S. “Action Research.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education . Edited by George W. Noblit and Joseph R. Neikirk. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020); Oppenheimer, Daniel M. "Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly." Applied Cognitive Psychology 20 (2006): 139-156; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020; Pernawan, Ari. Common Flaws in Students' Research Proposals. English Education Department. Yogyakarta State University; Style. College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Improving Academic Writing

To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on three key areas: 1.   Clear Writing . The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good writers spend sufficient time distilling information and reviewing major points from the literature they have reviewed before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines can help you clearly organize your thoughts. Effective academic writing begins with solid planning, so manage your time carefully. 2.  Excellent Grammar . Needless to say, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the best scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of good grammar. Take the time to learn the major and minor points of good grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from professors. Take advantage of the Writing Center on campus if you need help. Proper punctuation and good proofreading skills can significantly improve academic writing [see sub-tab for proofreading you paper ].

Refer to these three basic resources to help your grammar and writing skills:

• A good writing reference book, such as, Strunk and White’s book, The Elements of Style or the St. Martin's Handbook ;
• A college-level dictionary, such as, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary ;
• The latest edition of Roget's Thesaurus in Dictionary Form .

3.  Consistent Stylistic Approach . Whether your professor expresses a preference to use MLA, APA or the Chicago Manual of Style or not, choose one style manual and stick to it. Each of these style manuals provide rules on how to write out numbers, references, citations, footnotes, and lists. Consistent adherence to a style of writing helps with the narrative flow of your paper and improves its readability. Note that some disciplines require a particular style [e.g., education uses APA] so as you write more papers within your major, your familiarity with it will improve.

II. Evaluating Quality of Writing

A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to consider the following issues from the perspective of the reader. While proofreading your final draft, critically assess the following elements in your writing.

• It is shaped around one clear research problem, and it explains what that problem is from the outset.
• Your paper tells the reader why the problem is important and why people should know about it.
• You have accurately and thoroughly informed the reader what has already been published about this problem or others related to it and noted important gaps in the research.
• You have provided evidence to support your argument that the reader finds convincing.
• The paper includes a description of how and why particular evidence was collected and analyzed, and why specific theoretical arguments or concepts were used.
• The paper is made up of paragraphs, each containing only one controlling idea.
• You indicate how each section of the paper addresses the research problem.
• You have considered counter-arguments or counter-examples where they are relevant.
• Arguments, evidence, and their significance have been presented in the conclusion.
• Limitations of your research have been explained as evidence of the potential need for further study.
• The narrative flows in a clear, accurate, and well-organized way.

Boscoloa, Pietro, Barbara Arféb, and Mara Quarisaa. “Improving the Quality of Students' Academic Writing: An Intervention Study.” Studies in Higher Education 32 (August 2007): 419-438; Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; Candlin, Christopher. Academic Writing Step-By-Step: A Research-based Approach . Bristol, CT: Equinox Publishing Ltd., 2016; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Style . College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Considering the Passive Voice in Academic Writing

In the English language, we are able to construct sentences in the following way: 1.  "The policies of Congress caused the economic crisis." 2.  "The economic crisis was caused by the policies of Congress."

The decision about which sentence to use is governed by whether you want to focus on “Congress” and what they did, or on “the economic crisis” and what caused it. This choice in focus is achieved with the use of either the active or the passive voice. When you want your readers to focus on the "doer" of an action, you can make the "doer"' the subject of the sentence and use the active form of the verb. When you want readers to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself, you can make the effect or the action the subject of the sentence by using the passive form of the verb.

Often in academic writing, scholars don't want to focus on who is doing an action, but on who is receiving or experiencing the consequences of that action. The passive voice is useful in academic writing because it allows writers to highlight the most important participants or events within sentences by placing them at the beginning of the sentence.

Use the passive voice when:

• You want to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself;
• It is not important who or what did the action;
• You want to be impersonal or more formal.

Form the passive voice by:

• Turning the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
• Changing the verb to a passive form by adding the appropriate form of the verb "to be" and the past participle of the main verb.

NOTE: Consult with your professor about using the passive voice before submitting your research paper. Some strongly discourage its use!

Active and Passive Voice. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Diefenbach, Paul. Future of Digital Media Syllabus. Drexel University; Passive Voice. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.  

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Foreign Words and Phrases in an English Texts

In your research, you might find that certain key concepts important to your work do not have a direct English equivalent. In this case, keep the term in the foreign language and italicize it:

After introducing the key term, you can explain to your audience the meaning of the term and how it might compare and contrast with similar terms they know. Using the word without explanation (e.g. anguish instead of toska ) can be seen as misrepresenting the key term, because it does not invoke the other layers of meaning.

Popular Foreign Words

There are a number of commonly used foreign words, abbreviations and phrases that are part of American English: ad hoc, cliché, concerto, genre, sic, versus. Such popular words can be found in a dictionary and are considered a part of the English language. There is no need to translate them, unless they are used by the author in an innovative and unusual ways. In such case, you can provide more context for them.

Quotations Entirely in a Non-English Language

If you are quoting a whole sentence, you do not have to italicize the non-English words.

Keeping the whole sentence untranslated is a strategy that you could use when you are expecting your readers to know the language to some degree, or if you decide that the readers would benefit from reading and appreciating the original text. This is also the case, when the sentence might not be recognizable as an English translation, but is very well known in the original version.

Some texts that you are using might already contain specific formatting in a non-English language. In the example below, part of the quotation was written in italics. Preserve that original formatting in your quotation.

In this quotation, Anzaldúa provides a direct translation of the saying she heard as a child. Note that the saying she heard in Spanish is kept in original (just as she heard it and as she wrote it – in italics ). She also provided a translation of the saying to make it understandable for the readers who might not understand it otherwise.

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Research the White Paper

Researching the white paper:.

The process of researching and composing a white paper shares some similarities with the kind of research and writing one does for a high school or college research paper. What’s important for writers of white papers to grasp, however, is how much this genre differs from a research paper.  First, the author of a white paper already recognizes that there is a problem to be solved, a decision to be made, and the job of the author is to provide readers with substantive information to help them make some kind of decision--which may include a decision to do more research because major gaps remain. 

Thus, a white paper author would not “brainstorm” a topic. Instead, the white paper author would get busy figuring out how the problem is defined by those who are experiencing it as a problem. Typically that research begins in popular culture--social media, surveys, interviews, newspapers. Once the author has a handle on how the problem is being defined and experienced, its history and its impact, what people in the trenches believe might be the best or worst ways of addressing it, the author then will turn to academic scholarship as well as “grey” literature (more about that later).  Unlike a school research paper, the author does not set out to argue for or against a particular position, and then devote the majority of effort to finding sources to support the selected position.  Instead, the author sets out in good faith to do as much fact-finding as possible, and thus research is likely to present multiple, conflicting, and overlapping perspectives. When people research out of a genuine desire to understand and solve a problem, they listen to every source that may offer helpful information. They will thus have to do much more analysis, synthesis, and sorting of that information, which will often not fall neatly into a “pro” or “con” camp:  Solution A may, for example, solve one part of the problem but exacerbate another part of the problem. Solution C may sound like what everyone wants, but what if it’s built on a set of data that have been criticized by another reliable source?  And so it goes. 

For example, if you are trying to write a white paper on the opioid crisis, you may focus on the value of  providing free, sterilized needles--which do indeed reduce disease, and also provide an opportunity for the health care provider distributing them to offer addiction treatment to the user. However, the free needles are sometimes discarded on the ground, posing a danger to others; or they may be shared; or they may encourage more drug usage. All of those things can be true at once; a reader will want to know about all of these considerations in order to make an informed decision. That is the challenging job of the white paper author.     
 The research you do for your white paper will require that you identify a specific problem, seek popular culture sources to help define the problem, its history, its significance and impact for people affected by it.  You will then delve into academic and grey literature to learn about the way scholars and others with professional expertise answer these same questions. In this way, you will create creating a layered, complex portrait that provides readers with a substantive exploration useful for deliberating and decision-making. You will also likely need to find or create images, including tables, figures, illustrations or photographs, and you will document all of your sources. 

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What Is Academic Writing? | Dos and Don’ts for Students

Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities and scholarly publications. You’ll encounter it in journal articles and books on academic topics, and you’ll be expected to write your essays , research papers , and dissertation in academic style.

Academic writing follows the same writing process as other types of texts, but it has specific conventions in terms of content, structure and style.

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Table of contents

Types of academic writing, academic writing is…, academic writing is not…, useful tools for academic writing, academic writing checklist.

Academics mostly write texts intended for publication, such as journal articles, reports, books, and chapters in edited collections. For students, the most common types of academic writing assignments are listed below.

Different fields of study have different priorities in terms of the writing they produce. For example, in scientific writing it’s crucial to clearly and accurately report methods and results; in the humanities, the focus is on constructing convincing arguments through the use of textual evidence. However, most academic writing shares certain key principles intended to help convey information as effectively as possible.

Whether your goal is to pass your degree, apply to graduate school , or build an academic career, effective writing is an essential skill.

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Formal and unbiased

Academic writing aims to convey information in an impartial way. The goal is to base arguments on the evidence under consideration, not the author’s preconceptions. All claims should be supported with relevant evidence, not just asserted.

To avoid bias, it’s important to represent the work of other researchers and the results of your own research fairly and accurately. This means clearly outlining your methodology  and being honest about the limitations of your research.

The formal style used in academic writing ensures that research is presented consistently across different texts, so that studies can be objectively assessed and compared with other research.

Because of this, it’s important to strike the right tone with your language choices. Avoid informal language , including slang, contractions , clichés, and conversational phrases:

• Also , a lot of the findings are a little unreliable.
• Moreover , many of the findings are somewhat unreliable.

Clear and precise

It’s important to use clear and precise language to ensure that your reader knows exactly what you mean. This means being as specific as possible and avoiding vague language :

• People have been interested in this thing for a long time .
• Researchers have been interested in this phenomenon for at least 10 years .

Avoid hedging your claims with words like “perhaps,” as this can give the impression that you lack confidence in your arguments. Reflect on your word choice to ensure it accurately and directly conveys your meaning:

• This could perhaps suggest that…
• This suggests that…

Specialist language or jargon is common and often necessary in academic writing, which generally targets an audience of other academics in related fields.

However, jargon should be used to make your writing more concise and accurate, not to make it more complicated. A specialist term should be used when:

• It conveys information more precisely than a comparable non-specialist term.
• Your reader is likely to be familiar with the term.
• The term is commonly used by other researchers in your field.

The best way to familiarize yourself with the kind of jargon used in your field is to read papers by other researchers and pay attention to their language.

Focused and well structured

An academic text is not just a collection of ideas about a topic—it needs to have a clear purpose. Start with a relevant research question or thesis statement , and use it to develop a focused argument. Only include information that is relevant to your overall purpose.

A coherent structure is crucial to organize your ideas. Pay attention to structure at three levels: the structure of the whole text, paragraph structure, and sentence structure.

Well sourced

Academic writing uses sources to support its claims. Sources are other texts (or media objects like photographs or films) that the author analyzes or uses as evidence. Many of your sources will be written by other academics; academic writing is collaborative and builds on previous research.

It’s important to consider which sources are credible and appropriate to use in academic writing. For example, citing Wikipedia is typically discouraged. Don’t rely on websites for information; instead, use academic databases and your university library to find credible sources.

You must always cite your sources in academic writing. This means acknowledging whenever you quote or paraphrase someone else’s work by including a citation in the text and a reference list at the end.

There are many different citation styles with different rules. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago . Make sure to consistently follow whatever style your institution requires. If you don’t cite correctly, you may get in trouble for plagiarism . A good plagiarism checker can help you catch any issues before it’s too late.

You can easily create accurate citations in APA or MLA style using our Citation Generators.

APA Citation Generator MLA Citation Generator

Correct and consistent

As well as following the rules of grammar, punctuation, and citation, it’s important to consistently apply stylistic conventions regarding:

• How to write numbers
• Introducing abbreviations
• Using verb tenses in different sections
• Capitalization of terms and headings
• Spelling and punctuation differences between UK and US English

In some cases there are several acceptable approaches that you can choose between—the most important thing is to apply the same rules consistently and to carefully proofread your text before you submit. If you don’t feel confident in your own proofreading abilities, you can get help from Scribbr’s professional proofreading services or Grammar Checker .

Academic writing generally tries to avoid being too personal. Information about the author may come in at some points—for example in the acknowledgements or in a personal reflection—but for the most part the text should focus on the research itself.

Always avoid addressing the reader directly with the second-person pronoun “you.” Use the impersonal pronoun “one” or an alternate phrasing instead for generalizations:

• As a teacher, you must treat your students fairly.
• As a teacher, one must treat one’s students fairly.
• Teachers must treat their students fairly.

The use of the first-person pronoun “I” used to be similarly discouraged in academic writing, but it is increasingly accepted in many fields. If you’re unsure whether to use the first person, pay attention to conventions in your field or ask your instructor.

When you refer to yourself, it should be for good reason. You can position yourself and describe what you did during the research, but avoid arbitrarily inserting your personal thoughts and feelings:

• In my opinion…
• I think that…
• I like/dislike…
• I conducted interviews with…
• I argue that…
• I hope to achieve…

Long-winded

Many students think their writing isn’t academic unless it’s over-complicated and long-winded. This isn’t a good approach—instead, aim to be as concise and direct as possible.

If a term can be cut or replaced with a more straightforward one without affecting your meaning, it should be. Avoid redundant phrasings in your text, and try replacing phrasal verbs with their one-word equivalents where possible:

• Interest in this phenomenon carried on in the year 2018 .
• Interest in this phenomenon continued in 2018 .

Repetition is a part of academic writing—for example, summarizing earlier information in the conclusion—but it’s important to avoid unnecessary repetition. Make sure that none of your sentences are repeating a point you’ve already made in different words.

Emotive and grandiose

An academic text is not the same thing as a literary, journalistic, or marketing text. Though you’re still trying to be persuasive, a lot of techniques from these styles are not appropriate in an academic context. Specifically, you should avoid appeals to emotion and inflated claims.

Though you may be writing about a topic that’s sensitive or important to you, the point of academic writing is to clearly communicate ideas, information, and arguments, not to inspire an emotional response. Avoid using emotive or subjective language :

• This horrible tragedy was obviously one of the worst catastrophes in construction history.
• The injury and mortality rates of this accident were among the highest in construction history.

Students are sometimes tempted to make the case for their topic with exaggerated , unsupported claims and flowery language. Stick to specific, grounded arguments that you can support with evidence, and don’t overstate your point:

• Charles Dickens is the greatest writer of the Victorian period, and his influence on all subsequent literature is enormous.
• Charles Dickens is one of the best-known writers of the Victorian period and has had a significant influence on the development of the English novel.

There are a a lot of writing tools that will make your writing process faster and easier. We’ll highlight three of them below.

Paraphrasing tool

AI writing tools like ChatGPT and a paraphrasing tool can help you rewrite text so that your ideas are clearer, you don’t repeat yourself, and your writing has a consistent tone.

They can also help you write more clearly about sources without having to quote them directly. Be warned, though: it’s still crucial to give credit to all sources in the right way to prevent plagiarism .

Grammar checker

Writing tools that scan your text for punctuation, spelling, and grammar mistakes. When it detects a mistake the grammar checke r will give instant feedback and suggest corrections. Helping you write clearly and avoid common mistakes .

You can use a summarizer if you want to condense text into its most important and useful ideas. With a summarizer tool, you can make it easier to understand complicated sources. You can also use the tool to make your research question clearer and summarize your main argument.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

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Use the checklist below to assess whether you have followed the rules of effective academic writing.

• Checklist: Academic writing

I avoid informal terms and contractions .

I avoid second-person pronouns (“you”).

I avoid emotive or exaggerated language.

I avoid redundant words and phrases.

I avoid unnecessary jargon and define terms where needed.

I present information as precisely and accurately as possible.

I use appropriate transitions to show the connections between my ideas.

My text is logically organized using paragraphs .

Each paragraph is focused on a single idea, expressed in a clear topic sentence .

Every part of the text relates to my central thesis or research question .

I support my claims with evidence.

I use the appropriate verb tenses in each section.

I consistently use either UK or US English .

I format numbers consistently.

I cite my sources using a consistent citation style .

Your text follows the most important rules of academic style. Make sure it's perfect with the help of a Scribbr editor!

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